Module4 Air Mass Boundaries

ATOC 4880/5880
Mesoscale Meteorology
Air Mass Boundaries
Spring 2023
SEEC Bldg., Room N129
Tuesdays and Thursdays 11:30 am –12:45 pm
Dr. David Kingsmill

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries
Mesoscale Air Mass Boundaries

Synoptic Fronts
Frontal Overview

Synoptic Fronts
Frontal Structure
Cold Front Warm Front
Cold Occlusion Warm Occlusion

Synoptic Fronts
• What are fronts?
─ sloping zones of pronounced transition in the thermal and wind fields
• They are characterized by relatively large:
– Horizontal temperature gradients
– Static stability
– Absolute vorticity
– Vertical wind shear
• The along frontal scale is typically an
order of magnitude larger than the
across frontal scale:
• Fronts tend to be shallow phenomena – depths of 1-2 km
• They are observed at the surface and low levels and aloft
near the tropopause as well
• Why are they important:
─ Association with cloud and precip patterns
─ Rapid local changes in weather
─ Occur frequently with mid-latitude weather systems
Synoptic Fronts
• Let’s define a front as a boundary

between two different air masses
characterized by different
densities
• Then ρ is discontinuous across
the front.
• We know that pressure has to be
continuous across the front,
otherwise ∆p/d would be infinite
(very strong wind)
• Therefore, from the equation of
state: p=ρRT, if density is
discontinuous and pressure is
continuous across the front, then
T must be discontinuous

Synoptic Fronts
Frontal Slope
Since pressure is continuous across the front:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑑𝑑 𝑝𝑝𝑐𝑐 − 𝑝𝑝𝑤𝑤 = 0
Expand this total differential across x, y and z:
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = − 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 + − 𝑑𝑑𝑦𝑦 + − 𝑑𝑑𝑧𝑧 = 0
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑤𝑤 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝑤𝑤 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 𝑐𝑐
𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 𝑤𝑤
Now, ignore along-frontal variation (in the x direction) and derive an equation for
the frontal slope (dz/dy):
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
−
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑐𝑐
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑤𝑤
=−
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
−
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑤𝑤
With use of the hydrostatic equation, this

expression becomes:
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
−
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑤𝑤 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑐𝑐
=
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 − 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐
Synoptic Fronts
Frontal Slope
If dz/dy is >0 (i.e., front slopes upward and to the north) and 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 < 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 , then:
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
<
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑤𝑤
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑐𝑐
So, while pressure is continuous across the front, the pressure gradient is
not continuous across the front.
Therefore, the isobars must kink at the front so that the above statement is
consistent with the analysis:
Higher pressure
𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐
𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤
x
Lower pressure
y
Synoptic Fronts
Frontal Winds
Assuming that the flow is geostrophic and there is no variation in the x direction,
the geostrophic wind can be written as:
1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔 = −
𝜌𝜌𝜌𝜌 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
On the warm and cold sides of the front:
1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 1 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑤𝑤 =− , 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑐𝑐 =−
𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑤𝑤
𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑐𝑐
Substituting into the slope equation:

𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
−
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑤𝑤 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑐𝑐 𝑓𝑓(𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 − 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑐𝑐 )
= =
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 − 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 − 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤
𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 𝜌𝜌 1
Since ≈ 𝜌𝜌 ≈ where 𝜌𝜌 = 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 + 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤
𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 −𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 𝑤𝑤 −𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 −𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 2
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 − 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

≈ If > 0, 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 > 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 − 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑
Therefore, cyclonic shear vorticity must exist across the front
Synoptic Fronts
Frontal Winds
Some examples of cyclonic shear across a front:

Synoptic Fronts
Frontal Slope
The ideal gas law can be used to transform the frontal slope equation from a
function of density into a function of temperature:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 − 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 − 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

≈ ≈
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝑔𝑔 𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 − 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 𝑔𝑔 𝑇𝑇𝑤𝑤 − 𝑇𝑇𝑐𝑐
This is Margules’ equation for frontal slope. Using typical values, here is an
estimate of frontal slope:
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 300K ∗ 10−4 s −1 ∗ 10 ms −1

≈ ≈ 1/300
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 10 ms −2 ∗ 10K
which roughly agrees with observed fronts. However, there can be a lot of
variability (see Fig. 5.2 of textbook and figures in slides to follow).
Another caveat: our initial assumption that density and temperature are
discontinuous across the front is not very realistic. In nature, frontal zones
exist where temperature is continuous, but the horizontal gradient of
temperature is discontinuous.
Synoptic Fronts
Observed Structure
• 12-case spatial cross-section composite of balloon sounding data along 80° W
• Note the sloping frontal structure to ~400 mb and location underneath polar jet
stream maximum
Zonal winds (m/s, solid) Keyser (1986), from Palmén and Newton (1948)
Temperature (°C, dashed) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries
Synoptic Fronts
Observed Structure
• Case study from 0300 UTC, 18 April 1953
• Spatial cross-section of balloon sounding data
• Note the cyclonic shear across the front and the shallow nature of the sloping
frontal zone with large vertical wind shear and static stability
Winds normal to cross section (m/s, dashed)

Potential temperature (K, solid)
Keyser (1986), from Sanders (1955)

Synoptic Fronts
Observed Structure
• Case study from 24 March 1982 over northeast Colorado

• Mesonet data
Temperature (°C, dashed)
Shapiro (1984)
Synoptic Fronts
Observed Structure
• Tower data at BAO for 24 March 1982 case study
• Time-to-space conversion (17 m/s propagation speed)
• Note the narrow frontal zone (~200 m) Potential temperature (K, solid),
Northerly wind speeds (m/s, dashed)
Shapiro (1984) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

Synoptic Fronts
Observed Structure
• Tower data at BAO for 24 March 1982 case study
• Note the updraft at the leading edge of the front and
downdraft at the trailing edge
Vertical velocity (m/s)
Shapiro (1984) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

Synoptic Fronts
Frontogenesis
• An increase (decrease) in the magnitude of the horizontal density
gradient is called frontogenesis (frontolysis)
• Potential temperature is used as a proxy for density since it has
conservative properties
• The frontogenesis function (𝐹𝐹) is defined as follows assuming a front
oriented along the x-axis with the colder air toward the positive y-axis:
𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞

𝐹𝐹 = − = + + −
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 𝑇𝑇
Shearing deformation Confluence deformation

Synoptic Fronts
Frontogenesis
• An increase (decrease) in the magnitude of the horizontal density
gradient is called frontogenesis (frontolysis)
• Potential temperature is used as a proxy for density since it has
conservative properties
• The frontogenesis function (𝐹𝐹) is defined as follows assuming a front
oriented along the x-axis with the colder air toward the positive y-axis:
𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞

𝐹𝐹 = − = + + −
𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝 𝑇𝑇
Tilting Diabatic heating

Synoptic Fronts
Frontogenesis
• Calculations of frontogenesis for 24 March 1982 case:
Note: Negative values

imply frontogenesis in
this study; shearing
and diabatic terms
are negligible.
Tilting Confluence
term deformation
term

Synoptic Fronts
Frontogenesis and Deformation
• In the presence of a deformation flow field, frontogenesis/frontolysis is
dependent on the angle (𝛽𝛽) between the isentropes and the axis of dilatation
Frontogenesis (0° < 𝛽𝛽 < 45°) Frontolysis (45° < 𝛽𝛽 < 90°)
Axis of
Dilatation

Synoptic Fronts
Frontal Rainbands
Houze (2014) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

Synoptic Fronts
Frontal Rainbands
• Narrow cold frontal rainband

– Convective nature
– Similar to squall line
– Waves on the cold front
– Gap and core structure

Synoptic Fronts
Frontal Rainbands
• Narrow cold frontal rainband
– Making land-fall along the coast of central California

Synoptic Fronts
Frontal Rainbands
• Wide cold frontal rainband
– Potential instability
– Embedded convection aloft
– Generating cells and fallstreaks
– Small amount of supercooled liquid
along frontal surface
– Seeder-feeder mechanism

Synoptic Fronts
Frontal Rainbands
• Wide cold frontal rainband
– Making land-fall along the coast of northern California
WCFR WCFR
27
Synoptic Fronts
Frontal Rainbands
• Warm frontal rainband
– Similar to wide cold frontal rainbands

Synoptic Fronts
Frontal Rainbands
• Warm frontal rainband (over southern Ontario, Canada)
Colle et al. (2017) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

Gust Fronts
Defined≡ Mesoscale boundaries between the ambient
environment and relatively cool air emanating
from convective storm outflows
Examples of observed gust fronts
Satellite with surface analysis Radar

Gust Fronts
Examples of observed gust fronts
Photographs of shelf cloud associated with gust front in Florida
Photos by Jeff Lew ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

Gust Fronts Gust front near
Vertical Structure Greeley, CO
Greeley Greeley Radial

Reflectivity
Velocity
http://www.chill.colostate.edu/w/Articles/An_RHI_scan_sequence_through_thunderstorm_outflow:_27_July_2013
Reflectivity Radial Velocity
Reflectivity Radial Velocity
Gust Fronts
Vertical Structure
Gust front across Denver/Boulder area
(~7 m/s toward 310°) Dual-Doppler Ground-Relative Winds
Greeley
Boulder
Denver
From Mueller and Carbone (1987)

Gust Fronts
Vertical Structure Gust-Front-Relative Winds
Ground-Relative Winds
Note the horizontal vorticity evident atop

the outflow (Kelvin-Helmholtz waves)
Contours are vertical velocity
From Mueller and Carbone (1987)
Gust Fronts
Conceptual Model of Vertical Structure
Key Elements: Head, Nose, Turbulent wake, Backflow
Adapted from Droegemeier and Wilhemson (1987)

Gust Fronts
Conceptual Model of Evolution
Based on a composite of radar observations
From Wakimoto (1982)

Gust Fronts
Conceptual Model of Evolution
Sequence of events for Based on a composite of

gust front passage: surface mesonet observations
• Pressure rises and From Wakimoto (1982)
winds decrease
• Change in wind
direction and speed
• Decrease of
temperature
• Increase of wind speed
and pressure
Note that pressure

changes are due to a
combination of hydrostatic
and non-hydrostatic effects
Gust Fronts
Density Currents
Gust fronts are often compared to density currents (also known as gravity
currents). Density currents are simply the intrusion of a denser fluid
beneath a lighter fluid. These phenomena have been studied extensively
in the laboratory (e.g., water tanks):
From
Simpson (1997)
Cleft-lobe (gravitational) instability

Kelvin-Helmholtz (shearing) instability
• Produces a pattern of clefts and
lobes on the leading edge of the • Forms on top of the density current
gravity current head due to shear at the interface
with the ambient flow and static
• Produced as warm air (water)
stability across the interface
undercuts the cold air (salt water)
at the surface below the nose: ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries
Gust Fronts
Density Currents
Laboratory experiments have shown that the propagation speed (𝑈𝑈𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 )
of a density current is given by:
0.5 0.5
𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 − 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤 − 𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐
𝑈𝑈𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 = 𝑘𝑘 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 ≅ 𝑘𝑘 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔
𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤
𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤 𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐
where:
𝑘𝑘 ≡ Froude number 𝑑𝑑 ≡ depth of density current cold air
𝜌𝜌𝑐𝑐 ≡ air density of cold air 𝜌𝜌𝑤𝑤 ≡ air density of warm air
𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐 ≡ virtual potential temperature of cold air
𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤 ≡ virtual potential temperature of warm air
𝑔𝑔 ≡ gravitational constant
Gust Fronts
Density Currents
In the presence of an ambient flow:
0.5
𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤 − 𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐
𝑈𝑈𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 ≅ 𝑘𝑘 𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 + 𝑏𝑏𝑈𝑈𝑎𝑎
𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤
Ambient
flow
𝑈𝑈𝑎𝑎 𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣𝑤𝑤 𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣𝑐𝑐
where:
𝑏𝑏 ≡ empirical constant
(~0.7 for laboratory studies; ~1 for atmospheric applications)
𝑈𝑈𝑎𝑎 ≡ speed of the ambient flow (negative if it opposes the density current
For actual gust fronts, 𝑘𝑘 is typically calculated to be in the range of 0.7-1.3

Sea/Land Breeze Circulation
• Produced by differential heating

at the land/water interface when
synoptic-scale forcing is absent
or weak
• The differential heating creates
a horizontal gradient in the
vertical distribution of pressure
Return flow Return flow
Sea breeze Land breeze

Sea Breeze Circulation
Satellite Observations
View of southern India from Gemini XI, September 1966
Note the sharp cloud

edge along the west
coast and the cloud-
free area offshore of
the west coast.
The sharp cloud
edge is an indicator
of the sea-breeze
front.
The cloud-free area
is an indicator of
subsidence in the
return flow.
From Simpson (1994) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

Radar Observations
2140 UTC 12 August 1991
Sea-Breeze
Front
Adapted from Wakimoto and Kingsmill (1995)

Radar Observations
5:40 PM 12 August 1991
Sea-Breeze
Front
Note the difference in radial velocities

west and east of the sea-breeze front
Radar Observations
2:40 PM 12 August 1991
Sea-Breeze
Front
Sea-breeze is closer to the coastline earlier in the day.

Reflectivity and radial velocity signatures are more subtle.
Evolution
Based on a composite of radar observations

when the ambient winds are directed offshore
Note the inland penetration of the sea-breeze front over time and that the intersections
of HCRs with the sea-breeze front are favored locations for cloud development.
From Atkins and Wakimoto (1997)

Evolution
Based on a composite of
radar observations
Note that the sea-breeze front is

less distinct when the ambient
winds are parallel to the coastline
and almost nonexistent when the
ambient winds are directed
onshore
From Atkins and Wakimoto (1997) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries
Evolution
Surface Observations:
At the surface, passage
of the sea breeze front is
characterized by:
• A temperature drop of
up to 10C
• Change in wind speed
and/or direction
• Moisture increase
• Pressure often does
not change much, if at
all
From Wakimoto and Atkins (1994)

Evolution
Surface-observation composite of decreases (increases)
of virtual temperature (mixing ratio) after passage of
sea-breeze front during offshore-flow conditions
• Notice that ∆Tv

and ∆q is larger at
stations further
inland
• Presumably, this
is due to the front
getting stronger
later in the day

Vertical Structure
The cool air behind the sea-breeze front is typically 300-500 m deep
Ahead of SBF
Behind SBF
From Wakimoto and Atkins (1994) Ahead Behind

of SBF of SBF
Vertical Structure
Mean composite radar analysis across sea-breeze front;

averaging done in the along-front direction
Reflectivity in gray
Density current?
Mean ambient horizontal wind subtracted from
dual-Doppler horizontal winds at each grid point

The Dryline
Defined≡ A low-level mesoscale boundary or transition
zone hundreds of kilometers in length and up to
tens of kilometers in width separating dry air
from moist air.
• The length of the dryline is related to
large-scale terrain or large-scale
weather system features, whereas its
width is related to mesoscale
processes.
• The dryline over North America results
from the convergence between moist
air flowing off the Gulf of Mexico and
dry air flowing off of semi-arid high
plateau regions of Mexico and the
southwestern United States.
• Drylines are also observed in India,
China, Spain and Africa. From Schaefer (1986)
The Dryline
• The North American dryline is observed from
the southern Great Plains up into the
Dakotas – from the Rockies eastward to
about 96 degrees W longitude (i.e., eastern
TX, OK, KS, NE).
• The dryline is observed about 40% of the
time from April through June.
• Forms is synoptically quiescent regions,
sometimes in a trough
• The dryline is easiest to identify with a
moisture variable such as mixing ratio.
• The 9 g kg-1 isohume (lines of constant
mixing ratio) or 55oF isodrosotherm (lines of
constant dew-point temperature) are often
used to indicate dryline position.
• Dew-point temperature gradient from 10oC
per 100 km to 10oC per 1 km.
• Wind shift: westerly component on dry side
and easterly component on moist side.
From Schaefer (1986)
• However, wind shift and moisture gradient
are not always collocated
The Dryline
In the absence of strong synoptic-scale forcing, dryline motion exhibits

a strong diurnal signature with eastward motion during the day and
westward retreat during the late afternoon and evening.
From Schaefer (1986)

The Dryline
Satellite Observations
Where is the dryline in this image?

The Dryline
Radar Observations
Lubbock, TX OK Panhandle
2340 UTC
11 May 2005
From Geerts (2008) From Wakimoto and Murphey (2009)

The Dryline
Vertical Structure
Airborne dual-Doppler analysis
Analysis of quasi-stationary dryline with

data from two instrumented aircraft
Objective analysis of airborne in situ data
From Atkins et al. (1998) West East

The Dryline
Vertical Structure
Analysis of quasi-stationary dryline with

data from two instrumented aircraft
Notice:
• Well defined circulation in
winds; updraft collocated
with reflectivity thin line.
• The large gradient in mixing
ratio collocated with the
reflectivity thin line.
• The θv gradient – implies a
density gradient!
• The horizontal density
gradient is collocated with
horizontal vorticity.
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝑩𝑩
∝−
𝝏𝝏𝝏𝝏 𝝏𝝏𝒙𝒙
West East
From Atkins et al. (1998) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries
The Dryline
Evolution
Processes for eastward propagation:

• This schematic depicts conditions in the morning hours before surface
heating creates turbulent fluxes in the boundary layer.
• The dryline is located where the top of the moist layer intersects the
terrain sloping upward from east to west.
T0

The Dryline
Evolution
Processes for eastward propagation:
• Now, after a period of surface heating, turbulent fluxes mix out the
shallow moist layer. As a result, the dryline position moves eastward (T1).
• As surface heating and mixing continue, the dryline continues to move
eastward, but the process is not necessarily continuous, leading to
“dryline jumping” and/or multiple drylines.
T0
T1
New dryline
position

The Dryline
Evolution
Example of eastward
propagating dryline
(Fig 5.18 of textbook)
With proper eastward displacement
of this cross section based on
Ziegler and Rasmussen (1998).
The Dryline
Evolution
Processes for westward propagation (sometimes called retrogression):
• One theory asserts that the dryline is advected back to the west by an
enhanced ageostrophic flow produced by a deepening lee trough.
• The lee trough is deepening in response to strong solar heating of the
elevated terrain.
• Another theory asserts that

the dryline is forced back
westward due to density
current dynamics.

The Dryline
Evolution
Analysis of dryline that was previously
quasi-stationary but now exhibits
westward retrogression

The Dryline
Evolution
Analysis of dryline that was previously
quasi-stationary but now exhibits
westward retrogression
Compared to quasi-stationary
analysis:
• Weaker updraft at the
dryline due to shallower
convergence. Objective analysis of airborne in situ data
• Larger horizontal gradients

of q and θv across the
dryline.
• Thus, the density gradient is
larger.
It was determined that the westward
propagation speed was in reasonable
agreement with density current theory.

The Dryline
Evolution
Denser air to the west
Two-month sample of drylines

near Lubbock, TX using radar ∆𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣 = 𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣east − 𝜃𝜃𝑣𝑣west
and surface mesonet data.
Denser air to the east
Note the reasonably good

correlation between observed
dryline motion and calculations
Negative propagation based on density current theory.
is to the west
From Geerts (2008) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

The Denver Cyclone
Also known as the Denver Convergence Vorticity Zone
Defined≡ A mesoscale boundary that forms in northeast
Colorado when the low-level ambient flow is
from the south or southeast.
From Wilczak and Glendening (1988) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries
The Denver Cyclone
Also known as the Denver Convergence Vorticity Zone
Defined≡ A mesoscale boundary that forms in northeast
Colorado when the low-level ambient flow is
from the south or southeast.
From Wilczak and Glendening (1988) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries
The Denver Cyclone
Gridded surface mesonet data
𝜽𝜽𝒗𝒗
From Wilczak and Christian (1990)

Divergence (solid)
Vertical Vorticity (dashed) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries
The Denver Cyclone
Gridded surface mesonet data
From Wilczak and Christian (1990)

Divergence (solid)
Vertical Vorticity (dashed) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries
Reflectivity
The Denver Cyclone
Doppler radar data
Radial
Velocity
From Wilson et al. (1992) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries
The Denver Cyclone
Forcing Mechanism
In addition to south or southeast low-level flow, the Denver Cyclone tends to

form when the low-levels are characterized by some amount of static stability
From Wilczak and Christian (1990) From Crook et al. (1990)

The Denver Cyclone
Forcing Mechanism
Model simulation with quasi-idealized terrain
Vortex forms in the lee of the Palmer Divide….
From Crook et al. (1990)

The Denver Cyclone
Forcing Mechanism
Model simulation with quasi-idealized terrain
….and moves northward. By 12 h, it stalls

due to the presence of the Cheyenne Ridge.

The Denver Cyclone
Forcing Mechanism
Model simulation with idealized bell-shaped mountain
TIME = 600 MIN
Counter-rotating vortices form in the lee of the idealized terrain.


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ATOC 4880/5880

Air Mass Boundaries

Dr. David Kingsmill

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

Cold Occlusion Warm Occlusion

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

• Let’s define a front as a boundary

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

With use of the hydrostatic equation, this

Substituting into the slope equation:

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 − 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑

Some examples of cyclonic shear across a front:

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 𝜌𝜌𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 − 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 𝑇𝑇𝑓𝑓 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔 − 𝑢𝑢𝑔𝑔𝑔𝑔

𝑑𝑑𝑑𝑑 300K ∗ 10−4 s −1 ∗ 10 ms −1

Winds normal to cross section (m/s, dashed)

Keyser (1986), from Sanders (1955)

• Case study from 24 March 1982 over northeast Colorado

Temperature (°C, dashed)

Shapiro (1984) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

Shapiro (1984) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

𝑑𝑑 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕 𝑞𝑞𝑞𝑞

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

Note: Negative values

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

Houze (2014) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

• Narrow cold frontal rainband

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

Colle et al. (2017) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

Photos by Jeff Lew ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

Greeley Greeley Radial

Reflectivity Radial Velocity

Reflectivity Radial Velocity

From Mueller and Carbone (1987)

Note the horizontal vorticity evident atop

Key Elements: Head, Nose, Turbulent wake, Backflow

Adapted from Droegemeier and Wilhemson (1987)

Based on a composite of radar observations

From Wakimoto (1982)

Sequence of events for Based on a composite of

Note that pressure

Cleft-lobe (gravitational) instability

For actual gust fronts, 𝑘𝑘 is typically calculated to be in the range of 0.7-1.3

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

• Produced by differential heating

Return flow Return flow

Sea breeze Land breeze

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries

Note the sharp cloud

From Simpson (1994) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Air Mass Boundaries