DM Aprt-A Full

UNIT-1 PROPOSITIONS
Definition
A proposition (statement) is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both.
Definition :Compound propositions :
Many mathematical statements are constructed by combining one or more propositions, new propositions,
called compound propositions, are formed from existing propositions using logical operators.
Definition: Truth Table
A table, giving the truth values of a compound statement interms of its component parts, is called a "Truth
table'.
Definition: Negation [┐ or ~] [Not]
The negation of a statement is generally formed by introducing the word 'not' at a proper place in the
statement.
Table 1
Definition: Conjunction [^] [AND]
The conjunction of two statements P and Q is the statement P ˄Q which is read as "P and Q". The statement
P˄Q has the truth value T whenever both P and Q have the truth value T; otherwise it has the truth value F.
Table 2
Definition: Disjunction [V] [or]
The disjunction of two statements P and Q is the statement PVQ which is read as "P or Q".The statement PVQ
has the truth value F only when both P and Q have the truth value F; otherwise it is true.
Table 3
Conditional Statement: [If, ... then] [→]

If P and Q are any two statements, then the statement P→ Q which is read as "If P, then Q" is called a
conditional statement.The statement P→ Q has a truth value F when Q has the truth value F and P the truth value T,
otherwise it has the truth value T.
Biconditional [equivalence] statement [<->] [if and only if]
If P and Q are any two statements, then the statement P <-> Q, which is read as, "P if and only if Q" and
abbreviated as "P iff Q", is called a biconditional statement.
The statement P <-> Q has the truth value T whenever both P and Q have identical truth values.
Exclusive or of P and Q [P ⊕ Q]
Let P and Q be propositions. The exclusive or of P and Q, denoted by P ⊕Q, is the proposition that is true when
exactly one of P and Q is true and is false otherwise.
Table 6
Contrapositive
If P→ Q is an implication, then the converse of P→ Q is the implication Q→ P, and the contrapositive of P→ Q is
the implication ┐Q → ┐P.
Example 1: Give the converse and the contrapositive of the implication "If it is raining, then I get wet".
[A.U. April/May, 2004]
Solution : P: It is raining.
Q: I get wet.
Q→ P: (converse) If I get wet, then it is raining.
┐Q→ ┐P: (contrapositive) If I do not get wet, then it is not raining.
Example 3: State the truth value of "If tigers have wings then the earth travels round the sun".
Solution: Let P: Tigers have wings "F"
Q: The earth travels round the sun "F". The given statement is P → Q, has the truth value "T"
Example 4: Write the following statement in symbolic form
"You cannot ride the roller coaster if you are under 4 feet tall unless you are older than 16 years old".
Solution: Let
a: You can ride the roller coaster
b: You are under 4 feet tall
c: You are older than 16 years old.
Then the sentence can be translated to
(b˄┐c) → a
Example 1: Construct the truth table for P˄┐P
Solution :
Example 2: Construct the truth table for P c ┐P
Solution :
Example 3 : Construct the truth table for P ˄ P.
Solution :
Example 4: Construct the truth table for PV P
Solution :
Example 5: Construct the truth table for ┐┐P
Solution :
Example 6: Construct the truth table for ┐P˄Q
Solution: Since there are two variables, therefore there are 2 2 possible truth values.
Example 7: Construct the truth table for PV ┐Q [MCA 1995, M.U]
Solution :
Example 8: Construct the truth table for P˄ (P v Q) [M.C.A] [M.U. 94]
Solution :
Example 9: Construct the truth table for (P v Q) v ┐P [M.C.A] [M.U.94]
Solution :
Tautology:
A statement that is true for all possible values of its propositional variables is called a tautology or universally valid
formula or a logical truth.
Contradiction
A statement that is always false is called a contradiction or absurdity.
Example 1: Show that P V ┐P is a tautology.
Solution :
In the resulting column all the entries are T. Therefore Pv┐P is a tautology.
Example 2: Show that PP is a contradiction.
Solution :
In the resulting column all the entries are F. Therefore PAP is a contradiction.
Tautological Implications
A statement A is said to tautologically imply a statement B if and only if A → B is a tautology. In this case, we write
A ⇒ B, read as "A implies B".
Example 7: Show that (P^Q) → (P v Q) is a tautology.
Solution :
Example 8 : Show that (P V Q) Ʌ ┐P ↔ ┐P ^ Q.
Solution :
Example 9: Show that (PVQ) Ʌ (┐P^(┐P^Q)) ↔ (┐P^Q) [MCA, M.U May, 1995]
Solution :
Example 10: Show that ((P v Q) ^ ┐ (┐P ^ (┐Q v ┐R))) V (┐P ^ ┐Q) v (┐P^┐R) is a tautology.
Solution :
┐P ^ ┐Q ↔ ┐(P v Q) De Morgan's law
┐P ^ ┐R ↔ ┐(P v R) De Morgan's law
(i) (┐P ^ ┐Q) v (┐P^┐R) ↔ ┐(P v Q) v ┐(P v R) ↔ ┐((P v Q) ^ (P v R)) De Morgan's law
Also
(ii) ┐ (┐P ^ (┐Q v ┐R))
┐ (┐P v ┐(Q v R)) De Morgan's law
P v (Q ^ R) since ┐(P ^ R) ↔ ┐P v ┐R
(P v Q) ^ (P v R) Distributive law
from (i) and (ii) we get
((P v Q) ^ (P v R) v ┐((P v Q) ^ (P v R))
↔T [P v ┐P↔ T]
Tautological Implications
A statement A is said to tautologically imply a statement B if and only if AB is a tautology. In this case, we write A ↔
B, read as "A implies B".
Example 1: Show that (P ^ Q) => (P Q).
Solution To prove (P ^ Q) → (P → Q) is a tautology.
Example 2: Show the following implication P⇒ (Q→P)
Solution : To prove P→ (Q→P) is a tautology.
Theorem 1 : If H1, H2, … Hm and P imply Q, then H1, H2 ... Hm imply P → Q
Proof: Given (H1 ^ H2 ^ ... ^ Hm ^ P) ⇒ Q
(i.e.,) (Н1 ^ Н2 ^ … ^ Hm ^ P)→ Q is a tautology.
↔ (Н1 ^ Н2 ^ … Ʌ Hm) → (P→Q) is also a tautology.
since (P^Q) → R ↔ P→ (Q → R)
(Н1 ^ Н2 ^ ... ^ Hm) ↔ (P → Q)
Example 2 : Show that A↔B if and only if A* ↔ B*
Solution: Let A (P1, P2, …. Pn) ↔ B (P1, P2, ... Pn)
Then A(P1, P2, … Pn) ↔ B (P1, P2, ... Pn) is a tautology.
A (┐P1, ┐P2, ... ┐Pn) ↔ B (┐P1, ┐P2, ... ┐Pn) is a tautology.
By duality principle theorem
┐A* (P1, P2, …. Pn) ↔ ┐B* (P1, P2, ... Pn) is a tautology.
┐A*↔ ┐B*.Hence A* ↔ B*.
Example 1: Write an equivalent formula for P Ʌ (Q↔R) V (R↔P) which does not contain the biconditional.
Solution :
P Ʌ (Q↔R) V (R ↔P)↔P Ʌ ((Q→R) Ʌ (R→ Q)) V ((R→P) Ʌ (P→ R))
Thus the equivalent formula is
P Ʌ ((Q→R) Ʌ (R →Q)) V ((R→P) Ʌ (P→R))
Example 2: Write an equivalent formula for P Ʌ (Q↔R) which contains neither the biconditional nor the conditional.
Solution : P Ʌ (Q↔R) P Ʌ ((Q→R) Ʌ (R →Q))
↔P Ʌ ((┐Q V R) Ʌ (┐R v Q))
Thus the required formula is P Ʌ ((┐Q V R) Ʌ (┐R v Q))
Example 3 : Prove that {┐, v} is a functionally complete set of connectives.

Solution: To prove {┐, v} is a functionally complete set of coɅectives, we have to show for all formulas with other
coɅectives, there exists a equivalent formula which contains ┐ and V only.
Example 4: Show that {V, A} is not functionally complete. [A.U. N/D 2004]
Solution : ┐ caɅot be expressed using the connectives {V, Ʌ }. Since no such contribution of statement exist with {V, Ʌ }
as input is T and the output is F.
NORMAL FORMS
-Principal conjunctive and disjunctive normal forms
Definition: Elementary product
A product of the variables and their negations in a formula is called an elementary product. (product means
conjunction).
Example: Let P and Q be any two atomic variables. Then P, ┐P^Q, ┐Q^P, P^┐P and Q^┐P are elementary
products.
Definition: Elementary sum
A sum of the variables and their negations in a formula is called an elementary sum. (Sum means disjunction).
Example: Let P and Q be any two variables. Then P, ┐PVQ, ┐QVP, PV┐P and QV┐P are elementary sums.
Definition: Factor
Any part of an elementary product or elementary sum, which is itself an elementary product of sum is a factor
of the product or sum.
Example: Q v P is a factor of ┐QvQVP
Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF)
Definition
A formula which is equivalent to a given formula and which consists of a sum of elementary products is called
a disjunctive normal form (DNF) of the given formula.
Procedure to obtain DNF
1. An equivalent formula can be obtained by replacing → and ↔ with ^, V and ┐.
2. Apply negation to the formula or to a part of the formula and not to the variables.
3. Using DeMorgan's law, apply negation to variables.
4. Repeated application of distributive laws will give the required DNF.
Example 1: Obtain disjunctive normal forms of P ^ (P → Q)"
Solution Let S ↔ P^(P→Q)
↔ P ^ (┐PVQ) [ P→Q ↔ ┐PVQ]
↔ (P^┐P) V (PɅQ)
[by distributive law]
Example 7: Obtain the disjunctive normal form of (┐P v ┐Q) → (┐P ^ R).
Solution: (┐P v ┐Q) → (┐P ^ R) Reasons
↔ (┐P v ┐Q) v (┐P ^ R) since P→ Q ↔ ┐P V Q
↔ (P ^ Q) v (┐P ^ R) De Morgan law
which is the required DNF
Example 8: Obtain the disjunctive normal form of (┐P→ ┐Q) v (P↓ Q)
Solution (┐P→ ┐Q) v (P↓ Q) Reasons
↔ (P v ┐Q) v (P v Q) (P → Q) ↔ ┐P v Q
(P↓ Q) ↔ ┐ (P v Q)
↔ ┐ (┐P ^ Q) v (┐P ^ ┐Q) De Morgan law
which is the required DNF.
Conjunctive Normal Form :
A formula. which is equivalent to a given formula and which consists of a product of elementary sums is called
a conjunctive normal form of the given formula.
Example 1: Obtain a conjunctive normal form of P Ʌ (P→Q).
Solution : P Ʌ (P→Q) Reason
↔ P Ʌ ( ┐P v Q)
which is in CNF as P, ┐P v Q are elementary sums.
Example 2: Obtain a conjunctive normal form of ┐ (PVQ) ↔ (P^Q).
Solution: ┐(P v Q) ↔ (P Ʌ Q) Reasons
↔ (┐(P v Q) → (P Ʌ Q)) Ʌ ((P Ʌ Q) → ┐(P v Q)) R ↔ S ↔ (R→ S) ^ (S→R)
↔ (P V Q) V (P Ʌ Q) Ʌ ┐ (P ^ Q) v ┐(P V Q) R→S ↔ ┐RVS
↔ P v Q v (P ^ Q) ^ (┐P v ┐Q v (┐ P ^ ┐Q)) De Morgan's law
↔ (P v Q v P) ^ (P v Q v Q) ^ (┐P v ┐Q v ┐P) ^ (┐P v ┐Q v ┐Q) using distributive law
This is the required CNF, as each of P v Q v P, ┐P v ┐Q v ┐P, ┐P v ┐Q v ┐Q is an elementary sum.
Example 3: Obtain a CNF for Q V (P Ʌ ┐Q) V (┐P ^ ┐Q)
Solution :
Q V (P Ʌ ┐Q) V (┐P Ʌ ┐Q) Reasons
↔ (Q V ((P V ┐P) ┐Q) (P Ʌ ┐Q) V (┐P ^ ┐Q) ↔ (P V ┐P) Ʌ ┐Q) distributive law
↔ (Q V (P V ┐P)) Ʌ (Q v ┐Q) distributive law
↔ (Q V (P V ┐P) Ʌ (Q v ┐Q)
This is a CNF, as Q V P V ┐P, Q v ┐Q are elementary sums.
Example 4: Obtain a CNF for (P → (Q^R)) ^ (┐P → ┐Q ^ ┐R)) [A.U N/D 2003]
Solution : (P→(Q^R)) ^ (┐P → ┐Q ^ ┐R)) Reasons
↔ (┐P v (Q^R)) ^ (P v (┐Q ^ ┐R)) P→R ↔ ┐PVR
↔ ((┐P v Q)^( ┐PVR))^((P v ┐Q)^(P V┐R)) distributive law
This is a CNF, as it is a product of elementary sums.
Example 5: Obtain a conjunctive normal form of the formula.P → ((P →Q) ^ ┐(┐Q v ┐P))
Solution :
P → ((P → Q) ^ ┐ (┐Q v ┐P)) Reasons
↔ ┐P v ((P → Q) ^ ┐(┐Q v ┐P)) P→R ↔ ┐PVR
↔ ┐P v ((┐P v Q) ^ ┐(┐Q v ┐P)) P→R ↔ ┐PVR
↔ ┐P v ((┐P v Q) ^ (Q ^ P)) De Morgan's law
↔ (┐P v (┐P v Q)) ^ ((┐P v (Q ^ P))) Distributive law
↔ ((┐P v ┐P ) v Q) ^ ((┐P v Q )^ (┐P v P)) associative law
↔ (┐P v Q) ^ (┐P v Q) ^ T Negation law
↔ (┐P v Q) ^ (┐P v Q) identity law
Example 6: Find a conjunctive normal of (Q V (P Ʌ R)) ^ ┐ ((P v R) ^ Q)
Solution :
(Q V (P Ʌ R)) ^ ┐ ((P v R) ^ Q) Reasons

↔ (Q V (P Ʌ R)) ^ (┐(P v R) v ┐Q) De Morgan's law
↔ (Q V (P Ʌ R)) ^ ((┐(P Ʌ ┐R) v ┐Q) De Morgan's law
↔ (Q V P) Ʌ (Q v R) ^ (┐P v ┐Q) ^ (┐R v ┐Q) Distributive law
Example 7: Show that the formula Q Ʌ (P Ʌ ┐Q) V (┐P Ʌ ┐Q) is a tautology, by obtaining a conjunctive normal form, of
the formula :
Solution: We first obtain a CNF of the given formula
Q Ʌ (P Ʌ ┐Q) V (┐P Ʌ ┐Q)
Q v ((P v ┐P) Ʌ ┐Q using the distributive law
(Q v (P v ┐P)) ^ (Q v ┐Q) again by distributive law
(Q v P v ┐P) ^ (Q v ┐Q)
This is a CNF, as Q v P V ┐P, Q V ┐Q are elementary sums.
A CNF is identically true (i.e.,) a tautology.
Min terms
Let P and Q be two statement variables. Construct all possible formula which consist of conjunctions of P or its
negation and conjuctions of Q or its negation. None of the formula should contain both a variable and its negation.
Delete a formula if it is the commutative of any one of the remaining formulae. Such conjunctions of P and Q are called
the min terms of P and Q.
Example :
Minterms of P and Q are PɅQ, PɅ┐Q, ┐PɅQ and ┐PɅ┐Q
Note:
(i) PɅQ or QɅP is included but not both. (ii) PɅ┐P and QɅ┐Q are not allowed.
(iii) No two minterms are equivalent. (iv) Each minterm has the truth value T for exactly one combination of the truth
values of the variables P and Q.
Minterms of P and Q.
Principal Disjunctive Normal Form (PDNF)
The sum of products normal form
A formula which is equivalent to a given formula and which consists of sum of its min terms is called "principal
disjunctive normal form" (or) "sum of product of canonical form" of the given formula. Construction of PDNF without
truth tables:
(i) to replace conditionals and biconditionals by their equivalent formula involving Ʌ, V, ┐only.
(ii) to use De Morgan's laws and distributive laws.
(iii) to drop any elementary product which is a contradiction.
(iv) to obtain minterms in the disjunctions by introducing missing factors.
(v) to delete identical minterms keeping only one, that appear in the disjunctions.
Maxterms
For a given number of variables, the maxterm consists of disjunctions in which each variable or its negation,
but not both, appears only once.
Maxterms of P and Q.
Principal Conjunctive Normal Form (or) Product - of - sums canonical form
An equivalent formula consisting of conjunctions of max terms only is known as its principal conjunctive
normal form or the product-of-sums canonical form.
Example 1. Obtain the principal disjunctive normal form of
┐PVQ (or) P→ Q. Also find p.c.n.f
Solution: Let S ↔ ┐PVQ
Method 1. Truth table method
S ↔ (P^Q) V (┐P^Q) V (┐P^┐Q) [(p.d.n.f) = disjunctions of minterms]
S ↔ ┐PVQ [p.c.n.f = conjunction of maxterms]
Method 2:
Let S ↔ ┐PVQ
↔ (┐P Ʌ T) V (Q Ʌ T) PɅT ↔ P, ┐PɅT ↔ ┐P, QɅT ↔ Q
↔ [┐P Ʌ (Q V ┐Q)] V [Q Ʌ (P V ┐P)] QV┐Q ↔ T, PV┐P ↔ T
↔ [(┐PɅQ) V (┐PɅ┐Q)] V [(QɅP) V (QɅ┐P)] distributive law.
↔ (┐PɅQ) V (┐PɅ┐Q) V (QɅP) V (QɅ┐P)
↔ (┐PɅQ) V (┐PɅ┐Q) V (QɅP) ┐PɅQ ↔ QɅ┐P
S ↔ (┐PɅQ) V (┐PɅ┐Q) V (PɅQ) p.d.n.f PɅQ ↔ QɅP
Here we have used 3 minterms out of 4 to form p.d.n.f
The minterms of P and Q are
P^Q, P^┐Q, ┐P^Q, ┐P^┐Q . Here P^Q, ┐P^Q, ┐P^┐Q are in S.
┐S is nothing but the remaining minterms.
┐S ↔ PɅ┐Q
┐(┐S) ↔ ┐PVQ [Apply duality principle]
i.e., S ↔ ┐PVQ [p.c.n.f]
Example 2. Obtain the pdnf of P ↔ Q. Also find pcnf.
Solution: Let S ↔ P ↔ Q
Method 1. Truth table

S ↔ (PɅQ) V (┐PɅ┐Q) pdnf by using minterms
S ↔ (┐P V Q) Ʌ (P V ┐Q) pcnf by using maxterms.
┐(┐S) ↔ Apply duality principle to ┐S
S ↔ (PV┐Q) ^ (┐PVQ) (pcnf)
Example 6. Obtain the pcnf and pdnf for PɅ(P→Q)
Solution: Method 1. Truth table
Pdnf = PɅQ by using minterms
Pcnf = (┐PVQ) Ʌ (PV┐Q) Ʌ (PVQ) by using maxterms.
Example 7. Obtain the principal disjunctive and conjuctive normal forms [P→ (QɅR)] ^ [┐P → (┐Q^┐R)]
Solution :
Let S ↔ [P→ (QɅR)] ^ [┐P → (┐Q^┐R)]
A ↔ P→ (QɅR)
B ↔ ┐Q ^ ┐R
C ↔ ┐P → (┐Q^R)]
i.e., ↔ A ^ C
Pdnf = (PɅQɅR) v [┐P ^ ┐Q ^ ┐R)] by using minterms
Pcnf = (┐P v ┐Q v R) ^ (┐P v Q v ┐R) ^ (P v ┐Q v ┐R) ^ (┐P v Q v R) ^ (P v ┐Q v R) ^ (P v Q v ┐R) by using maxterms.
Normal Forms: Order, Uniqueness
Normal forms: PCNF, PDNF are unique except for the rearrangements of the factors in the disjunctions / conjunctions
as well as in each of the minterms / maxterms.
NORMAL FORMS
-Principal conjunctive and disjunctive normal forms
Definition: Elementary product

A product of the variables and their negations in a formula is called an elementary product. (product means
conjunction).
Example: Let P and Q be any two atomic variables. Then P, ┐P^Q, ┐Q^P, P^┐P and Q^┐P are elementary products.
Definition: Elementary sum
A sum of the variables and their negations in a formula is called an elementary sum. (Sum means disjunction).
Example: Let P and Q be any two variables. Then P, ┐PVQ, ┐QVP, PV┐P and QV┐P are elementary sums.
Definition: Factor
Any part of an elementary product or elementary sum, which is itself an elementary product of sum is a factor
of the product or sum.
Example: Q v P is a factor of ┐Qv QVP
Disjunctive Normal Form (DNF)
Definition: A formula which is equivalent to a given formula and which consists of a sum of elementary products
is called a disjunctive normal form (DNF) of the given formula.
Procedure to obtain DNF
1. An equivalent formula can be obtained by replacing → and ↔ with ^, V and ┐.
2. Apply negation to the formula or to a part of the formula and not to the variables.
3. Using DeMorgan's law, apply negation to variables.
4. Repeated application of distributive laws will give the required DNF.
Example 1: Obtain disjunctive normal forms of P ^ (P → Q)"
Solution: Let S ↔ P^(P→Q)
↔ P ^ (┐PVQ) [ P→Q ↔ ┐PVQ]
↔ (P^┐P) V (PɅQ)
[by distributive law]
Example 7: Obtain the disjunctive normal form of (┐P v ┐Q) → (┐P ^ R).
Solution: (┐P v ┐Q) → (┐P ^ R) Reasons
↔ (┐P v ┐Q) v (┐P ^ R) since P→ Q ↔ ┐P V Q
↔ (P ^ Q) v (┐P ^ R) De Morgan law. which is the required DNF
Example 8: Obtain the disjunctive normal form of (┐P→ ┐Q) v (P↓ Q)
Solution (┐P→ ┐Q) v (P↓ Q) Reasons
↔ (P v ┐Q) v (P v Q) (P → Q) ↔ ┐P v Q (P↓ Q) ↔ ┐ (P v Q)
↔ ┐ (┐P ^ Q) v (┐P ^ ┐Q) De Morgan law. which is the required DNF.
Conjunctive Normal Form :
A formula. which is equivalent to a given formula and which consists of a product of elementary sums is called a
conjunctive normal form of the given formula.
Example 1: Obtain a conjunctive normal form of P Ʌ (P→Q).
Solution : P Ʌ (P→Q) Reason ↔ P Ʌ ( ┐P v Q)
which is in CNF as P, ┐P v Q are elementary sums.
Example 2: Obtain a conjunctive normal form of ┐ (PVQ) ↔ (P^Q).
Solution: ┐(P v Q) ↔ (P Ʌ Q) Reasons
↔ (┐(P v Q) → (P Ʌ Q)) Ʌ ((P Ʌ Q) → ┐(P v Q)) R ↔ S ↔ (R→ S) ^ (S→R)
↔ (P V Q) V (P Ʌ Q) Ʌ ┐ (P ^ Q) v ┐(P V Q) R→S ↔ ┐RVS

↔ P v Q v (P ^ Q) ^ (┐P v ┐Q v (┐ P ^ ┐Q)) De Morgan's law
↔ (P v Q v P) ^ (P v Q v Q) ^ (┐P v ┐Q v ┐P) ^ (┐P v ┐Q v ┐Q) using distributive law
This is the required CNF, as each of P v Q v P, ┐P v ┐Q v ┐P, ┐P v ┐Q v ┐Q is an elementary sum.
Example 3: Obtain a CNF for Q V (P Ʌ ┐Q) V (┐P ^ ┐Q)
Solution :
Q V (P Ʌ ┐Q) V (┐P Ʌ ┐Q) Reasons
↔ (Q V ((P V ┐P) ┐Q) (P Ʌ ┐Q) V (┐P ^ ┐Q) ↔ (P V ┐P) Ʌ ┐Q) distributive law
↔ (Q V (P V ┐P)) Ʌ (Q v ┐Q) distributive law
↔ (Q V (P V ┐P) Ʌ (Q v ┐Q)
This is a CNF, as Q V P V ┐P, Q v ┐Q are elementary sums.
Example 4: Obtain a CNF for (P → (Q^R)) ^ (┐P → ┐Q ^ ┐R)) [A.U N/D 2003]
Solution : (P→(Q^R)) ^ (┐P → ┐Q ^ ┐R)) Reasons
↔ (┐P v (Q^R)) ^ (P v (┐Q ^ ┐R)) P→R ↔ ┐PVR
↔ ((┐P v Q)^( ┐PVR))^((P v ┐Q)^(P V┐R)) distributive law
Example 5: Obtain a conjunctive normal form of the formula.
P → ((P →Q) ^ ┐(┐Q v ┐P)) [A.U N/D 2003]
Solution :
P → ((P → Q) ^ ┐ (┐Q v ┐P)) Reasons
↔ ┐P v ((P → Q) ^ ┐(┐Q v ┐P)) P→R ↔ ┐PVR
↔ ┐P v ((┐P v Q) ^ ┐(┐Q v ┐P)) P→R ↔ ┐PVR
↔ ┐P v ((┐P v Q) ^ (Q ^ P)) De Morgan's law
↔ (┐P v (┐P v Q)) ^ ((┐P v (Q ^ P))) Distributive law
↔ ((┐P v ┐P ) v Q) ^ ((┐P v Q )^ (┐P v P)) associative law
↔ (┐P v Q) ^ (┐P v Q) ^ T Negation law
↔ (┐P v Q) ^ (┐P v Q) identity law
Example 6: Find a conjunctive normal of (Q V (P Ʌ R)) ^ ┐ ((P v R) ^ Q)
Solution :
(Q V (P Ʌ R)) ^ ┐ ((P v R) ^ Q) Reasons
↔ (Q V (P Ʌ R)) ^ (┐(P v R) v ┐Q) De Morgan's law
↔ (Q V (P Ʌ R)) ^ ((┐(P Ʌ ┐R) v ┐Q) De Morgan's law
↔ (Q V P) Ʌ (Q v R) ^ (┐P v ┐Q) ^ (┐R v ┐Q) Distributive law
Example 7: Show that the formula Q Ʌ (P Ʌ ┐Q) V (┐P Ʌ ┐Q) is a tautology, by obtaining a conjunctive normal form, of
the formula :
Solution: We first obtain a CNF of the given formula
Q Ʌ (P Ʌ ┐Q) V (┐P Ʌ ┐Q)
Q v ((P v ┐P) Ʌ ┐Q using the distributive law
(Q v (P v ┐P)) ^ (Q v ┐Q) again by distributive law
(Q v P v ┐P) ^ (Q v ┐Q)
This is a CNF, as Q v P V ┐P, Q V ┐Q are elementary sums.
A CNF is identically true (i.e.,) a tautology.
Min terms
Let P and Q be two statement variables. Construct all possible formula which consist of conjunctions of P or its
negation and conjuctions of Q or its negation. None of the formula should contain both a variable and its negation.
Delete a formula if it is the commutative of any one of the remaining formulae. Such conjunctions of P and Q are called
the min terms of P and Q.
Example :
Minterms of P and Q are PɅQ, PɅ┐Q, ┐PɅQ and ┐PɅ┐Q
Note:
(i) PɅQ or QɅP is included but not both.
(ii) PɅ┐P and QɅ┐Q are not allowed.
(iii) No two minterms are equivalent.
(iv) Each minterm has the truth value T for exactly one combination of the truth values of the variables P and Q.
Minterms of P and Q.
Principal Disjunctive Normal Form (PDNF)
The sum of products normal form
A formula which is equivalent to a given formula and which consists of sum of its min terms is called "principal
disjunctive normal form" (or) "sum of product of canonical form" of the given formula. Construction of PDNF without
truth tables:
(i) to replace conditionals and biconditionals by their equivalent formula involving Ʌ, V, ┐only.
(ii) to use De Morgan's laws and distributive laws.
(iii) to drop any elementary product which is a contradiction.
(iv) to obtain minterms in the disjunctions by introducing missing factors.
(v) to delete identical minterms keeping only one, that appear in the disjunctions.
Maxterms
For a given number of variables, the maxterm consists of disjunctions in which each variable or its negation, but not
both, appears only once.
Maxterms of P and Q.
Principal Conjunctive Normal Form (or) Product - of - sums canonical form
An equivalent formula consisting of conjunctions of max terms only is known as its principal conjunctive
normal form or the product-of-sums canonical form.
Example 1. Obtain the principal disjunctive normal form of

┐PVQ (or) P→ Q. Also find p.c.n.f
Solution: Let S ↔ ┐PVQ
Method 1. Truth table method
S ↔ (P^Q) V (┐P^Q) V (┐P^┐Q) [(p.d.n.f) = disjunctions of minterms]
S ↔ ┐PVQ [p.c.n.f = conjunction of maxterms]
Method 2:
Let S ↔ ┐PVQ
↔ (┐P Ʌ T) V (Q Ʌ T) PɅT ↔ P, ┐PɅT ↔ ┐P, QɅT ↔ Q
↔ [┐P Ʌ (Q V ┐Q)] V [Q Ʌ (P V ┐P)] QV┐Q ↔ T, PV┐P ↔ T
↔ [(┐PɅQ) V (┐PɅ┐Q)] V [(QɅP) V (QɅ┐P)] distributive law.
↔ (┐PɅQ) V (┐PɅ┐Q) V (QɅP) V (QɅ┐P)
↔ (┐PɅQ) V (┐PɅ┐Q) V (QɅP) ┐PɅQ ↔ QɅ┐P
S ↔ (┐PɅQ) V (┐PɅ┐Q) V (PɅQ) p.d.n.f PɅQ ↔ QɅP
Here we have used 3 minterms out of 4 to form p.d.n.f
The minterms of P and Q are P^Q, P^┐Q, ┐P^Q, ┐P^┐Q
Here P^Q, ┐P^Q, ┐P^┐Q are in S.
┐S is nothing but the remaining minterms.
┐S ↔ PɅ┐Q
┐(┐S) ↔ ┐PVQ [Apply duality principle]
i.e., S ↔ ┐PVQ [p.c.n.f]
Example 2. Obtain the pdnf of P ↔ Q. Also find pcnf.
Solution: Let S ↔ P ↔ Q
Method 1. Truth table
S ↔ (PɅQ) V (┐PɅ┐Q) pdnf by using minterms
S ↔ (┐P V Q) Ʌ (P V ┐Q) pcnf by using maxterms.
Example 1. Show that (∀x) (P(x)) → (Ǝx) (P(x)) is a logically valid statement.
Solution :
If ∀x P(x) is true in some particular universe, then the universe has atleast one object c in it and P(b) is a true
statement for every b in the universe. In particular P(c) must be true. Thus (Ǝx) (P(x)) is true. Therefore
(∀x) (P(x)) → (Ǝx) (P(x)) is a valid satement.
Example 2. Show that (∀x) (P(x)) V (∀x) (Q(x)) → (∀x) (P(x)) V Q(x)) is logically valid.
Solution :
Consider the case when (∀x) (P(x)) v (∀x) (Q(x)) is true. Since this is a disjunction of if-statements, one of the
statements (∀x) (P(x)) and (∀x) (Q(x)) must be true.
If (∀x) (P(x)) is true, then for every object b in the universe, P(b) is true, and hence P(b), v Q(b) is true. Similarly when
(∀x) (Q(x) is true, P(b) v Q(b) is true for every object b. In both the cases P(b) v Q(b) is true for all b in the universe.
Therefore (∀x) (P(x) v Q(x)) is true and
(∀x) (P(x)) V (∀x) (Q(x)) → (∀x) (P(x) v Q(x))
is a valid statement.
Example 3. Show by counterexample (∀x) (P(x)) v Q(x)) → (∀x) (P(x)) V (∀x) (Q (x)) is not valid.
Solution: Now consider the following statement
(∀x) (P(x) v Q(x)),
where P() : x is an even integer,
Q(x) : x is a prime integer and the universe is {2, 4, 6, 8, 3, 7, 11}
For this universe, the statement (∀x) (P(x) v Q(x)) is true, but both (∀x) (P(x)) and (∀x) (Q(x)) are not true. So (∀x) (P(x) V
(Q (x)) is true,
(∀x) (P(x)) V (∀x) (Q(x)) is not true. Thus
(∀x) (P(x) v Q(x) → (∀x) (P(x)) v (∀x) (Q(x))
is not a valid statement.
Example 4. Prove that the statements (a) (∀x) (P(x)) → P(y) (b) P(y) → (Ǝx) (P(x))
are valid statements. (y represents any one of the objects in the given universe)
Solution :
(a) The logical validity of the first statement follows immediately from the fact that if ( ∀x) (P(x))) is true, then P(b) is
true for every object b in the universe and hence it is true for any specific object y in the universe.
(b) The logical validity of the second statement is a consequence of the meaning of the existential quantifier. The
statement (Ǝx) (P(x)) is true if and only if there exists atleast one object in the universe for which P(x) is true.
Therefore, if P(y) is true, then (Ǝx) P(x)) is true.
Nested Quantifiers
Nested quantifiers are propositional functions where one or more quantifiers occurs within the scope of another
quantifier.
Nested quantifiers commonly occur in mathematics and computer science.
Two quantifiers are nested if one is within the scope of the other, such as ∀x Ǝy (xy = 0)
This is same thing as ∀x Q(x), where Q(x) is Ǝy P(x, y) where P(x, y) is xy = 0
Example 1. Express the statement "Everyone has exactly one best friend" as a logical expression involving logical
expression involving predicates, quantifiers with a domain consisting of all people and logical connectives.
Solution : Rewrite the given statement "For every person x, x has exactly one best friend." Attention "exactly one"!.
Let B (x, y) :y is the best friend of x. So if a person z is not the person y, then z is not the best friend of x. Thus
∀x Ǝy (B(x, y) Ʌ (z≠y) → ┐B (x, z))
With the uniqueness quantifier Ǝ!
∀x Ǝ!y B(x, y)
Example 2. Translate the statement. "Every real number except zero has a multiplicative inverse." (A multiplicative
inverse of a real number x is a real number y such that xy = 1.)

Solution: Rewrite the given statement "For every real number x except zero, x has a multiplicative inverse." We can
rewrite this as "For every real number x, if x ≠ 0, then there exists a real number y such that xy= 1." This can be
rewritten as
∀x ((x≠0) → Ǝy (xy = 1))
Example 1. Translate the statement ∀x (C(x) ^ Ǝy (C (y) ^ F(x,y)))
into English, where C (x) is "x has calculator" F (x, y) is "x and y are friends", and the domain for both x and y consists
of all students in your school.
Solution: The statement says that for every student x in your school, x has a calculator or there is a student y such
that y has calculator and x and y are friends. In other words, every student in your school has a calculator or has a
friend who has a calculator.
Example 2. Translate the stement
Ǝx ∀y ∀z ((F(x, y) ^ F (x, z) ^ (y ≠ z)) → F (y, z)) into English, where F (x, y) means x and y are friends and the domain for x
and y and z consists of all students in school.
Solution: There is a student none of whose friends are also friends with each other.
Example 3. Translate these statements into English, where the domain for each variable consists of all real numbers.
(a) ∀ x ∀ y Ǝz (xy=z) (b) ∀x Ǝy (x <y) (c) ∀x ∀y (((x ≥ 0) ^ (y ≥ 0)) → (xy ≥ 0))
Solution: (a) For every real number x and real number y, there exists a real number z such that xy = z (b) For every
real number x there exists a real number such that x is less than y.
(c) For every real number x and real number y, if x and y are both non-negative, then their product is non-negative.
Negating Nested Quantifiers
Negating Nested Quantifiers: To negate a sequence of nested quantifiers, you flip each quantifier in the sequence and
then negate the predicate. So the negation of ∀x Ǝy: P (x,y) is Ǝx ∀y: P(x,y) and So the negation of Ǝx ∀y: P(x, y) is ∀x Ǝy:
Rules of inference
Definition: Inference Theory :
The main function of logic is to provide rules of inference, or principles of reasoning. The theory associated
with such rules is known as inference theory because it is concerned with the inferring of a conclusion from certain
premises.
Definition: Valid argument or valid conclusion
If a conclusion is derived from a set of premises by using the accepted rules of reasoning, then such a process
of derivation is called a deduction or a formal proof and the argument or conclusion is called a valid argument or valid
conclusion.
Definition :
Let A and B be two statement formulas. We say that "B logically follows from A" or "B is a valid conclusion
(consequence) of the premise A" iff A → B is a tautology, that is A → B. Just as the definition of implication was
extended to include a set of formulas rather than a single formula, we say that from a set of premises {H 1, H2, … Hm} a
conclusion C follows logically if H1^H2^...^Hm → C.
Example 1.
State which rule of inference is the basis of the following argument:
"It is below freezing now. Therefore, it is either below freezing or raining now".
Solution: Let P: It is below freezing now
Q: It is raining now
P/PVQ This is an argument that uses the addition rule.
Example 2.
State which rule of inference is the basis of the following argument :
"It is below freezing and raining now. Therefore, it is below freezing now."
Solution: Let P: It is below freezing now.
PɅQ/P This is an argument that uses the simplification rule.
Example 3: Demonstrate that R is a valid infernece from the premises P→ Q, Q→R and P.
Solution :
Example 4: Show that R V S follows logically from the premises CVD, (CVD) → ┐H, ┐H → (A^┐B) and (A^┐B) → (RVS).
[MCA M/J 2006]
Solution :
The two tautologies frequently used in the above derivations are I 13, known as hypothetical syllogism, and I 11, known
as modus ponens.
Consistency of Premises and Indirect Method of Proof.
Definition :
A set of formulas H1, H2 ... Hm is said to be consistent if their conjunction has the truth value T for some
assignment of the truth H m values to the atomic variables appearing in H 1, H2, ... Hm . If for every assignment of the
truth values to the atomic variables, atleast one of the formulas H 1, H2, … Hm is false, so that their conjunction is
identically false, then the formulas H1, H2, ... Hm are called inconsistent.
In other way, a set of formulas H 1, H2, ... Hm is inconsistent if their conjunction implies a contradiction, that is
H1 ^ H2 ^ … ^ Hm → R^┐R where R is any formula. Note that R^┐R is a contradiction, and it is necessary and sufficient
for the implication that H1^ H2 ^ … ^ Hm be a contradiction.
Indirect method of proof:
The notion of inconsistency is used in a procedure called proof by contradiction or reduction and absurdum or indirect
method of proof.
The technique of indirect method of proof runs as follows :
1. Introduce the negation of the desired conclusion as a new premise.
2. From the new premise, together with the given premises, derive a contradiction.
3. Assert the desired conclusion as a logical inference from the premises.
Example 1: Show that ┐(P ^ Q) follows from ┐P ^ ┐Q.
Solution: We introduce ┐┐(P^Q) as an additional premise and show that this additional premise leads to a
contradiction.
Example 5: Prove by indirect method that (┐Q), P→ Q, PVR ⇒ R
Solution: The desired result is R. Include its negation as a new premise.
The new premise, together with the given premises, leads to a contradiction. Thus (┐Q), P→ Q, PVR ⇒ R
Example 1: Determine the validity of the following argument. If two sides of a triangle are equal, then opposite angles
are equal.
Two sides of a triangle are not equal.
Therefore, the opposite angles are not equal.
Solution: Let P: Two sides of a triangle is are equal.
Q: The two opposite angle are equal.
The premises can be represented as
P → Q and ┐P and the conclusion as ┐Q.
If the argument is a valid one then
((P→Q)) ^ ┐P) → ┐Q will be tautology.
Let us now construct the truth table for (P → Q) ^ (┐P) → ┐Q
From the truth table we can infer that ((P → Q) ^ (┐P)) → ┐Q is not a tautology.
Hence the argument is not valid.
Example 2: Show the following argument is valid.
"My father praises me only if I can be proud of myself. Either I do well in sports or I ca^ot be proud of myself. If
study hard, then I cannot do well in sports. Therefore, if father' praises me, then I do not study well".
Solution: Let
A : My father praises me.
B : I can be proud of myself.
C : I do well in sports.
D : I study hard.
then the given premises are A → B, C V ┐B, D → ┐C and the conclusion is A→ ┐D.
For, let us assume A as one more premise
Hence it is a valid argument.
Example 3 : Show that the following set of premises is inconsistent.
If the contract is valid, then John is liable for penalty. If John is liable for penalty, he will go bankrupt. If the bank will
loan him money, he will not go bankrupt. As a matter of fact, the contract is valid and the bank will loan him money.
Solution: We indicate the given statements as follows:
V: The contract is valid.
L: John is liable for penalty.
M: Bank will loan him money.
B: He will go bankrupt.
Then the given premises are V→ L, L → B, M → ┐B, V ^ M
Hence it is inconsistent.
Example 4. Show that the following sets of premises are inconsistent. P→ Q, P→R, Q → ┐R, P
[A.U. M/J. 2006]
Solution :
Thus the given set of premises leads to a contradiction and hence it is inconsistent.
Example 5. Show that the following implication by using indirect method. (R→ ┐Q), RVS, S→ ┐Q, P→ Q ⇒ ┐P
[A.U. M/J. 2006]
Solution : To use the indirect method, we will include ┐┐P ↔ P as an additional premise and prove a contradiction.
Example 6. Show that the hypothesis (P^Q) VR and R→S imply the conclusion PVS
Solution :
Example 1.
State which rule of inference is the basis of the following argument:
"It is below freezing now. Therefore, it is either below freezing or raining now".
Solution: Let P: It is below freezing now
P/PVQ This is an argument that uses the addition rule.
Example 2.
State which rule of inference is the basis of the following argument :

"It is below freezing and raining now. Therefore, it is below freezing now."
Solution: Let P: It is below freezing now.
Q: It is raining now. PɅQ/P This is an argument that uses the simplification rule.
Rules for inferences theory
Rule P: A premise may be introduced at any point in the derivation.
Rule T: A formula S may be introduced in a derivation if S is a tautologically implied by any one or more of the
preceding formulas in the derivation,
Rule CP: If we can derive S from R and a set of premises, then we can derive R→S from the set of premises alone.
Example 3: Demonstrate that R is a valid infernece from the premises P→ Q, Q→R and P.
Solution :
Example 4: Show that R V S follows logically from the premises CVD, (CVD) → ┐H, ┐H → (A^┐B) and (A^┐B) → (RVS).
[MCA M/J 2006]
Solution :
The two tautologies frequently used in the above derivations are I 13, known as hypothetical syllogism, and I 11, known
as modus ponens.
Example 5: Show that S V R is tautologically implied by (P V Q) ^ (P→R) ^ (Q → S)
Solution :
Example 6 : Show that R^ (P v Q) is a valid conclusion from the premises P V Q, Q→ R, P→ M and ┐M. [A.U. N/D 2007]
Solution :
Example 7: Show I12 : ┐Q, P → Q → ┐P.
Solution :
Example 8: Show that R→ S can be derived from the premises P→ (Q→S), ┐R, v P and Q. [A.U. N/D, 2005]
Solution : Instead of deriving R→ S, we shall include R as an additional premise and show S first.
Consistency of Premises and Indirect Method of Proof.
Definition :
A set of formulas H1, H2 ... Hm is said to be consistent if their conjunction has the truth value T for some assignment of
the truth Hm values to the atomic variables appearing in H1, H2, ... Hm .
If for every assignment of the truth values to the atomic variables, atleast one of the formulas H 1, H2, … Hm is false, so
that their conjunction is identically false, then the formulas H 1, H2, ... Hm are called inconsistent.
Example 1: Determine the validity of the following argument. If two sides of a triangle are equal, then opposite angles
are equal.
Two sides of a triangle are not equal.
Therefore, the opposite angles are not equal.
Solution: Let P: Two sides of a triangle is are equal.
Q: The two opposite angle are equal. The premises can be represented as P → Q and ┐P and the conclusion as ┐Q. If
the argument is a valid one then ((P→Q)) ^ ┐P) → ┐Q will be tautology.
Let us now construct the truth table for (P → Q) ^ (┐P) → ┐Q
From the truth table we can infer that ((P → Q) ^ (┐P)) → ┐Q is not a tautology.
Hence the argument is not valid.
Example 2: Show the following argument is valid.
"My father praises me only if I can be proud of myself. Either I do well in sports or I ca^ot be proud of myself. If study
hard, then I cannot do well in sports. Therefore, if father' praises me, then I do not study well".
Solution: Let
A : My father praises me.
B : I can be proud of myself.
C : I do well in sports.
D : I study hard.
then the given premises are
A → B, C V ┐B, D → ┐C and the conclusion is A→ ┐D.

For, let us assume A as one more premise
Hence it is a valid argument.
Example 3 : Show that the following set of premises is inconsistent.
If the contract is valid, then John is liable for penalty. If John is liable for penalty, he will go bankrupt. If the bank will
loan him money, he will not go bankrupt. As a matter of fact, the contract is valid and the bank will loan him money.
Solution: We indicate the given statements as follows:
V: The contract is valid.
L: John is liable for penalty.
M: Bank will loan him money.
B: He will go bankrupt.
Then the given premises are V→ L, L → B, M → ┐B, V ^ M
Hence it is inconsistent.
Example 4. Show that the following sets of premises are inconsistent. P→ Q, P→R, Q → ┐R, P [A.U. M/J. 2006]
Solution :
Thus the given set of premises leads to a contradiction and hence it is inconsistent.
Example 5. Show that the following implication by using indirect method. (R→ ┐Q), RVS, S→ ┐Q, P→ Q ⇒ ┐P [A.U. M/J.
2006]
Solution : To use the indirect method, we will include ┐┐P ↔ P as an additional premise and prove a contradiction.
Example 6. Show that the hypothesis (P^Q) VR and R→S imply the conclusion PVS
Solution :
UNIT II: COMBINATORICS
Principle of Mathematical Induction
Let P (n) be a statement or proposition involving for all positive integrs n. Then we complete two steps.
Basis step: If P (1) is true.

Inductive step: If P (k+1) is true on the assumption that P (k) is true.
1. Use mathematical induction to prove that n3 - n is divisible by 3 whether n is a positive integer.
Solution: Let P (n) : (n3 – n) is divisible by 3.
Step 1: To prove P (1) is true.
1-1= 0 is divisible by 3.
Hence P (1) is true.
Step 2: Assume that P (k) is true.
(i.e.,) (k3 – k) is divisible by 3.
Step 3: To prove P (k+1) is true.
(i.e.,) To prove (k + 1)3 − (k + 1) is divisible by 3.
(k + 1)3 - (k + 1) = (k3 + 3k2 + 3k + 1) − (k + 1)
= (k3 −k) + 3(k2 + k)
which is divisible by 3.
Hence P (k+1) is true.This completes the inductive step.which is P (k+ 1).
That is P (k+1) is true whether P (k) is true.
By the principle of mathematical induction P (n) is true for all positive integer n.
That is P (k+1) is true whenever P (k) is true.
2. How many different bit strings of length seven are there?
Solution: Each of the seven bits can be chosen in two ways, because each bit is either 0 or 1.
The product rule shows there are a total of 27 = 128 different bit strings of length seven.
3. How many different 8-bit strings are there that begin and end with one.
Solution: A 8-bit string that begins and end with 1 can be constructed in 6 steps, (i.e.,)
By selecting IInd bit, IIIrd bit, IV bit, Vth bit, VIth bit and VIIth bits and each bit can be selected in 2 ways.
Hence, the total number of 8-bit strings that begins and end with 1 is equal to 2.2.2.2.2 = 26 = 64.
4. How many different 8-bit strings are there that end with 0111 ?
Solution: A 8-bit strings that end with 0111 can be constructed n 4 steps.
By selecting Ist bit, IInd bit, IIIrd bit and IVth bit and each bit can be selected in 2 ways.
The total number of 8-bit strings that end with 0111 is equal to 2.2.2.2 = 2 4 = 16.
5. How many different 2-digit numbers can be made from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 0? When repetition is
allowed ? When repetition is not allowed ?
Solution: Case (i) : When repetition is allowed.
The tens place can be filled by 10 ways and the units place can be filled by 10 ways.
The total number of 2-digit numbers = 10 x 10 =100
Case (ii): When repetition is not allowed.
The tens place can be filled by 10 ways and the units place can be filled by 9 ways.
The total number of 2-digit numbers = 10 x 9 = 90.
6. How many different license plates are available if each plate contain a sequence of three letters followed by three
digits (and no sequences of letters are prohibited, even if they are obscene)?
Solution: There are 26 choices for each of the three letters. There are 10 choices for each of the three digits. Hence,
by the product rule there are a total (26) (26) (26) (10) (10) (10) = 17,576,000 possible license plates.
7. How many one-to-one functions are there from a set with m elements to one with n elements ?
Solution :Case (i) : When m>n there are no one-to-one functions from a set with m elements to a set with n elements.
Case (ii) : When m≤n . Suppose the elements in the domain are a1, a2, ….. am.
There are n ways to choose the value of the function at a1. The value of the function at a2 can be picked in n - 1 ways.
In general, the value of the function at a can be chosen in n-k+1 ways.
By the product rule, there are n (n-1) (n-2)... (n - m + 1) one-to-one functions from a set with m elements to one with n
elements.
8. In how many ways can we draw a heart or a shade from an ordinary deck of playing cards? A heart or an ace ? An
ace or a king? A card numbered 2 through 10? A numbered card or a king?
Solution: Since there are 13 hearts and 13 spades. We may draw a heart or a spade in 13 + 13 = 26 ways. We may draw
a heart or an ace in 13 + 3 = 16 ways, since there are only three aces that are not hearts. We may draw an ace or a
king in 4 + 4 = 8 ways.
9. Suppose that either a member of the Chemistry faculty or a student who is a Chemistry major is chosen as a
representative to a University committee. How many different choices are there for this representative if there are 23
members of the Chemistry faculty and 80 Chemistry majors and no one is both a faculty member and a student ?
Solution: There are 23 ways to choose a member of the Chemistry faculty and there are 80 ways to choose a student
who is Chemistry major. To choose a member of the Chemistry faculty is never the same as choose a student who is a
Chemistry major because no one is both a faculty member and a student. By the sum rule it follows that there are 23+
80 = 103 possible ways to pick this representative.
Inclusin - Exclusion Principle in General
Let P1, P2, …. Pn are finite sets.
10. In a survey of 200 musicians, it was found that 40 wore gloves on the left hand and 39 wore gloves on the right
hand. If 160 wore no gloves at all, how many wore a glove on only the right hand? Only the left hand ? On both hands?
Sol. Total number of musicians wore gloves on left, right or both hands (i.e.,)
| LUR | = 200 - 160 = 40
Musicians wore gloves on left hand |L| = 40
Musicians wore gloves on right hand |R| = 39
Musicians who wore gloves on both hands
| L∩R | = | L | + | R | - | LUR | = 40 + 39 - 40 = 39
Musicians who wore gloves only on right hand = 40 - 39 = 1
Musicians who wore gloves only on left hand = 39 - 39 = 0.
11. 40 computer programmers interviewed for a job. 25 knew JAVA, 28 knew ORACLE, and 7 knew neither language.
How many knew both languages?
Solution: Now
| J | = 25 ['.' J → JAVA]
| O | = 28 ['.' O → ORACLE]
| J U O | = 40 – 7 = 33
Computer progrmmers who knew both languages are
| J U O | = 25 + 28 - 33 = 20.
12. Theorem The pigeonhole principle [A.U N/D 2012]
If k is a positive integer and k + 1 or more objects are placed into k boxes, then there is atleast one box containing two
or more of the objects.

Proof : We prove this principle by the method of contradiction. Suppose that none of the k boxes contains more than
one object. Hence. the total number of objects would be atmost k. This is a contradiction, since there are atleast k + 1
objects.
13. Theorem: If n pigeons are assigned to m pigeonholes, and m<n, then atleast one pigeonhole contains two or more
pigeons.
Proof : We will prove this principle using a proof by contradiction. Suppose each pigeonhole contains atmost one
pigeon. Then atmost m pigeons have been assigned. But since m <n, not all pigeons have been assigned pigeonholes.
This is a contradiction.
Atleast one pigeonhole contains two or more pigeons.
14. Theorem: The generalization / extension of the pigeonhole principle.
If k pigeons are assigned to n pigeonholes, then one of the pigeonholes must contain atleast [k-1/n] + 1 pigeons.
Proof: If possible, suppose that none of the pigeonholes contains more than [k-1/n]pigeons. Then there will be atmost
n[k-1/n] ≤ n k-1/n = k - 1 pigeons.
This is a contradiction to the assumption that there are n pigeons.
15. Theorem: If n objects are placed into k boxes, then there is atleast one box containing atleast n/k objects.
Proof: Assume that none of the boxes contains more than [n/k] - 1 objects.
The total number of objects is atmost.
k[(n/k) – 1] < k [(n/k + 1) – 1] = n, where the inequality [n/k] < [n/k] + 1 has been used. This is a contradiction, because
there are a total of n objects.
16. Give two examples based on pigeonhole principle.
Solution : 1. Among any group of 367 people, there must be atleast two with the same birthday, because there are only
366 maximum possible birth days.
2. In any group of 27 English words, there must be atleast two that starts with the same letter, since there are 26
letters in English alphabet.
17. Show that among 13 children, there are atleast two children who were born in the same month.
Solution: Let us assume that 13 children as pigeons and the 12 months (January, ... December) as the pigeonholes then
by the pigeonhole principle there will be atleast two children who were born in the same month.
18. Show that if any four numbers from 1 to 6 are chosen, then two of them will add to 7.
Solution: Let us form 3 sets containing two numbers whose sum is 7.
A = {1, 6}, B = {2, 5}, C = {3, 4}.The four numbers that will be chosen to the set that contains it. As there are only 3 sets,
two numbers that there chosen is from the set whose sum is 7.
19. Show that among any group of five (not necessarily consecutive) integers, there are two with the same remainder
when divided by 4.
Solution: Take any group of five integers. When these are divided by 4 each have some remainder. Since there are five
integers and four possible remainders when an integer is divided by 4, the pigeonhole principle implies that given five
integers, atleast two have the same remainder.
20. A bag contains 12 pairs of socks (each pair is in different color). If a person draws the socks one by one at
random, determine atmost how many draws are required to get atleast one pair of matched socks.
Solution: Let n denote the number of the draw. For n ≤ 12, it is possible that the socks drawn are of different colors,
since there are 12 colors. For n 13, all socks cannot have different colors atleast two must have the same color. Here
13 as the number of pigeons and 12 colors as 12 pigeonholes. Thus, atmost 13 draws are required to have atleast one
pair of socks of the same color.
21. Show that for every integer n there is a multiple of n that has only 0 s and 1 s in its decimal expansion.
Solution: Let n be a positive integer.
Consider the n + 1 integers 1, 11, 111, …. . There are n possible
remainders when an integer is divided by n. Since there are n+1 integers in this list, by the pigeonhole principle there
must be two with the same remainder when divided by n.
The larger number of these integers less the smaller one is a multiple of n, which has a decimal expansion consisting
entirely of 0s and 1s.
22. Prove the statement : If m = k n+1 pigeons (where k ≥ 1) occupy n pigeonholes then atleast one pigeonhole must
contain k+ 1 or more pigeons.
Solution: Let us assume that the conclusion of the given statement is false.
Then every pigeonhole contains k or less number of pigeons. Then, the total number of pigeons would be nk. This is a
contradiction. Hence, the assumption made is wrong, and the given statement is true.
23. Let n1, n2 … nt be possible integes. Show that if n 1 + n2 + … + nt – t + 1 objects are placed int t boxes, then for some
i, i = 1, 2, ... t the ith box contains atleast nj objects.
Solution: Assume that the conclusion part of the given statement is false. Here n 1, n2,… are pigeons t boxes are
pigeonholes. Then every hole contains n j-1 or less number of pigeons, j = 1, 2, ... n. Then the total number of pigeons
would be less than or equal to
(n1-1) + (n2-1) + ... + (nt − 1) = (n1 + n2 + ... + nt − t)= m - 1
This is a contradiction. Since the number of pigeons is equal to m. Hence the assumption made is wrong, and the given
statement is true.
24. Show that if seven colors are used to paint 50 cars, atleast eight cars will have the same colour.
Solution: Assume that 50 cars (pigeons) are assign 7 colors (pigeonholes). Hence, by the generalised pigeonhole
principle, atleast [50-1/7] + 1 = 8 cars will have the same colour.
25. Show that among any n + 1 positive integers not exceeding 2n there must be an integer that divides one of the
other integers.
Solution: Let the (n + 1) integers be a 1, a2, … an+1 as power of 2 times an odd integer. Let a j = 2kj qj for j =1, 2, … n + 1,
where kj is a non-negative integer and q j is odd. The integers q 1, q2, .... qn+1 are all odd positive integers less than 2n.
Since there are only n odd positive integers less than 2n. From the pigeonhole principle that two of the integers q 1,
q2, ... qn+1 must be equal.
There are integers i and j such that qj = qj. Let q be common value of qi and qj. Then, ai = 2ki q and aj =2kj q.
From this k1 < kj, then aj divides aj ; while if k1 > kj, then aj divides ai.
26. Seven members of a family have total Rs. 2,886 in their pockets. Show that atleast one of them must have atleast
Rs. 416 in his pocket.
Solution: Let us assume
members - → pigeonholes
Rupees - → pigeons
Now 2886 pigeons are to be assigned to 7 pigeonholes.
Using the extended pigeonhole principle
(i.e.,) k-1/n + 1 where k = 2886, n = 7
2886-1 /7 +1 = 416
Hence, there are 416 rupees in one member's pocket.
27. If 9 books are to be kept in 4 shelves, there must be atleast one shelf which contain atleast 3 books.
Solution : Let us assume
books - → pigeons
shelves - → pigeonholes
k-1/n + 1 when k = 9, n = 4
9-1/4 + 1 = 8/4 +1 = 3
Hence there are 3 books in one shelf atleast.
28. How many people must you have to guarantee that atleast 9 of them will have birthdays in the same day of the
week.
Solution: Let us assume that
the days week - → pigeonholes
people - → pigeons
Now 7 pigeonholes and we have to find pigeons.
Using the extended pigeonhole principle,
k-1/n + 1 where n = 7, to find k.
k-1/7 + 1 = 9
k-1+7/7 = 9
k+6 = 63
k = 63-6 = 57
Thus, there must be 57 people to guarantee that atleast 9 of them will have birthdays in the same day of the week.
29. Show that if 30 dictionaries in a library contain a total of 61327 pages, then one of the dictionaries must have
atleast 2045 pages.
Solution : Let us assume that
pages - → pigeons
dictionaries - → pigeonholes
Assign each page to the dictionary in which it appears. Then by extended pigeonhole principle, one dictionary must
contain atleast
k-1/n + 1 pages, when k = 61327, n = 30
= 61327–1/30 + 1 = 2045 pages.
30. What is the maximum number of students required in a mathematics class to be sure that atleast six will receive
the same grade, if there are five possible grades. A, B, C, D and F? [A.U N/D 2012]
Solution: The minimum number of students wanted to ensure that atleast six students receive the same grade is the
smaller integer N such that [N/5] = 6. The smallest such integer is N = 5.5+1 = 26. If you have only 25 students, it is
possible for there to be five who have received each grade so that no six students have received the same grade.
226 is the minimum number of students needed to ensure that atleast six students will receive the same grade.
31. How many persons must be chosen in order that atleast five of them will have birth days in the same calendar
month?
Solution: Let n be the required number of persons. Because the number of months over which the birthdays are
distributed is 12, the least number of persons who have their birthdays in the same month, is by the generalized
pigeonhole principle, equal to [ (n-1)/12] + 1.
This number is 5, if [(n − 1)/12] + 1 5, or n = 49.
Thus, the number of persons is 49 (at the least).
32. Find the least number of ways of choosing three different numbers from 1 to 10 so that all choices have the same
sum
Solution: From the numbers from 1 to 10, we can choose three different numbers in C (10, 3) = 120 ways.
The smallest possible sum that we get from a choice is 1+2+3=6 and the largest sum is 8+ 9+ 10 = 27. Thus, the sums
vary from 6 to 27 (both inclusive), and these sums are 22 in number.
Accordingly, here ther are 120 choices (pigeons) and 22 sums (pigeonholes). Therefore the least number of choices
assigned to the same sum is by the generalized pigeonhole principle.
[120 – 1/ 22] + 1 = (6.4) ≈ 6.
33. Show that if any 5 numbers from 1 ot 8 are chosen, then two of them will have their sum equal to 9.
Solution: Let us consider the following sets :
A1 = {1, 8}, A2 = {2, 7}, A3 = {3, 6}, A4 = {4, 5}
These are the only sets containing two numbers from 1 to 8, whose sum is 9.
Because every number from 1 to 8 belongs to one of the above sets, each of the 5 numbers chose must belong to one
of the sets.
Since there are only 4 sets, two of the 5 chosen numbers have to belong to the same set (by the pigeonhole principle).
These two numbers have their sum equal to 9.
34. Theorem The pigeonhole principle [A.U N/D 2012]
If k is a positive integer and k + 1 or more objects are placed into k boxes, then there is atleast one box containing two
or more of the objects.
Proof : We prove this principle by the method of contradiction. Suppose that none of the k boxes contains more than
one object. Hence. the total number of objects would be atmost k. This is a contradiction, since there are atleast k + 1
objects.
Corollary: A function ƒ from a set with k + 1 or more elements to a set with k elements is not one-to-one.
Proof: Suppose each element y in the codomain of f we have a box that contains all elements x of the domain of f such
that f(x)=y. Since the domain contain k + 1 or more elements and the co-domain contains only k elements, by the
pigeonhole principle one of these boxes contains two or more elements x of the domain. This means that f cannot be
one-to-one.
35. Theorem: If n pigeons are assigned to m pigeonholes, and m<n, then atleast one pigeonhole contains two or more
pigeons.
Proof : We will prove this principle using a proof by contradiction. Suppose each pigeonhole contains atmost one
pigeon. Then atmost m pigeons have been assigned. But since m <n, not all pigeons have been assigned pigeonholes.
This is a contradiction.
Atleast one pigeonhole contains two or more pigeons.
36. Theorem: The generalization / extension of the pigeonhole principle.
If k pigeons are assigned to n pigeonholes, then one of the pigeonholes must contain atleast [k-1/n] + 1 pigeons.
Proof: If possible, suppose that none of the pigeonholes contains more than [k-1/n]pigeons. Then there will be atmost
n[k-1/n] ≤ n k-1/n = k - 1 pigeons.
This is a contradiction to the assumption that there are n pigeons.
37. Theorem: If n objects are placed into k boxes, then there is atleast one box containing atleast n/k objects.
Proof: Assume that none of the boxes contains more than [n/k] - 1 objects.
The total number of objects is atmost.
k[(n/k) – 1] < k [(n/k + 1) – 1] = n, where the inequality [n/k] < [n/k] + 1 has been used. This is a contradiction, because
there are a total of n objects.
38. Give two examples based on pigeonhole principle.
Solution :
1. Among any group of 367 people, there must be atleast two with the same birthday, because there are only 366
maximum possible birth days.
2. In any group of 27 English words, there must be atleast two that starts with the same letter, since there are 26
letters in English alphabet.
39. Show that among 13 children, there are atleast two children who were born in the same month.
Solution: Let us assume that 13 children as pigeons and the 12 months (January, ... December) as the pigeonholes then
by the pigeonhole principle there will be atleast two children who were born in the same month.
40. Show that if any four numbers from 1to6 are chosen, then two of them will add to 7.
Solution: Let us form 3 sets containing two numbers whose sum is 7.
A = {1, 6}, B = {2, 5}, C = {3, 4}.
The four numbers that will be chosen to the set that contains it.
As there are only 3 sets, two numbers that there chosen is from the set whose sum is 7.
41. Show that among any group of five (not necessarily consecutive) integers, there are two with the same remainder
when divided by 4.
Solution: Take any group of five integers. When these are divided by 4 each have some remainder. Since there are five
integers and four possible remainders when an integer is divided by 4, the pigeonhole principle implies that given five
integers, atleast two have the same remainder.
42. A bag contains 12 pairs of socks (each pair is in different color). If a person draws the socks one by one at random,
determine atmost how many draws are required to get atleast one pair of matched socks.
Solution: Let n denote the number of the draw. For n ≤ 12, it is possible that the socks drawn are of different colors,
since there are 12 colors. For n 13, all socks cannot have different colors atleast two must have the same color. Here
13 as the number of pigeons and 12 colors as 12 pigeonholes. Thus, atmost 13 draws are required to have atleast one
pair of socks of the same color.
43. Show that for every integer n there is a multiple of n that has only 0 s and 1 s in its decimal expansion.
Solution: Let n be a positive integer.
Consider the n + 1 integers 1, 11, 111, …. . There are n possible
remainders when an integer is divided by n. Since there are n+1 integers in this list, by the pigeonhole principle there
must be two with the same remainder when divided by n.
The larger number of these integers less the smaller one is a multiple of n, which has a decimal expansion consisting
entirely of 0s and 1s.
44. Prove the statement : If m = k n+1 pigeons (where k ≥ 1) occupy n pigeonholes then atleast one pigeonhole must
contain k+ 1 or more pigeons.
Solution: Let us assume that the conclusion of the given statement is false.
Then every pigeonhole contains k or less number of pigeons. Then, the total number of pigeons would be nk. This is a
contradiction. Hence, the assumption made is wrong, and the given statement is true.
45. Let n1, n2 … nt be possible integes. Show that if n1 + n2 + … + nt – t + 1 objects are placed int t boxes, then for some i,
i = 1, 2, ... t the ith box contains atleast nj objects.
Solution: Assume that the conclusion part of the given statement is false. Here n 1, n2,… are pigeons t boxes are
pigeonholes. Then every hole contains n j-1 or less number of pigeons, j = 1, 2, ... n. Then the total number of pigeons
would be less than or equal to
(n1-1) + (n2-1) + ... + (nt − 1) = (n1 + n2 + ... + nt − t)
=m-1
This is a contradiction. Since the number of pigeons is equal to m. Hence the assumption made is wrong, and the given
statement is true.
46. Show that if seven colors are used to paint 50 cars, atleast eight cars will have the same colour.
Solution: Assume that 50 cars (pigeons) are assign 7 colors (pigeonholes). Hence, by the generalised pigeonhole
principle, atleast [50-1/7] + 1 = 8 cars will have the same colour.
47. Show that among any n + 1 positive integers not exceeding 2n there must be an integer that divides one of the
other integers.
Solution: Let the (n + 1) integers be a 1, a2, … an+1 as power of 2 times an odd integer. Let a j = 2kj qj for j =1, 2, … n + 1,
where kj is a non-negative integer and q j is odd. The integers q 1, q2, .... qn+1 are all odd positive integers less than 2n.
Since there are only n odd positive integers less than 2n. From the pigeonhole principle that two of the integers q 1,
q2, ... qn+1 must be equal.
There are integers i and j such that qj = qj. Let q be common value of qi and qj. Then, ai = 2ki q and aj =2kj q.
From this k1 < kj, then aj divides aj ; while if k1 > kj, then aj divides ai.
48. Seven members of a family have total Rs. 2,886 in their pockets. Show that atleast one of them must have atleast
Rs. 416 in his pocket.
Solution: Let us assume
members - → pigeonholes
Rupees - → pigeons
(i.e.,) k-1/n + 1 where k = 2886, n = 7
2886-1 /7 +1 = 416
Hence, there are 416 rupees in one member's pocket.
49. If 9 books are to be kept in 4 shelves, there must be atleast one shelf which contain atleast 3 books.
Solution : Let us assume
books - → pigeons
shelves - → pigeonholes
k-1/n + 1 when k = 9, n = 4
9-1/4 + 1 = 8/4 +1 = 3
Hence there are 3 books in one shelf atleast.
50. How many people must you have to guarantee that atleast 9 of them will have birthdays in the same day of the
week.
Solution: Let us assume that
the days week - → pigeonholes
people - → pigeons
Now 7 pigeonholes and we have to find pigeons.
Using the extended pigeonhole principle,
k-1/n + 1 where n = 7, to find k.
k-1/7 + 1 = 9
k-1+7/7 = 9
k+6 = 63
k = 63-6 = 57
Thus, there must be 57 people to guarantee that atleast 9 of them will have birthdays in the same day of the week.
51. Show that if 30 dictionaries in a library contain a total of 61327 pages, then one of the dictionaries must have
atleast 2045 pages.
Solution : Let us assume that
pages - → pigeons
dictionaries - → pigeonholes
Assign each page to the dictionary in which it appears. Then by extended pigeonhole principle, one dictionary must
contain atleast
k-1/n + 1 pages, when k = 61327, n = 30
= 61327–1/30 + 1 = 2045 pages.
52. What is the maximum number of students required in a mathematics class to be sure that atleast six will receive
the same grade, if there are five possible grades. A, B, C, D and F? [A.U N/D 2012]
Solution: The minimum number of students wanted to ensure that atleast six students receive the same grade is the
smaller integer N such that [N/5] = 6. The smallest such integer is N = 5.5+1 = 26. If you have only 25 students, it is
possible for there to be five who have received each grade so that no six students have received the same grade.
226 is the minimum number of students needed to ensure that atleast six students will receive the same grade.
53. How many persons must be chosen in order that atleast five of them will have birth days in the same calendar
month?
Solution: Let n be the required number of persons. Because the number of months over which the birthdays are
distributed is 12, the least number of persons who have their birthdays in the same month, is by the generalized
pigeonhole principle, equal to [ (n-1)/12] + 1.
This number is 5, if [(n − 1)/12] + 1 5, or n = 49.
Thus, the number of persons is 49 (at the least).
54. Find the least number of ways of choosing three different numbers from 1 to 10 so that all choices have the same
sum
Solution: From the numbers from 1 to 10, we can choose three different numbers in C (10, 3) = 120 ways.
The smallest possible sum that we get from a choice is 1+2+3=6 and the largest sum is 8+ 9+ 10 = 27. Thus, the sums
vary from 6 to 27 (both inclusive), and these sums are 22 in number.
Accordingly, here ther are 120 choices (pigeons) and 22 sums (pigeonholes). Therefore the least number of choices
assigned to the same sum is by the generalized pigeonhole principle.
[120 – 1/ 22] + 1 = (6.4) ≈ 6.
55. Show that if any 5 numbers from 1 ot 8 are chosen, then two of them will have their sum equal to 9.
Solution: Let us consider the following sets :
A1 = {1, 8}, A2 = {2, 7}, A3 = {3, 6}, A4 = {4, 5}
These are the only sets containing two numbers from 1 to 8, whose sum is 9.
Because every number from 1 to 8 belongs to one of the above sets, each of the 5 numbers chose must belong to one
of the sets.
Since there are only 4 sets, two of the 5 chosen numbers have to belong to the same set (by the pigeonhole principle).
These two numbers have their sum equal to 9.
Solving Linear Recurrence Relations
Definition: Linear Recurrence Relation with constant coefficient.
A linear recurrence relation with constant coefficient is of the form

C0 an + C1 an−1 + C2 an- 2 + ... + Ck an-k, = f(n)
where C is are constants.
A linear homogeneous recurrence relation with constant coefficients of degree K is of the form
an = C1 an-1 + C2 an-2 + Ck an-k ,where C1, C2, …. Ck are real numbers, and Ck ≠ 0.
The three methods of solving recurrence relations are
1. Iteration, 2. Characteristic roots and 3. Generating functions.
56. What is the solution of the recurrence relation
an = 2an-1 for n ≥ 1, a0 = 3.
Solution: Given: an = 2an-1
(i.e.,) an - 2an-1 = 0 …. (1)
Let an = rn be a solution of (1)
(1) ⇒ rn - 2rn-1 = 0
⇒ rn [1- 2/r] = 0
⇒ rn [r-2/ r] = 0
The characteristic equation is r - 2 = 0
r=2
By theorem an = α 2n … (2)
Given a0 = 3 ⇒ a0 = α 20 = 3
⇒α=3
(2) ⇒ an = 3 (2n)
57. Theorem: Let c1, c2, … ck be real numbers. Suppose that the characteristic equation r k – c1rk-1 - … - ck = 0 has t
distinct roots r1, r2, … rt with multiplicities m1, m2,… mt respectively, so that mi ≥ 1 for i = 1, 2, ... t and m 1 + m2 + ... +
mt = k.
Then a sequence {an} is a solution of the recurrence relation
an = c1 an-1 + c2 an-2 + ….+ ck an-k
if and only if an = (α1,0 + α1,1 n +….+ α1,m1-1 nm1-1 ) r1n + (α2,0 – α2,1 n +….+ α2,m2-1 nm2-1 ) r2n + …..+ (αt,0 + αt,1 n +….+ αt,m-1 nmt-1 ) r1n
for n = 0, 1, 2, …. where aij are constants for 1 ≤ i ≤ t and 0 ≤ j ≤ mi -1
Example 7: Find all solutions of the recurrence relation a n = 5an-1 - 6an-2 + 9n
Solution: Given: an - 5an-1 + 6an-2 = 9n ….(1)
Let an = c 9n is a solution of (1)

58. What form does a particular solution of the linear non homogeneous recurrence relation a n = 6an-1 - 9an-2 + F(n) have
when F(n) = 3n, F (n) = n 3n, F (n) = n2 2n, and F (n) = (n2 + 1) 3n ?
Solution: The associated linear homogeneous recurrence relation is
an = 6an-1 - 9an-2
Its characteristic equation is r2 - 6r + 9 = (r− 3)2 = 0.
r = 3, 3
F (n) is of the form p (n) sn
s = 3 is a root with multiplicity m = 2
but s = 2 is not a root
by theorem, particular solution has the form
P0 n2 3n if F(n) = 3n
n2 (p1 n + p0) 3n if F(n) = n 3n
(p2n2 + p1n + P0) 2n if F(n) = n2 2n
n2 (p2n2 + P1n+P0) 3n if F(n) = (n2 + 1) 3n
Principle of Inclusion and Exclusion
Let X and Y be two finite subsets of a universal set U. If X and Y are disjoint, then
|XUY| =│X│∩+ │Y│
If X and Y are not disjoint then
|XUY| =│X | + | Y | - | X∩Y |
This is called the principle of inclusion and exclusion.

59. Give a formula for the number of elements in the union of four sets.
Solution: By the principle of inclusion and exclusion we get
60.. Find a formula for the probability of the union of five events in a sample space if no four of them can occur at the
same time.
Solution :
61. Find a formula for the probability of the union of n events in a sample space.
Solution: The probability of the union of n events in a sample. space is
63. Write out the explicit formula given by the principle of inclusion-exclusion for the number of elements in the union
of five sets.
Solution :
UNIT III: GRAPHS
Graphs and Graph Models
1. Definition: Graph
A graph G = (V(G), E (G)) concists of V, a non empty set of vertices (nodes or points) and E, a set of edges (also called
lines).
i.e., A graph G is an ordered triple (V (G), E (G), ϕ) consists of a non-empty set V called the set of vertices (nodes or
points) of the graph G, E is said to be the set of edges of the graph G, and is a mapping from the set of edges E to a set
of order or un ordered pairs of elements of V.
Example :
Let G = (V (G), E (G), ϕ) where V (G)= {v1, v2, v3, v4} E (G)=(e1, e2, e3, e4, e5) and ϕ is defined by ϕ (e1) = {v1, v2}, ϕ (e2) = {v2,
v3}, ϕ (e3) = {v3, v4}, ϕ (e4) = {v4, v1}, ϕ (e5) = {v1, v3}
Now the diagramatic form of G is as follows.
2. Definition: Adjacent vertices

Any pair of vertices which are connected by an edge in a graph is called adjacent vertices.
Here v1, v2 ; v2, v4 ; v2, v3 are adjacent vertices
v1, v3 ; v3, v4 ; v1 v4 are not adjacent.
3. Definition: Adjacent edges:

If two distinct edges are incident with a common vertex then they are called adjacent edges.
Here e1 and e2 are incident with a common vertex v2.
4.Definition: Isolated vertex
In any graph, a vertex which is not adjacent to any other vertex is called an isolated vertex. Otherwise the vertex has
no incident edge.
Here v3 has no incident edge. Therefore the vertex v3 is called isolated vertex.
5.Definition: Label graph
A graph in which each vertex is assigned a unique name or label is called a label graph.
6.Definition: Directed graph and undirected graph
In a graph G (V, E), an edge which is associated with an ordered pair of vertices is called a directed edge of
graph G, while an edge which is associated with an unordered pair of vertices is called an undirected edge. A graph in
which every edge is directed is called a directed graph simply a digraph.
A graph in which every edge is undirected is called an undirected graph.
The end vertices of an edge are said to be incident with the edge and vice versa.
The edge e1 is incident with the vertices v1 and v2 also the vertex v1 is incident with e1 and e3.
The vertices v1 and v2 are also called the initial and terminal vertices of the edge e1.
7. Definition: Mixed graph
If some edges are directed and some are undirected in a graph, then the graph is a mixed graph.
8. Definition: Loop
A loop is an edge whose vertices are equal.
i.e., An edge of a graph which joins a vertex to itself is called a loop.

9. Definition: Parallel edges (Multiple edges)
Multiple edges are edges having the same pair of vertices.
10. Definition: Multi graph
Any graph which contains some parallel edges and loops is called as multi graph.
11. Definition: Simple graph
A simple graph is a graph having no loops or multiple edges.
12. Definition: Simple directed graph
When a directed graph has no loops and has no multiple directed edges, it is called a simple directed graph.
13. Definition: Underlying simple graph
A graph obtained by deleting all loops and parallel edges from a graph is called underlying simple graph.
14. Definition : Finite graph
A graph G is finite if and only if both the vertex set V(G) and the edge set E (G) are finite, otherwise the graph is
infinite.
Example : Let V(G) = Z and E (G) = {eij / |i-j| = 1} clearly, the graph G is infinite.
Note: Hereafter, a graph means that is a finite graph unless otherwise stated.
15. Definition: Multiplicity m.
When there are m directed edges, each associated to an ordered pair of vertices ( u, v), we say that (u, v) is an edge of
multiplicity m.
16. Definition: Weighted graph
A graph in which weights are assigned to every edge is called a weighted graph.
here 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 are weights assigned to each edge respectively.
17. Definition: Underlying undirected graph
A graph obtained by ignoring the direction of edges in a directed graph is called underlying undirected graph.
18. Definition Pseudographs :
Graphs that may include loops, and possibly multiple edges connecting the same pair of vertices, are sometimes
called Pseudographs.
19. The diagram shows a multigraph G, Why G is not a simple graph ?
Solution: G is not a simple graph since it contains multiple edges e4, e5 also a loop e7.
20. Describe formally the graph given below :

Solution : G = (V,E)
V = {v1, v2, v3, v4}
E = {e1, e2, e3, e4, e5}
E (a) = {(v1, v2), (v2, v3), (v3, v4), (v1, v3), (v2, v4)}
21. Draw a diagram for the following graph
G = G(V,E)
V = {v1, v2, v3, v4}
E = {(v1, v2), (v4, v1), (v3, v1), (v3, v4)}
Solution :
22. Let G be a simple graph. Show that the relation R on the set of vertices of G such that uRv if and only if there is an
edge associated to {u, v} is a symmetric, irreflexive relation on G.
Solution :
Given: "G is a simple graph, R is a relation to (u, v)
(i) To prove symmetric
i.e., to prove uRv ⇒ vRu
If u R v, then there is an edge associated with {u, v}
But {u,v} = {v, u} so this edge is associated with {v, u}
⇒vRu
(ii) To prove irreflexive :
A simple graph doesnot allow loops,
u R u never holds.
irreflexive.
Graph Terminology and Special Types of Graphs
23. Definition: Two vertices u and v in an undirected graph G are called adjacent (or neighbors) in G if u, v are
endpoints of an edge of G.
If e is associated with (u, v), the edge e is called incident with the vertices u and v. The edge e is also said to
connect u and v. The vertices u and v are called endpoints of an edge associated with ( u, v).
24. Definition: The degree of a vertex :
The degree of a vertex in an undirected graph is the number of edges incident with it, except that a loop at a vertex
contributes twice to the degree of that vertex.

The degree of the vertex is denoted by deg( ).
Example :
Let v be a vertex in a graph G. Then the degree d G(V) of the incident with v (each loop is counted twice). The d G(V) can
also be denoted by deg G(V) (or explicity, we use d (V) or deg (V) to denote the degree of V).
deg (V1) = 6 , deg (V2) = 3 ,deg (V3) = 5 ,deg (V4) = 4 , deg (V5) = 6, deg (V6) = 0
25. What are the degrees of the vertices in the graph G.
Solution :
deg (v1) = 2, deg (v2) = 1, deg (v3) = 6
deg (v4) = 2, deg (v5) = 3.
26. How many edges are there in a graph with 10 vertices each of degree six ?
Solution: Sum of the degrees of the 10 vertices
is (6) (10) = 60
i.e., 2e = 60
e = 30
27. Show that the sum of degree of all the vertices in a graph G, is even.
Proof : Each edge contribute two degrees in a graph.
Also, each edge contributes one degree to each of the vertices on which it is incident.
Hence, if there are N edges in G, then
2N = d (v1) + d (v2) + …. + d (vN) . Thus, 2 N is always even.
28. Verify that the sum of the degree of all the vertices is even for the graph.
Solution: The sum of degree of all the vertices is
= d (v1) + d (v2) + d (v3) + d (v4) + d (v5) + d (v6) + d (v7) + d (v8)
=2+3+5+3+3+4+2+2
= 24 which is even.
Note: Odd vertices means vertices of odd degree.

29. Verify the handshaking theorem for the graph.
Solution: To prove Σ deg (vi) = (2) (no. of edges)
i.e., Σ deg (vi) = (2) (9) = 18
Σ deg (vi) = deg (v1) + deg (v2) + deg (v3) + deg (v4) + deg (v5) + deg (v6)= 2 + 4 + 4 + 3 + 4 + 1
= 18. Hence the theorem is true.
30. Show that the degree of a vertex of a simple graph G on n vertices cannot exceed n-1.
Solution: Let v be a vertex of G because G is simple, no multiple edges or loops are allowed in G. Thus v can be
adjacent to at most all the remaining n - 1 vertices of G.
Hence v may have maximum degree n - 1 in G.
Then 0 ≤ deg G(v) ≤ n − 1 ∀ v ϵ V(G)
31. Show that in a group, there must be two people who know the same number of other people in the group.
Solution: Construct the simple graph model in which V is the set of people in the group and there is an edge associated
with (u, v) if u and v know each other. Then the degree of vertex v is the number of people v knows.
We know that there are two vertices with the same degree. Therefore there are two people who know the same
number of other people in the group.
32.Is there a simple graph corresponding to the following degree sequences? (i) (1, 1, 2,3) (ii) (2, 2, 4, 6)
Solution :
(i) There are odd number (3) of odd degree vertices, 1, 1 and 3. Hence there exist no graph corresponding to this
degree sequence.
(ii) Number of vertices in the graph sequence is four and the maximum degree of a vertex is 6 which is not possible as
the maximum degree cannot exist one less than the number of vertices.
33. Show that the maximum number of edges in a simple graph with n vertices is n (n - 1) / 2
Solution: Use handshaking theorem.
i.e,. Σi=1 d (vi) 2 e,
where e is the number of edges with n vertices in the graph G.
i.e., d (v1) + d (v2) + ... d (vn) = 2e ….. (1)
Since we know that the maximum degree of each vertex in the graph G can be (n - 1)
(1) ⇒ (n − 1) + (n − 1) + ... to n terms = 2e
⇒ n (n − 1) = 2e
e = n (n - 1) / 2
Hence the maximum number of edges in any simple graph with n vertices is n (n - 1) / 2
34. Definition: When (u, v) is an edge of the graph G with directed edges, u is said to be adjacent to v and v is said to be
adjacent from u.
The vertex u is called the initial vertex of (u, v), and v is called the terminal or end vertex of (u, v).
The initial vertex and terminal vertex of a loop are the same.
35. Definition: In a graph with directed edges the in-degree of a vertex v, denoted by deg -
(v), is the number of edges
with v as their terminal vertex.
The out-degree of with v, denoted by deg +

(v), is the number of edges with v as their initial vertex.
Note: A loop at a vertex contributes 1 to both the in-degree and the out-degree of this vertex.
In degree
In a directed graph G, the in degree of v denoted by in deg G (v) or deg -1

G (v), is the number of edges ending at v.
Out degree
In a directed graph G, the out degree of vertex of v of G denoted by out deg G(v) or deg+G (v), is the number of edges
beginning at v.
36. Theorem: If G = (V, E) be a directed graph with e edges, then
ΣvϵV deg+G (v) = ΣvϵV deg-G (v) = e
i.e., the sum of the outdegrees of the vertices of a diagraph G equals the sum of in degrees of the vertices which
equals the number of edges in G.
Proof: Each edge has an initial vertex and a terminal vertex.
⇒ Each edge contributes one out degree to its initial vertex and one indegree to its terminal vertex.
Thus the sum of the indegrees and the sum of the out degrees of all vertices in a directed graph are same.
37. Verify Σni=1 deg+G (vi) = Σ ni=1 deg- (vi) = |E| = e in the following graph.
38. What do the in-degree and the out-degree of a vertex in a directed graph modeling a round-robin tournament
represent?
Solution: (deg+ (v), deg- (v)) is the win-loss record of v.

39.Definition: Underlying undirected graph. The undirected graph that results from ignoring directions of edges is
called the underlying undirected graph.
40. Draw these graphs
(a) K5 (b) K6 (c) K7
Solution :
41.. Draw Graphs Kn for 1 ≤ n ≤4
Solution :
42. What is the degree sequence of K, where n is a positive integer? Explain your answer.
Solution: Each of the n vertices is adjacent to each of the other n-1 vertices, so the degree sequence is n - 1, n - 1, ..., n
- 1 (n terms)
44. Determine whether each of these sequences is graphic. For those that are, draw a graph having the given degree
sequence. (a) 5, 4, 3, 2, 1 (b) 3, 2, 2, 1, 0 (c) 1, 1, 1, 1, 1
Solution : (a) No, (5+4+3+2+1=15) sum of degree is odd
(b) Yes
(c) No, (1+1+1+1+1=5) sum of degrees is odd.
45. How many vertices and how many edges of Kn?
Ans. n vertices, n (n - 1)/2 edges.
46.. Find the degree sequence of each of the following graphs (a) K 4 (b) K5 (c) K2
Solution : (a) 3, 3, 3, 3 (b) 4, 4, 4, 4, 4 (c) 1, 1
47.Definition: Cycle Graph
A cycle graph of order 'n' is a connected graph whose edges form a cycle of length 'n' and denoted by C n.
48.Draw the graphs (a) C3 (b) C4 (c) C5 (a) C6, (e) C8
Solution :
49. How many vertices and how many edges do these graphs have (a) C n (b) C8 (c) Also find the degree sequence of C4.
Solution :
(a) n vertices, n edges (b) 8 vertices, 8 edges. (c) 2, 2, 2, 2
50. Definition: Wheel Graph :
A wheel graph of order n is obtained by joining a new vertex called 'Hub' to each vertex of a cycle graph of order n 1,
denoted by Wn.
51. Draw the graphs (a) W3, (b) W4 (c) W5, (d) W6, (e) W7
Solution :
52 How many vertices and how many edges do these graph have (a) W n (b) W5 also find the degree sequence of W4
Solution :
(a) n + 1 edges, 2n edges
(b) 5+1 = 6 vertices, (2)(5) = 10 edges
(c) 4, 3, 3, 3, 3
53.Definition: n-Cubes :
The n-dimensional hypercube, or n-cube, denoted by Q n; is the graph that has vertices representing the 2 n bit strings of
length n. Two vertices are adjacent if and only if the bit strings that they represent differ in exactly one bit position.
54. Draw the graphs (a) Q1 (b) Q2 (c) Q3
Solution :
55. How many vertices and how many edges do those graphs here?
(a) Qn (b) Q3
Solution : (a) 2n vertices, n 2n-1 edges (b) 23 = 8 vertices, (3) (22) = 12 edges
56. Find the degree sequence of Q3.
Solution: 3, 3, 3, 3, 3, 3
57. Regular graph: [A.U N/D 2012]
A graph in which all vertices are of equal degree is called a regular graph.
If the degree of each vertex is r, then the graph is called a regular graph of degree r.
58. What is the size of an r-regular (p, q) graph?
Solution : By the definition of regularity of G,
we have degG (v1) = r for all v1ϵV(G). But 2q = Σ degG (v1)
= Σ r = pr q = pr/2
59. Does there exists a 4-regular graph on 6 vertices if so construct a graph.
Solution: We know that q = pr/2 = (6)(4)/2 = 12
Four regular graph on 6 vertices is possible and it contains 12 edges.
60. For which values of n are these graphs regular? (a) K n (b) Cn (c) Wn (d) Qn
Solution:
(a) For all n ≥1 (b) For all n ≥ 3 (c) For n = 3 (d) For all n ≥0
61. How many vertices does a regular graph of degree four with 10 edges have?
Solution: Given
r=4
q = 10
To find : p.
We know that 2q = pr
P =་ 2q/r
P = (2) (10)/4 , p=5
62. Definition Bipartite graph
A bipartite graph is an undirected graph whose set vertices can be partitioned into two sets M and N is such a way
that each edge joins a vertex in M to a vertex in N and no edge joins either two vertices in M or two vertices in N. here
V = MUN ; Μ∩Ν = ϕ
M = {V1, V3, V5, V7} ; V = {V2, V4, V6, V8}

63.Definition: Complete Bipartite graph
A complete bipartite graph is a bipartite graph in which every vertex of M is adjacent to every vertex of N. The
complete bipartite graphs that may be partitioned into sets M and N as above s.t M = m and |N| = n are denoted by K m, n
64. Definition: Star graph
Any graph that is K1, n is called a star graph.
65. Show that C6 is a bipartite graph ?
Solution: The vertex set of C6 can be partioned into the two sets
V1 = {v1, v3, v5} and V2 = {v2, v4, v6} and every edge of C6 connects a vertex in V1 and a vertex in V2
Hence C6 is a bipartite graph.
66. Is K3 is bipartite?
Solution: No, the complete graph K3 is not bipartite.
If we divide the vertex set of K3 into two disjoint sets, one of the two sets must contain two vertices.
If the graph is bipartite, these two vertices should not be connected by an edge, but in K 3 each vertex is connected to
every other vertex by an edge.
K3 is not bipartite.
67. How many vertices and how many edges of Km,n graph have?
Solution: m + n vertices, mn edegs.
68. Find the degree sequence of the following graph K2,3

Solution: 3, 3, 2, 2, 2
69. Show that the following graph G is bipartite.
Solution: Graph G is bipartite since its vertex set is the union of two disjoint sets, { v1, v2, v3} and {v3, v5, v6, v7}, and each
edge connects a vertex in one of these subsets to a vertex in the other subset.
70. For which values of m and n is Km,n regular?
Solution: A complete bipartite graph Km,n is not a regular it m ≠ n
→ If m = n then Km,n is regular.
71. Prove that a graph which contains a triangle can not be bipartite.
Proof: Atleast two of the three vertices must lie in one of the bipartite sets because there two are joined by edge, the
graph can not be bipartite.
72. Draw the complete bipartite graphs K2,3, K3,3 K3,5 and K2,6
Solution :
72. Theorem: A simple graph is bipartite if and only if it is possible to assign one of two different colors to each vertex
of the graph so that no two adjacent vertices are assigned the same color.
Proof: Let G = (V,E) is a bipartite simple graph. Then V = V 1UV2, where V1 and V2 are disjoint sets and every edge in E
connects a vertex in V1 and a vertex in V2.
If we assign one color to each vertex in V 1 and a second color to each vertex in V 2, then no two adjacent vertices are
assigned the same color.
Suppose that it is possible to assign colors to the vertices of the graph using just wo colors.
→ No two adjacent vertices are assigned the same color.
Let V1 be the set of vertices assigned one color and V 2 be the set of vertices assigned the other colour. Then, V 1 and
V2 are disjoint and V = V1UV2.
i.e., every edge connects a vertex in V 1 and a vertex in v2 since no two adjacent vertices are either both in V 1 or both in
V2. Consequently, G is bipartite.
73. Definition: Subgraph
A subgraph of a graph G = (V,E) is a graph H = (W, F), where W≤V and F≤E. A subgroup H of G is a proper subgraph of G
if H≠G.
74. Draw two subgraph of K5.
Solution:
75.. How many subgraphs with atleast one vertex does K3 have ?
Solution: 17
76.Definition: The union two simple graphs G 1 = (V1, E1) and G2 = (V2, E2) is the simple graph with vertex set V 1 U V2 and
edge set E1UE2. The union of G1 and G2 is denoted by G1 U G2.
77.. Find the union of the graphs G1 and G2
Solution : The vertex set of G1 = {a, b, c, d, e}
The vertex set of G2 = {a, b, c, d, f}
G1UG2 = {a, b, c, d, e, f}
78.Definition: Complement
The complement of G is defined as a simple graph with the same vertex set as G and value two vertices u and v are
adjacent only when then are not adjacent in G.
79. If the simple graph G has v vertices and e edges, how many edges does have?
Solution: have the edges.
= v (v-1) / 2e
80.. Show that if G is a simple graph with n vertices, then the union of G and is Kn.
Solution: The union of G and contains an edge between each pair of the n vertices. Hence this union is K n.
81.Definition: Adjacency matrix
Let G (V, E) be a simple graph with n. Vertices ordered from V 1 to Vn, then the adjacency matrix A = [aij] n˟n of G is an n
˟nsymmetric matrix defined by the elements.
82. Properties of adjacency matrix

1. An adjacency matrix completely defines a simple graph
2. The adjacency matrix is symmetric
3. Any element of the adjacency matrix is either 0 or 1, therefore it is also called as, bit matrix or boolean matrix.
4. The ith row in the adjacency matrix is determined by the edges which originate in the node V i.
5. If the graph G is simple, the degree of the vertex V; equals the number of 1's in the i th row (or ith column) of AG.
6. Given an n˟n symmetric boolean matrix A, we can find a simple graph G s.t A is the adjacency matrix of G.
7. G is null ↔ A(G) is the zero matrix of order n.
83. Use an adjacency list to represent the given graph.
84. Represent the following graph with an adjacency matrix.
85. Write the adjacency matrix of K4
Solution: K4 graph is
86 Write the adjacency matrix of K2,3
Solution: K2,3 graph is

87. Write the adjacency matrix of C4.
Solution : C4 graph is
88. Write the adjaency matrix of W4.
Solution: W4 graph is
89. Write the adjacency matrix of Q3
Solution: The Q3 graph is
90. Draw a graph of the given adjacency matrix.

91. Represent the given graph using an adjacency matrix.
92. Find the adjacency matrix of the given directed multigraph.
93. Use an adjacency matrix to represent the pseudograph shown in figure.
Solution: The adjacency matrix using the ordering of vertices a, b, c, d is
94.Definition: Incidence matrix
Let G be a graph with n vertices, Let V = {V1, V2, ... Vn} and E = (e1, e2,...em). Define n x m matrix
IG = [mij]n˟m where
95. Represent pseudograph shown in figure using an incidence matrix.
Solution: The incidence matrix for this graph is
96. What is the sum of the entries in a row of the incidence matrix for an undirected graph?
Solution: Sum is 2 if e is not a loop, 1 if e is a loop.
Definition: Isomorphic Graphs
The simple graphs G1 = (V1, E1) and G2 = (V2, E2) are isomorphic if there is a one-to-one and onto function f from V1 to
V2 with the property that a and b are adjacent in G1 if and only if f(a) and f(b) are adjacent in G2, for all a and b in V1.
Such a function f is called an isomorphism.
97. Explain why the two graphs given below are not isomorphic.
Solution: In the graph (a), no vertices of degree two are adjacent while in the graph (b) vertices of degree two are
adjacent. Because isomorphism preserves adjacency of vertices, the graphs are not isomorphic.
98. Show that the graphs G = (V, E) and H = (W, F), shown in figure are isomorphic.
Solution: The function f with f (u1) = 1, ƒ (u2) = 4, f (u3) = 3, and f(u4) = 2 is a one-to-one corresponding between V and W.
Here the correspondence preserves adjacency, note that adjacent vertices in G are u 1 and u2, u1 and uз, u2 and u4, and
u3 and u4 and each of the pairs f (u 1) = 1 and f(u2) = 4. f (u1) = 1 and f (u 3) = 3, f(u2) = 4 and ƒ (u 4) = 2, and ƒ (u3) = 3 and ƒ
(u4) = 2 are adjacent in H.
99. Show that the two graphs shown in figure are isomorphic.
Solution: Here, V(G1) = {1, 2, 3, 4}, V (G2) = {a, b, c, d},
E (G1) = {{1, 2}, {2, 3}, {3, 4}} and E (G2) = {{a, b}}, {b, d}, {d, c}
Define f: V(G1) → V (G2) as
f (1) = a, f(2) = b, f (3) = d and ƒ (4) = c
f is clearly one-one and onto, hence an isomorphism.
{1, 2} ϵ E (G1) and {f (1), f (2)} = {a, b} ϵ E (G2)
{2, 3} ϵ E (G1) and {ƒ(2), f (3)} = {b, d} ϵ E (G2)
{3, 4} ϵ E (G1) and {f (3), f (4)} = {d, c} ϵ E (G2)
{1, 3} € E (G1) and {f(1), f (3)} = {a, d} € E (G2)
{1, 4} € E (G1) and {f(1), f (4)} = {a, c} € E (G2)
{2, 4} € E (G1) and {f(2), f (4)} = {b, c} € E (G2)
Hence ƒ preserves adjacency as well as non-adjacency of the vertices. Therefore G 1 and G2 are isomorphic.
100. Prove that the graphs G and G given below are isomorphic
Solution: The two graphs have the same number of vertices same number of edges and same degree sequence
consider the function f.
f(u1) V1, f (u2) = v3, f (u3) = V4, ƒ (u4) = V2, f (u5) = v5
then the adjacency matrices of the two graphs corresponding to f are

G and Ğ are isomorphic to each other.
Example 19. Show that the Digraphs are isomorphic.
Solution: G and are having 5 vertices and 8 edges. Consider indegree and out degree of the vertices if G and .
Now
f(v1) = u5, f (v2) = u1, f (v3) = u2
f(v4)=u3, f (v5) = u4
Clearly f is one to one and onto.
⇒ AG = AĞ under this mapping f
G and Ğ are isomorphic.
Example 20. Prove that any 2 simple connected graphs with n vertices all of degree 2 are isomorphic.
Solution: We know that total degree of a graph is given by
Σni=1 d(Vi)=2|E|
then |V| = number of vertices n
|E| = number of edges
Further the degree of every vertex is 2.
Therefore Σni=1 2 = 2|E|
2 ((n) − 1 + 1) = 2 |E|
⇒ n = |E|
number of edges = number of vertices. Therefore the graphs are cycle graphs Hence they are isomorphic.
Example 21. Can a simple graph with 7 vertices be isomorphic to its complement?
Solution: A graph with 7 vertices can have a maximum number of edges.
= 7(7-1) / 2 = 7×6 / 2 = 21 = 21 edges
21 edges cannot be split into 2 equal integers. Therefore, G and cannot equal number of edges. Hence a graph with 7
vertices cannot be isomorphic to its complement.
Example 22. Let G be a simple graph all of whose vertices have degree 3 and |E| = 2 |V| - 3. What can be said about G?
Solution :
Σ|v|i=1 d(Vi)=2|E|
3 (|V| - 1+1) = 2|E|
3 |V| = 2 |E|
⇒ 3|V| = 2(2 |V| − 3)
= 3|V| = 4|V| - 6
|V| = 6
Number of vertices in G = 6 It can be concluded that G is isomorphic to K 3,3
Example 23. Show that isomorphism of simple graphs is an equivalence relation.
Solution:
(i) Reflexive: G is isomorphic to itself by the identity function, so isomorphism is reflexive.
(ii) Symmetric: Suppose that G is isomorphic to H. Then there exists a one-to-one correspondence ƒ from G to H that
preserves adjacency and nonadjacency. From this f -1 is a one-to-one correspondence from H to G that preserve
adjacency and non adjacency.
Hence, isomorphism is symmetric.
(iii) Transitive: If G is isomorphic to H and H is isomorphic to K, then there are one-to-one correspondences ƒ and g
from G to H and from H to K that preserve adjacency and non adjacency. It follows that gof is a one-to-one
correspondence from G to K that preserves adjacency and non adjdacency. Hence, isomorphism is transitive.
EXERCISES 3.3
1. Draw a graph with the given adjacency matrix.
2. Represent the given graph using an adjacency matrix.

3. Draw an undirected graph represented by the given adjacency matrix.
4. Find the adjacency matrix of the given directed multigraph.
5. Draw the graph represented by the given adjacency matrix.
6. Is every zero-one square matrix that is symmetric and has zeros on the diagonal the adjacency matrix of a simple
graph?
[Ans. Yes]
7. Describe the row and column of an adjacency matrix of a graph corresponding to an isolated vertiex.
[Ans. Zeros]
8. Show that the vertices of a bipartite graph with two or more vertices can be ordered so that its adjacency matrix
has the form
9. Find a self-complementary simple graph with five vertices.

[Ans. C5]
10. For which integers n is Cn self-complementary?
[Ans. for n = 5 only]
11. How many non isomorphic simple graphs are there with five vertices and three edges ?
[Ans. 4]
12. Are the simple graphs with the following adjacency matrices isomorphic?
13. Determine whether the given pair of directed graphs are isomorphic.
Definition: Path
A path in a multigraph G consists of an alternating sequence of vertices and edges of the form
V0, e1 V1, e2, V2, … en-1, Vn-1, en, Vn
where each edge ei contains the vertices Vi-1 and Vi
The number n of edges is called the length of the path.
The path is said to be closed if Vo = Vn we say the path is from Vo to Vn or between Vo and Vn or Connects Vo to Vn.
Definition: Circuit:
A path of length ≥ 1 with no repeated edges and whose end vertices are same is called a circuit.
Definition: Path graph
A path graph of order 'n' is obtained by removing on edge from a C n graph, denoted by Pn.
Definition: Trail
A trail from v to w is a path from v to w that does not contain a repeated edge.
Thus a trial from v to w is a path of the form
v = v0, e1, v1, e2, ... vk-1, ek, vk = w where all the ei are distinct.
Example 1: Does each of these lists of vertices from a path in the following graph? Which paths are simple? Which are
circuits? What are the lengths of those that are paths?
(a) a, e, b, c, b (b) e, b, a, d, b, e
(c) a, e, a, d, b, c, a (d) c, b, d, a, e, c
Solution :
(a) path of length 4, not a circuit, not simple.
(b) not a path
(c) not a path
(d) simple circuit of length 5.
Definition: Connected and disconnected graphs
A graph G is a connected graph is there is atleast one path between every pair of vertices in G. Otherwise G is a
disconnected graph.
Example:
Example 2. Determine whether the given graph is connected.
Solution: (a) No (b) No
Example 3. For the following graph

Theorem: There is a simple path between every pair of distinct vertices of a connected undirected graph.
Proof: Let u and v be two distinct vertices of the connected undirected graph G = (V, E).
Since G is connected, there is at least one path between u and v. Let x 0, x1,...,xn, where x0 = u and xn = v, be the vertex
sequence of a path of least length.
This path of least length is simple.
Suppose it is not simple. Then xi = xj for some i and j with 0 ≤ i < j.
This means that there is a path from u to v of shorter length with vertex sequence x 0, x1, ..., xi-1, xj, ..., xn obtained by
deleting the edges corresponding to the vertex sequence x i, ..., xi-1.
Example 4. What are the connected components of the graph H shown in figure.
Solution: The graph H is the union of three disjoint connected subgraphs H 1, H2, and H3.
These three subgraphs are the connected components of H.
Definition: A directed graph is strongly connected if there is a path from a to b and from b to a whenever a and b are
vertices in the graph.

Definition: A directed graph is weakly connected if there is a path between every two vertices in the underlying
undirected graph.
Example 5. Are the directed graphs G and H shown in figure strongly connected? Are they weakly connected?
Solution: G is strongly connected because there is a path between any two vertices in this directed graph. Hence, G is
also weakly connected.
The graph H is not strongly connected. There is no directed path from a to b in this graph. However, H is weakly
connected, because there is a path between any two vertices in the underlying undirected graph of H.
Cut vertex, Cut set and Brige
A cut vertex of a connected graph G is a vertex whose removal increases the number of components. Clearly if v is a
cut vertex of a connected graph G, G - v is disconnected. A cut vertex is also called a cut point.
Bridge:
If a graph G is connected and e is an edge such that G - e is not connected, then e is said to be a bridge or a cut edge.
Paths in Acquaintanceship Graphs: In an acquaintanceship graph there is a path between two people if there is a chain
of people linking these people, where two people adjacent in the chain know one another.
Paths in Collaboration Graphs: In a collaboration graph two vertices a and b, which represent authors, are connected
by a path when there is a sequence of authors beginning at a and ending at b such that the two authors represented by
the endpoints of each edge have written a joint paper.
Paths in the Hollywood graph: In the Holly wood graph two vertices a and b are linked when there is a chain of actors
linking a and b, where every two actors adjacent in the chain have acted in the same movie.
Example 6. Find all the cut vertices of the given graph.
Solution :
(a) e
(b) b, c, e, i
Example 7. Suppose that v is an endpoint of a cut edge. Prove that v is a cut vertex if and only if this vertex is not
pendant.
Solution: If a vertex is pendant it is clearly not a cut vertex. A endpoint of a cut edge that is a cut vertex is not
pendant.
Remove of a cut edge produces a graph with more connected components than in the original graph.
If an endpoint of a cut edge is not pendant, the connected component it is in after the remove cut edge contains more
than just this vertex.
From this, removal of that vertex and all edges incident to it, including the original cut edge, produces a graph with
more connected components than were in the original graph.
Hence, an endpoint of a cut edge that is not pendant is a cut vertex.
Theorem: Let G be a graph with adjacency matrix A with respect to the ordering 1, 2, ..., n (with directed or undirected
edges, with multiple edges and loops allowed). The number of different paths of length r from i to j, where r is a
positive integer, equals the (i,j)th entry of Ar.
Example 8. Show that a simple graph G with n vertices is connected if it has more than (n - 1) (n - 2)/2 edges.
Solution:
Suppose that G is not connected.
Then it has a component of k vertices for some k, 1 ≤ k ≤ n-1.
The most edges G could have is
C (k, 2) + C (n-k, 2) = [k (k-1) + (n - k) (n - k-1)]/2
= k2 - nk + (n2 - n)/2.
This quadratic function off is minimized at k = n/2 and maximized at k = 1 or k = n-1.
Hence, if G is not connected, then the number of edges does not exceed the value of this function at 1 and at n-1,
namely, (n - 1) (n - 2)/2.
Example 9. How many paths of length four are there from a to d in the simple graph G in figure. [A.U N/D 2012]
Solution: The adjacency matrix of G (ordering the vertices as a, b, c, d) is
Hence, the number of paths of length four from a to d is the (1, 4)th entry of A4. Since
there are exactly eight paths of length four from a to d. From this graph, we see that a, b, a, b, d; a, b, a, c, d; a, b, d, b,
d; a, b, d, c, d ; a, c, a, b, d; a, c, a, c, d; a, c, d, b, d; and a, c, d, c, d are the eight paths from a to d.
UNIT-4
ALGEBRAIC SYSTEMS - DEFINITIONS - EXAMPLES - PROPERTIES

Definition 1: Algebraic system or Algebra
A system consisting of a set and one or more n-ary operations on the set will be be called an algebraic system or
simply an algebra.
We shall denote an algebraic system by (S, f1,f2, ...) where S is a nonempty set and f1,f2, are operations on S.
Definition 2: Algebraic structure
The operations and relations on the set S define a structure on the elements of S, an algebraic system is called an
algebraic structure.
Example: Let I be the set of integers. Consider the algebraic system (1, +, ˟) where + and ˟ are the operations of addition
and multiplication on I.
A list of important properties
(A-1) For any a, b, c ϵ I
(a + b) + c = a + (b + c) (Associativity)
(A-2) For any a, b ϵ I
a+b=b+a (Commutativity)
(A-3) There exists a distinguished element 0 Є I such that for any a Є I
a+0=0+a=a (Identity element)
Here a Є I is the identity element with respect to addition.
(A-4) For each a Є I, there exists an element in I denoted by -a and called the negative of a such that
a + (-a) = 0 (Inverse element)
(M-1) For any a, b, c Є I
(a x b) x c = a x (b x c) (Associativity)
(M-2) For any a, b Є I
axb=bxa (Commutativity)
(M-3) There exists a distinguished element 1 Є I such that for any a Є I
ax1=1xa=a (Identity element)
(D) For any a, b, c Є I
a x (b + c) = (a x b) + (a x c) (Distributivity)
The operation x distributes over +.
(C) For a, b, c Є I and a ≠ 0
axb=axc⇒b=c (Cancellation property)
The algebraic system (I, +, x) should have been expressed as (I, +, ˟, 0, 1) in order to emphasize the fact that 0 and 1
are distinguished elements of I.
Definition 3: Homomorphism
If {X, o} and {Y, *} are two algebraic systems, where o and * are binary (n-ary) operations, then a mapping g: X→Y
satisfying
8(x1 o x2) = g (x1) * g (x2) ∀ x1, x2 Є X is called a homomorphism.
Note: Let g be a homomorphism from (X, o) to (Y, *)
(i) If g X → Y is one-to-one, then g is called a monomorphism.
(ii) If g: X → Y is onto, then g is called a epimorphism.
(iii) If g: X → Y is one-to-one and onto, then g is called a isomorphism.
(iv) A homomorphism g: X → Y is called an endomorphism, if Y≤X
(v) An isomorphism g: X→ Y is called an automorphism, if Y=X
Definition 4:
Let (X, *) be an algebraic system and E be an equivalence relation on X. The relation E is called a congruence relation
on (X, *) if E satisfies the substitution property with respect to the operation o.
Note: Substitution property
Let {X, *} be an algebraic system in which * is a binary operation on X. Let us assume that E is an equivalence relation
on X.
The equivalence relation E is said to have the substitution property w.r.to the operation * iff for any x 1, x2 Є X
(x1 E x1') ˄ (x2 E x2') = (x1 * x2) E (x1' * x2')
where x1, x2' Є X
Example 1. Show that intersection any two congruence relation on a set A is again an congruence relation on
A. [A.U N/D 2014]
Solution :
Let E1 and E2 be two congruence relations on (A, *)
⇒ (a1 E1 a1') ^ (a2 E1 a2') = (a1 * a2) E1 (a1' * a2')
(a1 E2 a1') ^ (a2 E2 a2') = (a1 * a2) E2 (a1' * a2')
Let E = E1 Ո E2
To prove E is a congruence relation on A.
(a1 E a1') ^ (a2 E a2')
= [a1 (E1 ∩ E2) a1'] ^ [a2 (E1 ∩ E2) a2']
= (a1 E1 a1') and (a1 E2 a1) ^ (a2 E1 a2') and (a2 E2 a2')
= (a1 E1 a1') ˄ (a2 E1 a2') and (a1 E2 a1) ^ (a2 E2 a2').
= (a1* a2) E1 (a1' *a2') and (a1 * a2) E2 (a1' * a2')
= (a1* a2) (E1 ∩ E2) (a1' * a2')
= (a1 * a2) E (a1' * a2')
Hence, E is a congruence relation on A.
Example 2. Let f: S → T be a homomorphism from (S, *) to (T, ∆) and g: T → P is also a homomorphism from (T, ∆) to (P,
V), then g o f: S → P is a homomorphism from (S,*) to (P, V).
Solution: As g o f (S1 * S2) = g(f(S1 * S2))
= g (f (S1 ∆ f (S2)) [Since ƒ is [homomorphism]
= (f(S1 ∆ g (f (S2))) [Since g is homomorphism]
= g o f (S1) ∆ g o f (S2)
= g o f: S → T is a homomorphism
Example 3. Let (A, *) and (B, ∆) be two algebra systems and be homomorphism from A→ B. Let (A 1, *) be subalgebra of
(A, *). Then show that an the homomorphic image of (A1, *) is a subalgebra of (B, ∆)
Solution: Let g be an homomorphism from A to B. Then for any two elements a 1, a2, Є A.
g (a1 * a2) = g(a1) ∆ g (a2). Let A1 be a subset of A. As g is homomorphism from A to B, for any two elements, a j, aj Є A1 ≤
A.
g (ai * aj) = g(ai) ∆ g(aj) and g(A1) ≤ g (A) ≤ B. Therefore the image of A 1 and g forms an algebraic system with operation
∆, which becomes a subalgebra of B.
Example 4. Give an example for homomorphism. [A.U N/D 2014]
Solution: Let S = {a, b, c) and P = {1, 2, 3} be two sets with operation + and *
Consider the mapping g: S→ P defined by
g (a) = 3, g (b) = 1, g (c) = 2
g (a + b) = g(b) = 1 = 3*1 = g(a) * g(b)
g (b + c) = g(c) = 2 = 1*2 = g(b) * g(c)
g (c + a) = g(c) = 2 = 2*3 = g(c) * g(a)
g is homomorphism of {S, +} {P, *}
Semigroups and Monoids – Groups - Subgroups- Homomorphisms
Definition 1: Semi-group : [A.U N/D 2014]
A non-empty set S, together with a binary operation * is called a semi-group if * satisfies the following conditions.
(i) Closure: ∀ a, b ϵ S ⇒a*bϵS
(ii) Associative: ∀ a, b, c ϵ S, a * (b * c) = (a + b) * c
Example: (Z,.) is a semi-group.
i.e., set of integers under multiplication operation is a semi-group.
Definition 2 : Monoid : [A.U N/D 2014]
A non-empty set M, together with a binary operation * is called a monoid if * satisfies the following conditions
(i) Closure: ∀ a, b Є M ⇒ a * b Є M
(ii) Associative: ∀ a, b, c € M ⇒ a * (b * c) = (a *b) *c
(iii) Identity: ∀ a Є G, Ǝ e Є G
s.t. a * e = e * a = a
Example: (Z, +) is a monoid.
Definition 3: Group :
A non-empty set G, together with a binary operation * is said to form a group, if it satisfies the following conditions.
(i) Closure: ∀ a, b Є G ⇒ a * b Є G
(ii) Associative: ∀ a, b, c Є G ⇒ a* (b*c) = (a*b) * c
(iii) Identity: ∀ a Є G, Ǝ e Є G, s.t. a * e = e * a = a
(iv) Inverse: ∀ a Є G, Ǝ a-1 Є G, s.t. a * a-1 = a-1 *a = e
Example: (Z, +) is a group.
Definition 4: Abelian group:
A group (G, *) is said to be an abelian group or commutative group if a * b = b * a, ∀ a, b Є G
Definition 5: Subgroup :
A non-empty subset H of a group G (H≤G) is a subgroup of G iff a, b Є H ⇒ ab-1Є H
Example : (Z, +) is a subgroup of group (R, +)
Definition 6: Order of a group :
Let G be a group under the binary operation *. The number of elements in G is called the order of the group G and is
denoted by O (G)
Note: If the O(G) is finite, then G is called a finite group, otherwise it is called an infinite group.
Definition 7: Semi-group homomorphism

Let (S, *) and (T, ∆) be any two semigroups. A mapping g: S→T such that for any two elements a, b Є S.
g (a*b) = g (a) ∆ g (b)
is called a semigroup homomorphism.
Definition 8: Monoid homomorphism
Let (M,*, eM) and (T, ∆, e,) be any two monoids. A mapping g: M→T such that for any two elements a, b Є M.
g (a*b) = g (a) ∆ g (b) …. (2)
g (eM) = er …. (3)
is called a monoid homomorphism.
Definition 9: Group homomorphism
Let (G, *) and (H, ∆) be two groups. A mapping y: G→H is called a group homomorphism from <G, *> to <H, ∆> if for any
a, b Є G.
g(a*b) = g(a) ∆ g (b)
Definition 10: Kernel of homomorphism g [ker (g)]
Let g be a group homomorphism from < G,*> to <H, ∆>. The set of elements of G which are mapped into е H, the identity
of H, is called the kernel of the homomorphism g and denoted by ker (g)
Definition 11: Cyclic group
A group G is called a cyclic group, if there exists an element a Є G such that each element of G is expressible as:
x = an = aa ... a (n times).
where n is some integer.
the element a Є G is called a generator of G and G is written as G = <a> or G = (a)
We also say that G is generated by a.
It may be observed that a group (G, +} is cyclic, if there exists some element a of G such that each element x of G is
expressible as
x = na = a + a + ... + a (n times)
for some integer n.
Illustraion :
1. G = {-1, 1} is a cyclic group generated by -1,
since (-1)1 = -1 = (-1)2 = 1. Thus G = (-1)
2. G (-1, 1, i, -i) is a cyclic group, where G = <i>. Notice that i 1 = i, i2 = -i , i3 = -i, i4 = 1.
Also G = <i>.
Definition 12: Permutation :
Any one-to-one mapping of a set S onto S is called a permutation of S.
Definition 13: Even and odd permutation
A permutation of a finite set is called even if it can be written as a product of an even number of transpositions, and it
is called odd if it can be written as a product of an odd number of transpositions.
Semi-group and Monoids
Definition: Semi-group endomorphism :
A homomorphism of a semi-group into itself is called a semi-group endomorphism.
Theorem 2. The set of all semi-group endomorphisms of a semi-group is a semi-group under the operation of left
composition.
Proof: Let F be the set of all semi-group homomorphism
f: S →S where (S, *) is a semigroup.
To prove: (F, o) is a semi-group with binary operation o, the left composition of mapping.
Proof :
(i) Closure: ∀ f, g Є F ⇒ f o g Є F
(ii) Associative: ∀ f, g, h Є F, ∀ a Є S
(f o g) o h (a) = f o g (h (a))
= f (g (h (a)))
= f (g o h (a))
= f o (g o h) (a)
⇒ (f o g) = f o (g o h)
(F, o) is a semi-group.
Note: Infact (F, o) is a monoid, because the identity mapping I is the identity under o. Thus (F, o, I) is a monoid.
Therefore the set of all semigroup homomorphisms of a semigroup is a monoid.
Theorem 3. Let (S, *) be a given semi-group. There exists a homomorphism g: S→S S, where (SS, o) is a semi-group of
functions from S to S under the operation of (left) composition. [A.U N/D 2011]
Proof: For any a Є S
We define a function fa: S→S,
defined by fa (b) = a*b, ∀ b Є S
f (a) Є SS
Now, we define g: S→ SS by
g (a) = fa, ∀ a Є S
Let a, b Є S, then a*b Є S
g (a* b) = fa*b
fa*b (c) = (a*b) * c, ∀ c Є S
= fa (b*c) = fa (fb (c))
= fa o fb (c) ⇒ fa*b = fa o fb
⇒ g (a*b) = g(a) o g(b)
Hence, the proof.
Theorem 5. Let (S, *) and (T, ∆) be two semigroups and g be a semigroup homomorphism from (S, *) to (T, ∆).
Corresponding to the homomorphism g, there exists a congruence relation R on (S, *) defined by x R y iff g (x) =
g(y) for x, y Є S
Proof: It is easy to see that R is an equivalence relation on S. Let x 1, x2, x1', x2' Є S such that x1 R x1' and x2 R x2'. From
g (x1*x2) = g (x1) ∆ g(x2) = g(x1) ∆ g(x2) = g(x1' * x2')
it follows that R is a congruence relation on (S, *).
Property 1: A semigroup homomosphism preserves the property of associativity.
Solution: Let a, b, c Є S
g [(a+b) *c] = g(a*b) o g(c)
= [g (a) o g (b)) o g (c)] …..(1)
g[a* (b*c)] = g(a) o g(b*c)
= g (a) o g (b) o g (c)] …..(2)
But in S, (a * b) * c = a * (b * c) ∀ a, b, c Є S
g [(a * b) * c ] = g[a* (b * c)]
⇒ [g (a) o g (b)] o g (c) = g(a) o [g (b) o g (c)]
The property of associativity is preserved.
Property 2: A semigroup homomorphism preserves idempotency.
Solution: Let a Є S be an idempotent element.
a* a = a
g (a*a) = g(a)
g(a) o g (a) = g(a)
This shows that g (a) is an idempotent element in T.
The property of idempotency is preserved under semigroup homomorphism.
Property 3: A semigroup homomosphism preserves commutativity.
Solution: Let a, b Є S.
Assume that a * b = b * a
g (a * b) = g (b * a)
g (a) o g (b) = g(b) o g (a)
This means that the operation o is commutative in T.
The semigroup homomorphism preserves commutativity.
Property 4: Show that every finite semigroup has an idempotent element.
Solution: Consider the subsemigroup S generated by s (i.e.,) S = {s, s 2, s3, ... sn}, where n is finite. S is a finite subset of
a finite semigroup G. Therefore there exist r1, r2 such that sr1 sr2. Without loss of generality, we assume that r1 > r2.
Now we have two cases.
Case 1: Suppose r1 – 2r2 ≥0
Put r = r1 – 2r2
Now
sr1 sr = sr2 sr = sr1-r2
(r2+r = r2 + r1 – 2r2 = r1 – r2)
Sr1+r = s2(r1 – r2)
This implies that S has an idempotent.
Case 2: Suppose r1 – 2r2 < 0
Put r1 - r2
sr1 sr = sr2+r = sr1 = sr2
sr1 sr sr = sr2+r = sr1 = sr2
Proceeding in this way, we can find an integer r1'≥ 22 such that
sr1 = sr2
which leads to case 1.
Thus we have proved that S has an idempotent which inturn implies that the semigroup G has an idempotent.
Problems under semi-group and monoid
Example 1. Give an example of a semi-group which is not a monoid. [A.U. M/J 2009]
Solution: Let D = {..., -4, -2, 0, 2, 4, ...}
(D,.) is a semi-group but not a monoid since multiplicative identity is 1, but 1Є D
Example 2. Give an example of a monoid which is not a group.
Solution: (Z+,.) is a monoid which is not a group.
Since ∀ a Є G, 1/a € G
Example 3. What do you call a homomorphism of a semi-group into itself? [A.U. A/M 2003]
Solution: A homomorphism of a semi-group into itself is called a semi-group endomorphism.
Example 4. If (Z, +) and (E, +) where Z is the set all integers and E is the set of all even integers, show that the two
semi groups (Z, +) and (E, +) are isomorphic. [A.U. N/D 2010]
Solution :
Step 1: We define the function
G: Z → E given by g (a) = 2a where a Є Z
Step 2: Suppose g (a1) = g (a2) where a1, a2 Є Z
Then 2a1 = 2a2 i.e., a1 = a2
Hence mapping by g is one-to-one.
Step 3: Suppose b is an even integer
Let a = b/2. Then a Є Z and
g (a) = g (b/2) = 2.b/2 = b
i.e., every element b in E has a preimage in Z.
So mapping by g onto.
Step 4: Let a and b EZ
g (a + b) = 2(a + b)
= 2a + 2b
= g (a) + g (b)
Hence, (Z, +) and (E, +) are isomorphic semigroups.

Example 5. If * is a binary operation on the set R of real numbers defined by a + b = a + b + 2ab,
(1) Find <R, *> is a semigroup.
(2) Find the identify element if it exists.
(3) Which elements has inverse and what are they? [A.U A/M 2011]
Solution :
(1) (a*b) *c = (a + b + 2ab) + c + 2 (a + b + 2 ab) c
= a + b + c + 2 (ab + bc + ca) + 4 abc
a * (b*c) = a + (b + c + 2bc) + 2a (b + c + 2bc)
= a + b + c + 2 (ab + bc + ca) + 4abc
Hence, (a*b) *c = a* (b*c)
i.e., is associative.
(2) If the identity element exists, let it be e.
Then for any a Є R.
a*e=a
i.e., a + e + 2ae = a
i.e., e (1 + 2a) = 0
e = 0, since 1+ 2a ≠ 0, for any a Є R
(3) Let be a-1 the inverse of an element a Є R. Then a * a-1 = e
i.e., a + a-1 + 2a. a-1 = 0
i.e., a-1.(1+2a) = -a
a-1 = -a /1 + 2a
If a ≠ 1/2 then a-1 = -a /1 + 2a
Example 6. Let < M, *,e M > be a monoid and a Є M. If a invertible, then show that its inverse is unique. [A.U A/M
2011]
Solution: Let b and c be elements of M
such that
a*b = b*a = e and
a*c = c*a = e
since
b=b*e
= b * (a*c)
= (b*a) * c
= e*c
=c
Example 7. Show that a semi-group with more than one idempotents cannot be a group. Give an example of a semi-
group which is not a group. [A.U N/D 2014]
Solution: Let (S, *) be semi-group.
Let a, b are two idempotents
a*a = a and b*b = b
Let us assume that (S, *) is group then each element has the inverse.
(a * a) * a-1 = a * (a * a-1)
L.H.S = (a * a) * a-1 = a * a-1 [ a * a = a]
=e
(a * a) * a -1
= e …..(1)
also R.H.S = a * (a * a -1) = a * e = a …..(2)
From (1) & (2), we get a = e
Similarly we can prove that b = e
In a group we can not have two identities and hence (S, *) cannot be group.
This contradiction is due to an assumption that (S,*) has two idenpotents.
Example: Let S = {a, b, c) under the operation *
(S, *) is a semi-group which is not a group.
Example 8: Let (N,+) be the semigroup of natural numbers and (S, *) be the semigroup of on S = {e, 0, 1} with the
operation * given by
A mapping g: N→S given by g (0) = 1 and g (j) = 0 for j ≠ 0. Is g is a semigroup homomorphism.
Solution: Though both (N, +) and (S, *) are monoids with identities 0 and e respectively, g is not a monoid
homomorphism because g (0) ≠ e.
g is semigroup homomorphism.
Example 9: Find all semigroup of (Z6, X6) where Z6 = {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5]}
Solution: {[0]}, {[0], [1]}, {[1]}, {[1], [2], [4]}, {[0], [1], [2], [4]}, {[2], [4]}, {[0], [3], [4]}, {[1], [5]}, {[0], [1], [5]}, {[0], [4]}, {[0],
[1], [4]}, {[2], [0], [3]}, {[0], [1], [2], [3]}
Example 10: Is it true that a semigroup homomorphism preserves identity? Justify your answer. [OR] Prove by an
example that semigroup homomorphism need not preserve an identity.
Solution: Semigroup homomorphism need not preserve an identity.
Let W = {0, 1, 2, ..}. Then (W, +) is a semigroup with identity element 0. Let S = {e, o, 1} and * be the operation on S
given by
Then, (S, *) is a semigroup with identity e.
Define a mapping g: W→S by g(0) = 1 and g (i) = 0 for i ≠ 0.
We can see that g (a + b) = g (a) * g (b) for all a, b Є W. Thus g is a semigroup homomorphism. But g (0) = 1 ≠ e. Thus g
doesn't preserve the identity.
Example 11 Let S = {a, b}. Show that the semi group (S s, . ) is not commutative where . is the left composition of
functions.
Solution: Let S = {a, b} then (S s, .) is an algebra of set of functions from S to S with left composition ' .’ as an operation.
Clearly Ss contain 22 functions (that is 4 functions).
Ss = (f0, f1, f2, f3), defined by
f0 (a) = a f0 (b) = a f1 (a) = a f1 (b) = a
f2 (a) = b f2 (b) = b f3 (a) = b f3 (b) = a
Table is the composition table for (Ss, .) from the table one can see that f2 o f1 ≠ f1 o f2 and hence (Ss, .) is not
commutative.
Example 12: Let (S, *) be a semigroup and z Є S be a left zero. Show that for any x Є S, x*z is also a left zero.
Solution: Let (S, *) be a semigroup. Therefore (S, *) is closed under * and * is associative.
Therefore for any x, y, z we have
(x * y) * z = x* (v* z)
As z is left zero x * z = z for all x Є S.
Therefore y * (x*z) = z because y * (x * z) = y * z = z = x*z for all y Є S, which implies that x*z is also a left zero of s.
Example 13 An element a Є S is left cancellable for a semigrop (S, *) if for all x, y Є S, a * x = a * y ⇒ x= y. Show that if
a and b are left cancellable then a*b is also left cancellable.
Solution: Let a, b ⇒ S, where (S, *) are left cancellable that
a*x=a*y
⇒ x = y and
b*x =b*y
⇒x=y
Now we shall show that
(a*b) * x = (a*b) * y
⇒x=y
As (S, *) is associative
(a*b) * x = a * (b*x) and
(a*b) * y = a* (b*y)
As (a * b) *x = (a* b) *y we have
a* (b*x) = a* (b* y)
using left cancellable property of a.
b*x = b*y ⇒ x = y, because b is left cancellable.
Therefore, (a*b) *x = (a*b) *y

⇒ x= y, which proves the claim.
Example 14: Let A = {0, 1} and A* be the free semigroup generated by A by the operation of concatenation. Show that
the relation R defined for x, y Є A* such that x R y iff x and y contain the same number of I s, is a congruence relation.
Suggest a homomorphism which induces R on A*.
Solution: It is easy to see that R is a congruence relation on (A*, o) where o denotes concatenation. Consider the
semigroup (N, +) and a mapping g: A* → N such that for any x Є A*, g(x) = n where n is the number of I s in x.
Naturally, for any x, y Є A*,
g (xy) = g(x) + g (y)
so that g is a homomorphism from (A* o) to (N, +).
Now for x, y Є A*,
g(x) = g(y) ↔ x R y
so that the congruence relation R is induced by the homomorphism g.
Example 15. If is the operation defined on S = Q× Q, the set of ordered pairs of rational numbers and given by (a, b) * (x,
y) = (ax, ay + b), show that (S,*) is a semi group. Is it commutative? Also find the identity element of S. [A.U N/D 2012]
Solution: Given: (a, b) * (x, y) = (ax, ay + b) ….(1)
To prove (S, *) is a semigroup.
i.e., To prove : * operation is associative.
{(a, b) * (x, y)) * (c, d)
= (ax + ay + b) * (c, d) by (1)
= (acx, adx + ay + b) …. (2) by (1)
(a, b) * {(x, y) * (c, d)}
= (a, b) * {cx, dx + y}
= (acx, adx + ay + b) …. (3)
From (2) & (3), * is associative on S.
To prove (S, *) is not commutative.
(x, y) * (a, b) = (ax, bx + y) …. (4)
(a, b) * (x, y) = (ax, ay + b) …. (5)
(4) ≠ (5) {S, *} is not commutative.
To find the identity element of (S, *)
Let (e1, e2) be the identity element of (S, *), ∀ (a, b) Є S
i.e., (a, b) * (e1, e2)
(ae1, ae2 + b) = (a, b)
⇒ ae1 = a, ae2 + b = b
⇒ e1 = 1, ae2 = 0
e2 = 0
(1, 0) is the identity element of {S, *}
MONOID :
Example 1: Let X be any given set and P (X) is its power set. Then find the zeros of the semigroups (P (X), ∩) and (P (X),
U). Are these monoids? If so, what are the identities ?
Solution: Let X be any given set. Then its power set p (X) contains 2 x subsets of X.
If Z Є p (X) is zero with respect to the operation ∩ for p (X), then Z ∩ X 1 = X1 Ո Z = Z implies that Z = ϕ empty set.
The zero Z of (p (X), U) is such that Z U X1 = X1UZ = Z for all X1 Є p (X), implies that Z = the whole set X.
The identity of (p (X), ∩) is given by the set Se, such that S∩Se = Se∩S = S for all S Є P (X).
Therefore Se = X, the whole set.
The identity of (p (X), U) is Se, which satisfies the property that S = Se US = SUSe. Therefore Se is the empty set ϕ.
With this it is clear that (p(X) ∩ X) and (p(X) U ϕ ) are monoids.
Example 2: Let V = {a, b} and A be set of all sequences on V including ˄ beginning with a. Show that (A, o ˄) is a
monoid.
Solution: Let V = {a, b} and A be set of all sequence on V including ˄ beginning with a. Then A= {˄, a, ab, aa, ab, aba,
abb, ...}. Let o be a concatenation operation on the sequences in A. Clearly for any two elements a, b Є A.
α ο β = a ß also belongs to A and hence (A, o) is closed. Also 'o' is associative. Because
(α o β) ο γ = αβγ = α o (β γ)
= (αοβογ)
˄ is identity as ˄ 。α = α o ˄ = α for all α Є Α.
Therefore (A, o ˄) is a monoid.
Example 3: Show that the set N of natural numbers is a semigroup under the operation x * y = max (x, y). Is it a
monoid ?
Solution: Let N = {0, 1, 2, ....}
Define the operation x * y = max {x, y) for x, y Є N.
Clearly (N, *) is closed because x * y max {x, y} Є N and * is associative as
(x * y) *z = max {x * y, z}
= max {max {x, y}, z}
= max {x, y, z}
= max {x, max {y, z}
= max {x, max {y *z}
= x* (y * z)
Therefore, (N, *) is semigroup.
The identity e of (W, *) must satisfy the property that x*e = e*x = e. But as x * e = e * x = max {x, e}, e = x, ∞ (the
infinity). Therefore (N, *, ∞) is monoid.
Example 4: Every monoid (M, *, e) is isomorphic to (MM, o , ∆) where ∆ is the identity mapping to M.
Solution: Define a mapping f from MM to
f(a) = fa where fa Є MM
defined by fa (b) = a*b for any bЄM
Now
f (a*b) = fa*b, where
fa*b (c) = (a + b) * c = a * (b*c)
= fa (b*c) = fa fb (c)
Therefore, fa*b = fa o fb, which implies that
= f(a*b) = fa*b = fa°fb = f (a) o f(b)
Therefore ƒ is a homomorphism.
Clearly f is one-one and onto and hence ƒ is an isomorphism from M onto M M
Example 7: Let V = {a, b}. Show that (V*, o, A) is an infinite monoid.
Solution: While defining alphapet and set of strings V*, we proved that (V*, o, ˄) is a monoid where ˄ is a empty string.
So, it is enough to show that V* is an infinite set. As a is an element of V, a, aa, aaa, aaaa, … b, bb, bbb, bbbb, ... ab,
abb, abbb, …..are the elements of V* and hence V* contains infinitely many strings including empty set.
Groups
Example 1. State any two properties of a group. [A.U N/D 2010]
Solution: (i) The identity element of a group is unique.
(ii) The inverse of each element is unique.
Example 2. In a group G prove that an element a ЄG such that a 2 = e, a ≠ e iff a = a-1
Solution: Let us assume that a = a-1
Then a2 = a * a = a* a−1 = e
Conversely assume that a2 = e with a ≠ e.
That is a*a=e
a * a * a = a *e
-1 -1
i.e., e * a = a-1
i.e., a = a-1
Example 3. Determine whether the set
With the binary operation form a group. [A.U June 2011]
Solution: Yes. '1' is the identity element.
Inverse of each element is the element itself.
Example 4. Define the homomorphism of two groups. [A.U June 2011]
Solution: Let (G, *) and (H, ∆) be any two groups.
A mapping f: G→H is said to be a homomorphism if f(a*b) = f (a) ∆ f (b), for any a, b Є G
Example 5. If any group (G, *) and a Є G, then (a-1)-1 = a
Solution: Given: a-1 is the inverse of a.
a * a-1 = a-1 * a = e
⇒ a is the inverse of a-1
i.e., (a-1)-1 = a
Example 6. If any group (G, *), show that (a * b)-1 = b-1 * a-1
Solution: Given: (G, *) is a group.
∀ a Є G = a-1 Є G also a * a-1 = a-1 * a = e
∀ b Є G = b-1 Є G also b * b-1 = b-1 * b = e
To prove : (a + b)-1 = b-1 * a-1
i.e., To prove : (a * b) * (b-1 * a-1) = (b-1 * a-1) * (a * b) = e
(a * b) * (b-1 * a-1) = a * (b * b-1) * a-1
= a * e * a-1
= a * a-1 [a * e = a]
=e
(b-1 * a-1) * (a * b) = b-1 * (a-1 * a) * b
= b-1 * e * b
= b-1 * b [e * b = a]
=e
By (1) and (2), we get

(a * b) * (b-1 * a-1) = (b-1 * a-1) * (a * b) = e
(a + b)-1 = b-1 * a-1
Example 7. Every group of order 4 is abelian.
Solution: Let (G, *) (be a group of order 4 where G = {e, a, b, c). Since G is of even order, there exists at least one
element (say) a such that a-1 = a
Then two cases arise
(i) b-1 = b, c-1 = c, (ii) b-1 = c, c-1 = b,
Case (i): e-1 = e, a-1 = a, b-1 = b, c-1 = c
Every element as its own inverse.
The (G, *) is abelian.
Case (ii):
a-1 = a, b-1 = c, c-1 = b
a2 = e, b*c = e, c*b=e
Since (G, *) is a group, its elements will appear in a row (column) only once.
Since, a, e appears in the second row and b appears in the third column, c will appear as (2, 3)th element.
(2, 4)th element is b (3, 3)th element is a (3, 2)th element is c (4, 2)th element is b (4, 4)th element is a
Example 9. Show that the set S = {1, 5, 7, 11} is a group w.r.t. multiplication modulo 12.
Solution: The composition tables of S w.r.t O12 of as follows :
Here 5 O12 7 = 35, which on division by 12 gives the remainder 11, 11 O 12 7 = 77, which on division by 12 gives the
remainder 5 etc.
Hence S is a group, in which 1 is the identity and each element of S is its own inverse.
Example 10. Show that the set of matrices
Example 11. Find the left cosets of {[0], [3]} in the addition modular group (Z 6, +6). [MCA, N/D. 2002][A.U N/D 2010]
Solution: Let Z6 = {[0], [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6]} be a group and H = {[0], [3]} be a sub-group of Z 6 under +6 (addition mod 6)
The left cosets of H are
[0] + H = {[0], [3]}
[1] + H = {[1], [4]}
[2] + H = {[2], [5]}
[3] + H = {[3], [6]} = {[3], [0]} = {[0], [3]} = H
[4] + H = {[4], [7]} = {[4], [1]} = [1] + H
[5] + H = {[5], [8]} = {[5], [2]} = [2] + H

[0] + H = [3] + H = H
and [1] + H = [4] + H, [2] + H = [5] + H
are the distinct left cosets of H in Z6
Example 12. If f: G→G' is a group homomorphism from {G, *} to {G', ∆) then prove that for any a Є G, f(a -1) = [f (a)]-1
[A.U N/D 2012]
Solution: ∀ a Є G and ∀ a-1 Є G
f(a * a-1) = f (a) ∆ f (a-1)
i.e., f(e) = f (a) ∆ f (a-1).
i.e., e' = f (a) ∆ f (a-1) .... (1)
|||1y, ƒ (a-1 * a) = ƒ (a-1) ∆ ƒ (a)
i.e., f(e) = f(a-1) ∆ f(a)
e' = ƒ (a-1) ∆ ƒ (a) .... (2)
From (1) & (2), we get
f (a) ∆ ƒ (a-1) = f (a-1) ∆ ƒ(a)
⇒ f(a-1) is the inverse of ƒ(a)
i.e., ƒ (a-1) = [ƒ(a)]-1
Example 13. Let G be a group and a Є G. Let f : G→G be given by f(x) = a x a -1 G for all x Є G. Prove that f is an
isomorphism of G on to G. [A.U. A/M. 2005, N/D 2010]
Solution: The map ƒ is a homomorphism if x, y Є G, then
ƒ (x) ƒ (y) = (axa-1) (aya-1)
= ax (a-1a) ya-1
= axya-1
= a (xy) a-1 = f (xy).
So f is a homomorphism.
f is one-to-one: If f(x) = f(y), then axa-1 = aya-1, so by left cancellation, we have xa -1 = ya-1, again by right cancellation, we
get x = y.
f is onto : Let y Є G, then a-1 y a Є G and f(a-1ya)
= a (a-1 ya) a-1
= (aa-1) y (aa-1)
= y. So f (x) = y for some x Є G.
Thus f is an isomorphism.
PERMUTATION FUNCTIONS
Definition :
A bijection from a set A to itself is called a permutation of A.
Example 14: Let A=R and let f: A → A be defined by f(a) = 2a+1. Since ƒ is one to one and onto, it follows that ƒ is a
permutation of A.
Example 15: Let A = {1, 2, 3}. Then all the permutations of A are
Using the permutations of compute
(a) p4-1; (b) P3 o P2
Solution: (a) Viewing p4 as a function, we have
P4 = {(1, 3), (2, 1), (3, 2)}
Then P4-1 = {(3, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3)}
or, when written in increasing order of the first component of each ordered pair, we have
p4-1 = {(1, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1)}
Theorem : If A = (a1, a2, ... an} is a set containing n elements, then there are n! = n. (n - 1) … 2.1 permutations of A
Definition: Cyclic permutation
Let b1, b2, ... br be r distinct elements of the set A = {a1, a2, ... an}.
The permutation p: A→ A defined by
p (b1) = b2
p (b2) = b3
p (br-1) = br
p (br) = b1
p(x) = x, if x Є A, x €{b1, b2, … b r) is called a cyclic permutation of length r, or simply a cycle of length r, and will be
denoted by (b1, b2, … br).
Example 16: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}. The cycle (1, 3, 5) denotes the permutation
Example 17: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, Compute (4, 1, 3, 5) o (5, 6, 3) and (5, 6, 3) o (4, 1, 3, 5).
Solution: We have
Observe that (4, 1, 3, 5) o (5, 6, 3) ≠ (5, 6, 3) o (4, 1, 3, 5) and that neither product is a cycle.
Definition :
Two cycles of a set A are said to be disjoint if no element of A appears in both cycles.
Example 18: Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}. Then the cycles (1, 2, 5) and (3, 4, 6) are disjoint, whereas the cycles (1, 2, 5) and
(2, 4, 6) are not.
Theorem: A permutation of a finite set that is not the identity or a cycle can be written as a product of disjoint cycles
of length >2.
Example 19: Write the permutation of the set A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} as a
product of disjoint cycles.
Solution: We start with 1 and find that p (1) = 3, p (3) = 6, and p (6) = 1, so we have the cycle (1, 3, 6). Next we choose
the first element of A that has not appeared in a previous cycle. We choose 2, and we have p (2) = 4, p (4) = 5 and p (5)
= 2, so we obtain the cycle (2, 4, 5). We now choose 7, the first element of A that has not appeared in a previous cycle.
Since p (7) = 8 and p (8) = 7, we obtain the cycle (7, 8). We can then write p as product of disjoint cycles as
p. = (7, 8) o (2, 4, 5) o (1, 3, 6).
Definition: Even and Odd Permutations
A cycle of length 2 is called a transposition. That is, a transposition is a cycle p = (ai, aj), where p (ai) = aj and p (aj) = ai.
Observe that if p = (ai, aj) is a transposition of A, then p o p = 1A, the identity permutation of A.
Every cycle can be written as a product of transpositions. In fact,
(b1, b2, ... br) = (b1, br) o (b1, br-1) o...o (b1, b3) o (b1, b2)
This case can be verified by induction on r, as follows:
Basis Step
If r = 2, then the cycle is just (b1, b2), which already has the proper form.
Induction Step
We use P (k) to show P (k + 1). Let (b 1, b2 ... bk, bk + 1) be a cycle of length k+1. Then (b 1, b2, ... bk, bk + 1) = (b1, bk+1) o (b1, b2,
... bk) as may be verified by computing the composition. Using P(k), (b 1, b2, ... bk) = (b1, bk) o (b1, bk-1) o ... o (b1, b2). Thus,
by substitution,
(b1, b2, ... bk + 1) = (b1, bk + 1) o (b1, bk)o ... o(b1, bз) (b1, b2).
This completes the induction step. Thus, by the principle of mathematical induction, the result holds for every cycle.
For example,
(1, 2, 3, 4, 5) = (1, 5) o (1, 4) o (1, 3) o (1, 2)
Corollary 1: Every permutation of a finite set with atleast two elements can be written as a product of transpositions.
Theorem: If a permutation of a finite set can be written as a product of an even number of transpositions, then it can
never be written as a product of an odd number of transpositions, and conversely.
A permutation of a finite set is called even if it can be written as a product of an even number of transpositions, and it
is called odd if it can be written as a product of an odd number of transpositions.
Example 20: Is the permutation even or odd ?
Solution: We first write p as a product of disjoint cycles, obtaining
P = (3, 5, 6) o (1, 2, +, 7).
Next we write each of the cycles as a product of transpositions :
(1, 2, 4, 7) = (1, 7) o (1, 4) o (1, 2)
(3, 5, 6) = (3, 6) о (3, 5)
Then p = (3, 6) o (3, 5) o (1, 7).o (1, 4) o (1, 2). Since p is a product of an odd number of transpositions, it is an odd
permutation.
Note: From the definition of even and odd permutations, it follows.
(a) The product of two even permutation is even.
(b) The product of two odd permutations is even.
(c) The product of an even and an odd permutation is odd.
Example 21: Show that the permutation

Discrete Mathematics: Unit IV: Algebraic Structures
The necessary and sufficient condition that a non-empty subset H of a group G be a subgroup is a Є H, b Є H ⇒ a*b-1€
H.
Sub-groups
Theorem 3.
The kernal of a homomorphism g from a group <G, *> to <H, ∆> is a subgroup of <G, *>.
Proof: Since g (eG) = еH, eG Є ker (g)
Also, if a, b Є ker (g),
i.e., g (a) = g(b) = eH, then
g (a*b) = g(a) ∆ g(b) = eH ∆ eH = еH
so that a*b Є ker (g).
Finally, if a Є ker (g), then g (a-1) = [g (a)-1] ̄1 = еH-1 = eH.
Hence a-1 Є ker (g) and ker (g) is a subgroup of <G, *>.
Theorem 4.
Every cyclic group is abelian. [A.U. M/J 2013, N/D 2013]
Solution: Let (G, *) be a cyclic group generated by an element a Є G.
(i.e.,) G = (a)
Then for any two elements x, y Є G
We have x = an, y = am, where m, n are integer.
Therefore x*y = an * am = an+m
= am+n = am * an
=y*x
Thus, (G, *) is abelian.
Problems based on sub group
Example 1. Is the union of two subgroups of a group, a subgroup of G? Justify your answer.
Solution: The union of two subgroups of a group need not be a subgroup of G.
Let the group (Z, +)
Let H = 3Z = {0, ±3, ±6, ...}
Let K = 2Z = {0, ±2, ±4, ...}
⇒ H and K are subgroups of (Z, +).
⇒ 3 Є 3Z Є 3Z U 2Z = HUK
⇒ 2 Є 2Z Є 2Z U 3Z = HUK
But 3+2 = 5 € 2Z U 3Z. HUK is not a subgroup of (Z, +)
Example 2. The identity element of a subgroup is same as that of the group. [A.U N/D 2012]
Solution: Let H be the subgroup of the group G and e and e' be the identity elements of G and H respectively.
Now if a Є H, then a Є G and ae = a, because e is the identity element of G.
Again a Є H, then ae' = a since e' is the identity element of H.
Thus ae = ae' which gives e = e'
Example 3. If H and K are subgroup of G, prove that HUK is a subgroup of G if and only if either H ≤ K or K ≤ H. [A.U N/D
2014]
Solution: Given H and K are two subgroups of G and H≤K or K≤H.
If H≤K then H≤K = K which is a subgroup of G.
If K≤H then H≤K = H which is a subgroup of G.
Conversely suppose K¢ H and H ¢ K.҂

Then there exists a Є H and a ҂ K and there exists a b Є K and b ҂ H.
Now a, b Є HUK. Because HUK is a subgroup, it follows that a * b Є H U K. Hence a * b Є H or a * b Є K.
Case (i): If a * b Є H
Then a-1 *(a*b) Є H
That is b Є H which is a contradiction.
Case (ii) If a * b Є K
Then a * b * b-1 Є K
i.e., a Є K which is a contradiction.
Thus either H≤K or K≤H
Example 4. Prove that the intersection of two subgroups of a group is a subgroup of G. [A.U M/J 2013, N/D 2013,
N/D 2014]
Solution: Given H and K are subgroups of G.
Let a, b Є H∩K ⇒ a, b Є H and a, b Є K
⇒ a*b-1 Є H and a*b-1 Є K (as H and K are subgroups)
⇒ a*b-1 Є H∩K.
Thus H∩K is a subgroup of G.
Example 5. Show that the set of all elements a of a group (G, *) such that a*x = x*a for every x Є G is a subgroup of
G. [A.U N/D 2010]
Solution : Let H = {a Є G | ax = xa, xEG}
As ey = ye = y, ∀ y Є G, e Є G, H is non empty.
Let x and z in H
Then xy = yx and zy = yz for all y Є G
(xz) y = x (yz) ⇒ (yx) z = y (xz), ∀ y ЄG
x z Є H, ∀ x, z Є H
X Є H ↔ xy = yx, ∀yЄG
↔ x-1 (xy) x-1 = x-1 (yx)x-1, ∀ y Є G
↔ (x-1 x) (y x-1) = (x-1 y) (x x-1)
↔ yx-1 = x-1y
↔ x-1 Є H
H is a subgroup.
Example 6. If 'a' is a generator of a cyclic group G, then show that 'a -1 is also a generator of G. [A.U M/J 2012]
Solution: Let G = (a) be a cyclic generated by 'a'
If x Є G, then x = an for some n Є Z
x = an = (a-1)-n, (- n Є Z)
a-1 is also a generator of G.
Example 7. Find all the subgroups of (Z9, +9) [A.U M/J 2014]
Solution: Z9 = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
The operation is addition modulo 9.
Consider the subsets
H1 = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}
H2 = {0, 3, 6}
H3 = {0, 4, 8}
H4 = {0, 5}
The improper subgroups of (Z9, +9) are [{0}, +9] and [Z9, +9]
The operation tables shows that
H1, H2, H3 and H4 are closed for +9
The possible proper subgroups of (Z9, +9) are (H1, +9),
(H2, +9), (H3, +9) and (H4, +9)
Example 8. Any cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to the additive group of residue classes of integers modulo n.
Proof :
Let G {a, a2,...,an = e} be a cyclic group of order n generated by a.
We know that (Zn, +n) is the additive group of residue classes modulo n.
⇒ Zn = {[1], [2], ..., [n] = [0]}
Let f: G→ Zn defined by f (ar) = [r] for all ar Є G.
For all [r] Є Zn, there exists a ar Є G such that ƒ (ar) = [r]
⇒ f is onto.
For r ≠ s, [r] ≠ [s] and hence ƒ (ar) ≠ f (as)
⇒ f is one-to-one.
For all ar, as Є G, ƒ (ar .as) = ƒ (ar+s) = [r+s] = [r] + [s]
= f (ar) + n ƒ (as)
⇒ f is a homomorphism. Hence (G, .) is isomorphic to (Zn, +n)
Define a map: x : G → K such that x (a) = fa
X is well defined :
For a, b Є G, a = b ↔ ax = bx
↔ fa (x) = fb (x)
↔ fa = fb
↔ x (a) = x (b)
x is one-one and onto.
x is a homomorphism :
x (ab) = fab = fa o fb = x (a). x (b)

Thus is a homomorphism and hence an isomorphism which proves the theorem.
Example 10. Show that every cyclic group of order n is isomorphic to (Z n +n)
Solution: Let (G, o) be a cyclic group of order n.
The element of G are {a, a2, a3, ..., an = e}.
The elements of Zn are {[0], [1], [2], ..., [n-1]}.
Define
f: D → Zn by
f(e) = [0] and f (ai) = [i] for i < n where f is one-one and onto.
Then ƒ (ai aj) = f (ai+j) = [i+j]
= [i] + n[j]
= f (ai) + nf (aj)
Hence ƒ is an isomorphism.
Example 11. Define : Symmetric group, Dihedral group. Show that if (G, *) is a cyclic group, then every sub group of (G,
*) must be cyclic. (OR) [MCA, May 93, M.U]
Show that every subgroup of a cyclic group is cyclic.
Solution: Let (G, *) be a cyclic group generated by "a", and let H be a subgroup of G. If H contains the identity element
alone, then trivially H is cyclic and H = (e). Suppose that H ≠ (e). Since H≤G, any element of H is of the form a k for some
integer K. Let
"m" be the smallest positive integer such that am Є H. We shall show that H is a cyclic group generated by a m. If ak Є H,
then by division algorithm we can write
K = qm +r, where 0 ≤r<m.
Hence ak = aqm+r = aqm, ar = (am)q. ar and from this it follows that a r = (am)-q. ak. Since am, ak Є H, we have ar Є H which is a
contradiction that "m" is so small such that am Є H. Hence we have r = 0.
(i.e.,) K = qm ⇒ aK = eqm = (am)q
Thus every element of H is a power of am. Hence H is a cyclic group generated by am.
Example 12. Show that U9 is a cyclic group. What are all its generators?
Solution: We have U9 = {1, 2, 4, 5, 7, 8}
It is easy to verify that U9 = <2>, since
21 = 2.22 = 4, 23 = 8, 24 = 7, 25 = 5, 26 = 1
Thus U9 is a cyclic group. We have o (U9) = 6.
The positive integers less than 6 and prime to 6 are 1, 5.
Hence all the generators of U9 are 2 and 5,
since 21 = 2 and 25 = 5.
Example 13. Show that U8 is not a cyclic group.
Solution: We have U8 = {1, 3, 5, 7}
Here 32 = 1, 33 = 3, 34 = 1, 35 = 3, etc.
Thus 3 cannot be a generator of U8.
Now 52 = 1, 53 = 5, 54 = 1, 55 = 5, etc.
Again 72 = 1, 73 = 7, 74 = 1, 75 = 7, etc.
Clearly, 1 is also not a generator of U8.
Hence U8 is not a cyclic group.

Example 14. Show that U17 is a cyclic group. What are all its generators?
Solution: U17 = {1, 2, …, 16} and o (U17) = 16.
All the positive integers less than 16 and prime to 16 are 1, 3, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13, 15.
It can be verified that U17 = <3> i.e., every element of U17 is a power of 3. All the generators of U17 are
31 = 3, 33 = 10, 35 = 5, 37 = 11, 39 = 14, 311 = 7, 313 = 12, 315 = 6.
Hence all the generators of U17 are
3, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 12, 14
NORMAL SUB-GROUP AND COSETS - LAGRANGE'S THEOREM :
Definition 1: Left coset of H in G.
Let (H, *) be a subgroup of (G, *). For any a Є G, the set a H defined by
a H = {a * h/ h Є H} is called the left coset of H in G determined by the element a Є G.
The element a is called the representative element of the left coset a H.
Note: The left coset of H in G determined by a Є G is the same as the equivalence class [a] determined by the relation
left coset modulo H.
Definition 2: Index of H in G [iG (H)]
Let (H, *) be a subgroup of (G, *), then the number of different left (or right) cosets of H in G is called the index of H in
G.
Definition 3. Normal sub-group
A subgroup (H, *) of (G, *) is called a normal sub-group if for any a Є G, a H = H a.
Definition 4. Quotient group (or) factor group :
Let N be a normal subgroup of a group (G, *).
The set of all right cosets of N in G be denoted by
G/N = {Na |a Є G}
Definition 5. Direct product
Let (G, *) and (H, ∆) be two groups. The direct product of these two groups is the algebraic structure (G × H, o) in which
the binary operation o on G × H is given by
(g1, h1) o (g2, h2) = (g1 * g2, h1 o ∆ h2)
for any (g1, h1), (g2, h2) Є G × H.
Definition 6. Group homomorphism :
Let (G, *) and (G', .) be two groups. A mapping f: G→ G' is called a group homomorphism if
∀ a, b Є G, f (a* b) = f (a) .f (b)
Definition 7. Kernel of group homomorphism :
Let (G, *) and (G', .) be two groups with e' as the identity element of G'
Let f: G→G' be a homomorphism.
ker f = {a Є G | f (a) = e'}
Statement 1: [Lagrange's theorem] [A.U A/M 2004, 2005, N/D 2004]

The order of a subgroup of a finite group divides the order of the group. (OR) If G is a finite group, then 0(H) | 0(G), for
all sub-group H of G.
Statement 2: Fundamental theorem on homomorphism of groups
If f is a homomorphism of G onto G' with kernal k, then G/K ≈ G'.
Example 1: Let G = {1, a, a 2, a3} (a4 = 1), be a group and H = {1, a 2} is a subgroup of G under multiplication. Find all the
cosets of H.
Solution:
Let us find the right cosets of H in G.
H1 = {1, a2} = H
Ha = {a, a3}
H a2 = {a2, a4] = {a2, 1} = H
and H a3 = {a3, a5} = {a3, a} = Ha
H.1 = H = Ha2 = {1, a2} and Ha = Ha3 = {a, a3}
are two distinct right cosets of H in G. Similarly, we can find the left cosets of H in G.
Example 2: Find the left cosets of {[0], [2]} in the group (Z4, +4).
Solution :
Let Z4 = {[0], [1], [2], [3]} be a group and H= {[0], [2]} be a sub-group of Z 4 under +4 (addition mod 4).
The left cosets of H are
[0] + H = {[0], [2]} = H;
[1] + H = {[1], [3]} ;
[2] + H = {[2], [4]} = {[2], [0]} = {[0], [2]} = H
and [3] + H = {[3], [5]} = {[3], [1]} = {[1], [3]} = [1] + H.
[0] + H = [2] + H = H and [1] + H = [3] + H
are the two distinct left cosets of H in Z4.
Example 3: Let (G, *) be a group of order 2 in which G = {e, a}. Find the direct product of (G, *) with itself.
Solution :
The composition table of (G, *) is
From this composition table, we can easily write the direct product. The direct product of G with itself is (G x G, o)
where o is defined by (a1, b1) o (a2, b2) = (a1 * a2) (b1 * b2) for any (a1, b1) (a2, b2) Є G × G.
G = {e, a}
G ˟ G = {(e, e), (e, a), (a, e), (a, a)}
The Cayley's table for o is given below:

Example 4 Let G be a group and a Є G The map f: G → G defined by f (x) = axa -1 for all x Є G, is an isomorphism. [A.U
N/D 2010]
Solution :
The map ƒ is a homomorphism if x, y Є G, then
f (x) f (y) = (axa-1) (aya-1)
= ax (a-1a) ya-1
= axya-1
= a (xy) a-1
= f (xy).
f is one-to-one : If f (x) = f(y), then axa-1 = aya-1 so by left cancellation, we have xa -1 = ya-1, again by right cancellation we
get x = y.
f is onto : Let y Є G, then a-1 ya Є G and f (a-1 ya)
= a (a-1 ya) a-1
= (aa-1) y (aa-1)
= y. So f (x) = y for some x Є G.
Thus f is an isomorphism.
Example 5: Any two infinite cyclic groups are isomorphic to each other.
Solution :
Let G1 = <a> and G2 = <b> be two cyclic group of infinite order.
G1 = {an | is an integer} and G2 {bn | is an integer}.
Define a map f: G1 → G2 by f (an) = bn
Let x, y Є G1, then x=an, y=am for some integers n and m.
f(x) f(y) = f (an) .ƒ (am) = bn bm = bn+m = f (an+m)
= ƒ (an am) = f(xy).
If f(x) = f(y), then ƒ (an) ƒ (am), (i.e.,) bn = bm.
Then bn-m = e' in G2. As G2 is an infinite cyclic group generated by, there is no non-zero integer k such that b k = e'. Hence
from bn- m = e', we have n-m = 0, (i.e.,) n = m and x= an = am = y. Thus f is one-to-one.
Let z Є G2. Then z=bn for some integer n. Now take x = an.
Then f(x) = f (an) = bn = z. So the map ƒ is onto.
Then f is one-to-one, onto homomorphism. (i.e.,) it is an isomorphism.
Example 6: Determine all the proper subgroups of the symmetric group (S S, ◊) described in table.
Solution: From the table it is clear that {P 1, P2}, {P1, P3}, {P1,P4} and {P1, P5, P6} are subgroups of (SS, ◊). The left cosets of
{P1, P2} are {P1, P2}, {P3, P6}, and {P4, P5}, while the right cosets of {P1, P2} are (P1, P2}, {P3, P5} and {P4, P6}. Hence (P1, P2} is
not a normal subgroup.
Similarly, we can show that {P 1, P3} and {P1, P4} are also not normal subgroups. On the other hand, the left and right
cosets of {P1, P5, P6} are {P1, P5, P6} and {P2, P3, P4}. Hence {P1, P5, P6} is a normal subgroup.
Example 7: How many generators are there in a cyclic group of order 10?
Solution:
We have a is the generator then am is also generator if and only if
(m, n) = 1
Now, we have
(1, 10) = 1
(3, 10) = 1
(7, 10) = 1
(9, 10) = 1 (and (2, 10) = 2 (5, 10) = 5 ...)
There are 4 generators, which are a, a3, a7, a9 whenever a is a generator.
DEFINITIONS AND EXAMPLES OF RINGS AND FIELDS :
Definition 1: Ring [A.U M/J 2014]
An algebraic system (S, +, .) is called a ring if the binary operations + and on S satisfy the following three properties :
1. (S,+) is an abelian group
2. (S, .) is a semigroup
3. The operation . is distributive over +; that is, for any a, b, c Є S,
a. (b + c) = a.b + a.c and (b + c).a = = b.a + c.a
Definition 2: Integral domain.
A commutative ring (S, +, .) with identity and without divisors of zero is called can integral domain.
Definition 3: Field
A commutative ring (S, +, .) which has more than one element such that every non-zero element of S has a
multiplicative inverse in S is called a field.
Definition 4: Sub ring.
A subset RCS where (S, +, .) is a ring is called a subring if (R, +, .) is itself with the operations + and restricted to R.
Examples:
1. The ring of integers Z is a subring of the ring of all rational numbers Q.
2. In Z the ring of all integers the set of all even integers is a subring.
2. The ring Q of all rational numbers, and the ring R of real numbers are fields.
3. The ring (Z7, +7, ×7) is a field.
4. The ring (Z10, +10, ×10) is not an integral domain. (as 5 ×10 2 = 0, yet 5≠0, 2≠0 in Z10).
5. The ring Z of all integers is an integral domain but not a field.
Definition 6. Commutative Ring :
A ring (R, +, codt) is said to be commutative
if a.b = b.a ∀ a, b Є R
Example 1: Define ring and give an example of an ring with zero-divisors. [A.U. N/D, 2005]
Solution : Definition: Ring
An algebraic system (S, +, .) is called a ring if the binary operations + and . on S satisfy the following three properties.
1. (S, +) is an abelian group.
2. (S, .) is a semi group.
3. The operation . is distributive over + ; that is, for any a, b, c Є S.
a. (b + c) = a.b + a.c and (b + c).a = b.a + c.a
Example 2: Prove that the set Z 4 = {[0], [1], [2], [3]} is a commutative ring with respect to the binary operation addition
modulo and multiplication modulo +4, ×4 [AU N/D 2012]
Solution :
The composition tables for additive modulo 4 multiplicative modulo 4 are shown below.
Composition table for additive modulo 4.

From tables we get
(i) All the entries in both the tables belong to Z4.
Z4 is closed under the operations +4 and ×4.
(ii) In both the tables,
Entries in the first row = Entries in the first column.
Entries in the second row = Entries in the second column.
Entries in the third row = Entries in the third column.
Entries in the fourth row = Entries in the fourth column,
The operations +4 and ×4 are commutative in Z4.
(iii) Also, for any a, b, c Є Z4, we have
a +4 (b +4 c) = (a +4 b) +4 c
and a ×4 (b ×4 c) = (a ×4 b) ×4 c
Since, 0 +4 (1 +4 2) = 0 +4 3 = 3
and (0 +4 1) +4 2 = 1 +4 2 = 3
0 +4 (1 +4 2) = (0 +4 1) +4 2
Also, 1 ×4 (2 ×4 3) = (1 ×4 2) = 2
and (1 ×4 2) ×4 3 = 2 ×4 3 = 2
1 ×4 (2 ×4 3) = (1 ×4 2) ×4 3
Thus, the operations +4 and ×4 are associative in Z4
(iv) 0 is the additive identity of Z4 and 1 is the multiplicative identity
of Z4.
(v) Additive inverse of 0, 1, 2, 3 are respectively 0, 3, 2, 1.

Multiplicative inverses of the non-zero elements 1, 2 and 3 are 1, 2 and 3, respectively.
(vi) If a, b, c Є Z4, then
a ×4 (b +4 c) = (a ×4 b) +4 (a ×4 c).
and (a +4 b) ×4 c = (a ×4 c) +4 (b ×4 c)
Thus, the operation ×4 is distributed over +4 in Z4.
Hence, (Z4, +4, ×4) is a commutative ring with unity.
Example 3: Give an example of a ring which is not a field. [A.U N/D 2013]
Solution :
The ring Z of all integers is an integral domain but not a field.

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UNIT-1 PROPOSITIONS

Definition :Compound propositions :

Definition: Truth Table

Definition: Negation [┐ or ~] [Not]

Definition: Conjunction [^] [AND]

Definition: Disjunction [V] [or]

Conditional Statement: [If, ... then] [→]

otherwise it has the truth value T.

Biconditional [equivalence] statement [<->] [if and only if]

abbreviated as "P iff Q", is called a biconditional statement.

exactly one of P and Q is true and is false otherwise.

If P→ Q is an implication, then the converse of P→ Q is the implication Q→ P, and the contrapositive of P→ Q is

the implication ┐Q → ┐P.

[A.U. April/May, 2004]

Q→ P: (converse) If I get wet, then it is raining.

┐Q→ ┐P: (contrapositive) If I do not get wet, then it is not raining.

Solution: Let P: Tigers have wings "F"

Example 4: Write the following statement in symbolic form

b: You are under 4 feet tall

c: You are older than 16 years old.

Then the sentence can be translated to

Example 1: Construct the truth table for P˄┐P

Example 2: Construct the truth table for P c ┐P

Example 3 : Construct the truth table for P ˄ P.

Example 4: Construct the truth table for PV P

Example 5: Construct the truth table for ┐┐P

Example 6: Construct the truth table for ┐P˄Q

Example 7: Construct the truth table for PV ┐Q [MCA 1995, M.U]

Example 9: Construct the truth table for (P v Q) v ┐P [M.C.A] [M.U.94]

formula or a logical truth.

A statement that is always false is called a contradiction or absurdity.

Example 1: Show that P V ┐P is a tautology.

Example 2: Show that PP is a contradiction.

A ⇒ B, read as "A implies B".

Example 7: Show that (P^Q) → (P v Q) is a tautology.

┐P ^ ┐Q ↔ ┐(P v Q) De Morgan's law

┐P ^ ┐R ↔ ┐(P v R) De Morgan's law

(ii) ┐ (┐P ^ (┐Q v ┐R))

┐ (┐P v ┐(Q v R)) De Morgan's law

from (i) and (ii) we get

((P v Q) ^ (P v R) v ┐((P v Q) ^ (P v R))

B, read as "A implies B".

Example 1: Show that (P ^ Q) => (P Q).

Solution To prove (P ^ Q) → (P → Q) is a tautology.

Example 2: Show the following implication P⇒ (Q→P)

Solution : To prove P→ (Q→P) is a tautology.

Theorem 1 : If H1, H2, … Hm and P imply Q, then H1, H2 ... Hm imply P → Q

Proof: Given (H1 ^ H2 ^ ... ^ Hm ^ P) ⇒ Q

(i.e.,) (Н1 ^ Н2 ^ … ^ Hm ^ P)→ Q is a tautology.

↔ (Н1 ^ Н2 ^ … Ʌ Hm) → (P→Q) is also a tautology.

(Н1 ^ Н2 ^ ... ^ Hm) ↔ (P → Q)

Example 2 : Show that A↔B if and only if A* ↔ B*

Solution: Let A (P1, P2, …. Pn) ↔ B (P1, P2, ... Pn)

Then A(P1, P2, … Pn) ↔ B (P1, P2, ... Pn) is a tautology.

A (┐P1, ┐P2, ... ┐Pn) ↔ B (┐P1, ┐P2, ... ┐Pn) is a tautology.

By duality principle theorem

┐A*↔ ┐B*.Hence A* ↔ B*.

┐A↔ ┐B.Hence A* ↔ B*.