Strengthening Mechanisms in

Metals
 Strengthening
• The ability of a metal to deform plastically
depends on the ability of dislocations to move.
• Hardness and strength are related to how easily
a metal plastically deforms, so, by reducing
dislocation movement, the mechanical strength
can be improved.
• To the contrary, if dislocation movement is easy
(unhindered), the metal will be soft, easy to
deform.
STRENGTHENING MECHANISMS
NAME OBSTACLE TYPE

• Solid Solution Hardening • Solute Atoms(0-D)

(ALLOYING)

• Strain Hardening(COLD • Dislocations(1-D)

WORKING)

• Grain Refinement • Grain Boundaries(2-D)

• Precipitate Hardening (AGING) • Precipitates(3-D)

• Dispersion Strengthening • Dispersoids (3-D)

• Fibre Strengthening • Fibres (3-D)

 Solid-solution Strengthening
• Solute atoms are introduced into • There are two types of solid
the matrix (solvent atoms). solutions:

1. Substitutional solid solution:

the solute and solvent atoms are
similar in size, rendering the
solute atoms to occupy lattice
point of the solvent atoms.

2. Interstitial solid solution: The

solute atoms are of smaller size
than the solvent atom,
rendering the solute atoms to
occupy the interstitial sites in
the solvent lattice

Note: solid solution is compositionally homogeneous, the solute (impurity) atoms are randomly
distributed throughout the matrix.
Factors affecting solubility of solute atoms
The solubility of the solute atoms in the host matrix (solvent) can be
determined by several factors;

1. Atomic size factors : Solid solution is appreciable when the difference in

atomic radii between the tow atoms is < ~15%, otherwise creating
substantial lattice distortion.
2. Crystal structure : Similar crystal structure of metals of both atom types
are preferred.
3. Electronegativity : The more electropositive one element and the more
electronegative the other, the more tendency to form an intermetallic
compound than solid solution.
4. Valences : A metal will have more of a tendency to dissolve another
metal of higher valency than one of a lower valency
 Solid-solution Strengthening
 Impurity atoms distort the lattice & generate stress.
 Stress can produce a barrier to dislocation motion.
• Smaller substitutional • Larger substitutional
impurity impurity

A C

B D

Impurity generates local stress at A and Impurity generates local stress at C and
B that opposes dislocation motion to the D that opposes dislocation motion to the
right. right.
 Solid-solution Strengthening
• small impurities tend to concentrate • Large impurities concentrate at
at dislocations on the “Compressive dislocations on “Tensile Stress” side –
stress side” pinning dislocation
• reduce mobility of dislocation ∴
increase strength
 7.9 Solid-solution Strengthening
• Tensile strength & yield strength increase with wt% Ni.
180
Tensile strength (MPa)

400

Yield strength (MPa)

300 120

200 60
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
wt.% Ni, (Concentration C) wt.%Ni, (Concentration C)

• Empirical relation: σy ~ C1/ 2

• Alloying increases σy and TS.
 Grain size Strengthenging

• Grain boundary act as

barrier for dislocation
motion: slip plane
discontinues or change
orientation.
• Dislocations gliding on a slip
plane are unable to cross
the boundary but get piled
up against it. This happens
more often in a fine grained
material.
• Small angle grain • High-angle grain boundaries
boundaries are not very block slip and increase
effective in blocking strength of the material.
dislocations.
Hall Petch Equation
 Cold Work (Strain Hardening)
• It is the deformation at room temperature (for most metals)
• Common forming operations reduce the cross-sectional area:

1) Forging force
3) Rolling
die roll
Ad
A o blank Ad Ao
Adapted from Fig.
14.2, Callister &
Rethwisch 4e.
roll
force

2) Drawing 4) Extrusion
Ao
die Ad container die holder
Ao tensile force
force ram billet extrusion Ad
die container die
 Strain Hardening
total dislocation length
Dislocation density (ρd) = unit volume
– Carefully grown single crystal
 ca. 103 mm-2
– Deforming sample increases density
 109-1010 mm-2
– Heat treatment reduces density
 105-106 mm-2

• Yield stress increases as ρd increases:

σ
σy1 large hardening
σy0 small hardening Ti alloy after cold working:
 Dislocations entangle and multiply
 Thus, Dislocation motion becomes
more difficult.
ε
C. Cont’d: Strengthening by plastic deformation

Reason for increase in strength: Interactions

between dislocations:

How?
Plastic deformation  dislocation density
increases due to dislocation multiplication 
the average distance of separation between
dislocations decreases  resistance to
dislocation motion by other dislocations
increases  imposed stresses necessary to
deform a metal increase
C. Strengthening by plastic deformation

Strain hardening
(work hardening or
cold working): The
increase in strength
of a ductile metal as
it is plastically
deformed.

n: strain hardening exponent

Strain Hardening

As cold work is increased

 Yield strength (σy)

increases.
 Tensile strength (TS)
increases.
 Ductility (%EL or %AR)
decreases.
 Cold Work Analysis
What is the tensile strength & ductility after cold working?

Copper
Cold
Work

Do = 15.2 mm Dd = 12.2 mm
C. Cont’d: Strengthening by plastic deformation
Percent cold work (%CW) can be
used to express the degree of plastic
deformation
 Mechanical Property Alterations due to Cold
Working
• What are the values of yield strength, tensile strength & ductility for Cu for %CW
= 35.6%?

60

tensile strength (MPa)

yield strength (MPa)

700 800

ductility (%EL)
40
500 600
300 MPa Cu
300 Cu 400 340 MPa 20
Cu
100 7%
200 00
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60 20 40 60
% Cold Work % Cold Work % Cold Work

σy = 300 MPa TS = 340 MPa %EL = 7%

Adapted from Fig. 8.19, Callister & Rethwisch 4e. (Fig. 8.19 is adapted from Metals Handbook: Properties
and Selection: Iron and Steels, Vol. 1, 9th ed., B. Bardes (Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1978, p. 226;
and Metals Handbook: Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals, Vol. 2, 9th ed., H.
Baker (Managing Ed.), American Society for Metals, 1979, p. 276 and 327.)
Recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth
 Cold worked metal: it is plastically deformed at temperature
lower than 0.5 Tm (absolute scale)

 Most of the energy expended in cold work appears in the

form of heat.

 Small fraction (from a low percentage to 10%) is stored in

the metal as strain energy associated with various lattice
defects created by the deformation.

 Cold working increases greatly the number of dislocations in

a metal by a factor as large as 10,000 to 1,000,000.
increase dislocation density  increase the strain energy of
the metal
Reed-Hill, R. E. (1991).Physical Metallurgy Principles. 3rd edition. Ch. 8.
Recovery, recrystallization, and grain growth
When metals are plastically
deformed, some fraction of the
deformation energy (~ 5%) is
retained internally; mainly as strain
energy associated with dislocations

Can you go back to the

original (undeform) state?

Heat treatment (annealing treatment)!

Different processes occur at elevated temperatures:
Recovery  Recrystallization  Grain growth
 Annealing of cold-worked metal
• Annealing of the cold worked structure at high
temperature softens the metal and reverts to a strain-
free condition.

• Annealing restores the ductility to a metal that has

been severely strain hardened.

• Annealing can be divided into three distinct processes;

1. Recovery
2. Recrystallization
3. Grain growth
1) Recovery
In the recovery stage of annealing, some of the stored
internal strain energy is released  physical and
mechanical properties tend to recover their original values.

High temperature enhances atomic diffusion 

dislocation motion  :

1) Annihilation of
dislocations (reduce
dislocation density)

2) Formation of new dislocation configurations with

low strain energy
Recovery
2) Formation of new dislocation C=compressive strains

configurations with low strain energy

T=tensile strain
Also called:
Polygonization (regrouping of dislocations
to form Low-Energy Dislocation Structures, Tilt boundary
LEDS)

Note that the rate of polygonization

depends on temperature because
polygonization involves both slip and climb.
Climb requires movement of vacancies
which is extremely temperature sensitive,
and slip depends on CRSS which decrease
with temperature)
 Recovery, recrystallization, grain growth
• Recovery: the restoration of the
physical properties of the coldworked
metal without any observable change
in microstructure. Strength is not
affected.

• Recrystallization: the coldworked TR

structure is replaced by a new set of
strain-free grains. Hardness and
strength decrease but ductility
increases.

• Grain growth: occurs at higher

temperature where some of the
recrystallized fine grains start to grow
rapidly. Grain growth is inhibited by
second phase particles to pin the grain
boundaries

Adapted from Fig. 8.22,

TR = recrystallization Callister & Rethwisch 4e.
temperature
2) Recrystallization:
Recrystallization is the formation of a new set of strain-
free grains that have low dislocation densities.

Steps:
1) Nuclei are formed (at points of high-lattice strain
energy such as grain boundaries)

1) Small nuclei grow until they consume the parent grains

 As Recrystallization Continues…
• All cold-worked grains are eventually
consumed/replaced.
0.6 mm 0.6 mm
Adapted from Fig.
8.21 (c),(d),
Callister &
Rethwisch 4e.
(Fig. 8.21 (c),(d)
are courtesy of
J.E. Burke,
General Electric
Company.)

After 4 After 8
seconds seconds
2) Cont’d: Recrystallization
Recrystallization depends on both time and
temperature

The higher the temperature, the shorter the

time needed to finish the recrystallization
2) Cont’d: Recrystallization

Recrystallization
temperature: the
temperature at which
recrystallization just
reaches completion in 1h.

 Pure metals: ~ 0.3 Tm

 Some commercial alloys:
~ 0.7 Tm

Hot working: Plastic

deformation at T > Recryst.
Temp.
3) GRAIN GROWTH
Driving force for grain growth:
Grain size increases  total grain boundary area
decreases  surface (GB) energy decreases

“Boundary motion is just

the short-range diffusion of
atoms from one side of the
boundary to the other. The
directions of boundary
movement and atomic
motion are opposite to each
other”
3) Cont’d: GRAIN GROWTH

The grain growth proceeds more rapidly as temperature

increases which can be explained by the enhancement of
diffusion rate with rising temperature.
 Precipitation hardening of metals
(Heat treatment)
• This is the process of enhancing the strength and
hardness of some metal alloys by the formation of
extremely small uniformly dispersed particles of a
second phase within the original phase matrix.
• This strengthening is accomplished by phase
transformations induced by heat treatment.
• Age hardness is also used to designate the process
since strength develops with time, or as the alloy
ages.
 Precipitation hardening (Cont.)
• For a successful precipitaiton hardening to take
place the following features of phase diagrams of
the alloy systems should be satisfied:
– Appreciable maximum solubility of one component in
the other (on the order of several percent).
– Solubility limit that rapidly decreases in concentration
of the major component with temperature reduction.
– Composition of precipitation-hardenable alloy must
be less than the maximum solubility.
Effect of Second Phase Particles
• Two types of second phase particles
1. Shearable
2. Impenetrable
• Each type of particle uses different
mechanisms for strengthening a material
• Regardless of the type of particle, it is the
interaction between the particle and the
dislocation that provides additional strength
 Shearble Particles
• In order for a particle to be shearable there needs
to be a continuity of slip planes between the
matrix and the precipitate
– Therefore the interface must be coherent or semi-
coherent
– If the interface was incoherent it would be similar to a
grain boundary and would stop the dislocation
• There are 2 main mechanisms through which a
shearable particle can inhibit dislocation motion
1. Coherency strain hardening
2. Chemical surface hardening
 Coherency Strain Hardening
• Similar to a solute atom, a
particle will cause some
coherency strains due to the
elastic size mismatch
between the particle and the
parent lattice atoms
• A dislocation will be slowed
down by the coherency
strains surrounding a particle Source: matter.org.uk
Chemical Surface Hardening
• When a dislocation travels through a particle it
must create additional particle/matrix interfacial
area
• Larger stress (strengthening) required to shear
particle and increase interfacial energy

Gleiter and Hornbogen (1965)

 Impenetrable Particles
• Impenetrable particles strengthen a material
through “dispersion hardening”
• When particles become larger or transition from
GP zones to intermediate second phases they
lose coherency and become incoherent
• Incoherent particles require a lot of energy to
shear so instead dislocations will by-pass these
particles through:
1. Orowan Bowing (focus on this one)
2. Climb
3. Cross-slip
Three Mechanisms Dislocations
By-Pass particles
 Mechanism of precipitate hardening
Second phase particles act in two distinct ways to retard the motion
of dislocations
1) Particles maybe cut by dislocation 2) Particles allow dislocation to
• Happens when the particles are bypass/bow around them.
small/soft. • In over aged non-coherent
precipitates. Bowing of
dislocations around particles
leaving dislocation loops behind.
 Precipitation hardening

Procedure:
--solution heat treatm.
--quench to room temp.
--precipitation heat treatm.

 Precipitation hardening systems include: Cu-Be, Cu-Sn, Mg-

Al, Al-Cu, e.t.c
 Particles impede dislocations
 Precipitation Hardening
• Heat treatable alloys e.g aluminium alloys gain strength from subjecting the material to a
sequence of processing steps called solution heat treatment, quenching, and aging
(precipitation heat treatment ).
• The primary goal is to create sub-micron sized particles in the aluminium matrix, called
precipitates that in turn influence the material properties.
• The first step in the heat treatment process is solution heat treatment. The objective of this
process step is to place the elements into solution that will eventually be called upon for
precipitation hardening.
• Quenching is the second step in the process. Its purpose is to retain the dissolved alloying
elements in solution for subsequent precipitation hardening.
• Aging/precipitation heat treatment either at room or moderately elevated temperature
after the quenching process is used to produce the desired final product property
combinations. The underlying metallurgical phenomenon in the aging process is precipitation
hardening.
 Start: α + coarse θ (equilibrium at room
temperature)
 After quench: supersaturated α
 Fine precipitate θ appears in α to
strengthen

(a) (b) (c)

 Precipitation effect on TS, %EL
• 2014 Al Alloy:
• TS peaks with • %EL reaches minimum
precipitation time. with precipitation time.
• Increasing T accelerates
process.
 Strengthening Effect

Mechanisms of Strengthening with Time

1. Solute strengthening
2. Coherency Strain Hardening
3. Chemical Surface Hardening
4. Orowan Bowing

Source: Porter % Easterling, Phase

Transformations in Metals and Alloys
 Overageing
• When you age for long times and particles
continue to grow, the spacing between particles
becomes larger and it becomes easier to bow
dislocations between particles resulting in a
softening of the material
– At this point due to the incoherency of the larger θ’
precipitates there is very minimal coherency strain
hardening or chemical surface hardening (from
shearing)
– Orowan bowing stress decreases with radius as 1/r
 Dispersion Strengthening

Strengthening by the introduction of a second phase in matrix

is known as dispersion strengthening.
Matrix: The soft continuous phase present in large amount
Precipitate: hard strengthening phase is called dispersion
phase or precipitate

The strengthening of second phase particle in matrix:

• the size, shape, quantity and distribution of the second
phase particles,
• the strength, ductility and strain hardening behavior
depends on the matrix and second phase and
crystallographic fit between the phases, the interfacial
energy and interfacial bonding between the phases
S. No. Matrix Second phase Remark
1 Soft and ductile Hard and strong Matrix –ductility
Ppt. strength
2 Continuous Discontinuous Crack can be
avoided
3 Continuous Small and Strength will be
numerous more
4 Round Needle or sharp
edge produce
crack
5 Higher
concentration
 Advantages of Dispersion Strengthening

• Thermally stable at very high temperatures. Because

of the finely dispersed second-phase particles are
resistant to recrystallization and grain growth than
single phase alloys.
• There is very little solubility of the second phase
constituent in the matrix, the particles resist growth
or overageing to greater extent than the second
phase particles in a precipitation-hardening system.
Dispersion strengthening
The second phase in dispersion-
hardening system has very little
solubility in the matrix even at
elevated temperatures.
Precipitates are formed by
alloying element and/ or added
purposely like oxides, carbides,
nitrides and borides etc.
There is no coherency between
precipitate and the matrix
At high temperature, the
dispersed particles resist growth
or overageing.
Example: ThO2 dispersed Ni, WC
dispersed Co
Precipitation hardening
The second phase must be
soluble at an elevated
temperature and exhibit
decreasing solubility with
decreasing temperature.
Precipitates form by alloying
element.
There is coherency between
precipitate and the matrix
At high temperature, overageing
takes place.
Example: Al-Cu system
 Fibre strengthening
• Many commercial alloys are composed of two or more
metallurgical phases which provide strengthening
effects.

• Fibre strengthening is also composed of more than one

phase, however the mechanism of strengthening is
different from precipitation hardening where second
phase is introduced as fine particles.

• In this method the second phase material, is

introduced into matrix in form of fibres to strengthen
it.
 Fibre strengthening
• Ductile metals can be reinforced using relatively stronger fibres.
• Very high strength whiskers of Al2O3, or SiC fibres have been used for this
purpose.
• Fibre-reinforced materials (metal or polymer as matrix) are also known as
composite materials.
• The matrix usually :
1. transmits the load to the fibres.
2. protect fibres from surface
damage.
3. separate individual fibres and
blunt crack from fibre breakage.

•High modulus fibres in Fibre-reinforced metals carry more load than

dispersion-reinforced metals.
•Fibre-reinforced materials are highly anisotropic
 Rule of Mixtures
• Where the volume fraction >> V1 + V2 +V3 +........ Vn = 1
• If the contributions of each phase are independent, the properties of the multiple
phase alloy is the summation of a weighted average of individual phases.
• For example:
Stress:
Strain:

Example: Boron fibre, Ef = 380 GPa, are made into a unidirectional composite with an
aluminium matrix, Em= 60 GPa. What is the modulus parallel to the fibers for 10 and
60 volume%.
Stress-strain curves of the fibre,matrix
and fibre-reinforced composite

• The load is transferred

from ductile matrix to
strong fibres.
• Breakage or pull-out of
fibres increase the
strength.