SMA 121

Geometry and Elementary Applied Mathematics

Nixon K. Ronoh

Moi University
School of Science and Aerospace Studies
February 15, 2024

Abstract
This module is a foundation course to the study of dependence relations between
physical quantities and their changes relative to one another. For many of these quan-
tities, the changes are measured versus time, a variable that is usually considered
independent. Well known examples of relations between physical quantities include
displacement, velocity and acceleration. For us to understand these relations better,
we have to be able to represent them by graphs, or in the context of this module, by
some form of geometry. SMA 121introduces plane analytic geometry, which looks at
the distance formula, the gradient function, parallel and perpendicular lines, circles,
parabolas and hyperbolas among other conic sections. The module also introduces po-
lar and cylindrical coordinates and looks at their conversion from the well known and
commonly used Cartesian coordinate system. Applications considered include motion
in a straight line, relative motion, friction, moments and Couples among others. At
the end of the course, the learner should be able to accurately compute the distance
from a straight line to a point on the Cartesian plane. He/she should be able to obtain
the standard and general equations of di↵erent conic sections, among other tasks.

1
Course Outline
1. Plane analytic geometry
(a) The distance formula
(b) Gradient of a straight line
(c) Parallel and perpendicular lines
(d) Perpendicular distance from a point to a line
(e) Conic sections
• The circle
• Parabolas
• Ellipses
• Hyperbolas
(f) Polar and cylindrical coordinates
• Curves in polar coordinates
• Curves in cylindrical coordinates
• Conversion between Cartesian, cylindrical and polar coordinates
2. Equations of motion

(a) Motion in a straight line

(b) Relative motion
(c) Connected bodies
• Vertical motion
• Horizontal motion

3. Friction, moments and couples

4. Statics of particles and rigid bodies
5. Centre of gravity
(a) Centre of gravity
(b) Centre of mass
(c) Centroid of a body
6. Frames of reference
(a) Frame of reference
(b) Inertial frames
7. Review and current trends in solving plane analytic geometry and applied mathematics
problems, and what to expect in advanced courses.

2
1 Plane Analytical Geometry
To understand the interdependence relations between physical quantities, we have to be able
to represent them by graphs. Analytic geometry provides a platform that connects geometric
curves and algebraic equations [1].
We start in Section 1.1 with the most fundamental concept, the distance formula, which
measures the shortest distance between two points in a plane. Notice in Figure 1 that the
shortest distance between the points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) along the X axis is simply the
value of the di↵erence (x2 x1 ) , and along the Y axis, the value of the di↵erence (y2 y1 ).

1.1 The distance formula

Figure 1: A simple illustration of a right angle triangle [2]

Recall from the Pythagoras’ theorem that the hypotenuse c is obtained from the relation
p
c = a2 + b 2 (1)
where a and b are the two sides of a right angled triangle. Substituting for a, b and c in
Figure 1, we have
p
d{(x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 )} = (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 ) 2 (2)

3
 Equation (2) is the simplest form of the distance formula, and can be generalized to higher
dimensions. Notice that the illustration in Figure 1 is 2 dimensional, and so is Equation
(2). For a 3 dimensional space, we have
p
d{(x1 , y1 , z1 ), (x2 , y2 , z2 )} = (x2 x1 )2 + (y2 y1 )2 + (z2 z2 )2 (3)

Example 1.1

The task is to find the distance between the points (2, 3) and (4, 5). Using equation (2),
with (x1 , y1 ) = (2, 3) and (x2 , y2 ) = (4, 5).
p
d{(4, 5), (2, 3)} = (4 2)2 + (5 3)2
p
= (2)2 + (2)2
p
= 4+4
p
= 8

Using equations (2) and (3) therefore, we can find the shortest distance between any two
points, respectively in 2 and 3 dimensions.

1.2 Gradient of a line

The gradient of a straight line is the ratio of its vertical to its horizontal changes. Conven-
tionally, y is considered to be a function of x. Also called the slope, the gradient measures
the amount of change in the Y direction due to some change in the X direction.

Example 1.2

Consider Figure 1. The gradient of the line joining the two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 )
(the hypotenuse) is given by the expression
y2 y1
Gradient = (4)
x2 x1

It is conventional to express the gradient by the variable m, and the changes x2 x1 and
y2 y1 , respectively in X and Y directions, by x and y 1 . Equation (4) thus becomes

y y2 y1
m= = (5)
x x2 x1
From Equation (5), we can deduce the equation of a straight line given its gradient and a
1
In calculus the symbol r usually represents gradient, or the shortest path down an inclination. , on
the other hand, usually represents a ”small” and arbitrary change in a variable, with respect to another.

4
point through which it passes. Consider that
y2 y1
m= (6)
x2 x1
y2 y1 = m ⇥ (x2 x1 ) (7)
y2 = m ⇥ (x2 x1 ) + y1 (8)
y2 = mx2 mx1 + y1 (9)
y2 = mx2 + (y1 mx1 ) (10)

Since y2 can be any value of y along the line, and in the same way x2 can be any x, Equation
(10) leads to the well known equation of a straight line,

y = mx + c (11)
where c = y1 mx1 , conventionally called the y intercept since at x = 0, the equation y = c
holds. Equation (5) is referred to as the point slope form of a straight line, while Equation
(11) is referred to as the slope intercept form of a straight line. The general form of a straight
line is the expression

Ax + By + C = 0 (12)
Setting either of x or y to 0 respectively yields the y or the x intercept. Notice also that
Equation (12) can be transformed to Equation (11) by simply diving the equation through
by B (show this!).

Example 1.3

The task is to find the slope and hence the equation of the line joining the points ( 3, 4)
and (2, 8).
Using Equation (5);

(x1 , y1 ) = ( 3, 4)
(x2 , y2 ) = (2, 8)
y2 y1
m=
x2 x1
8 4
=
2 3
4
=
5

5
 Now that we have the gradient m, we valuate for c, the y intercept.
✓ ◆
4
c=4 ⇥ ( 3)
5
12
=4+
5
32
=
5
We then make the appropriate substitution in Equation (11) to have

4 32
y = x+
5 5
We can then find the value of y given any x,

Remark 1.1
A positive gradient results when as the value of the independent variable increase, that
of the dependent increases. That is, x and y increase or decrease in the same direction.
The converse is also true, that a negative gradient occurs when the variables x and y
change in opposite directions - one decreases as the other increases and vise versa.

1.3 Inclination of a line

The inclination of a line is the angle it makes with the positive X axis. This angle is
commonly expressed as ✓ and can be obtained from the side dimensions of any right angled
triangle. Consider Figure 1 and recall from basic trigonometry that tan ✓ can be computed
as

Opposite (y2 y1 )
tan ✓ = = (13)
Adjacent (x2 x1 )
which implies that the inclination ✓ is the expression
✓ ◆
1 y2 y1
✓ = tan (14)
x2 x1
The inclination can fall into any of the four quadrants of a unit circle. The first quadrant
usually falls between 0 and 90 degrees, the second falls between 90 and 180 degrees, the third
between 180 and 270 degrees, and finally the fourth, between 270 and 360 degrees.
The quadrant to which ✓ falls depends on the signs of the numerator and denominator.
If using the tan function, for instance, and the numerator (y2 y1 ) is negative, then the
computation of ✓ falls on the lower two quadrants. Further if the denominator (x2 x1 ) is
negative, ✓ falls on the third quadrant. Its value is 180 + ✓ degrees.

6
Figure 2: An illustration of trigonometric quadrants of a unit circle. This diagram is posted
courtesy of [3]

For the first quadrant ✓ is taken as is, for the second, the inclination is 180 ✓. For the
third quadrant, the inclination is 180 + ✓ as seen, and finally for the fourth quadrant, the
inclination is 360 ✓.

Remark 1.2

The gradient m and tan ✓ are synonymous. Notice from Equations (5) and (13) that for
both the R.H.S is the ratio of (y2 y1 ) to (x2 x1 ). That is

(y2 y1 )
m = tan ✓ = (15)
(x2 x1 )

The following examples are posted courtesy of [3].

Example 1.4
1. A line has an inclination ✓ = 137 with the positive X axis. Determine its gradi-
ent.

m = tan ✓
= tan 137
= 0.933

7
 2. The task is to find the inclination of a line with gradient m = 2.

tan ✓ = 2
✓ = tan 1 2
= 63.43

1.4 Parallel and Perpendicular lines

1.4.1 Parallel lines
If a line say L1 and another line, say L2 have equal gradients m1 and m2 , then they are
parallel. Parallel lines are straight lines whose gradients are equal. Usually, such lines only
vary by size and the values of their y intercepts.

1.4.2 Perpendicular lines

The two lines L1 and L2 are perpendicular if the product of their gradients is 1. That
is, the condition m1 ⇥ m2 = 1 must be satisfied in order for two lines to be considered
perpendicular to one another.

Example 1.5

The line passing through the points ( 4, 8) and (4, 4) is parallel to the line that passes
through ( 8, 2) and (4, 8) since the gradient m1 ,
4 8
m1 =
4 ( 4)
1
=
2

and the gradient m2 ,

8 ( 2)
m2 =
4 ( 8)
1
=
2

are equal. A line that passes through the points ( 2, 3) and (4, 9) is perpendicular to
both lines since its gradient m3 = 2. That is, m1 ⇥ m2 = m1 ⇥ m3 = 1.

1.4.3 Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line

Let us consider Figure 3, and in it the lines L1 , L2 , L3 and L4 . Notice that line L1 is parallel
to L2 , and also that L3 and L4 are parallel.

8
 Taking the first line L1 , it can be shown from Equation 12 that
Ax + C
y= (16)
B
whence we deduce, given the general form of a straight line, that
A C
m= and c = (17)
B B
We seek the shortest distance from a point, say P , with coordinates (xp , yp ), along line
L3 to a point Q, say with coordinates (xq , yq ) on the line L1 with the general equation
Ax + By + C = 0.
We recall form Section 1.4.2 that if two lines are perpendicular, then the product of their
gradients is 1. Therefore line P Q along L3 and connecting points P and Q has gradient
B
m0 =
A
.
Line L2 is parallel to L1 . The two lines both have gradient m, given by Equation (17).
We consider point P = (xp , yp ) located along L2 and determine the general equation of L2
in the format of Equation (6);

Figure 3: An illustration of the shortest (perpendicular) distance from a point to a line.

This diagram is posted courtesy of [4]

9
 A y yp
= (18)
B x xp
A
y= (x xp ) + yp (19)
B
Ax + Axp + Byp
This leads to y = (20)
B
The line RS along L4 has exactly the same gradient (m0 ) as the line P Q. The line RS
also has length equal to that of the line P Q, so it is sufficient to determine the distance from
R to S.
Notice that RS goes through the origin (0, 0) and since it has gradient m0 , its equation
can be expressed in the format of Equation (6), where x, y can be any other point in the
line;

B y 0
= (21)
A x 0
y
= (22)
x
B
This leads to y = x (23)
A
Now, lines L2 and L4 meet at the point R. At this point, Equations (20) and (23) are equal:

Ax + Axp + Byp Bx
= (24)
B A
A2 x + A(Axp + Byp ) = B 2 x (25)
A(Axp + Byp ) = B 2 x + A2 x (26)
A(Axp + Byp ) = (A2 + B 2 )x (27)
A(Axp + Byp )
which leads to x = (28)
A2 + B 2
Substituting Equation (28) into (23);

B
y=x (29)
A✓ ◆
B A(Axp + Byp )
= (30)
A A2 + B 2
B(Axp + Byp )
This leads to y = (31)
A2 + B 2
The coordinates of the point R are therefore
✓ ◆
A(Axp + Byp ) B(Axp + Byp )
(xr , yr ) = , (32)
A2 + B 2 A2 + B 2

10
It remains to determine the coordinates of the point S = (xs , ys ), at which the lines L1 and
L4 meet. Their respective general forms are given by Equations (16) and (23). At point S,
lines L1 and L4 have the same representation, meaning that
Ax + C B
= x (33)
B A
(A2 x + AC) = B 2 x (34)
AC = B 2 x + A2 x (35)
AC
This leads to x = (36)
A + B2
2

which is the x ordinate of the point S, or xs . We substitute Equation (36) to (23) to have
the value of ys ;
B
y=
x (37)
A✓ ◆
B AC
= (38)
A B 2 + A2
BC
which yields y = (39)
B + A2
2

The coordinates of the point S are therefore

✓ ◆
AC BC
(xs , ys ) = , (40)
B + A2
2 A + B2
2

We now have the coordinates of the points R and S, and can use the distance formula
as expressed in Equation (2) to find the shortest length of the line RS connecting R and S,
and hence the shortest (perpendicular) distance between the point P and line L1 ;
p
d{(xr , yr ), (xs , ys )} = (xs xr )2 + (ys yr ) 2 (41)
Substituting Equations (32) and (40) into Equation (41);

11
 p
d{(xr , yr ), (xs , ys )} = (xs xr )2 + (ys yr ) 2 (42)
s✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
AC A(Axp + Byp ) BC B(Axp + Byp )
= +
B 2 + A2 A2 + B 2 A2 + B 2 A2 + B 2
(43)
s✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
AC + A(Axp + Byp ) BC + B(Axp + Byp )
= + (44)
A2 + B 2 A2 + B 2
s✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
A(Axp + Byp + C) B(Axp + Byp + C)
= + (45)
A2 + B 2 A2 + B 2
s
A2 (Axp + Byp + C)2 B 2 (Axp + Byp + C)2
= + (46)
(A2 + B 2 )2 (A2 + B 2 )2
s
(A2 + B 2 )(Axp + Byp + C)2
= (47)
(A2 + B 2 )2
s
(Axp + Byp + C)2
= (48)
(A2 + B 2 )
Axp + Byp + C
= p (49)
(A2 + B 2 )

We can now evaluate the shortest distance from the point P = (xp , yp ) to the point Q =
(xq , yq ) on the line L1 ;

Axp + Byp + C
d{(xp , yp ), (xq , yq )} = p (50)
(A2 + B 2 )

Example 1.6

The task is to evaluate the shortest (or perpendicular) distance from a point P = (2, 3)
to the line 5x+2y 4 = 0. To be able to use Equation (50), we first identify the variables
A, B, C, xp and yp . These are 5, 2, 4, 2 and 3 respectively. Substituting;

(5 ⇥ 2) + (2 ⇥ 3) + ( 4)
d{(2, 3), (xq , yq )} = p
(52 + 22 )
10 + 6 4)
= p
29
= 2.28 units

12
Assignment 1.1

1. Find the distance between the points (3, 2, 3) and (4, 1, 5).

2. Derive an expression for the distance formula for an n dimensional space and use
it to find the shortest distance between the points (2, 3, 5, 3, 3) and (3, 6, 1, 3, 1)

3. Given that the distance between the points (x, 0) and (0, y) is 10 units, and that
y = 2x, find the value of x.

4. Considering Figures 1 and 2, describe how one can obtain the angle of inclination
✓ from the other basic trigonometric expressions of sin ✓ and cos ✓.

5. Obtain the equation of a line L1 if it is perpendicular to another line L2 joining

the points ( 2, 2) and (4, 7). It is also known that L2 passes through the point
( 1, 3).

6. Given that the two lines 4x ky = 6 and 6x + 3y + 2 = 0 are perpendicular,

determine the value of k

7. Evaluate the length of the shortest distance between the point P = ( 3, 7) and
the line y = 65 x + 2

13
1.5 Conic sections
1.5.1 The Circle
A circle is a set of all points that are equidistant from a common point (centre) in a two
dimensional plane. The distance from the centre to each of these points is the radius of
the circle, conventionally denoted as r. If the centre of the circle
p is some point (h, k), then
the radius r to any point (x, y) can be determined as r = (x h)2 + (y k)2 . This is
according to the distance formula earlier discussed in Section 1.1. The equation of a circle
then follows;

r2 = (x h)2 + (y k)2 (51)

If the circle is centered at the origin (0, 0), then since h = 0 and k = 0 it is easy to see that
Equation 51 takes the form

r 2 = x2 + y 2 (52)

Example 1.7
To determine the equation of a circle whose diameter is positioned between the coordinate
points ( 1, 3) and (4, 6), we first find the centre of the circle, using the mid point formula.

Remark 1.3: The mid point formula

The mid point between the two points (x1 , y1 ) and (x2 , y2 ) is the point (xmid , ymid )
obtained as ✓ ◆
x1 + x2 y1 + y2
(xmid , ymid ) = , (53)
2 2

The centre of a circle whose diameter is positioned between the coordinate points ( 1, 3)
and (4, 6) is
✓ ◆
1+4 3+6
(h, k) = ,
2 2
✓ ◆
3 9
= ,
2 2
D
Notice that r = 2
, where D is the diameter of the circle determined using the distance
formula as

14
 p
D= (4 ( 1))2 + (6 3)2
p
= 52 + 3 2
p
= 34
Leading to
p
34
r=
2
The equation of the circle is obtained by substituting the values of r, h and k into
Equation (51).

p !2
34 3 2 9 2
= (x ) + (y )
2 2 2
or
2
(2x 3) + (2y 9)2 = 34

1.5.2 The Parabola

A parabola is the set of all points that are equidistant from a common point called the focus
and a fixed line called the directrix. The distance therefore, from any point (x, y) on the
parabola to the focus must be the same as the distance from this point to the directrix. The
mid point of shortest distance between the focus and the directrix is called the vertex.

Example 1.8

The task is to find the equation of a parabola with focus (2, 3) and directrix y = 1.
Recall that the shortest distance from any point (x, y) to the point (2, 3) (see Equation
(2)) is given by p
d{(2, 3), (x, y)} = (x 2)2 + (y 3)2
The directrix is the line y = 1, or the points (x, 1). The shortest distance from any
point (x, y) to this point is given by
p
d{(x, 1), (x, y)} = (x x)2 + (y ( 1))2
p
= (x x)2 + (y + 1)2

15
Figure 4: A diagram that shows the the foci, directrix, latus rectum and axis of symmetry
of a parabola. This diagram is posted courtesy of [5]

By definition, the focus and the directrix are equidistant from the point (x, y);
p p
(x 2)2 + (y 3)2 = (y + 1)2
or
(x 2) + (y 3)2 = (y + 1)2
2

or
2 2
x 4x + 4 + y 6y + 9 = y 2 + 2y + 1
or
2
(x 2) 8y + 9 1 = 0
or
2
(x 2) 8y + 8 = 0
1
leading to y = (x 2)2 + 1
8
The axis of symmetry is to be found in the line x = 2, that is, at the point where the

16
 term (x 2) = 0. At this point (vertex), the axis of symmetry intersects the parabola.
It easy to see that the vertex has the coordinates (2, 1) (show this !).

The standard equation of a parabola with vertex (x, y) = (h, k) is expressed as

y = a(x h)2 + k (54)

The axis of symmetry is the line x = h. The parabola opens upwards if a > 0 and downwards
if a < 0. The scalar a also determines the shape of the parabola and the distance between
the focus and the directrix. A line which goes through the focus and is perpendicular to the
axis of symmetry is called the latus rectum. This line has length | a1 | units.
If the axis of symmetry is horizontal, then Equation (54) changes form to

x = a(y k)2 + h (55)

with the vertex remaining as (x, y) = (h, k). The parabola opens rightwards if a > 0 and
to the left if a < 0. One other thing to note, in relation to a, is that the coordinates of the
focus and the directrix;

• If the axis of symmetry is the Y axis, then the focus has coordinates
1
(x, y) = (h, k + ) (56)
4a

• If the axis of symmetry is the X axis, then the focus has coordinates
1
(x, y) = (h + , k) (57)
4a

• If the axis of symmetry is the Y axis, then the directrix has coordinates
1
y=k (58)
4a

• If the axis of symmetry is the X axis, then the directrix has coordinates
1
x=h (59)
4a

Example 1.9

The task is to graph the equation 4x y 2 = 2y + 13. First Notice that the equation is of
the form x = f (y). Express the equation in its standard form by making x the subject

17
 of the formula;
1 13
x = (y 2 + 2y) +
4 4
Complete the square to have
✓ ◆2 ✓ ◆2
1 2 2 13 1 2
x = (y + 2y + )+
4 2 4 4 2
1 13 1
= (y + 1)2 +
4 4 4
1 2
= (y ( 1)) + 3
4
We therefore have a = 14 and the vertex as (h, k) = (3, 1) (see Equation (55)). The
directrix is obtained using Euation (59);
1
x=h
4a
1
=3
4( 14 )
=3 1
=2

Example 1.10

The task is to find the focus of the parabola y = 18 x2 . Notice that h = 0 and k = 0,
1
meaning that the vertex is at the origin. The coordinates of the focus are (h, k + 4a );

✓ ◆
1 1
(h, k + ) = 0, 1
4a 4⇥ 8
= (0, 2)

1.5.3 The Ellipse

An ellipse is the set of all points such that the sum of the distances from two points located
in a straight line is a constant. The two points are the foci of the ellipse.

Example 1.11

Consider an ellipse whose foci are located in the points ( 5, 0) and (5, 0). It is also given
that the sum of the distances from any point (x, y) to these points is 14 units. It is
required to find the equation of the ellipse.

18
 Using the distance formula to express this information;
p
d{( 5, 0), (x, y)} = (x ( 5))2 + (y 0)2
and
p
d{(x, y), (5, 0)} = (5 x)2 + (0 y)2

For an ellipse, the sum of the two distances is a constant, here given as 14;

p p
(x ( 5))2 + (y 0)2 + (5 x)2 + (0 y)2 = 14
or
p p
(x + 5)2 + y 2 = 14 (5 x)2 + y 2
Square both sides to have
p
(x + 5)2 + y 2 = 196 28 (5 x)2 + y 2 + (5 x)2 + y 2
or
p
(x + 5)2 = 196 28 (5 x)2 + y 2 + (5 x)2
or
p
x2 + 10x + 25 = 196 28 (5 x)2 + y 2 + x2 10x + 25
or
p
x2 + 10x = 196 28 (5 x)2 + y 2 + x2 10x
or
p
20x 196 = 28 (5 x)2 + y 2
or
p
5x 49 = 7 (5 x)2 + y 2
Square both sides to have
25x2 490x + 2401 = 49(x2 10x + 25 + y 2 )
or
2
24x 49y 2 = 49(25 49) = 49 ⇥ 24
This leads to
x2 y 2
+ =1
49 24
which is the required equation.

Every ellipse has two axes of symmetry, respectively called the major and the minor axes.
The foci of the ellipse are found in the major axis, as illustrated in Figure 5. The endpoints
of the major axis are the vertices of the ellipse, while the endpoints of the minor axis are
the covertices. The two axes meet at the centre of the ellipse.

19
Figure 5: An illustration of the center, the major, minor axes of an ellipse, its vertices,
covertices and foci. This diagram is posted courtesy of [6]

The standard from of an ellipse centered at the origin (0, 0) is the equation
x2 y 2
+ 2 =1 (60)
a2 b
where a > b. The length of the major axis is 2a and that of the minor axis is 2b. The
coordinates of the vertices are ( a, 0) and (a, 0), while the covertices are located at the
points ( b, 0) and (b, 0). The coordinates of the foci are ( c, 0) and (c, 0) (see Figure 6),
where
c 2 = a2 b 2 (61)
For an ellipse not centered at the origin, the standard form in Equation (60) changes to
(x h)2 (y k)2
+ =1 (62)
a2 b2
where the point (x, y) = (h, k) is the non-origin centre. The coordinates of the foci are
respectively (h c, k) and (h+c, k). For cases where the major axis is along the Y direction,
parallel to the Y axis, the standard equation will take the form
(x h)2 (y k)2
+ =1 (63)
b2 a2
The coordinates of the foci are respectively (h, k c) and (h, k + c).

Example 1.12

The task is to determine the equation of an ellipse whose vertices are ( 1, 1) and ( 1, 9),
and whose foci are given as ( 1, 3) and ( 1, 7). First notice that the major axis is in
the Y direction, parallel to the Y axis. The standard equation will therefore take the

20
Figure 6: A diagram that shows the coordinates of the center, the major, minor axes of an
ellipse, its vertices, covertices and foci relative to any point (x, y). This diagram is posted
courtesy of [6]

form
(x ( 1))2 (y 5)2
+ =1 (64)
b2 a2
The centre of the ellipse has the coordinates
✓ ◆
( 1 + 1) (1 + 9)
(xmid , ymid ) = ,
2 2
= ( 1, 5)

where (xmid , ymid ) is the mid point of the major axis, and therefore is the center of the
ellipse. Therefore, the coordinates of the foci are respectively ( 1, 5 c) and ( 1, 5 + c).
Next is to evaluate for c. Using any of the two foci ( 1, 3) and ( 1, 7);

( 1, 5 c) = ( 1, 3)
5 c=3
or
c=5 3=2

Recall that the length of the major axis is 2a units. Considering the vertices ( 1, 1) and

21
 ( 1, 9) have

2a = 9 1
=8
or
a=4

Knowing a, the value of b can be obtained using Equation (61);

p
b = a2 c 2
p
= 42 22
p
= 12

The required equation in the form of Equation (60) is

x2 y 2
+ =1
12 16

1.5.4 The Hyperbola

1.6 Polar and cylindrical Coordinates

• Curves in Polar Coordinates

• Curves in Cylindrical Coordinates

Assignment 1.2
1. Find the centre and radius of the circles described by the equations

(a) x2 + y 2 = 49
(b) x2 + y 2 4x + 8y = 0

2. Identify the axis, vertex and the direction to which the parabola y = 3x2 +24x+50
opens.

3. Write the equation 8y 2x2 = 4x + 9 in standard form, hence identify the axis,
vertex and the direction to which the parabola opens.

4. Graph and determine the latus rectum for each of the parabolas described in Ques-
tions (2) and (3) above.

5. Obtain the standard form of the equation of an ellipse that has the vertices ( 2, 8)
and ( 2, 2), and foci ( 2, 7) and ( 2, 1).

22