BASIC CARPENTRY/WOODWORKING

Competencies to be tested:

 Apply the theories related to construction materials.

 Explain the basics of wood technology.
 Construct the different kinds of wood joints.
 Explain the principles of measurement and layout.
 Apply the correct technique in using tools for carpentry.
 Follow proper procedure in constructing woodwork.
CARPENTRY
It is the art of cutting, framing, and joining timber or wood. It is generally known as
woodworking.
Carpenter(builder)- is a skilled craftsperson who performs carpentry. Carpenters work with
wood to construct, install and maintain buildings, furniture, and other objects.
Types and Occupations
Finished Carpenter- (joiner) is one who does finish carpentry; that is, cabinetry, furniture
making, fine woodworking, model building, instruments making, parquetry, joinery, or other
carpentry where exact joints and minimal margins of error are important. Some larger-scale
construction may be of an exactitude and artistry that it is classed as finish carpentry.
Trim Carpenter- specializes in molding and trim, such as door and windows casings, mantels,
baseboard, and other types of ornamental work. Cabinets installers are also referred to as trim
carpenters.
Cabinet maker- is a carpenter who does fine and detailed work, specializing in the making of
cabinets made from wood, wardrobes, dressers, storage chests, and other furniture designed
for storage.
Ships Carpenter- specializers in shipbuilding, maintenance, and repair and carpentry specific to
nautical needs; usually the term refers to a carpenter who has a post on a specific ship.
Scenic Carpenter- in film-making. TV, and the theater builds and dismantles temporary scenery
and sets.
Framer- is carpenter that builds the skeletal structure or framework of buildings. Techniques
include platform framing, balloon framing, or timber framing (which may be post-and-beam or
mortise-and-tenon framing).
From work Carpenter- creates the shuttering and false work used in concrete construction.
BASIC KNOWLEDGE ABOUT WOOD
Structure of wood:

Wood is consisting of small cells. Cambium layers that extend concentrically near the
bark divide into wood in inner part and bark on the outer surface. Wood creates a larger
amount of big and thin-wall cells during the wet and warm spring-summer season, and think-
wall cells during the fall. The former cells form light colored wood called early wood, while the
letter forms dark colored wood called the late wood, the combination of early wood and late
wood is called annual ring in the case that growth cycle is one year.
The part closer to the bark is light-colored and contains live cells, while the inner part is
made of accumulated dead cells and appears in a color unique to the wood. The former is
called sap wood that contains starch and many nutritious substances, therefore is susceptible
to the attacks by insects and germs. The letter is called heartwood. Heartwood consists of the
substances that is insusceptible to the attacks. By insects and germs, therefore has high level of
durability.
A board cut from a tree trunk by tangential section. With a section line in a direction that
touches arcs of annual rings. Has flat grain, while a board by radial section with a section line
running in a direction that crosses venial the annual rings, has edge grain.
As wood grows, the areas usually the base of branches remains like kits This kind of defective
parts are not usually used due to their irregular layout fibers that might cause troubles when or
after making a wooden product.
Softwood and Hardwood
Most woods have either needle-shape leaves or broads leaves. The former yields softwood
and the latter yields hardwood. The number of species of hardwood is a larger than that of
softwood. In many cases, softwood is used for structure materials of architectures, while
hardwood is used for furniture or interior materials.
Physical Property of Wood
Dimensional Changes of Wood
Wood shrinks when it discharges water and dries, or swells when it absorbs water. This
property relates to the amount of water contained inside the cell-wall of the wood in other
words, the moisture content, the shrinkage ratio varies according to different direction and the
between tangential: radial fiber direction is 10:5:0.5-1 Wood changes its shape in the drying
process according to place of origin and the shape of the wood. For this reason, wood needs to
be dried to the appropriate level. In order to avoid troubles, hardwood for home furniture
should be dried until the water content becomes less than 6-12 %, softwood for architecture
process should be dried until the water content contents becomes less than 20%

Heat
Since wood consists of tube-shaped tissues, it has a property of poor heat condition.
Therefore, it is often used as heat insulator in floor or wall materials of architectures.
Sounds
Since wood has a property of amplifying small sounds, it is used in musical instruments. As it
has also another property of absorbing sounds, it is used in interior materials of theaters as well
for acoustics.
Mechanical Property of wood
Strength
Wood needs to have strength to the extent that it can endure the weight itself as well as
wind and snow. Strength posed on wood is received. By its cells. Thickness of cell wall varies
from species, and the thicker the cell wall. Is the higher specific gravity the wood would
possess. Therefore, wood with specific gravity has greater strength and harder surface. This is
why high-specific-gravity wood needs to be used for tables and chairs; as this kind of furniture
requires both strength and hardness.
 The level of strength is significantly different within the same wood, depending on the
direction of the cell layout. It maybe described as the relationship between strength and fiber
direction. bending strength reaches to the highest level when a load is applied in direction
parallel to fiber direction. however, the strength is significantly reduced as the angle of load
direction against the fiber direction becomes larger. Therefore, you need to take fiber direction
into consideration when designing a product.
Distortion
When wood is treated applying hot steam, substance called lignin that adhere each wood cell
get softened and create gap between cells. This makes the wood to be easily distorted. If the
wood is cooled and dried after is distorted, the distortion id fixed or permanent and cannot be
reversed to the original state. This property is used in making bent wood products.

Preparation of Wood
1. Logging
2. Lumbering
3. Sawing
Methods and or manner of log sawing:
a. Plain or based sawing – cutting the logs entirely through the diameter with a parallel
cord tangential of the annual rings.
b. The quarter or sift sawing – is divided into four methods; radical methods tangential
method, quarter tangential, and combined radial and tangential.
 Seasoning of lumber:
1. Natural or Air Seasoning – is considered as one of the methods adopted in seasoning
lumber although the period involved is longer than the artificial seasoning methods.
2. Artificial Seasoning – method adopted for quick drying of the wood.
a. Forced Air drying
b. Kiln drying
c. Radio frequency dielectric drying
MEASURMENTS
Presently, there are two major system of measurement used in the word. The inch system.
Often called the English system of measurement and the metric system of measurement. Rut
because almost over 100% of the word population uses some form of metric measurement, the
need for universal adoption of metric measurement is evident.
The inch System or the English System
The unit of length in the English system is the “inch”, which maybe divided into fraction or
decimal fraction divisions. The factional system is based on the binary system, or base 2. The
binary fractions commonly used in this system are ½, ¼, 1/8, 1/16, 1/32, and 1/64. The decimal-
fraction system has been 10, so any number may be written as product of 10.

The Metric. System

Linier matric dimensions are expressed in multiples and submultiples of the meter. In the
machine tool trade or metal works, the millimeter are expressed in decimals. Large dimensions
will be given in meters (m) and millimeters (mm).
Metric rules are usually graduated in millimeters
FRACTIONAL DIVISIONS OF AN INCH
Decimal graduations on a rule provide and simple form measurement.
Measuring/dimension of wood:
 Lumbers are sold according to their dimensions where thickness and width are measured in
inches ang the lengths is measured in feet.
T’ x W’’ x L’’
Where: T – Thickness
W – Width
L – Length
Price of lumber sold are based on a unit called BOARD FOOT which means a piece of wood 12
inches long, 12 inches wide and 1-inch think. (12’’x 12’’’x 1’’)
To compute the total board foot in apiece of lumber, use the formula:

Where:

Example: Find the total board foot of 5 pieces of 2’’ x 6’’ x 14’ lumber.
Solution:

Lumber is sold either rough or surfaced.

Rough lumber – are pieces of wood unsurfaced or unplaned usually passes exact dimension in
T, W, L.
Surfaced lumber – are lumber planed usually lessened in actual size by about 3/8 of an inch.
S2s – lumber that are planned or smooth on two sides
S4s – lumber that are planned or smooth on two sides
Prices of lumber ranges according to the following:
1. Types of wood
2. Dimensions
3. Grades of lumber – either sun dried, air dried, or kiln dried
Two types of lumber:
1. Soft wood – usually used in ordinary woodwork such as pine, lauan, etc.
2. Hard wood – usually used in cabinet or furniture making such as narra, molave, yakal,
etc.
Lumber ang Related Products:
1. Veneer and plywood – are made of 3, 5, 7 or more veneer slice that are laid one upon
the other with the grain of each at right angle to those of the sheets above or below it..
they are bonded together with glue or synthetic resins. Plywood thickness varies from
3.2 mm (1/8 inch), 4.7mm (3/16), 12 mm (1/2) 20 mm (3/4) with a width of 4 feet and
length of 1.80 m (6 feet) o 2.40 m (8 feet).
a. Soft plywood – most common for structural use.
b. Hardwood plywood – used for paneling and finishing where usually only one face is
with hardwood finish.
c. Exterior or marine plywood – is made for external use.
1. Hardboard/pressed wood or Fiber Board – is made from woodchips which are exploded
into fibers (Defibration) with high pressure steam. The fibers are applied with adhesive,
processed into a mattress and undergo a hot press process and it becomes a fiber
board.

2. Particle Board- manufactured from wood chips, curls, fibers, flakes, strands, shaving
slivers, etc. which are bound together and passed into sheets and other molded shapes.

3. Laminated wood- logs are processed by sawmilling and dying, knots and cracks are
removed, and the pieces are connected by finger joints in fiber direction to create a
wide and long material. Laminated wood can be cut in preferred with or length
according to its purpose.
Defects of wood:
1. Knot- is a branch or limb of a tree that has been exposed as the log is cut into
lumber.
2. Check- is a lengthwise separation of the wood like a small crack or split.
3. Slit- is a lengthwise break or big crack in the board.
4. Decay- is the rotting of wood.
5. Stain- is a discoloration of the wood surface.
6. Wane- is a lack of wood on the face of the piece.
7. Warp- is any variation from a tree or plane surface. It includes crack, bow, cup, wind
(twist) or any combination of these.
WOODWORKING METHODS
1. Planning- careful planning can prevent mistake and save time, money, materials and
efforts.
 a. Drawing and design the project.
b. Identify bill of materials.
c. List the procedure.
d. List tools and machines needed
2. Cutting- cutting wood to the right size and shape can done with variety of hand tools
and machines.
3. Assembling- constructing the parts of the project based on the planning design.
4. Sanding and Finishing- sanding removes tools marks and make wood surface smooth to
finishing. Sanding should not begin until the wood had been cut to its final size.
Design a Product
Designing Processes to follow:
1. Clarify the purpose, condition and place of use.
2. Draw a conceptual picture.
3. Decide what kinds of materials are required.
4. Decide what kind of tools and equipment is required for processing.
5. Prepare technical drawings and parts drawings
6. Make a prototype if possible.
Once the designing process is completed, draw layout lines on the material. During this process,
make sure that the layout lines are 3-5 millimeters away from the cutting lines, considering
thickness of the saw and waste part for plane shaving.

Sawing
Different types of saws must be used. When you cut along the fiber direction and when you
cut across or perpendicular or at ang angle to the fiber direction of the wood. A rip saw is used
to out along the fiber of the wood while a cross cut saw is used to cut across or perpendicular
or at an angle to the fiber of the wood.
 Saw set is used to adjust the kerf of teeth of the saw in order to reduce friction between the
saw blade and wood and to discharge the saw dust easily.
When sawing along the cutting
lines, make sure that your head is
right above or no the extension line
from the saw blade so that you can
cut straight, with the top surface
and cutting surface of the wood
forms the right angle. When
starting to cut, guide the saw blade
with your thumb and make a small
chase. Move the saw slowly in the
horizontal direction and support
the removing piece of wood at the
same time to avoid splitting.
A saw angle should be adjusted depending on the kind of wood. The recommended angle is
15-30 degrees for soft and thin wood and 30-45 degrees for hard and thick wood.
You can cut wood joints with good precision by using a back saw that has thin saw blade with
a larger number of teeth and a steel supporter attached on the back of the blade.
Hand Planning
After cutting wood by sawing, the surface needs to be shaved or made smooth by a plane.
Careful consideration needs to be given to the direction of plane shaving and fiber in order to
get the surface smooth after planning. The direction of fiber and planning should not be
opposite on edge face.
when planning along fiber direction, a plane should run parallel to fiber direction and straight
never curve. Make sure also that about one-third of the width of each planning stroke overlap
each other. In order to get good result, plane blade needs to be sharp. If it gets worn out it
needs to be sharpened.

Adhesion and Joint

Adhesion
When making a large and flat product like a table you need to attach more than two wooden
boards side by side. A bar clamp in required to be process. A clamp should be set on booth top
and bottom of the boards in a balance way. Use adhesive to attach wooden and board
together. There are many kinds of adhesives; hence, you need to consider the material
property.
keep the clamps tightened until adhesive becomes hardened in order to obtain strong adhesion
result. For adhesives that harden in a short period of time, used a clamp that can easily for
tightened and removed. Remove excess adhesives immediately for it will cause uneven coloring
in the painting or finishing process after assembly.

Joint
Joint- means the union of two or more smooth or even surface, admitting two or more pieces
of timber to a close fitting or junction.
Joinery- is the art of joint making. It may include fastening and or shaping the pieces of wood so
they fit together neatly and securely.
Common Tools used in constructing wood joints:
1. A saw with fairy tine teeth
2. A variety of chisel
3. Brace and bit
 4. Miter box
5. Woodworker’s bench hook
EDGE JOINT- the edges of two pieces are fastened together. It is used for top of table, chairs,
desks, and other furniture needing large surface.

BUTT JOINT- the end of one piece in fastened to the surface or edge of the other. It is used to
make a simple box or to fasten two pieces at right angles. The butt joint is popular in-house
building. Corner joints may be held together with nails, screw, glue, dowels, special fasteners or
I-shaped mending plates.
RABBET JOINT- the first piece fits into a channel but across the end or edge of the second piece.
It is found in simple furniture and in some box construction.
DADO JOINT- is good for shelves, steps, bookcases, book racks, chests and other type of
cabinets.
METTER JOINT- the corners are cut an angle usually 45 degrees. When two pieces are joined,
they will form a right angle. The joint is secured with nails, screws, glues, dowels, special
fasteners, or L-shaped mending plates.

LAP JOINT- is made when two pieces of wood must cross. You find it on frames, table’s legs,
and some other kinds of chairs. This is stronger than butt joint because both pieces of wood are
notched and fitted together.

MORTISE AND TENON JOINT- is one of the stronger joint. It is found on better quality chairs,
tables and benches. The mortise is a hole made partway through the side of one piece of wood
while the tenon is tongue-shaped to fit the mortise at the end of another piece.
DOVETAIL JOINT- is used on the corners of the best drawers and chairs.

Construction
Nails and screws are used when constructing components. When nailing direction crosses with
fiber direction at right angle, the nail should be 2.5 times longer than the thickness of the
board. If it is in parallel with the fiber direction, it should be more than 2.5 times the thickness
of the board. Applying some adhesive to the joint surface adds strength to the product. Nailing
sometimes split the board due to the force of the nail. To prevent this problem, drill a pilot hole
in the wood to be nailed. When the nail was bent and needs to be pulled out using a claw
hammer, make sure to insert a piece of scrap wood between the claw hammer and the material
to protect its surface from being damaged. When you intend to disassemble the product later
or need to obtain a strong joint, using a wood screw is recommended.
Wood Coating or Finishing Process
Wood finishing is the process of enhancing the appearance and durability of projects made a
wood through the application of suitable finishing materials and proper techniques. The
purpose of wood coating or finishing is to protect the surface from damages, water, and to get
beautiful finish of wood grain. By applying the coating with the same color of the wood grain or
the color that is unique to the wood, joints and cracks of the materials are patched and the
surface is hardened. All of which contributes to good sensuous effects such as clear wood grain,
vibrant color, luster, smoothness, and fine hand touch.
Wood finishing process includes a step called sanding that is to remove scratches and excess
adhesive that remained on the surface by using sand paper of 180 to 280 grit size. Dented part
is filled with wood putty to make a flat surface. Then, wood stain together with paste wood
filter is applied to the part. After sanding, apply wood sealer to stabilized the surface and polish
again with 320 to 400 grits size sandpaper. Lastly apply top coat finish to complete the process.

Preparing the surface for finishing

1. Cleaning- Be sure that the surface to be finished are free from dirt, oil, wax (often left by
some paint removers), or pitch (on pine and other coniferous wood). You can swab-and-
dry the surface with turpentine or paint thinner, lacquer thinner and others.
2. Sanding-
a. Always use a sanding block when a plane surface is involved.
b. Use sandpaper curved in your fingers to curved surfaces.
c. Start with medium sand paper.
d. Do not sand across the grain.
e. When the job is extra meticulous, use the grain raising trick. - after the final sanding
with extra fine sand paper, damped the surface thoroughly with water. Let it dry
completely. This will raise little wood fibers, and when you give the surface a final
sanding with extra fine sand papers, the result will be perfectly smooth.
Wood Finishing Materials:
 1. Varnish- This is the most used clear finishing material. It is a solution of tough resins. In
petroleum derivatives the “vehicle” evaporates leaving a film on the wood.
2. Shellac- This is a quick drying alcohol-based resin derived from a lac bug.
3. Penetrating Finish- This is intended to sink into the wood, protecting it from most
common hazards, darkening its color somewhat, yet leaving only little finish.
4. Fillers- These are basically paste with fill on the open pores of the wood. With the pores
filled, you are able to put on a perfectly smooth finish with no texture whatsoever.
5. Lacquer- This material is quick drying, composed of synthetic resins in synthetic
solvents. It intends to change the color or wood least of all – and in some special
formula leaves it unchanged, or even lighter that the natural color.
6. Bleaches- they take tree forms:
a. There are actual bleaches that lighten the wood the same way bleach can remove
dyes from cloth.
b. There are stains that are effectively lighter in color that the wood.
c. There are non-darkening prim coats which, although they do not bleach, hold the
light color of the wood.
7. Opaque finishes- These are paints, enable or pigmented lacquers, and you use them
when you want a solid color instead of wood pattern finish.
8. Stains- Stains are necessary to give the wood its accepted color.
COMMON CARPENTRY TOOLS
Guiding and Testing Tools:
1. Straight Edge- A tool used to guide pencils or scriber in marking straight line.
2. Square- is a 90- degree standard right- angle tool sometimes called trying square used
for making and testing work. They are classified as try or trying square, miter square,
combined try and miter square, combined square, framing or steel square.

3. Level- used for both guiding and testing the work to a vertical or horizontal position.
4. Plastic hose with water- is one the best and accurate tool for guiding work in
establishing a horizontal level.

5. Sliding T-bevel- is like a try square with sliding and adjustable blade that could be set to
any angle other than 90 degrees.

6. Angle divider- is a double bevel square used to divide an angle in a complicated work in
one setting.
7. Miter box- is a device used as guide of the hand saw in cutting objects to form a miter
joint.

8. Plumb bob- is a metal

tool used to check or obtain a vertical line. The word plumb means perpendicular to a
horizontal line.
Marking Tools:
1. Chalk line and reel- is used for marking a very rough work.

2. Lead pencil- with round head is also used for making rough work.
3. Scratch awl- is used for making a semi-rough work.

4. Scriber- is used for marking the fine work. It is made of hard-end steel with a sharp
point designated to mark fine lines.

5. Compass- a tool used to inscribe an arc or circle.

6. Divider- is used in dividing distances into equal parts such as an
arc and circumference including straight lines.

Measuring Tools or “Rule”

1. Two-foot four folding rule- used in measuring short distances.
2. Extension rule- is used for measuring inside distances such as doors, windows, cabinets etc.
3. Zigzag rule- in available in 4 feet and 6 feet long commonly used by carpenters for rough
layout.
4. Push-pull tape- is used to measure longer distance available from one meter to 50 meters
long.

5. Slider caliper rule- is a special tool used to measure outside diameter of cylindrical objects.

6. Marking gauge- is a tool most appropriate in making lines parallel with the edge of the
wood.

Holding Tools:
1. Horse or trestle- used to support or sustain the working operation such as sawing, chiseling
and planning.
2. Clamps- used in tightly pressing piece of wood or metal together in making tenon, mortise
and other joints.

3. Vise- is a table tool used to hold a piece of material rigidly secured in place to absorb
severe blows.

Toothed Cutting Tools:

1. Saws- the most important of the toothed cutting tools.
a. Hand saw
b. Circular saw
c. Band saw

Classification of saw with respect to its cut:

a. Cross cut saw- used to cut across the grain of the wood
b. Rip cut saw- used to cut along the grain of the wood
c. Combined rip and cross cut
2. Files- are metal tools used of different shapes and size used for abrading, reducing or
smooth cutting metal, wood, or other materials. A rasp file- are very coarse files and
differ form the ordinary file with the teeth consisting of projecting points instead of V-
shaped projections extending across the face of the file.
Sharp-edge Cutting Tools:
1. Chisel-

a. Paring Chisel- is a light duty tool used to plane long surface parallel with the grain of
wood.
b. Firming chisel- a heavy duty tool adopted to withstand severe strain as in framing work
and where deep cuts are necessary.
c. Slick- any chisel having a blade wider than 2 inches. The regular sizes are 21/2,3 and 4
inches. It is used on large surface whether larger materials is to be taken off or where
unusual power is required.
d. Gouge- is a chisel with a hollows shaped blade for scooping or cutting round holes.
Smooth Facing Tools:
1. Spoken Shaves

2. Planes
a. Jack plane
b. Fore plane
c. Trying plane
d. Jointer plane
e. Smooth plane
 f. Block plane
g. Molding and special plane
Boring Tools:
1. Brad awl- is a small- tools used for punching or piecing small holes. It is generally used in
starting a nail or screw into hard wood.
2. Gimlet- is a tool used for boring holes by hand pressure classified as: twist and plain.
3. Auger- is used for boring holes with a diameter ranging from ½ to 2 inches. Auger that
are provided with a shank are commonly called “bits”.
4. twist drill- is used for drilling small holes.
5. Hollow auger- is used for external boring or turning.
6. Spoke Pointer- cuts a conical hole.
7. Counter Sink- used for enlarging a conical hole at the surface of the wood
Fastening Tools:
1. Claw hammer
2. Wrenches
3. Screw drivers

Sharpening Tools:
1. Grind stone- is a flat disc solid stone usually needs made of sandstone Maintech on a
shaft used for sharpening, shaping or polishing metal by turning.
2. Oil stone- is used after the grinding operation to achieve a smooth and keep edge of the
tools. Oils is used as a lubricating medium.
Machines and other equipment:
1. circular screw- is a steel disc provided with teeth designed to revolve on a shaft at high
speed.
2. Radial Arm saw- is a power-driven rotary cutting tool.
3. Portable electrical Saw- a power driven rotary cutting tool provided with toothed
circular blade.
4. Portable electric drill- is a motorized rotary driving tool. Used as driving unit for
sanding, polishing, and grinding as well as for circular and jigsaw. It is also used for
drilling or boring holes.
5. Drill Press- power drive rotary tool used for driving drill bits, plug cutters, and many
auxiliary attachments.
 6. Portable electric saber saw – is classified as a power drive reciprocating cutting tool.
7. Band saw- is a power driven endless toothed hand cutting tool.
8. Single Surface Planer- is a power- driven rotating edge cutting tool.
9. Portable Sanders- is a power- driven abrading tool.
10. Portable Hand Router- is a power- driven rotary shaping tool used to cut moldings rout
cut inlay and cut dovetails.
11. Wood lathe- used to rotate the material. For shaping sanding or polishing.
a. Gouge- is used in roughing out cylinders and in turning concave surfaces on spindles.
The blade is concave-convex in cross section with a rounded beveled cutting edge.
The common size is 10mm, 12mm and 20mm.
b. Skew chisel- is flat truing chisel used in smoothing cylinders, rounding edges and in
making V and shoulder cuts. It can be used for shearing or scraping wood. The
common sizes are 6 mm, 12 mm, and 25mm.
c. The round nose- is a flat scraping chisel is roughing and shaping concave surfaces.
The end is rounded with a single bevel of about 30 degrees. The common sizes are 3
mm, 6 mm, 12 mm, and 25mm.
d. Square nose- is a flat scraping chisel used to make flat straight cuts. It appears like
standard wood chisel in shape but has a thicker and longer blade. The end is square
and has a single bevel.
e. Diamond point- is a flat scraping chisel used to make V cuts. The point cutting edge
is beveled at 30 degrees. The common sizes are 12 mm, and 25 mm.
f. Parting tool- is a scraping chisel used to make narrow cuts and deep cuts for sizing
when shaping profiles. The common sizes are 3 mm, and 5 mm.
MAINTAINANCE OF WOODWORKING/CARPENTRY TOOLS AND MACHINES
Maintenance is a big factor in keeping the tools and machines always in good working
condition. Quality of the work done as well as safety in operation depends upon the condition
of the tools and machines. It is therefore important to note the following steps:
1. Always used the right tools for the right job.
2. Clean the tools and equipment after using and keep them in their right places.
3. Apply lubricants or oil on the metal parts of the tools to prevent rusting and stuck-up.
4. Keep all edge cutting tools keep or sharp.
5. Never used tools with broken handles. Fix it at once if there is such.
6. Check all electrical cords, and switches for breaks to prevent electrical shocks or damage
to electrical parts due to short circuit.
PROCEDURES IN CONSTRUCTING WOODWORK
THE WOOD FLOOR SYSTEM
Grinder- is a principal beam extending from wall to wall. It is the major horizontal support
member upon which the floor system is laid. It may be classified as solid or Built-up.
Floor Joist- are those parts of the floor system placed on the girders where the floor board are
fastened usually at a distance from 30 to 40 centimeters rigidly secured by bridging to prevent
from wagging sideways.

Sill- is that part of the side of the house that rest horizontally upon the foundation. It is a wood
member fastened with anchor belts to the foundation wall.
Header- is a short transverse joist that supports the end of the cut-off joist at stair well hole.
Trimmer- is a supporting joist which carries an end portion of a header.
Flooring- refers to the tongue and groove board which is the most common of wood flooring
materials.
THE ROOF SYSTEM
Shed or Lean-to-Roof- is considered the simplest form of roof consisting of one single slope.
Gable or Pitch Roof- it is the most common type and economical from of roof made of
triangular sections consisting of two slopes meeting at the center of the ridge forming a gable.
Hip Roof- is also a common form used in modern houses having straight sides all sloping toward
the center of the building terminating at the ridge.
Hip and Valley Roof- is a combination of roof and an intersecting gable roof forming a T or L
shaped building.
Pyramid Roof- is a modification of the hip roof wherein the four straight sides are sloping
towards the center terminating at a point.
Gambrel Roof- is a modification of the gable roof with each side having two slopes.
Dome- is a hemispherical form of roof usually used on observatory buildings.
Types of Roof Frame:
1. Rafters type
2. Truss type
3. Laminated type
Rafters
Common Rafters- are rafters extended at right angle from the plate or girts to the ridge.
Hip Rafters- are rafters diagonally laid from the corner of a plate or girt to the ridge.
Valley Rafters- is any rafters which does not extend from the plate of girt to the ridge.
Jack Rafters- the frame between hip rafters and girts are called hip jack. The frame between
the ridge and the valley rafters are called valley jack and those frames between the hip and the
valley rafters are called cripple jack.

Octagonal Rafters- are refers placed on octagonal shaped plate at the central apex or ridge
pole.
Truss
It is a build-up frame commonly employed on a long span roof unsupported by intermediate
columns or partitions. Truss is a series of triangles used to distribute load and stiffen the
structure spacing which offers flexibility for the interior as well as strength and rigidity.
Girts
Is the structural member that supports the rafters or truss of a building.
Collar Beam
It is the tries between the rafters on opposite sides of the roof
Purlins
It is the structural member placed on the top of the rafters or top chord of a truss that support
the roofing materials.
SPLICING
Splicing- is the process of joining two process of timber in the longitudinal direction in order to
transmit stresses form one member to the other. There are three different ways:
1. Lapping- simply joining one member to the other.
2. Fishing- joining two ends with the use of two side blocks which is sometimes called
splice pads.
3. Scarfing- is cutting away the opposite side of two members then pal-joining to obtain a
continuous piece of uniform thickness.

TIMBER FRAMING FASTENERS

Types of Timber Fasteners
1. Nails
2. Belts
3. Lag Screw
4. Wood Screw
5. Drift bolts and dowels
Nails- are either rectangular is shape directly cut from a metal strip or with circular cross
section which were cut directly from wire called common wire nails.
Classification of nails with respect to service
1. Common nails
2. Flooring nails
3. Finishing nails
4. Roofing nails
5. Boat, etc.
If nails are driven parallel the grain, the lateral resistance is decreased by 25 to 30%
Bolts- is the most popular hardware material for fastening timber joints under light or heavy
stresses.
Classification of Roof Framing Bolts
1. Common, ordinary or Machine Bolts
2. Drift bolts
3. Dowels
4. Strap bolts
5. U-bolts
6. Eye bolts
Drift Bolts- are round or square iron or steel with or without thread or point of specified length.
It is driven into the hole of the timber with a diameter 80% smaller than the bolts and having a
minimum diameter of 20mm. it prevents lateral movement and separation of the member
parallel with the axis.
Dowel- it is thicker and shorter than the drift bolts. It has no thread or point and only prevents
lateral displacement of the connected parts. It is either iron or wood pin extended but not
through member of the structure to be connected.
Disadvantages of dowels
1. It does not provide a rigid joint.
2. It is totally damage if repair calls for defective member.
3. It is difficult to replace.
Lag Screw- is used to fasten large piece of timber under the heavy stresses. The diameter of the
lag screw varies from 6 mm to 25 mm, and the length from 4 cm, to 30 cm, it is preferred where
bolt is difficult to install.
Wood screw- is used to avoid splitting and injury to the wood and to obtain better fitting and
ease of disassembling when necessary. Screw should not be spaced less than 3 centimeters
across the grain and not less that 5 centimeters parallel with the grain.
For Hard wood, spacing of screw should not be less than 4 and 6 centimeters respectively.
Wooden Key- is made of the piece of hard wood rectangular cross section and inserted
between tow lapping piece of lumber to prevent sliding of the adjacent member. The key could
be parallel with or inclined.
Shear Pin- is made of wood, steel bars, or G.I. pipe.
Plate washer- is used under the head and nuts of the bolts to prevent the heads and nuts from
damaging the timber when tightening the bolts. It also provides sufficient bearing area. The
thickness of the washer should not be less than ½ of the bolt diameter plus 1.5 mm.
THE STAIRS
STAIRS- the steps wherein to ascend or descend from one story of a building or house to
another.
COMMON PARTS OF A STAIRS
1. Rise- the height of a flight of stairs from landing to landing. The height between
successive treads or stairs.
2. Riser- the vertical face of a stair steps.
3. Run- the horizontal distance from the first to the last riser of the stair flight.
4. Landing- is the horizontal floor as resting place in a flight.
5. Well- the place occupied by the flight of stairs.
6. Well hole- the opening in the floor at the top of the flight of stairs.
7. Stair headroom- the clear vertical height measured from the nosing of a stair tread to
any overhead construction.
8. Tread- the horizontal part of a step including the nosing.
9. Step- stairs unit which consist of one tread and one riser.
10. Winders- steps not parallel with each other.
Laying out of stairs
1. Determine the clear height of the rise in meter. Normally the rise per step is 17 to 18
centimeters and the minimum width is 25 centimeters.
2. Divide the rise height in meters by 17 to 28 to determine the number of steps. There
should be no fractional value.
3. If the result found in steps 2 is say 11.5, it simply means that you will have 11.5 steps
which are not right.
4. Adjust 11.5 to a whole number 11 or 12 to be your trial divisor.
5. Divide the rise by 11 and 12 to determine the height per rise of each step.
6. Choose the number of steps which will not be less than 17 cm or more than 19
centimeters for an ideal stair.
It is important for the planner of a staircase to make first scaled cross sectional drawing of the
proposed stair before making the final on-site layout. The number of steps should be
determined first in the drafting table to avoid adjustments of the run during the construction.
Laying out of the stringer
After determining the number of tread and the height per rise of the steps, follows the actual
marking on the stringer. This could be done effectively and accurately by the use of the steel
square.
The length of the stringer could be determined by either the used of the Pythagorean formula o
by actual measurement.
Formula:
L=(rise)2 + (run)
Where
L= is the length of the stringer
RISE= the height of the flight of stairs
RUN= the horizontal distance from the first to the last riser of stair flight
Types of Stringers
1. Cut stringer- commonly used in most modern contemporary house design.
2. Cleated stringer- is used for very rough work.
3. Rabbited strings- is adopted on fine work and is usually made at the mill. The rises and
treads are held in the rabbets by wedges set in by glue.