KWARA STATE POLYTECHNIC, ILORIN

INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY (I.O.T)

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
A PROJECT WORK
ON

COMPARATIVE STUDY ON THE EFFECT OF GRAVEL

AND GRANITE IN PERVIOUS CONCRETE
BY

ARUDI VICTOR OHINOYI

HND/21/CEC/FT/017

AKINLABI HAMMED AKOREDE

HND/21/CEC/FT/023

OLORUNTUMO ANDREW OLORUNSEMIPE

HND/21/CEC/FT/209

YUNUS MURITADOH SHOLA

HND/21/CEC/FT/347

ISSA MUSTAPHA
HND/21/CEC/FT/354

SUBMITTED TO:
THE DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY, KWARA STATE POLYTECHNIC ILORIN.

IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD

OF HIGHER NATIONAL DIPLOMA (HND) IN CIVIL ENGINEERING.

SUPERVISED BY:
ENGR. S.O. YUSUF
JUNE, 2023
 CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 GENERAL OVERVIEW
Pervious concrete which is namely as a permeable concrete or porous concrete consists of
cement, single size coarse aggregate, without or with low content of fine aggregate, and water.
These components were mixed together to form a small layer around aggregate particles. So,
voids will be created between aggregate particles to enhance pervious concrete permeability
(Cheng & Wang, 2004). Pervious concrete was used in many applications such as paving and
non-load bearing walls. Recent decades showed wide attention to pervious concrete as the result
of its environmental advantages such as reducing storm water runoff, maintaining groundwater
level, water pollution removal, reducing the need for retention ponds and other costly storm
water controlling, increasing air and water ability to reach roots of trees. In addition to that, the
permeability of pervious concrete improves safety for drivers by preventing water to remain on
road surfaces and reduces road noise because the high porosity of pervious concrete removes the
air between the pavement and the tire. Also, one of the important benefits for pervious concrete
is its ability to decrease the climate hot temperature during hot weather unlike the conventional
pavement (Cheng & Wang, 2004; Aoki, 2009).
Many countries especially in United States, Japan and Europe countries were used
pervious concrete for over than 30 years (Aoki, 2009). Generally, according to ACI 522R (2010),
the water-cement ratio for pervious concretes is between 0.26 and 0.45 and fine aggregate ranges
from 0% to 10%. Pervious concrete has connecting voids ranging in size from 2 to 8 mm and
voids ratio from 15% to 35% with permeability of 0.2–1.2 cm/s (Cheng & Wang, 2004). As the
results of the high voids ratio, pervious concrete compressive strength is less than that of
conventional concrete and its ranging between 3 and 28 MPa (ACI 522R 2010; Goede, 2009).
According to National Ready Mix Concrete Association, NRMCA, pervious concrete possesses
a bulk unit weight in range between 1600 kg/m3 and 2000 kg/m3. Pervious concrete flexural
strength generally ranges between about 1 MPa and 3.8 MPa (NRMCA). There are many
researchers studied the behaviour of pervious concrete with natural aggregate (Yang & Jiang,
2003; Neithalath et. al., 2010; Yahia & Kabagire, 2014; Chandrappa & Biligiri, 2016). These
studies concluded that the properties of pervious concrete influences by aggregate properties,
water to cement ratio, cement content in addition to cement to aggregate ratio. Also, compaction

1
energy significantly affects the mechanical properties, unit weight, permeability and durability of
pervious concrete (Suleiman et. al., 2006). Total porosity of pervious concrete is the sum of
closed (isolated) porosity and open (connected) porosity, and it can be calculated by hydrostatic
weighing. However, direct insight into porosity would be beneficial since permeability is
influenced not only by the number of pores but also by their distribution and interconnectivity (C
´osic´ et. al., 2015).
This study therefore intends to evaluate the influence of the aggregate type as well as the
size and size distribution of aggregates on the mechanical properties and the overall porosity of
pervious concrete and its application in pavement structures.

1.2 AIM AND OBJECTIVE OF STUDY

The aim of this project is to assess the properties of pervious concrete produce with
gravel and granite.
The objectives of this study are to:
i. Characterize the aggregate (PSD, SP, compacting factor)
ii. Determine the fresh properties of pervious concrete (workability)
iii. Determine the hardened properties of pervious concrete (compressive strength)

1.3 JUSTIFICATION OF THE STUDY

The most important features of pervious concrete in its hardened state are reduced
density, permeability of 0.2–1.2 cm/s and compressive strength of 3.5–28 MPa. Compared to
regular concrete, pervious concrete has the main advantages of preventing water from pooling on
surfaces, positively affecting vegetation by supplying plants with water/rainwater and
maintaining groundwater quality. These advantages make pervious concrete appropriate for a
wide range of applications including slope stabilization systems, alleys, parking lots and light-
traffic roads.

1.4 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This research intends to use gravel and granite of known size to produce pervious
concrete. This study is therefore restricted to the assessment of some properties such specific
gravity, sieve analysis, compressive strength and permeability of the pervious concrete.

2
1.5 EXPECTED CONTRIBUTION TO KNOWLEDGE
At the end of this study, it is expected that the best aggregate type and size to use for
pervious concrete must have being determined.
1.6 METHODOLOGY
The method adopted during the course of this study to test the material and characteristics
of pervious concrete is the Compressive Strength Test.

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 CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 REVIEW OF RELATED RESEARCH WORK
Ali et. al., (2018) studied the properties of pervious concrete with different levels of
recycled concrete aggregate. The considered percentages of recycled aggregate replacement were
50% and 100% by weight of natural coarse aggregate. The effect of aggregate size was studied.
The considered aggregate sizes were 9.5 mm and 19 mm. In addition, the effect of using crumb
or fibre rubber, polypropylene fibre, silica fume and styrene butadiene latex were investigated.
The properties of pervious concrete were investigated through permeability indices (water
permeability, density, voids ratio) and strength indices (compressive, flexural, splitting tensile
strengths in addition to pervious concrete degradation). From the test results, the use of recycled
aggregate, rubber fibre and crumb rubber slightly affected the permeability indices and
negatively affected the strength indices. Based on the splitting tensile strength, the use of 50%
and 100% recycled aggregate did not satisfy the typical limits of splitting tensile strength. The
use of polypropylene fibres had insignificant effect on the permeability indices and compressive
strength but the use of polypropylene fibres enhanced the tensile strength and degradation of
pervious concrete. Also, the addition of silica fume and styrene butadiene latex increased density
and enhanced the strength indices of pervious concrete. Finally, general relations between
studied variables were constructed.
Yab et. al., (2018) conducted an experimental investigation to study the performance of
pervious concrete with blended natural and recycled aggregates. From this study, the use of
recycled aggregate reduces pervious concrete strength. On the contrary, the use of recycled
aggregate increases the concrete modulus of elasticity but the authors reported that this result
may not be convincing.
C´osic´ et. al., (2015) investigates the influence of aggregate type and size on the
properties of pervious concrete. Five different concrete mixtures were prepared, including a
standard dense concrete mixture and four pervious concrete mixtures with varied aggregate types
(dolomite or steel slag) and differing proportions of 4–8 mm to 8–16 mm aggregate fractions
(30:60 or 60:30). The results suggest that a higher amount of small aggregate fractions (4–8 mm)
yielded higher density concrete mixtures and greater flexural strength. However, connected

4
porosity as a main parameter for estimating pervious concrete efficiency was surprisingly
influenced more by the aggregate type than the size.
Chindaprasirt et. al., (2009) investigated the influence of binder strength in porous
concretes with 4 binder strengths between 30.0-135.0 MPa and 5 void ratios between 15%-35%.
The results indicated that for the same aggregate, the rates of strength reduction due to the
increases in void ratio were the same for binders with different strengths. To study the influence
of aggregate size, 3 single size aggregates with nominal sizes of 5.0, 13.0 and 20.0 mm (Nos. 7,
6 and 5 according to JIS A 5001) were used to make porous concrete. The strengths of porous
concrete are found to be dependent on aggregate size. The rate of strength reduction of porous
concrete with small aggregate size is found to be higher than that with larger aggregate size. At
the same void ratio, the strength of porous concrete with large aggregate is larger than that with
small aggregate. The general equations for porous concrete are related to compressive strength
and void ratio for different binder strengths and aggregate sizes.
Ivanka et. al., (2018) prepared six mixtures of single-sized pervious concrete with three
different types of aggregates (dolomite, diabase, and steel slag from a Croatian landfill near the
town of Sisak) and with two different aggregate fractions (4–8 mm and 8–16 mm). Each
pervious concrete mixture contained 10% of sand from the Drava River. The hydrologic
properties of the pervious concrete mixtures are compared in order to define the aggregate type
that will ensure the best drainage properties. The draining capability was tested by three
methods: the constant head and falling head methods on the small samples, and the standardtest
method for testing the infiltration rate of in-place pervious concrete by ASTM C 1701 09. The
possibility of pervious concrete application as a surface layer in pavement construction in the
European area is estimated according to the achieved mechanical properties. The optimal
aggregate type for preparing pervious concrete from the hydrologic point of view is diabase
because of its sharp grain edges, which allow the water to pass smoothly through the pore
system. None of the studied mixtures satisfied the set criteria on the mechanical properties of
concrete for the surface layer of pavements in the European area. However, it is observed that the
coarser aggregate fraction will result in better hydraulic and mechanical properties of pervious
concrete.
Ahmet & Ismail, (2021) find simple and effective methods and to compare the methods
used to determine density and porosity measurements of PC mixtures in the form of cylinders,

5
cubes, and prisms of different sizes. Porosity, density and permeability tests of silica fume added
pervious concrete with different aggregate sizes (2–4 mm, 4–8 mm, and 8–16 mm) and different
aggregate/binder (A/B) ratios (2, 2.5, and 3) were performed. Also, changes in the permeability
of PC by using constant head and falling head permeability tests were investigated. The effect of
aggregate size, and aggregate/binder ratio on porosity, permeability, and density were also
examined. Correlations between porosity and permeability, porosity and density, and falling head
method and constant head method were examined. As a result, it was determined that
measurement methods significantly affected density, porosity, and permeability values of PC.
Besides, the method of covering with the stretch film was found to be the most effective method
in determining the density and porosity of PC among the methods in this study.

2.1 CEMENT
Cement could be a binder, a substance utilized in construction that sets and hardens and
can bind other materials together. The most vital types of cements are used as a component
within the production of mortar in masonry, and of a concrete, that could be a combination of
cement and aggregate to make a strong building material (Ali, 2011). Cements utilized in
construction will be characterized as being either hydraulic or non-hydraulic, depending upon the
ability of the cement to set within the presence of water. Non-hydraulic cement will not set in
wet conditions or under water, rather, it sets because it dries and reacts with CO 2 within the air. It
will be attacked by some aggressive chemicals after setting. Hydraulic cement or ordinary
Portland cement set in wet conditions and become adhesive due to chemical reaction process
between the dry ingredients and water (Gulden & Recep, 2015). The chemical process results in
mineral hydrates that are not very water-soluble and so are quite sturdy in water as well as safe
from chemical attack. This permit setting in wet condition or under water and further protects the
hardened material from chemical attack. The chemical change for cement found by ancient
romans used volcanic ash (Ali, 2011).
Cement is a binder. It is a substance that sets and hardens independently and can bind
other materials. The most important use of cement is as an ingredient in the production of mortar
in masonry and concrete. Cement is made by heating limestone (calcium carbonate) with small
quantities of other materials (such as clay) to 1450°C in a kiln, in a process known as calcination,
whereby a molecule of carbon dioxide is liberated from the calcium carbonate to form calcium

6
oxide, or quicklime, which is then blended with the other materials that have been included in the
mix. The resulting hard substance, called 'clinker', is then ground with a small amount of gypsum
into a powder to make 'Ordinary Portland Cement', the most commonly used type of cement.
Portland cement is a basic ingredient of concrete and mortar. The most common use for Portland
cement is in the production of concrete (Akhubi, 2014).
Cement is binder that is widely used in construction because of its adhesive and cohesive
properties. It provides a binding medium for the ingredients of brick. Cement is functioned to
bind the fine aggregates and coarse aggregates together and fill the voids in between both
aggregates particles to form a compact mass. Portland cement is a type of cement that is
commonly used in construction. It is made from a combination of argillaceous and calcareous
materials to a partial fusion at about 1450 °C (Gambhir, 2004).
The argillaceous materials are clay, slate, shale and selected blast-furnace slag. The
calcareous materials are usually chalk and limestone. There are two types of method to
manufacture cement, dry and wet process. Normally dry process is used to produce cement. The
materials are first crushed, ground and mixed before fed into a cement kiln and heated at a high
temperature of 1450°C. The product after heating is known as clinker is then cooled and ground
into fine powder form and cement is formed. On the other hand, the materials needed to grind
with water before entering the kiln for wet process. Wet process requires more energy to
evaporate the water inside the kiln. However, both processes emit large amount of CO2 to the
atmosphere (Gambhir, 2004).
Cement is generally referred to as Portland limestone cements (CEM II) because in its
hardened state it resembles the Portland limestone in colour and texture. Cement is a binder, a
substance which sets and hardens independently, and can bind other materials together. Cement
according to Allen (2008), can be manufactured from any number of raw materials, providing
they are combined to yield the necessary amounts of lime, iron, silica and alumina. Lime comes
from limestone, marble and marl or seashells while iron, silica and alumina can come from either
clay or shale. Allen (2008) further stated that a variety of Portland limestone cement (CEM II) is
produced, each with characteristics suited for a particular use or purpose.
Cement was discovered in 1824 and this discovery brought a new revolution in the
building industry. There are different types of Portland cements, including ordinary fast curing,
extra fast curing, low heat, sulphate resistant blast furnace, white and pozzolan (Emitt & Gorse,

7
2005). Among these types of cement, ordinary Portland cement is the cheapest and most
commonly used cement and is more readily available. On average, the cost of building materials
for a housing structure represents about 50 percent of the total cost of the building (Jones & Dhir,
2000). Olutoge (2010) stated that due to environmental pollution and the high consumption of
natural resources such as limestone, clay and the high cost of Portland cement, etc., cement
cannot be frequently produced. It is therefore necessary to reduce the use of cement. One of the
practical solutions to minimized the use of cement is to replace the cement with additional
cementitious materials such as hulled ashes of cassava, ashes of corncob, fly ash of coal,
granulated blast furnace slag (GBS), silica fumes, metakaolin (calcined clay), rice husk ash, palm
kernel ash.
Emitt & Gorse (2005) asserts that cement was discovered in 1824, and that this discovery
brought a new revolution into the building industry. Emitt and Gorse (2005) further states that
different types of Portland cements exist which include ordinary, rapid hardening, extra rapid
hardening, low heat, sulphate resisting blast furnace, white and pozzolana. Out of these types of
cement however, ordinary Portland limestone cement (CEM II) is the cheapest and the most
commonly used cement and it is more readily available.

2.2 CONCRETE
The development of concrete as a construction material dates back several thousand years
to the days of ancient Egyptians, the Greeks and the Romans. These early concrete compositions
were based on lime, although the Romans are known for their development of pozzolanic cement
and lightweight concrete. Apart from brief revivals over the years, there was little further
development until the eighteen century when the industrial revolution evolved. Later in the
nineteen century, the technique of reinforced concrete was introduced. The credit for
introduction of steel as a requirement is variously attributed to Joseph Aspdin 1824, William
Wilkinson 1854, Lambot in 1855 for ferrocement boats, to Monier in 1867 and to Hennebique in
1897 who built the first reinforced concrete frame building in Britain at Weaver’s Mill, Swansea.
Notable steps forward in this century have been introduction of prestressed concrete by
Freyssinet in the 1940s, the extensive use of reinforced concrete during World War II, the rapid
post-war concrete building expansion prompted by shortages of steel, the motorway building

8
boom of the 1960s involving concrete pavements and bridges, and most recently, the
contribution of structural concrete to modern offshore structures (Elena, 2006).
Concrete is mixture of cement, sand, gravel, and water. Concrete is the most important
material in construction industry other than timber and steel. It is estimated that current
consumption of concrete in the world is of the order of 10 billion tones once a year. People
consume no material except water in such tremendous quantities (Talha & Chaid, 2015).
Aggregates occupy 60%to 80% total volume of concrete. Mineral admixtures are often used in
concrete in combination with Portland cement for development of mechanical properties,
economy, and improved durability under the anticipated environment. Mineral admixtures
include rice husk ash, marble powder, fly ash, brick powder, ground granulated blast furnace
slag, metakaolin, silica fume and extra. Mineral admixtures are also referred as the performance
improvers (Gulden & Recep, 2015). The word concrete is originating from the Latin verb
“concretus” that means to grow together. The characteristics of concrete depends upon the
properties of constituent of material and their combined action. Within the production of cement
CO2 gas emission is additional, so these leads to injury of natural environmental conditions. To
cut back the consumption of cement partial replacement of cement with some supplementary
building materials (Ali, 2011). Cement is a binding material that has adhesive and cohesive
properties within the presence of water. Such type of cements is called hydraulic cement the
hydraulic cement is usually known as Portland cement because of its resemblance upon
hardening to the Portland rock found near Dorset, England (Oguzhan & Erdinc, 2014).

2.3 PERVIOUS CONCRETE

Pervious concrete has been in use for more than 50 years, especially in the United States
and Japan (Huang et. al., 2010). It contains a high amount of pores, with cement paste evenly
distributed throughout its structure. The porosity of pervious concrete ranges between 11% and
35%, which gives it permeability, good drainage properties, and high noise absorption
characteristics; however, the high porosity also reduces the concrete’s strength. The most
important features of pervious concrete in its hardened state are reduced density, permeability of
0.2–1.2 cm/s and compressive strength of 3.5–28 MPa (Putman & Neptune, 2011; Tennis et. al.,
2004). Compared to regular concrete, pervious concrete has the main advantages of preventing
water from pooling on surfaces, positively affecting vegetation by supplying plants with

9
water/rainwater and maintaining groundwater quality. These advantages make pervious concrete
appropriate for a wide range of applications including slope stabilization systems, alleys, parking
lots and light-traffic roads (Dierkes et. al., 2002; Tennis et. al., 2004).
Pervious concrete is composed of a mixture of cement, water, and coarse aggregate, with
or without a small amount of fine aggregate (Huang et. al., 2010). Since pore connectivity is
essential to pervious concrete function, compaction is restricted because it can result in a layer of
cement paste at the bottom of the concrete structure that would negatively affect permeability.
Total porosity of pervious concrete is the sum of closed (isolated) porosity and open (connected)
porosity, and it can be calculated by hydrostatic weighing. However, direct insight into porosity
would be beneficial since permeability is influenced not only by the number of pores but also by
their distribution and interconnectivity. X-ray microtomography has been used to characterize
many different types of building materials, including stone, concrete, and lightweight aggregate,
and it enables assessing the total porosity, phase distribution, voids, and cracks. If supported by
suitable image analysis software, X-ray microtomography can yield quantified results about the
structure, pores, and pore interconnectivity (ACI, 2010; Cnudde et. al., 2009; Korat et. al., 2013).
Ayda et. al., (2013) previously investigated pervious concrete by means of
microtomography (among other techniques) and found that aggregate properties have the
strongest effect on the mechanical properties of porous concrete because the coarse aggregates
are very effective in forming the skeleton structure. Microtomography scans enabled the
researchers to follow crack patterns and determine that they were influenced by the distinct
porous structure. The cracks extended into locations based on the geometry of the skeleton
structure, which was determined by the aggregate grading. In particular, when the aggregates
were fine, the cracks developed through the cement paste; with a larger aggregate size, however,
the cracks developed more frequently through the aggregate grain. According to the General
Technical Conditions for Roadwork (2001), concrete for pavement is classified based on its 28-
day compressive and flexural strengths. The required compressive strength for a very heavy
traffic load is C 35/45, while flexural strength must be 5.0 MPa. For a heavy traffic load, the
required compressive strength is C 30/37 and flexural strength is 4.5 MPa, while the required
load compressive strength and flexural strength are C 25/30 and 4.0 MPa, respectively, for other
traffic.

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 Porous or pervious concrete is a special concrete with continuous voids intentionally
incorporated into the concrete mass. It can be used in numerous applications such as permeable
concrete for pavement, concrete bed for vegetation or living organism, noise absorbing and
thermal insulated concrete. It is important that suitable void ratio is obtained in order to acquire
adequate strength and other desired functions such as permeating water, growing vegetation and
absorbing sound (Chindaprasirt et. al., 2009).
Numerous factors influence the compressive strength and void ratio of porous concrete.
These factors include binder strength, flow of binder, aggregate size and shape, and specimen
size. However, the important factors affecting the relationship of strength and void ratio of
porous concrete are binder and aggregate characteristics. Two of the most common factors used
in porous concrete are binder strength and aggregate size. It has been shown that the relationship
between compressive strength and void ratio of a porous brittle material suggested by
Ryshkewitch and Duckworth shown in the following Equation (1) can be used to describe porous
concrete with single binder (Chindaprasirt et. al., 2008). At one end, the strength of the material
is zero when the whole material consists of air void. At the other end, the whole material consists
of very low or zero air void i.e. a well compacted cement paste. For porous concrete, paste
covers aggregate and acts as one unit with air voids formed within the paste matrix
(Chindaprasirt et. al., 2008).
α=α0exp(BV)..........................................................................(1)
where: αis the compressive strength, MPa; α0is the compressive strength at zero void, MPa; B
the strength reduction parameter; and V the void ratio, %.
In this system, cement paste is treated as the homogenous and continuous matrix. Voids
in the gel and the capillary systems are, therefore, part of the continuous cement matrix.
Therefore, the void of the porous concrete system consists of the intentionally
designedair void. It would be beneficial to extend this equation to cover the other important
factors, such as binder strength and aggregate size in order that it can be used as a more general
formula to estimate the compressive strength of porous concrete (Chindaprasirt et. al., 2009).

2.3.1 SOME PROPERTIES OF PERVIOUS CONCRETE

i. Good Drainage Properties: The permeability of pervious concrete, because of its high
porosity, is in the range of 2–6 mm/s (Tennis et. al., 2004). Contrary to regular concrete,

11
 pervious concrete prevents water from pooling on horizontal surfaces and, if properly
designed, positively affects the surrounding soil and groundwater quality. Owing to its
drainage properties, pervious concrete is used in the construction of shoulders, bases, and
subbases of roads (Dierkes et. al., 2002).
ii. High Noise Absorption Properties: Owing to its high porosity, pervious concrete is able to
reduce environmental noise. Noise and noisy environment can cause various kinds of
diseases related to living in such an unpleasant environment. This has been widely researched
and many studies have proved the connection between traffic noise and cardiovascular,
neuro-vegetative, and other diseases (Sørensen et. al., 2013). The noise resulting from the
interaction between tire and pavement is being increasingly recognized as a significant
environmental issue, and it has become a major problem in urban areas. The noise produced
by a moving vehicle largely depends on the geometrical properties of the road surface. This
is the main reason why current research is focused on finding new methods for reducing
noise at its place of origin, the road surface, through the observation of the behavior of
different pavement types and their composition.
The studies have shown that modification of the type and/or texture of pavement
surface can result in significant tire/pavement noise reductions and that the proper selection
of the pavement surface can be an appropriate noise abatement procedure (Hanson & James,
2004). Concrete pavements are generally a worse choice compared to asphalt pavements
considering the tire/road noise impact. The only type of concrete surface course that can be
considered as “quiet” is pervious concrete. The key factors that determine the efficiency of
pervious concrete in absorbing sound are the porosity that can be accessed by the sound
waves, pore size, pore aperture size, and thickness of the porous layer. An acoustically
efficient material is that with smaller pore sizes and high pore confinement (Neithalath et. al.,
2006). Marolf et. al. (2004) studied the effect of aggregate size and gradation on the acoustic
absorption of pervious concrete and they reported that pervious concrete mixtures with
single-sized aggregates provide substantial improvement in sound absorption compared to
conventional concrete.
iii. Ability to Reduce Urban Heat Islands: Heat island refers to the development of higher
urban temperatures within an urban area, compared to the temperatures of the surrounding
suburban and rural areas. This phenomenon has an important impact on the energy

12
 consumption of buildings for cooling purposes. Various studies have shown that the cooling
energy consumption of buildings may have doubled because of the significant increase in
urban temperatures (Hirano & Fujita, 2012). Many recent studies have shown that paved
surfaces play a determinant role in the overall urban thermal balance. In permeable
pavements, water passes to the soil through the material voids/pores. It evaporates when the
temperature of the material increases, contributing to a lower temperature of the pavement
surface (Menon et. al., 2010).
iv. Poor Mechanical Properties: Pervious concrete mixtures can develop compressive
strengths in the range of 2.8–28 MPa and flexural strengths generally ranging between 1 MPa
and 3.8 MPa (Tennis et. al., 2004). The low strength of pervious concrete is the reason for its
limited application in construction of high traffic highways. In order to address this issue,
research with different, new components in pervious concrete is being conducted worldwide
(Huang et. al., 2010; Deo & Neithalath, 2010).
v. Low Abrasion and Freeze-Thaw Resistance: Pervious concrete has some durability issues
related to abrasion and freezethaw cycles, which deter its wider application. The abrasion
resistance of concrete depends on its paste hardness, aggregate hardness, and aggregate/paste
bond (Scott & Safiuddin, 2015). Many researchers agree that there is a general relation
between abrasion resistance and compressive strength—by increasing the strength of
concrete, the effects of abrasion are reduced (Liu et. al., 2005). Wu et. al., (2016) have
confirmed that adding latex to concrete mixtures is a way of improving their strength and,
consequently, their abrasion resistance. Further, runoff water that flows into pervious
concrete in cold weather and freezes can lead to pressure build up on the thin cement paste
coating area, which makes pervious concrete not suitable for dry-freeze conditions. Studies
on the improvement of the resistance of pervious concrete to freeze-thaw cycles have found
that the addition of long macrofibers increases its freeze-thaw (F-T) resistance, as does the
usage of an air-entraining admixture, silica fume with super plasticizers [30] or tire chips and
crumb rubber. In exploitation, when small material such as dirt and fine sand are carried by
storm water in the exploitation through the pores of pervious concrete, the debris can
eventually reduce the effectiveness of the drainage and permeability of the concrete. Such
clogging could then lead to flooding and the concrete being susceptible to extensive freeze-
thaw cycles (Kevern et. al., 2015; Gesoglu et. al., 2014; Deo et. al., 2010).

13
 Although the composition of pervious concrete seems simple, it is not easy to achieve
good mechanical properties and a satisfactory pore system at the same time. Decreasing the
water to cement ratio and increasing the cement amount in the concrete mixture will result in
better mechanical properties in the case of regular concrete. However, the increment of the
amount of cement in pervious concrete will reduce or even completely prevent its ability to
infiltrate water, which is its main advantage (Ivanka et. al., 2018)

2.3.2 DIFFERENT MEASUREMENT METHODS

There are some methods developed for determining density, porosity, and permeability
properties. However, there is no consensus yet on which of these methods is the simplest and
most effective for researchers working in this field. Especially measurement of porosity is more
important than the others because it has been frequently compared to other properties of PC.
Porosity measurement methods apart from technological measurement methods are based on
formulas using classical mass and volume values. Due to containing a high proportion of voids,
it is important to know what kind of voids should be used in the volume calculation of PC. In
addition, due to difficulties in compaction and differences in compaction energy, PC having
different geometry and dimensions has different density and porosity. So, there is a necessity to
perform volume, overall density and porosity tests for all PC having different geometry and
dimensions (Ahmet & Ismail, 2021).

i. Density and Porosity

The density and porosity of PC have been calculated by using different measurement
methods in many studies. ASTM C 1688, (2008) standard test method is used to determine the
density and void content of freshly mixed PC. The related standard test method is generally
preferred to verify whether the mixture has the desired properties during application. However,
the void and density values obtained from this test method may vary from in-placed PC. The
determination of density and void content by ASTM C 1754, (2012) standard test method in
hardened PC is quite common. According to the standard test method, the volume of PC is
calculated from geometric dimensions and then the amount of void is calculated by using the
volume and mass of PC in air and water. As an another test method ISO 17785-2, (2018)
includes testing procedures of density and void content of pervious concrete pavement samples
freshly mixed or hardened, produced in laboratory or obtained as cored from field placements.

14
 For freshly mixed and hardened pervious concrete density and void content are calculated
using similar procedures with ASTM C 1688, (2008) and ASTM C 1754 (2012). Determining
volume by measuring dimensions of the material was defined as geometric volume according to
the study concluded by Webb, (2001). This volume definition contains all voids types. Based on
the aforesaid information it can be said that ASTM C 1754, (2012) and ISO 17785-2, (2018)
standard test methods calculate geometric volume, so all of the voids should be used in volume
calculation. However, geometrical measurement of dimensions of pervious concrete will not
reflect the surface texture (Huang, et. al., 2010). Different methods such as image analysis have
also been used to obtain the total porosity of PC. In the studies, porosity values were given as
total, isolated, and connected porosity values (C´ osic´ et. al., 2015; Grubeša et. al., 2018). X-Ray
Tomography (XRT) was used to determine total porosity by Kuang et. al., (2011) and Sansalone
et. al., (2008). Also, results of XRT analysis and gravimetric-geometric measurements used to
obtain total porosity were compared to each other, and both methods were found to be
compatible with each other (Sansalone et. al., 2008). Image analysis based methods, using
scanned PC section, were preferred to determine porosity in the studies conducted by
Sumanasooriya and Neithalath, (2011), Neithalath et. al., (2006) and Deo et. al., (2010). The
effective porosity term is also frequently used in PC studies. Effective porosity is described as
the ratio of the volumes of connected voids to the total volume (Zhong & Wille, 2015). Montes
et. al., (2005) has defined the effective porosity as the portion of total pore space that is active in
certain process. In this definition the effective porosity includes dead-ended and capillary pores
for fluid retention, but excludes the isolated pores, dead ended pores, and capillary pores for fluid
flow and drainage. ASTM D 7063 was used to detect effective porosity in some studies (C´ osic´
et. al., 2015; Putman & Neptune, 2011).) Another method of measurement of porosity is the
volumetric porosity test. The test is based on the determination of void quantities by filling with
water from the upper part of a PC sample sealed on sides and from the bottom. The related test
method was used in many studies (Sumanasooriya & Neithalath 2011; Neithalath et. al., 2006;
Deo et. al., 2010).

ii. Permeability
The characteristics and measurement of permeability of PC are also very important for
PC studies. Even though the permeability of PC can be much higher, typically PC has around

15
0.34 cm/s flow rate (Tennis et. al., 2004). There are two levels of permeability for PC. 1)
Macroscale pores controlling storm-water percolation, 2) Microscale pores influencing the
durability of PC (Kevern et. al., 2010). Permeability is affected by the number of voids, voids
distribution, and voids interconnectivity (C´ osic´ et. al., 2015). The connectivity of voids of PC
made with coarseraggregate was found higher than those made with more fine aggregates in the
study conducted by C´ osic´ et. al., (2015). In another study, it was determined that the pore
connectivity factor increased with the increase of pore sizes and porosity. The mixtures made
with smaller size aggregates at a given porosity resulted in reduced connectivities
(Sumanasooriya & Neithalath 2011). In many studies, permeability properties of PC made with
different binder types or mixture ratios were investigated. The coefficient of permeability and
connected porosity of PC decreased with an increasing amount of binder, however, they
increased with increasing size of aggregate in the study conducted by Fu et. al., (2014). As a
result of the study conducted by Jain and Chouhan, (2011), it was indicated that the permeability
of PC varies as a function of concrete properties such as water to cement ratio, aggregate shape,
and size.
Many different experimental setups were used by researchers to determine the
permeability of PC. ISO 17785–1, (2016) is a standard test method for testing the infiltration rate
of hardened pervious concrete pavement specimens in the laboratory. According to this standard,
the specimens can either be prepared in the laboratory or cored from field placements. The study
conducted by Qin et. al., (2015), used two different permeability test methods. Permeability of
PC was found to vary according to falling head or constant head test methods. In the study, it
was emphasized that the permeability values of permeable concrete should be reported together
with the test method and applied pressure. The precision of permeability measurements has also
been studied. A modified permeability test method was developed to be able to measure more
accurately by preventing leaks caused by gaps at sample and container interface in the study
conducted by Cui e. al., (2017). As a result, it was reported that more reliable permeability
measurements have been performed by preventing leakage on sidewalls. Different methods allow
permeability measurement in fields. The National Center for Asphalt Technology (NCAT)
permeameter and ASTM C 1701 were compared on various permeable pavements in the study
conducted by Li, et. al., (2013). According to the results of the test, it was found that
permeability values measured with ASTM method lower than values with measured NCAT

16
method, also, both of the test methods can be used effectively to measure the permeability of all
pavements. In the study conducted by Grubeša et. al. (2018), three different permeability
measurement methods which are falling head permeability test, constant head permeability test,
and ASTM C 1701–09 [30] were used to determine the drainage capability of PC. As a result,
the highest permeability values were obtained in the falling head permeability test whereas the
lowest permeability values were obtained from ASTM C 1701–09, (2009), although all test
methods have similar trends. Apart from the methods in which permeability was determined by
using water level changes, Kuang et. al., (2011) investigated the hydraulic conductivity for a
permeable pavement using a series of pore structure models. In the study by Pieralisi et. al.,
(2017), a model was developed to analyze the permeability of PC numerically by using discrete
element modeling (DEM) and computational computational fluid dynamics (CFD). As a result, it
was indicated that permeability was more affected by varying in compaction degree than that of
paste/ aggregate ratio.

17
 CHAPTER THREE
MATERIALS AND METHODS
3.1 MATERIALS
Cement, coarse aggregate with two sample granite and gravel are the materials used in this study.
3.1.1 Cement
In this study Dangote Portland Cement (Grade 42.5), which is gotten from a retail cement
seller around Maraba bus-stop in Ilorin, Kwara State was used. For consistency and uniformity
of results, the same brand and grade of cement were used throughout the experimentation stage.
The Portland cement has mainly two basic ingredients namely argillaceous and
calcareous. This cement was taken into account during the mix design process. It was stored in
airtight packages before used.

18
 Figure 3.1: Cement
3.1.2Aggregates
Crushed granite and gravel with a nominal maximum size of 20mm were used. The
coarse aggregate used in this study was submerged in water for 24 hours, and then its water
absorption under the SSD (saturated surface dry) condition was measured. The excess surface
water was then wiped off with a wet cloth after the coarse aggregate was removed from the
water. The aggregates were taken to be under the SSD condition at the time when there was no
free water on the surface. For a good concrete mix, aggregate need to be clear, hard, strong
particles free of absorbed chemicals or coatings of clay and other fine materials that can cause

19
deterioration of concrete. The aggregates used in the course of this study was coarse aggregate
which was obtained from a retail shop around Kwara State Polytechnic Ilorin (I.O.T).

Figure 3.2: Granite (20mm)

Figure3.3: Gravel (20mm)

3.1.3 Water
Portable water is used for mixing and curing. A water cement ratio (w/c) of 0.45 is
adopted for concrete mix. Water is an important ingredient of concrete as it actively participates
in the chemical reaction with cement. In practice, very often great control on properties of
cement and aggregate is exercise, but the control on the quality of water is often neglected. Since
quality of water affects the strength, it is necessary to go into the purity and quality of water. The
water used for this research was obtained from Kwara State Polytechnic Ilorin, Nigeria Water
Company.

3.2 METHODS
Various methods may be adopted to test the material properties and characteristics of
pervious concrete. These tests include Gradation test, Specific gravity and absorption test, weight

20
determination, Aggregate impact value, slump test, and Compressive Strength test and flexural
test.
The method adopted during the course of this study to test the material and characteristics
of pervious concrete is the Compressive Strength Test.

3.3 GRADATION TEST (PARTICLE SIZE)

This experiment was done to find out how much material would be retained on each sieve
after shaking. To conduct this test, coarse aggregate must be sieved in a sieve shaker for 15
minutes to calculate the amount of coarse aggregate that remained on each sieve after shaking.
Apparatus: Set of sieves ranging 25mm, 20mm, 16mm, 12.5mm, 10mm, 6.3mm, 4.75mm,
2.36mm, 1.18mm, 600µ, 300µ, 150µ weighing balance, heating pan and stove.
Procedure:
i. Heat 1 kg of aggregate before weighing it on a balance.
ii. Place the largest sieve size at the top of the order of size for all the sieves.
iii. Shake each sieve while putting weighted material on the top sieve. Shaking shall be done
with a varied motion backward and forward, left to right, circular – clockwise, anti-clockwise
with frequent jerking so that the material is kept moving over the sieve surface. Shaking
should be done until all the particles are given a chance to pass through the sieve.
iv. Weigh the material retained on each sieve on a weighing balance. The material retained on
each sieve after shaking represents the fraction of aggregate coarser than the sieve size in
question and finer than the sieve size above.
v. Calculate % retained and the cumulative % retained on each sieve. The summation of the %
cumulative wt retained on all the sieve sizes up to 150 microns, divided by 100 gives the
fineness modulus.
vi. The sieve analysis is recorded in a table

Mathematical Expression:
Mass Aggregate retained = Mass of Sieve and Aggregate retained – Mass of Sieve
Mass of Aggregate retained
% Retained= × 100
Total mass of Aggregate
% Passing = 100% - Cumulative

21
3.4 PERVIOUS CONCRETE MIX DESIGN
Mix design is the process of choosing the necessary, suitable material constituents and
their corresponding ratios for the most cost-effective production of concrete with the minimum
required properties, such as consistency, strength, and durability. The two samples (gravel and
granite) in this investigation are prepared using a mix proportion of 1:6 and 1:8 (binder: coarse
aggregate). This mix proportion selection complies with ASTM C270's advice in order to give
concrete the necessary design strength. For tests on compressive strength and water absorption
and flexural strength, wooden cubes measuring 100 mm x 100 mm x 100 mm were used to cast
mortar cube specimens. The specimens for flexural strength were made of beams of 100 mm
x100 mm x 400 mm. the table calculation of number of specimen used.

i. Determination of Volume of Concrete require (gravel)

Cubes:(100 mm X 100 mm X 100 mm) x 38 Nos. = 0.038m3
But; 1m3 of gravel weighs = 2400 kg/m3
Therefore; 38 Cubes = 2400kg/m3 x 0.038m3
= 91.2kg
Beam: (100 mm x 100 mm x 400 mm) x 6 Nos. = 0.024m3
6 concrete beams = 2400 kg/m3 x 0.024 m3 = 57.6kg
Total = (91.2 + 57.6) kg = 148.8 kg
Allow for 10% wastage = 148.8 kg x 0.10
= 14.88 kg
Total concrete required = 148.8+14.88 = 163.68 kg

ii. Determine weight of concrete produce with gravel component and adopting a mix ratio
of 1:6 and water: binder ratio of 0.45. (Note: concrete = cement + coarse aggregate)
1
Weight of binder= ×163.68 kg=23.38 kg
7
6
Weight of gravel aggregate= ×163.68 kg=140.29 kg
7
Water = 0.45 × 23.38kg = 10.52kg

22
Adopting a mixing ratio of 1:8
1
Weight of binder= ×163.68 kg=18.18 kg
9
8
Weight of gravel aggregate= ×163.68 kg=145.45 kg
9
Water = 0.45 × 18.18kg = 8.18kg

iii. Determination of Volume of Concrete require (granite)

Cubes:(100 mm X 100 mm X 100 mm) x 38 Nos. = 0.038 m3
But; 1m3 of granite weighs = 2691 kg/m3
Therefore; 38 Cubes = 2691kg/m3 x 0.038m3
= 102.26 kg
Beam: (100 mm x 100 mm x 400 mm) x 6 Nos. = 0.024m3
6 concrete beams = 2691 kg/m3 x 0.024 m3=64.58kg
Total = (102.26 + 64.58) kg = 166.84 kg
Allow for 10% wastage =166.8 kg x 0.10
= 16.68 kg
Total concrete required = 166.8+16.68 = 183.48 kg

iv. Determine weight of concrete produce with granite component and adopting a mix ratio
of 1:6 and water and binder ratio of 0.45. (Note: concrete = cement + coarse aggregate)
1
Weight of binder= ×183.48 kg=26.2 kg
7
6
Weight of coarse aggregate= × 183.48 kg=157.27 kg
7
Water = 0.45 × 26.2 = 11.79kg
Adopting mix ratio of 1:8
1
Weight of binder= ×183.48 kg=20.39 kg
9
8
Weight of binder= ×183.48 kg=163.1 kg
9
Water = 0.45 × 20.39kg = 9.18kg

23
 Pervious Ratio Ratio Pervious Ratio Ratio
concrete(gravel) 1:6 1:8 concrete(granite) 1:6 1:8
Cement (kg) 23.38 18.18 Cement (kg) 26.2 20.39

Coarse Aggregate (kg) 140.29 145.45 Coarse aggregate (kg) 157.27 163.1

Water(kg) 10.52 8.18 Water 11.79 9.18

Water/binder ratio 0.45 0.45 Water/binder ratio 0.45 0.45

Table 3.1 Pervious Concrete Mix Design

3.5 WORKABILITY TEST

This is important in concrete works has it measure the property of the fresh concrete i.e.
the ability to be placed, compacted and finished it also measures the ease at which the concrete
can be used. The workability is measured using slump test. Unsupported concrete when it is
fresh will flow to the sides and a sinking in height will takes place has shown in figure 3.4. This
vertical settlement is known as slump. Slump is a measure indicating the consistency or
workability of cement concrete it gives an idea of water content needed for concrete to be used
for different works. A concrete is said to be workable if it can be easily mixed and easily placed,
compacted and finished. A workable concrete should not show any segregation or bleeding.
Segregation is said to occur when coarse aggregate tries to separate out from the finer material
and contraction of coarse aggregate at one place occurs. This result in large voids, less durability
and less strength. Bleeding of concrete occurs when the excess waters comes up at the surface of
concrete. This causes small pores through the mass of concrete and is undesirable. Slump
increases with increase in w/c ratio. The main purpose of this test is intended to detect the change
in water content as indicated by a change in slump.
The slump measurement process was done according to BS 1881 standard test method for
slump of a cement concrete. Forms of slump according to (BS 1881, part 102) .

24
Which are:
i. True slump
ii. Shear slump
iii. Collapse slump

Figure 3.4: slump type

Apparatus:
i. Mold in form of frustum of a cone with bottom diameter = 200mm, top diameter=100mm,
height=300mm.
ii. Tamping rod, 16mm diameter and 0.6m length rounded at one end.
iii. Scoop.
iv. Trowel
v. Rule graduated from 0mm to 300mm at 5mm interval
vi. Stopwatch.

Test Procedure
i. The inner surface of the mold was cleaned thorough cleaned of moisture and left over set
concrete before commencing the test
ii. The mold was placed on a smooth horizontal, rigid and non-porous metal plate.
iii. The concrete was prepared according to the mix design.
iv. The mold was filled in three layers, approximately one-third of the height of the mold.
Each layer received 25 stroke tamp using 16mm tamping rod, distributed in a uniform
manner.
v. After all the layers has been placed in the mold, the excess was struck off using a trowel
and all mortar that licked off at the base plate of the mold was cleaned.

25
 vi. The mold was immediately removed from the concrete, which allowed the concrete to
subside.
vii. The slump was then immediately determined as the difference between the height of the
mould and the height of the concrete specimen.
viii. This procedure was done for three trials.

Figure 3.5: Slump test

3.6 CASTING AND CURING

The coarse aggregate used was first mixed with the addition of cement. The mixing lasted
for about 10 minutes to ensure an even distribution of the materials in the mix. Water content up
to the optimum moisture content was gradually added to the mix, during the mixing. Since the
mixture was planned to be compacted, to avoid adhesion of concrete, the internal faces of the
moulds were coated with thin layer of oil.
Concrete cubes were cast and compacted in three layers. The compaction was done
manually by subjecting each layer to 25 blows form the tamping rod making sure that the rod
does not forcibly strike the surface below. After casting, the samples they were labelled with
identifications and kept in their moulds for 24 hours. The samples were then removed from their
moulds and immediately placed in the curing tank after their weights were taken. The slump test,
water adsorption and the compressive strength were determined in the laboratory using the BS
1881 Part 116:1990, BS 1881, Part 122:1990 and BS 1881, Part 102; 1990 respectively.

3.7 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST

The compressive strength of concrete cube test provides an idea about all the
characteristics of concrete and the quality of concrete to be used on site, it is also a test of quality

26
control. It depends on many factors such as water-cement ratio, cement strength, quality of
concrete material, and quality control during production of concrete etc. Compressive test in
general construction varies from 15 MPa to 30 MPa and higher in commercial and industrial
structures. The goal of compression testing is to determine the behavior or response of the
concrete cubes while it experiences a compressive load by measuring fundamental variables,
such as, strain, stress and deformation. By testing a material in compression the compressive
strength, yield strength, ultimate strength, elastic limit, and the elastic modulus and elastic limit,
and among other parameters may all be determined. Compressive strength of concrete is
determined as per IS: 516-1959. The test samples were weighed and placed centrally in the load
frame of the semi-automatic compressive testing machine. Load was applied until the concrete
cube fails and the failure load and compressive strength was computed inconformity with BS EN
12390-3 (2002). The compressive strength was checked at 7,14,and 28days of curing by total
immersion in water (Tantawi, 2015).

Figure 3.6: Compressive Strength Testing.

Apparatus: Cube mold 100mm, weighing balance, mixer, tamping rod, and compressive testing
machine.
27
Procedure:
Test Procedures:
i. After the concrete cubehave reached the specific age.
ii. The concrete cube was placed between the plates of the compressive strength machine.
iii. An incremental force was applied until the cube fails that is, the cube crumbles.
iv. The applied load was noted and the test repeated with various curing periods and the
compressive strength (N/mm2) was then determined.

Mathematical Expression:
Maximum Load (KN )
Compressive Strenght (KN /m2 )=
Area of Test Cube(m2)

Figure 3.7: Casted pervious concrete

28
 CHAPTER FOUR
RESULT AND ANALYSIS
4.0 PRELIMINARY TEST RESULTS

4.1 PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION OF COARSE AGGREGATE

Particle size distribution test shows aggregate classification as presented in figure4.1 and

figure 4.2 below according to their texture and grains sizes. The figure 4.1 and figure 4.2 shows

that aggregates with the highest percentages of granite are 25mm, 20mm and 16mm while

percentage of gavel are25mm, 20mm, 19mm which means the aggregate ranges between 25mm

and 19mm which is suitable for the concrete mix. According to ASTM C33/C33M-08 the

specification for aggregate suitable for the production of concrete are aggregates greater than

4.75mm (20mm>4.75mm) in which the aggregate used for the experiment satisfies.

sieve analysis of 20mm granite

70.94
71
61
51
%passing

41
28.5
31
19.39
21
11 4.24
1
sieve size

Figure 4.1: Sieve Analysis Graph (granite)

29
 sieve analysis of 20mm gravel

100
90
80 74.66
70 57.72
% PASSING

60
50 43.29
40 30.8
30 20.13
20
10
1 10
SIEVE SIZE

Figure 4.2: Sieve Analysis Graph (gravel)

4.2 WORKABILITY (SLUMP TEST)

The workability of freshly mixed concrete is an important factor in concrete construction

as it determines its ability to be placed, compacted, and finished. The slump test is used to

evaluate the workability of concrete by measuring its flow and height without support.

According to Miller et al. (2019), the workability of concrete can be influenced by several

factors, including particle size, quantity, water-cement ratio, ingredient characteristics, and mix

proportion. Moreover, an increase in quantity and fineness can decrease the workability of

concrete.

The obtained results show that a mix ratio of 1:6 for granite and 1:6 for gravel produced

slumps of 11.6 and 16.1, respectively, while a mix ratio of 1:8 for gravel produced a slump of

18.5, indicating a dry mix primarily used for road construction. The workability of the concrete

was also low, with a slump test conducted using a w/c ratio of 0.45 and 20mm aggregates, and

the measured shear slump was recorded.

The comparison of pervious concrete made with concrete and gravel concrete is shown in

the table below, and the following chart illustrates how the pervious concrete behaves in relation

30
to each ratio. The workability of the coarse aggregate was found to be the highest for a mix ratio

of 1:8 with gravel, followed by a mix ratio of 1:8 with granite. These results indicate that the

workability increases with an increase in coarse aggregate.

19
17
15
13
11
9 17.7 18.5
16.1
7
11.6
5
3
1
0 0 0 0
GN 1:6 GN 1:8 GV 1:6 GV 1:8
Series1 0 0 0 0
slump hight 11.6 17.7 16.1 18.5

coarse type and ratio

Series1 slump hight

Figure 4.3: Workability Test Result

4.3 COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH TEST

The compressive strength tests were conducted on 150 x 150 x 150mm 2 cubes at 7, 14,

and 28-day intervals, and the results were recorded and displayed in table 4.1 through 4.6, with

three trials performed for each set of tests. Table 4.1 to 4.3 shows that pervious concrete made

with granite at ratios of 1:2:4 and had an average compressive strength of 17.4N/mm 2 at 7 days.

At 14 days, the average compressive strength was 20.9N/mm 2, while at 28 days, it was

29.0N/mm2. Similarly, pervious concrete made with gravel at ratios of 1:2:4 had an average

compressive strength of 17.3N/mm2at 7 days. At 14 and 28 days, the average compressive

strength was 19.2N/mm2 and 26.1N/mm2 respectively. The variation in compressive strength can

be attributed to the compaction method used for the specimens, which was performed in two lifts

31
- one at mid-height and the other at the top. The compressive strength of pervious concrete

increases with age and as the aggregate-cement ratio decreases, according to BS1881-108: 1983

and ACI 522R-10. This behavior is also discussed in previous works (Neamitha, 2017 and

Chopra, 2007).

Table 4.1 Compressive Strength of Granite with mix ratio 1:2:4 (Seven Days)

Average
Dry Dry Failure Compressive
Aggregat Identification Compressive
Weight of Density Load Strength
e type Mark Strength
Cube (kg) (kg/m3) (Kn) (N/mm2)
(N/mm2)

1 8282 2454 380 16.9

Granite 2 8.326 2467 400 17.8 17.4

3 8360 2377 395 17.6

Table 4.2 Compressive Strength of Granite with mix ratio 1:2:4 (Fourteen Days)

Average
Dry Dry Failure Compressive
Aggregat Identification Compressive
Weight of Density Load Strength
e type Mark Strength
3 2
Cube (kg) (kg/m ) (Kn) (N/mm )
(N/mm2)

1 8.329 2468 460 20.4

Granite 2 8286 2455 470 20.9 20.9

3 8340 2471 480 21.3

32
Table 4.3 Compressive Strength of Granite with mix ratio 1:2:4 (Twenty-Eight Days)

Average
Dry Dry Failure Compressive
Aggregat Identification Compressive
Weight of Density Load Strength
e type Mark Strength
Cube (kg) (kg/m3) (Kn) (N/mm2)
(N/mm2)

1 8150 2415 660 29.3

Granite 2 8244 2443 680 30.2 29.0

3 8120 2406 620 27.6

Compressive Strength of Granite

32.5

27.5

22.5

17.5

12.5

7.5

2.5
Seven days Compressive Fourteen day Compressive Twenty-Eight days Compres- Aveage Compressive strength
Strength Strength sive Strength
Mark 1 16.9 20.4 29.3 17.4
Mark 2 17.8 20.9 30.2 20.9
Mark 3 17.6 21.3 27.6 29

Figure 4.4 Compressive Strength of Granite Chart

33
Table 4.4 Compressive Strength of Gravel with mix ratio 1:2:4 (Seven Days)

Average
Dry Dry Failure Compressive
Aggregat Identification Compressive
Weight of Density Load Strength
e type Mark Strength
3 2
Cube (kg) (kg/m ) (Kn) (N/mm )
(N/mm2)

1 8.028 2379 375 16.3

Gravel 2 8035 2381 390 17.8 17.3

3 8.097 2399 400 17.8

Table 4.5 Compressive Strength of Gravel with mix ratio 1:2:4 (Fourteen Days)

Average
Dry Dry Failure Compressive
Aggregat Identification Compressive
Weight of Density Load Strength
e type Mark Strength
3 2
Cube (kg) (kg/m ) (Kn) (N/mm )
(N/mm2)

1 8.353 2475 445 19.7

Gravel 2 8420 2495 425 18.8 19.2

3 8250 2444 430 19.1

34
Table 4.6 Compressive Strength of Gravel with mix ratio 1:2:4 (Twenty-Eight Days)

Average
Dry Dry Failure Compressive
Aggregat Identification Compressive
Weight of Density Load Strength
e type Mark Strength
3 2
Cube (kg) (kg/m ) (Kn) (N/mm )
(N/mm2)

1 8300 2459 570 25.3

Gravel 2 8160 2418 585 26.0 26.1

3 8131 2409 610 27.1

Compressive Strength Of Gravel

27.5

22.5

17.5

12.5

7.5

2.5

Seven days Compressive Fourteen day Compressive Twenty-Eight days Compres- Aveage Compressive strength
Strength Strength sive Strength
Mark 1 16.3 19.7 25.3 17.3
Mark 2 17.8 18.8 26 19.2
Mark 3 17.8 19.1 27.1 26.1

Figure 4.5 Compressive Strength of Gravel Chart

35
4.3.1 COMPARING THE COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF GRAVEL AND GRANITE
Table 4.7 Compressive Strength of Gravel and Granite

AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE AVERAGE COMPRESSIVE

DAYS
STRENGTH OF GRANITE STRENGTH OF GRAVEL
DAY 7 17.4 17.3
DAY 14 20.9 19.2
DAY 28 29.0 26.1

Compressive Strength of Gravel and Granite

32.5

27.5

22.5

17.5

12.5

7.5

2.5

Day 7 Day 14 Day 28

Average Compressive Strength of Granite 17.4 20.9 29
Average Compressive Strength of Gravel 17.3 19.2 26.1

Figure 4.6 Compressive Strength of Gravel and Granite

36
 CHAPTER FIVE
CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION
5.1 CONCLUSION

Base on the laboratory experiment carried out in this research, the following conclusions

are drawn regarding the properties of pervious concrete made from granite and gravel:

1. The sieve analysis revealed a narrow distribution of aggregate with a similar size, and the

specific gravity of the aggregate was within the specified range for pervious concrete.

2. The slump test results for granite and gravel with ratios 1:6 and 1:8 showed that gravel

with a ratio of 1:8 had the highest workability of 18.5 cm, while pervious concrete made

with granite had low workability. However, the workability of pervious concrete made

with gravel increased as the ratio of concrete increased, meaning that pervious concrete

made with gravel had higher workability than pervious concrete made with granite.

3. The compressive strength of granite is higher when compared to that of gravel on all the

three occasions they were tested.

5.2 RECOMMENDATION

Due to the need to find alternatives to concrete, pervious concrete can be recommended

to be utilized as an alternative to conventional concrete as it is also high in compressive strength

and can serve as replacement for conventional concrete in structures/structural members which

do not necessarily require high strength

Based on the conclusions of this research project, the following suggestions are further

proposed:

37
i. Further investigations should be conducted to expand knowledge on the application of

pervious concrete in civil engineering.

ii. The government should establish an organization that will monitor and raise awareness

on the significance and practicality of pervious concrete in civil engineering projects.

38
 REFERENCES

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