Chapter 2

History of forensic Techniques:

The ancient world lacked standardized forensic practices, which aided criminals in escaping
punishment. Criminal investigations and trials relied on forced confessions and witness testimony. However
ancient sources contain several accounts of techniques that foreshadow the concepts of forensic science that
is developed centuries later, such as the "Eureka" legend told of Archimedes (287–212 BC)1.

In ancient India too, medical opinion was frequently applied to the requirements of the law. By law
the minimum age for the marriage of girls was fixed at 12 years; the duration of pregnancy was recognized
as being between 9 and 12 lunar months with an average of 10 months and there is evidence that doctors had
to opine on such cases.

In the middle of 19th century natural science began to develop by leaps and bounds. The mystic
theories theretofore advanced to explain the scheme of things began to lose ground as the clear, cold logic of
scientific experiment gradually shed a new light on the mysteries of universe. The change in point of view
from the mystic to the scientific soon became apparent not only in criminal investigation but in the different
facets of the legal system. Now there emerged two facets of a single case. The facet stated and the facet
proved from scientific view point. The era of forensic science had arrived.

Though the use of forensic evidence has been on a spike in the judiciary system one can see
restrictive use in the Indian judiciary. To date also, the court has relied majorly on non-forensic, non-
scientific evidence for a judgment.

Sir William Herschel was one of the first to advocate the use of fingerprinting in the identification
of criminal suspects. While working for the Indian Civil Service, he began to use thumbprints on
documents as a security measure to prevent the then-rampant repudiation of signatures in 1858.

1
GENESIS & DEVELOPMENT OF FORENSIC SCIENCE IN INDIA by Runjhun Research Scholar, Department of Law,
University of Allahabad.
 In 1877 at Hooghly (near Calcutta) he instituted the use of fingerprints on contracts and deeds and he
registered government pensioners' fingerprints to prevent the collection of money by relatives after a
pensioner's death. Herschel also fingerprinted prisoners upon sentencing to prevent various frauds that were
attempted in order to avoid serving a prison sentence.

In 1897 a Fingerprint Bureau was established in Calcutta (Kolkata), India, after the Council of the
Governor General approved a committee report stating that fingerprints should be used for the classification
of criminal records. Working in the Calcutta Anthropometric Bureau, before it became the Fingerprint
Bureau, were Azizul Haque and Hem Chandra Bose. Haque and Bose were Indian fingerprint experts who
have been credited with the primary development of a fingerprint classification system eventually named
after their supervisor, Sir Edward Richard Henry.

In 1968, the Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India, set up a Forensic Science Laboratory
for Delhi Police and the Central Bureau of Investigation under the administrative control of the Central
Bureau of Investigation. This laboratory now provides expert opinion on various aspects of Forensic Science
concerning crime investigation. Apart from Delhi Police and the CBI, it also provides assistance to the
Central Government Departments, State Forensic Science Laboratories, Defence Forces, Government
Undertakings, Universities, and Banks etc. in criminal cases. The laboratory has been searched for and
developed to tackle special problems. The expertise available at the CFSL is also utilized in teaching and
training activities conducted by the CBI, Lok Nayak Jai Prakash Narayan, National Institute of
Criminology & Forensic Sciences, Police Training Institutions, Universities and Government Departments
conducting Law Enforcement Courses etc.

In the 19th century, it was discovered that almost any contact between a finger and a fixed surface
left a latent mark that could be made visible by a variety of procedures (e.g., the use of a fine powder). In
1894 in England the Troup Committee, a group established by the Home Secretary to determine the best
means of personal identification, accepted that no two individuals had the same fingerprints-a proposition
that has never been seriously refuted. In 1900 another committee recommended the use of fingerprints for
criminal identification. Fingerprint evidence was first accepted in an Argentine court in the 1890s and in an
English court in 1902. Many other countries soon adopted systems of fingerprint identification as well.

Physical Evidence:
 Physical evidence is the evidence that collected from the crime scene. It can be any object which
gives the assurance that the crime has been committed. However, all the crimes are different, so that it may
not possible to specify the physical evidence. It depends upon the nature of crime, crime spot, method of
committing crime and also the time of commission of crime. The physical evidence must be collected and
preserved properly. It may not be possible to enlist a type of objects to be recovered as physical evidences in
a particular type of case. Commonly the physical evidence such as pieces of glass, paint, soil, semen,
saliva, hair, nail clippings, finger and foot prints, firearms are collected from crime scene.

Forensic services:

The strongest proof will be sent for analysis to a forensic laboratory or, in the event that the
laboratory lacks a specialist in that particular forensic discipline, to an outside analyst. The professionals
working at the crime scene may do preliminary screening tests, also known as presumptive testing, to aid in
identifying the most valuable evidence. These tests can be helpful in identifying the kind of material that is
present, such as drugs or toxins, bodily fluid-containing stains, or even if a dried red substance discovered in
the kitchen is ketchup or blood.

Presumptive tests allow investigators to narrow the field of possibilities to a certain class of
substance, but they are not specific enough to confirm the presence of specific compounds. In addition to
helping provide clues to indicate how the crime occurred and who may have been involved, presumptive
tests can also help reduce the quantity of evidence that is submitted to the lab to include only the most
important items. This helps to expedite processing at the laboratory.2

o Computer Forensic:

The Field of Forensics sometimes also referred as Cyber Forensics or Computer Forensic
Science and also IT Forensics. the skill of conducting investigations and gathering evidence with a
view of obtaining real data from digital media (storage devices) and computers. This has legal
implications since an expert has to testify to the results of his inquiry, and in a court of law, an
opinion must be made based on that investigation and analysis.

Experts:

In court computer forensic evidence is subject to the usual

requirements for digital evidence; requiring information to be

2
Source: Indian Forensic Organization
 authentic, reliably obtained and admissible. A Cyber expert is the person who is expected to know all
aspects and legal implications related to this field. Expert investigates and coveys his analysis and
output through a report that is considered his opinion legally. Any type of data which needed to be
recovered are recovered under forensic science department. Police officer deliver the device from
which the data need to be recovered.

Procedure to collect evidence:3

Crim
e Investigation of network and computers on site seizing of Data Storage
Scen Device
e
Ivesti
gatio
n

Laora Isolation of evidence and preservation cloning for analyse

tory
entry

Exam
inatio Eamination,In-depth analysis, Extraction of Evidence & Correlation
n&
Analy
sis

Repo
Legal report formation with opinion, proof, evidence in presentable
rt format
Form
ation

o Document Forensic or Questioned Documents:

Popularly known as Handwriting Analysis/Examination, Signature Analysis, Document
Fraud Detection etc...
Anything written, drawn, indented or printed on any article such as paper, wood, wall,
cardboard etc to express something is called a document. broader Handwriting and Signature are
unique identification of person. Hence, it's able to copy by any other person. The seal and sign of any
organisation also covered under this.
E.g. signature, handwriting, typewriting or other marks whose authenticity comes under
doubt.

3
Source: http://dfs.nic.in/
 The experts verify with the original document questioned Documents. To examine the
document, there were equipment that used to identify whether the writing is original. Such as
magnifying eyepiece, lass alignment plates, magnifiers and microscopes4, light sources5.

o Fingerprint Forensics:
The friction ridges on the fingers leave an impression known as a fingerprint. On the palm of
the hand, the sole of the foot, or the fingers and toes, a friction ridge is a raised portion of the skin's
outer layer made up of one or more connected ridge units of friction ridge skin. The impression that
these friction ridges leave behind when they come into contact with a smooth surface is created using
a variety of developing processes and compared to a control sample, which is considered to be a
fingerprint. The fingerprint cannot be found on the cloth.

Experts:
A fingerprint examiner has to prove the credibility of the evidence through a scientific
method used by an expert and the method's applicability for this kind of review in a court of law. The
expert must specify the criteria used to form the opinion.

Scenario:
Fingerprint is a most important and easily accessible biometric feature in which one can
perfectly correlate someone presence if hi/her fingerprints are found on that particular place

When the FIR file against the person in the police station, their fingerprints are taken and
deliver to the forensic laboratory. Also, victim who were death, their fingerprints also store in the
state forensic laboratory and the record were maintained in the state and national laboratory 6.
An Automated Fingerprint Identification System (AFIS) is a biometric identification system that uses
digital imaging technology to capture, store, and analyse fingerprint data.

Fingerprint found on various type of crime:

 Crime scene (murder, theft, burglary etc.)

 Legal will (Attested legal documents)
 Documents (Government and Corporate)
 Property papers (Sale deed, Registry)

4
Such as more expensive and capable stable microscopes, binocular microscope
5
Many documents that are examined through light sources such as transmitted light, ultraviolet light, infra-red light, UV and IR
light. simple changes in light spectrum that reveals different marks and colors. Alteration in ink type, watermarks and other
chemical differences that can’t get observe under white light.
6
In Gujarat, India the fingerprints of death person preserved in the Gandhinagar Directorate of Forensic Science.
  Bank papers (Cheque, Insurance)
 Contract Agreement papers

o Biological Evidence:
I. Forensic Biology:

The analysis of tissue samples, chemicals, especially blood, and other biological
remains is known as forensic biology. It serves as a tool (evidence, clue) for forensic analysis
and inspection of objects taken from crime scenes using scientific techniques.
In order to identify victims and aid in criminal investigations, forensic biology examines
bodily fluids such as blood, hair, bones, insects, and plant and animal remains.

II. DNA:

It's a method used by forensic scientists and experts to help identify people based on
their unique DNA profiles. Encrypted numerical sets known as DNA profiles represent an
individual's genetic composition and may be used as a means of personal identification. In the
field of criminal forensics, DNA fingerprinting is becoming increasingly common. Currently,
DNA fingerprinting is used to identify victims or criminals as well as to determine paternity
or maternity.

o Audio / Video Forensics:

Audio and Video forensics deals with the examination and analysis of media contained in any
form of Data format in any storage type. Media can be anything from picture, movie, voice recording
and video recording. This can be stored digitally or on magnetic tape, film roll, cassettes etc...
 The examiner just needs to view or listen to the recorded video as the first stage in the
analysis process. Using specialist equipment and software, the examiner is going to start identifying
the area of interest to be improved and investigated in more detail.

Every assessment process has been carefully planned to ensure that the picture or video
accurately captures the scene. Investigators simply improve the data that is already available; they
never alter the recorded information.

On video evidence, a variety of improving techniques can be used. To get the best
improvement outcomes, it is essential to provide the best video clip. If a digital file or physical copy
is submitted for analysis that has undergone further compression, there can be restrictions on the
enhancing process.

Certain frequency ranges can be increased or reduced with the use of highly precise
equalizers. The 200 Hz–5000 Hz frequency range, which contains the majority of speech content, can
be separated or amplified to help in improving speech comprehension. Other information contained
within a frequency range will also be increased if amplification is applied to it. The capacity to
distinguish voices will be limited if noise is present in the same range.

o Ballistic Evidence:

Ballistics is the forensic science dealing with firearms and firearm projectiles. There were two
types of firearms. One is licensed and the other is unlicenced known as katta. Ballistics is specifically
the study of the marks that a gun generates on a bullet, the trajectory angle that a bullet takes after
being fired, and the damage a bullet causes when it hits a surface.

Ballistic evidence can include:

 Gunshot residue

 Angle of trajectory

 Distance from the target

 Bullet entrance and exit marks

  Damage

Ballistic evidence is often used in homicide and suicide cases. It can also help identify the weapon
used and provide leads to identify suspects.

Procedure for collecting to court forensic evidence:

Evidence Identification:

When the crime occurred, there is something that led the case further to trial, it can be any substance,
fingerprints, hairs, tyre tracks etc. that is obtained from the scene and delivered to the laboratory for
further investigation. Crime scene experts are called upon to examine the crime scene, they specify
the unavoidable evidence and only that evidence is sent to the laboratory. If any important evidence
is not collected by the experts, then it may mislead the case. The presumptive test held at the crime
scene.

Collection and Preservation of evidence:

To successfully conclude a case, forensic investigators must gather and package evidence in an
efficient manner. During further analytical and legal procedures, the identification, recording,
gathering, and preservation of appropriate and sufficient physical evidence are essential.
It is important to handle evidence appropriately in order to:

 protect personnel from potential hazards associated with evidence (e.g. biohazards, sharp objects)

 protect the evidence from loss, destruction, or contamination

 correctly identify the evidence (e.g. nature, source)

 ensure the evidence is secure and tamper-proof.

The choice of collection and packaging method depends on the type of evidence to be recovered

Packaging:

A large number of evidence items will fit inside an envelope; this type of outer packaging An envelope can
hold a lot of evidence pieces; this kind of outer packing makes organising and storing them simple.
An appropriate seal needs to be placed on the container once the outside packing has been marked
with the relevant case information. Any opening in the outer packaging should have tape, either
adhesive or tamper-proof. Next, making sure it is partially on the tape and partially on the outside
packaging, the evidence collector will write their initials, employee number or badge number (if
applicable), and the date the container was sealed across the tape. This method of sealing makes it
simple to spot tampering.

Verify that all necessary data entry and documents have been completed. The submitter will be
notified immediately of any incomplete information, and the item(s) are placed in a safe correction
waiting section until the necessary adjustments are made.

If the submission is correct and complete, it can be placed in permanent storage. The storage location
and date the items were placed in storage need to be documented by an electronic tracking system or
on the hardcopy evidence receipt.

Each package must be properly sealed and appropriately labelled. Evidence labels should contain
information that:

 FIR no. or crime no.

 Police station
 Date and time of collection
 Point of collection
 Proper numbering of containers
 says exactly where/when it was recovered
  shows details of the person who recovered it

 provides details of the person who has handled the item after it has been recovered and packaged
(i.e. details of the chain of custody).

Most items of evidence will be collected in paper containers such as packets, envelopes, and bags.
Liquid items can be transported in non-breakable, leakproof containers. Arson evidence is usually
collected in air-tight, clean metal cans. Only large quantities of dry powder should be collected
and stored in plastic bags. Moist or wet evidence (blood, plants, etc.) from a crime scene can be
collected in plastic containers at the scene and transported back to evidence receiving area if the
storage time in plastic is two hours or less and this is done to prevent contamination of other
evidence. Once in a secure location, wet evidence, whether packaged in plastic or paper, must be
removed, and allowed to completely air dry.

That evidence can then be repackaged in a new, dry paper container. UNDER NO
CIRCUMSTANCES SHOULD EVIDENCE CONTAINING MOISTURE BE PACKAGED IN
PLASTIC OR PAPER CONTAINERS FOR MORE THAN TWO HOURS.

Storage:

Storage locations will vary depending on the size of packaging and the temperature requirements for
the contents. Basic storage areas will need to include the following:7

• Shelved general storage area

• Refrigerator unit and freezer unit

• Bulk storage areas

• High-security storage

• Valuables safe

• Secure outside storage

Evidence vaults, which are safe places to store evidence, needs to be located inside a structure with
no external walls. The building material needs to be rated for two hours of fire protection. There
shouldn't be any windows or drop ceilings in the evidence vault. Emergency lights, a backup
generator for refrigeration units, intrusion and duress alarms, and round-the-clock video surveillance
should all be installed in the area.

7
https://www.youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=qNeKe_HgLtA
 The most probative evidence will be sent to either a forensic laboratory or, if the laboratory does not
have an expert in that forensic discipline, to an outside analyst for examination. To help identify the
evidence that is most valuable, the crime scene personnel may conduct initial screening tests, called
presumptive tests, at the scene. These tests can be useful in determining the type of substance present
—whether it’s a toxin or a drug, a stain that contains body fluids, or even whether a dried red
substance found in the kitchen is blood or ketchup.

Presumptive tests allow investigators to narrow the field of possibilities to a certain class of
substance, but they are not specific enough to confirm the presence of specific compounds. In
addition to helping provide clues to indicate how the crime occurred and who may have been
involved, presumptive tests can also help reduce the quantity of evidence that is submitted to the lab
to include only the most important items. This helps to expedite processing at the laboratory.

Chain of custody:

The chronological tracking of possession and storage of an item from time of the collection to the
item’s final disposition is called the chain of custody. Once the item is in the custody of the law
enforcement agency, the chain begins and continues to be tracked as the item travels from officer to
storage, from storage to lab analysis, from lab to court, from the court back to originating agencies
and ends with item’s final disposal.

Agencies track this information in order to prove an item has not been tampered with and will be
available for the prosecution. When an item is submitted for analysis, the laboratory will continue
tracking the item while in their possession. This creates a solid information for every item in
agency’s care. This retrievable information can then be utilized by both the prosecuting and defence
advocate to prove the integrity of the evidence being presented in the court is intact and admissible.

Current technology provides various options for tracking evidence ranging from high-tech software
to traditional hardcopy evidence receipts. The new technology has allowed many agencies to
modernize their practices and eliminate hardcopy records.

For any item coming into an agency’s possession the following information needs to be captured at
the time of collection:8

o Agency case number

o By whom collected
o Date/time collected
o Item numbers – A unique identifier for each item evidence collection list
8
Source: forensic evidence management from the crime scene to courtroom by Ashraf Mozayani & Casie Parish Fisher
 o Item description
o Collection location

Investigating Questions:

The forensic analyst must look through the evidence in order to find answers for the questions raised
by the authority charged with providing an explanation for the case. Analysts must have concluded
their report with proper documentation and try to resolve the question that arose.

Final report:

After examined the evidence given to the forensic laboratory by the forensic experts, they prepared
the report regarding the evidence produced before them. The report given to the police officer who is
in-charge the case from where the evidence is collected. The police officer then produce the report in
the court. Medico-legal certificate9 given by forensic expert also produce in the court.

Medical certificate10, Medico-legal certificate11 may grant by the forensic expert once the evidence is
examined and report has to submitted to the court.

Forensic laboratory:

Organizational set up of ideal forensic science laboratories meets the accreditation requirements specified by
the NABL12 in terms of personnel, training and development and management of evidences etc. Laboratory should be
organized and operated professionally.

Directorate of forensic science services comes under the Ministry of Home Affairs.

Directorate of Forensic Science (DFSS):

 DFSS established in year 2002-2003.

 The founder director of Directorate of Forensic Science was the M.S. Rao.
 Role13 of the Directorate of Forensic Science:

· Helps in administration of justice system and provides knowledge and facilities to various
programs to people involved with justice delivery.
· Provides the scientific aid in criminal justice system.
9
Any case of injury or ailment where, the attending doctor after observing history and clinical examination, considers that
investigations by law enforcement Agencies are warranted to ascertain circumstances and fix responsibility regarding the said
injury or ailment according to the law
10
A legal and medical document that proves the existence of an injury
11
MLR (Medico-Legal Report) can include reports about injuries, sexual offenses, deaths, age, mental illness, drunkenness,
impotency, and sexual assault.
12
National Accreditation Board for Testing and Calibration Laboratories
13
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NKXtw2e2LuI
 · Guides, regulates, and controls the working of Forensic Science Laboratories
· Provide financial and technical help to State Forensic Labs
· Promotes research and development in forensic aid
· To access and review the current procedure and practices in labs

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Importance of forensic evidence:

Forensic evidence is used in civil and criminal proceedings to establish guilt or innocence. It can also
be used to link crimes that may be related to one another. Forensic evidence can play a crucial role in
criminal investigations. It can help:

 To identify the suspect whoever is presumed to be at the place of crime the facts of a case
 Link suspects to the crime scene
 Support or refuse witness testimony on the basis of the evidence that are available in the court
 Establish the cause of death in cases of homicide
 Link crimes that are thought to be related to one another
 Establish the occurrence of a crime
 Identify the perpetrator
 Exonerate the wrongfully accused

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Source: https://nfsmuseum.com/cfsl.php