The Nervous System

Maria Jonelyn N. Ramos, DMD

Functions of the Nervous System
• 1. Recieving Sensory Input
• 2. Integrating information
• 3. Controlling muscles and glands
• 4. Maintaining Homeostasis
• 5. Establishing and maintaining mental activity
Divisions of the Nervous System
• CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - Brain and the Spinal Cord
• PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM - all the nervous tissue outside the
CNS (Nerves and ganglia)
Peripheral Nervous System
• link the CNS with the various parts of the body
• two divisions: Sensory and Motor Division
• SENSORY DIVISION (afferent division) - conducts action potentials
from sensory receptors to the CNS; sensory neurons
• MOTOR DIVISION (efferent division) - conducts action potentials from
the CNS to effector organs ; Motor neurons

• Enteric Nervous system - both sensory and motor neurons ; digestive

tract
Motor Division
1. Somatic Nervous System - CNS to skeletal muscle

2. Autonomic Nervous System - CNS to cardiac, smooth muscle and

glands; further divided into sympathetic and parasympathetic
CELLS OF THE NERVOUS
SYSTEM
Neurons and Glial Cells
NEURONS (NERVE CELLS)
• Recieve stimuli, conductg action potentials and
transmit signals to other neurons or effector organs
• cell body - contains nucleus
• Dendrites - recieve informstion from other neurons
and transmit the info toward the neuron cell body
• axon - extend from the neuron cell body
• axon of the sensory - action potentials towards the
CNS
• Axon Hillock - where the axon leave the neuron cell
body
• axon of the motor - action potential away from CNS
Types of Neurons
• 1. Multipolar Neurons - many dendrites and a single axon

• 2.Bipolar Neurons - has two processes: one dendrite and one axon ;
retina of the eye, nasal cavity

• 3. Pseudounipolar neurons - single process extending from the cell

body which divides into 2 process (one extends to the periphery , the
other to the CNS
Glial Cells (Neuroglia)
• Primary supportive cells of the CNS and PNS (do not conduct action
potentials
• 5 types of glial cells
• 1. ASTROCYTES - Supporting cells of the CNS; blood blain barrier
• 2.EPENDYMAL - line the fluid cavities within the CNS
• 3. MICROGLIA - Act as immune cels of the CNS
• 4. OLIGODENDROCYTES - provide and insulating material (CNS)
• 5.Schwann cells - provide an insulating material (PNS)
Myelin sheaths
• specialized layer that wrap around the acons of some neurons
(schwann cells or oligodendrocytes)
• myelinated axons
• Nodes of ranvier - Where Ion movement occur
• myelination of an axon increases the speed and efficiency of action
potential generation along the axon
Organization of Nervous Tissue
• Gray Matter - groups of neuron cell bodies and their dendrites
• CNS (Surface of the brain - cortex) (deeper in the brain - nuclei)
• PNS (Ganglion)

• White Matter - bundles of parallel axons with their myelin sheaths

• CNS - Nerve tracts (conduction pathways)
• PNS - NERVES
ELECTRICAL SIGNALS AND
NEURAL PATHWAYS
ACTION POTENTIAL
• All or none
• if threshhold is reached, an action potential occurs; if the threshold is
not reached, no action potential occurs
• in unmyelinated action - slow action potentials; continuous
conduction
• in myelinated axon - local current flow through the nodes of ranvier;
action potential jump from one node to another; SALTATORY
CONDUCTION
the Synapse
• the junction where the axon of one
neuron interacts with another
neuron or with cells of an effector
organ
• PRESYNAPTIC TERMINAL - forms at
the end of the axon
• POST SYNAPTIC MEMBRANE-
membrane of the dendrite
• Synaptic cleft - separates the two
terminal
• Neurotransmitters - stored in
synaptic vesicles in the presynaptic
terminal
The Synapse
REFLEXES
• involuntary reaction in response to a stimulus applied to the periphery and
transmitted to the CNS
• in a neural pathway by which a reflex occurs
• the reflex arc is the basic functional unit of nervous system because it is the
smallest, simplest pathway capable of recieving a stimulus and yielding a
response.
• occur in spinal cord/brainstem rather than in the higher brain center
• 5 basic components:
1. sensory receptor
2. sensory neuron
3. interneurons
4. motor neuron
5. effector orgran
The Central and Peripheral
Nervous Systems
SPINAL CORD
• extends from the foramen
magnum to the 2nd lumbar
vertebra
• spinal nerves communicate bet
the spinal cord and body
• cauda equina - inferior end of
the cord and nerves
Spinal Cord
SPINAL CORD REFLEXES
• Stretch Reflex - muscles contract in response to a stretching force
applied to them
• Knee - Jerk Reflex (patellar reflex) - determines if the higher CNS
centers that normally influence this reflex are functiona
• Withdrawal Reflex (flexor reflex) - remove a limb or another body part
from a painful stimulus
Spinal Nerves
• arise along the spinal cord from the union of the dorsal roots and ventral roots
• contain axons of both sensory and somatic motor neurons (mixed nerves)
• 31 pairs of spinal nerves ( named and numbered according to location)
• organized into 3 major plexuses (cervical, brachial and lumbosacral plexus)
• T2 - T11 - Do not join a plexus - extend around the thorax, giving off branches
to muscles and skin
• other nerve derived from plexuses - innervate skeletal muscles and skin
overlying muscles
• small coccygeal plexus - pelvic floor and skin over the coccyx
 BRAIN
bRAINSTEM, THE CEREBELLUM, THE DIENCEPHALON AND THE
CEREBRUM
Brainstem
• Connects the spinal cord to the remainder of the brain
• damage to small areas of the brainstem can cause death
• MEDULLA OBLONGATA - most inferior portion of the brainstem;
heartrate, vessel diameter, breathing, swallowing, vomiting, couging ,
sneezing, balance and coorination
• anterior surface - descending nerve tracts; conscious control of the
skeletal muscles
Brainstem
• PONS - Superior to the medulla oblongats; contains ascending and descending
tracts
• functional bridge bet cerebrum and cerebellum
• breathing, swallowing and balance, chewing and salivation

• MIDBRAIN - Superior to the pons and the smallest region of the brainstem
• 2 inferior colliculi - auditory nerve pathways in the CNS
• 2 superior colliculi - visual reflexes amd recieve touch and auditory input
• others : coordinating eye movements, controlling pupil diameter and lens
shape
• SUBSTANTIA NIGRA - Regulates general body movements
Reticular Formation
• scattered throughout the brainstem
• regulating cyclical motor functions s/as respiration, walking and
chewing
• reticular activating system - sleep-wake cycle, arousal, consciousness
CEREBELLUM
• Attached to the brainstem by
several large connections called
Cerebellar peduncles - provide
routes of communication
between the cerebellum and
other parts of the CNS
Diencephalon(Thalamus, epithalamus and
hypothalamus)
• Thalamus - Largest; influences mood
and registers an unlocalized
uncomfortable perception of pain
• Epithalamus - small area superior
and posterior to the thalamus;
emotional and visceral response to
odors
• Pineal Gland - onset of puberty
• Hypothalamus - inferior;
maintaining homeostatis (hunger,
thirst, body temp), sexual pleasure,
rage , fear and relaxation, secretion
of hormones in the pituitary gland
Cerebrum
• largest part of the brain
• divided into left and right hemispheres by a longitudinal fissure
• Gyri and Sulci - easily seen feature on the surface of each hemisphere
• frontal lobe - voluntary motor functions, motivation, aggresion, mood
and smell
• Parietal lobe - sensory informatios : touch, pain, temperature and
balance
• occipital lobe - visual input
• temporal lobe - olfactory, auditory , memory
Sensory Functions (Ascending Tracts)
Sensory Areas of the Cerebral Cortex
• Primary sensory areas - sensations are percieved
• Primary somatic sensory cortex (general sensory area) - pain,
pressure, temp
Motor Functions
• The motor system of the brain and spinal cord is responsible for
maintaining body posture and balance as well as a lot of voluntary
and involuntary movements.
• Primary motor cortex - action potentials initiated in this region
control voluntary movements of skeletal muscles
• Premotor area of the frontal lobe - where motor functions are
organized before they are actually initiated in the primary motor
cortex
• Prefrontal area - motivation to plan a movement
Motor Function (Descending tracts)
Other Brain Functions
Communication between the right and left
hemispheres
• Right cerebral hemisphere - recieves sensory input from and controls
muscular activity in the left half of the body (Vice Versa)
• Corpus Callosum - largest commisure
• Left hemispehere - more analytical
• Right hemispehere - Creative
Speech
• In the left cerebral cortex
• two major cortical area:
• the sensory speech area (Wernicke area) located in the parietal lobe -
understanding and formulating coherent speech
• motor speech (Broca area) in frontal lobe - controls movement
necessary in speech
Memory
• storage of memory: Working, short-term and long-term
• working memory-lasts only a few seconds to minutes and occurs mostly in the frontal
cortex
• Short term - retained for a few mins to days ; susceptible to brain trauma, certain drugs
• consolidation - process of formation of new and stronger synaptic connections
• declarative memory(explicit memory) - retention of facts (name, dates and places)
• procedural memory(reflexive memory) - involves the development of motor skills
• Long term memory involves structural and functional changes in neurons that lead to
long term enhacement of synaptic of synaptic transmission (memory engrams/memory
traces)
Limbic System and Emotions
• olfactory cortex, deep cortical region and nuclei of the cebrum,
diencephalon
• long term declarative memory, emotions, visceral responses to
emotions , motivation and mood
Meninges, Ventricle and
Cerebrospinal Fluid
Meninges
• surround and protect the brain and the spinal cord
• Dura mater - most superficial and thickest of the meninges
• epidural space - space between the dura mater and vertebrae;
epidural anesthesia
• arachnoid mater - space bet dura and arachnoid is the subdural space
• pia mater - space bet the pia and arachnoid is the subarachnpid space
(filled with csf and blood vessels)
Ventricles
• fluid filled cavities
• lateral ventricle
• third ventricle - midline cavity
• fourth ventricle - continuous
with the central canal of the
spinal cord
Cerebrospinal Fluid
• bathes the brain and the spinal cord that provides cushion around the
CNS
• produces by the choroid plexuses , made of ependymal cells located
in the ventricles
• fills the brain ventricles, central canal of the spinal cord and the
subarachnoid space
CRANIAL NERVES
Autonomic Nervous System
ANS
• comprises motor neurons tha carry action potentials from the CNS to
the periphery
• innervate smooth muscle, cardiac muscle and glands
• largely controlled unconsciously
• Composed of SYMPATHETIC DIVISION (Physical Activity) and
PARASYMPATHETIC DIVISION (Involuntary actions)
SYMPATHETIC DIVISION
• “Fight or Flight”
• Pre ganglionic cell body is located between T1- L2
• post ganglionic cell bodies are located in sympathetic chain ganglia or
collateral ganglia
Parasympathetic Division
• Rest and Digest
• Pre ganglionic cell body is located within cranial nerves III, VII, IX, X;
S2-S4 Spinal nerves
• post ganglionic cell bodies are located in terminal ganglia near or
embedded in the walls of target organs
• pre ganglionic neurons of the vagus nerves - parasympathetic
innervation to heart, lungs, liver, stomach and other digestive organs
Autonomic Neurotransmitters
• Pre ganglionic neuron - Acetylcholine
• Post ganglionic neuron - Norepineprine
Enteric Nervous System
• consists of plexuses within the wall of the digestive tract
• 1. sensory neurons that connect the digestive tract to the CNS
• 2. sympathetic and parasympathetic nuerons that connect the CNC to
the digestive tract
• 3. enteric neurons within the enteric plexuses

• Enteric neurons are sensory, motor or imnterneurons: they recieve

CNS input but can also function independently
Effects of Aging on the Nervous System
• Sensory and motor functions decline with age
• Mental functions, including memory, may decline with age but this
varies from person to person.