ATOC 4880/5880

Mesoscale Meteorology

Mesoscale Convective
Systems

Spring 2023
SEEC Bldg., Room N129
Tuesdays and Thursdays 11:30 am –12:45 pm

Dr. David Kingsmill

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems
 Isolated Convection vs
Mesoscale Convective Systems

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Isolated Convection vs
Mesoscale Convective Systems

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Isolated Convection vs
Mesoscale Convective Systems
Mesoscale Convective System (MCS) definition:
A cloud system that occurs in connection with an ensemble of
thunderstorms and produces a contiguous precipitation area on the order
of 100 km or more in horizontal scale in at least one direction, which is
large enough for Coriolis effects to be significant.

MCSs have mesoscale circulation features that are too large in scale to
be associated with any individual single-cell, multicell or supercell storm.

MCSs are composed of

regions with convective and
stratiform precipitation.
What is the distinction
between these types of
precipitation?
From Houze (1997)

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Stratiform vs Convective Precipitation
Stratiform
Convective

From Houze (1981)

Stratiform: 0 < 𝑤𝑤
� ≪ 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 Convective: 𝑤𝑤
� ≥ 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠
where 𝑤𝑤
� is the average vertical velocity within the precipitating
cloud and 𝑉𝑉𝑇𝑇𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠𝑠 is terminal fall speed of snowflakes and ice
crystals (typically 1-3 m s-1)
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems
 Stratiform vs Convective Precipitation
Particle fountains from convective regions seed stratiform regions
Convective Stratiform

From Houze (1997) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Stratiform vs Convective Precipitation
Particle fountains from convective regions seed stratiform regions

From Yuter and Houze (1995)

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Stratiform vs Convective Precipitation
Reflectivity

Convective
Contoured
Frequency by
Altitude
Diagram
(CFAD)

Stratiform
From Yuter and Houze (1995) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems
 Stratiform vs Convective Precipitation
Vertical Velocity

Convective
Contoured
Frequency by
Altitude
Diagram
(CFAD)

Stratiform
From Yuter and Houze (1995) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems
 Horizontal Structure

• Chaotic, non-linear regions of convection

150 km
• Associated with weak shear
• Often occurs over the tropical oceans

From Yuter et al (2005)

20
40
60
80

100 km

From Xu and Rutledge (2014) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems
Horizontal Structure

• Quasi-linear convective bands, often

called squall lines
• Associated with moderate to strong
low-level shear
• More likely to form over land
• Asymmetric MCSs typically evolve
from symmetric MCSs
From Houze (1997) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems
 Horizontal Structure

• Solid convective line • Line of discrete

• Deep shear parallel convective cells
to initiating boundary • Deep shear NOT parallel
to initiating boundary

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Horizontal Structure

Bow Echoes:
Arc-shaped reflectivity
structures along a squall line.

Bow

Bow echoes are often associated

with strong (>30 m/s), damaging
straight-line winds at the surface.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Horizontal Structure

Bow echoes can occur on

various horizontal scales

A series of bow-echoes along a

squall line is often referred to as a
Line Echo Wave Pattern (LEWP)

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

Horizontal Structure
Where is the stratiform precipitation
relative to the convective line?

~70%

Front-to-rear shear

~15%

Rear-to-front shear

~15%

Along-line shear

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Vertical Structure
Multicell storm schematic is applicable to MCS vertical structure if it is
extended large distances into and out of the page

From Houze (2014)

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Vertical Structure
Two oppositely-directed RHI scans (radar at “R”) through a leading line / trailing
stratiform squall line on 10-11 June 1985. RHI scans oriented normal to squall line.
20
km 50 km Reflectivity
AGL Leading Line

10
Trailing Stratiform

0 R

20
km Radial Velocity
AGL

10

0 R

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Vertical Structure
Conceptual model of leading line / trailing stratiform squall line based
largely on the case and type of data shown in the previous slide.

From Houze (1989)

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Vertical Structure
0.15

3.6

-0.45
-0.15

From Biggerstaff and Houze (1993)

Mean along-line reflectivity and
dual-Doppler vertical velocity for the
10-11 June 1985 squall line case

Profiles of dual-Doppler vertical velocity

averaged over (a) convective and stratiform
regions and (b) different portions of the
stratiform region (curve A associated with
most intense stratiform precipitation
From Biggerstaff and Houze (1991) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems
 Vertical Structure
Variation on the conceptual model for a leading line / trailing stratiform
squall line based on the 10-11 June 1985 dual-Doppler analysis

From Biggerstaff and Houze (1991) ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems
 Squall Line Maintenance
The mechanism for maintaining a long-lived squall line is a balance
between the horizontal vorticity produced by the buoyancy gradient across
the gust front and the horizontal vorticity associated with the environmental
low-level wind shear. This concept is often referred to as RKW theory
based on a seminal paper by Rotunno, Klemp and Weisman in 1988.
Short-Lived Sub-Optimal

No Shear

Short-Lived Optimal

Low-level
Shear

From Rotunno et al. (1988)

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems
 Squall Line Maintenance
Horizontal vorticity balance across gust front with no shear: Consider a
rectangle in 2D x-z space that extends across a stationary gust front from
the surface to well above the depth of the cold air (H). This rectangle has
horizontal limits at x=L and x=R and vertical limits at z=0 and z=d.
Horizontal winds are relative to the density current.

Simulation of a density current

Gust Front

Gust Front

In order to examine this issue quantitatively, make use of the 2D inviscid

vorticity equation in x-z space (𝑣𝑣 component is zero everywhere):
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝑣𝑣 𝜕𝜕𝐵𝐵 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
= −𝐯𝐯 � 𝛻𝛻𝛻𝛻 + 𝜂𝜂 + 𝜉𝜉 + 𝜁𝜁 + 𝑓𝑓 − → = −𝑢𝑢 − 𝑤𝑤 −
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑦𝑦 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems
 Squall Line Maintenance
𝜕𝜕𝑢𝑢 𝜕𝜕𝑤𝑤
Employment of the Boussinesq continuity equation ( + = 0) multiplied
𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧
by 𝜂𝜂 allows the horizontal vorticity equation to be reformed as:
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕(𝑢𝑢𝜂𝜂) 𝜕𝜕(𝑤𝑤𝜂𝜂) 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
=− − −
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
Now, integrate this equation over the rectangle in x-z space:
𝜕𝜕 𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅
𝜕𝜕(𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢) 𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑
𝜕𝜕(𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤) 𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅
𝜕𝜕𝐵𝐵
� � 𝜂𝜂 d𝑥𝑥d𝑧𝑧 = − � � d𝑥𝑥d𝑧𝑧 − � � dzd𝑥𝑥 − � � d𝑥𝑥d𝑧𝑧
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 0 𝐿𝐿 0 𝐿𝐿 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝐿𝐿 0 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 0 𝐿𝐿 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑
= −� 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝑅𝑅 − 𝑢𝑢𝑢𝑢 𝐿𝐿 d𝑧𝑧 − � 𝑤𝑤𝜂𝜂 𝑑𝑑 − 𝑤𝑤𝜂𝜂 0 d𝑥𝑥 − � 𝐵𝐵𝑅𝑅 − 𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 d𝑧𝑧
0 𝐿𝐿 0

Now, make the following assumptions to simplify:

• Vertical velocity is zero at the surface (i.e., 𝑤𝑤0 = 0)
• Buoyancy is zero on the right boundary (i.e.,𝐵𝐵𝑅𝑅 = 0)
𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
• 𝜂𝜂 = − ≈ on the lateral boundaries
𝜕𝜕𝑧𝑧 𝜕𝜕𝑥𝑥 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕
𝜕𝜕
• Steady-state conditions (i.e., 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕 = 0)

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Squall Line Maintenance
With those simplifying assumptions, the equation becomes:
𝑑𝑑 𝑑𝑑 𝑅𝑅 𝑑𝑑
0 = � 𝑢𝑢𝐿𝐿 d𝑢𝑢𝐿𝐿 − � 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 d𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅 − � 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑 d𝑥𝑥 + � 𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 d𝑧𝑧
0 0 𝐿𝐿 0
2 2 2 2 𝑅𝑅 𝐻𝐻
𝑢𝑢𝐿𝐿,𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢𝐿𝐿,0 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,0
= − − − − � 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑 d𝑥𝑥 + � 𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 d𝑧𝑧
2 2 2 2 𝐿𝐿 0
𝑑𝑑 𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻
where ∫0 𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 d𝑧𝑧 = ∫0 𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 d𝑧𝑧 + ∫𝑑𝑑 𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 d𝑧𝑧 = ∫0 𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 d𝑧𝑧

Some more simplifying assumptions:

• Dense fluid is stagnant at the surface on
the left boundary (i.e.,𝑢𝑢𝐿𝐿,0 = 0)
• No environmental shear (i.e., 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,0 = 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,𝑑𝑑 )
• Density current does not perturb flow at
𝑅𝑅
top boundary (i.e., ∫𝐿𝐿 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑 d𝑥𝑥 = 0 and
𝑢𝑢𝐿𝐿,𝑑𝑑 = 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,𝑑𝑑 = 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,0 )

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Squall Line Maintenance
Those simplifying assumptions yield:

𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻
2 2
𝑢𝑢𝐿𝐿,𝑑𝑑 = 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,0 = −2 � 𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 d𝑧𝑧 ≡ 𝑐𝑐 2 → 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,0 = − −2 � 𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 d𝑧𝑧
0 0

where 𝑐𝑐 is the net buoyant generation of vorticity by the cold pool. The
negative root of 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,0 is taken since gust-front relative flow is from the east.
Since 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,0 is the wind speed at the surface relative to the (stationary)
density current, it follows that −𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,0 is the speed of the density current
relative to the ambient air.
If 𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 is constant (𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 < 0):
−𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,0 = 𝑐𝑐 = −2𝐵𝐵𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐 𝐻𝐻
If 𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 varies linearly as a function of height,
with the minimum buoyancy (𝐵𝐵𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 < 0) at
𝑧𝑧
the surface; i.e., 𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 = 𝐵𝐵𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 1 − :
𝐻𝐻
−𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,0 = 𝑐𝑐 = −𝐵𝐵𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 𝐻𝐻

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Squall Line Maintenance
Now, let’s introduce vertical shear to the environmental winds and revert to
a previous form of the vorticity equation :
2 2 2 2 𝑅𝑅 𝐻𝐻
𝑢𝑢𝐿𝐿,𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢𝐿𝐿,0 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,𝑑𝑑 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,0
0= − − − − � 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑 d𝑥𝑥 + � 𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 d𝑧𝑧
2 2 2 2 𝐿𝐿 0

We still assume 𝑢𝑢𝐿𝐿,0 = 0. However, with shear,

𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,0 ≠ 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,𝑑𝑑 . As a result, new assumptions
need to be employed:
• Configure rectangle so that 𝑢𝑢𝐿𝐿,𝑑𝑑 ≈ 0 and 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,𝑑𝑑 ≈ 0
• Assume an erect updraft where the horizontal
vorticity is balanced across the rectangle (i.e., the
vertical flux of horizontal vorticity through the top
𝑅𝑅
boundary vanishes or ∫𝐿𝐿 𝑤𝑤𝑤𝑤 𝑑𝑑 d𝑥𝑥 = 0)
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems
 Squall Line Maintenance
With these assumptions the vorticity equation becomes:
2 𝐻𝐻 𝐻𝐻
𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,0 2
0= + � 𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 d𝑧𝑧 → 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,0 = −2 � 𝐵𝐵𝐿𝐿 d𝑧𝑧 = 𝑐𝑐 2 → 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,0 = −𝑐𝑐
2 0 0
−𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,0 = 𝑐𝑐
This looks very similar to what
was derived for the unsheared
environment. However, since it is 𝑐𝑐 > ∆𝑢𝑢
assumed that 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,𝑑𝑑 = 0, the
equation can be slightly modified
to account for vertical wind shear:
𝑐𝑐 = ∆𝑢𝑢
−𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,0 = 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,𝑑𝑑 − 𝑢𝑢𝑅𝑅,0 = ∆𝑢𝑢 = 𝑐𝑐

Where 𝑐𝑐 represents the strength of

the cold pool and ∆𝑢𝑢 represents the 𝑐𝑐 < ∆𝑢𝑢
low-level environmental wind shear.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Squall Line Maintenance
But, low-level shear (∆𝑢𝑢) is not necessarily the whole story. Deep-layer
shear (∆𝑢𝑢deep ) can complicate the utility of RKW theory:

RKW Sub-Optimal RKW Optimal

∆𝑢𝑢deep creates an erect updraft with a ∆𝑢𝑢deep tilts the updraft over the cold pool
sub-optimal RKW condition (𝑐𝑐 > ∆𝑢𝑢) with an optimal RKW condition (𝑐𝑐 = ∆𝑢𝑢)
ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems
Forcing of Rear Inflow Jet
System-relative winds
derived from soundings
ahead of MCSs are directed
from front to rear.

However, system-relative
winds derived from
soundings to the rear of
MCSs sometimes exhibit
rear-to-front flow.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Forcing of Rear Inflow Jet
So, what forces the rear inflow jet? A low pressure perturbation induced by
the vertical gradient of buoyancy between the cold pool and the rearward-
tilted squall-line updraft (i.e., 𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏′ ∝ − 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕⁄𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕)

High CAPE Low CAPE

Higher CAPE environments create larger 𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕⁄𝜕𝜕𝜕𝜕, lower 𝑝𝑝𝑏𝑏′

and correspondingly stronger rear inflow.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Forcing of Rear Inflow Jet

If the buoyancy gradient associated with the

warm air in the ascending front-to-rear flow is
less than the buoyancy gradient on the back
edge of the cold pool, then the rear inflow jet will
descend to the ground well behind the leading
edge of the system. This often occurs when the L
environmental shear is weak-moderate.

When the buoyancy gradient associated with

the warm air in the ascending front-to-rear flow
is similar in magnitude to that on the back edge
of the cold pool, the rear inflow jet will tend to
remain elevated and descend when it reaches
the leading edge of the convective system. This L
often occurs when the environmental shear is
stronger.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Feedback of Rear Inflow Jet on Squall Line
The panels below show the 2D evolution of a squall-line MCS. A rear
inflow jet is forced when the squall-line updraft tilts over the cold pool (i.e.,
𝑐𝑐 > ∆𝑢𝑢). However, horizontal vorticity associated with the rear inflow jet
(∆𝑢𝑢𝑗𝑗 ) helps to reestablish a more erect squall-line updraft, which promotes
a longer-lived MCS.
𝑐𝑐 = ∆𝑢𝑢

𝑐𝑐 > ∆𝑢𝑢 𝑐𝑐 ≈ ∆𝑢𝑢 + ∆𝑢𝑢 𝑗𝑗

∆𝑢𝑢 𝑗𝑗 +

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Bow Echo Formation
Bow echoes form as a result of strong rear inflow jets enhanced by counter
rotating vertical vortices on the ends of squall lines or line segments:

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Bow Echo Formation
Bow echoes form as a result of strong rear inflow jets enhanced by counter
rotating vertical vortices on the ends of squall lines or line segments:

From Davis et al. (2004)

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Bow Echo Formation
Observations and numerical simulations have shown that when a squall
line has a finite length, larger-scale circulations form on the ends of the
squall line. These circulations are called line-end vortices. They can
range in size from 10 km to a few hundred km in scale and are found
behind the leading edge of the MCS at mid levels in the stratiform region.
How do line-end vortices form?

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Bow Echo Formation

If you tilt westerly environmental Upward tilting of easterly shear

shear by an updraft, you get a pair would create counter rotating
of circulations on either side of the vortices with the correct sense of
updraft, but their sense of rotation rotation. But, how is this easterly
is opposite to that observed. shear created?

Upward Tilting
in Westerly Shear

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Bow Echo Formation

I The source of the easterly shear is

the cold pool. Numerical simulations
have shown that the line end vortices
form as the squall line updraft tilts
upward the horizontal vorticity
generated by the cold pool

III
II

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems

 Bow Echo Formation

The line-end (often called book-end)

vortices are, for smaller line
segments, capable of enhancing the
rear inflow jet by as much as 30-50%
Over time, the northern circulation
dominates and can create an
asymmetric structure as described
earlier.

ATOC Mesoscale Meteorology: Mesoscale Convective Systems