Data Communications Week 4

EHB
415E
DATA COMMUNICATIONS
İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

Elektrik Elektronik Fakültesi
Elektronik Haberleşme Mühendisliği
Fall 2014
WEEK Course Outline DATE
1 IntroducKon 08/09
Protocol Architecture, TCP/IP, and Internet-‐Based ApplicaKons
2 NO LECTURE (VTC Fall 2014) 15/09
3 Data Transmission 22/09
Transmission Media
4 Signal Encoding Techniques (+ Project Proposals) 29/09
5 NO LECTURE (Kurban Bayramı) 06/10
6 Digital Data CommunicaKons Techniques 13/10
7 Midterm Exam 20/10
8 Data Link Control Protocols 27/10
9 MulKplexing (+ Project Progress Reports) 03/11
10 Circuit Switching and Packet Switching 10/11
11 Midterm Exam 17/11
12 RouKng in Switched Data Networks 24/11
13 Ethernet 01/12
14 Project Workshop (+ Project Final Reports) 08/12
2
Project Proposals
• Proposals will be evaluated:
– Accept/Reject
• You will receive an email if your proposal is
NOT ACCEPTED
– Come & talk to me
– Update your proposal:
• Hand-‐in print out of the NEW proposal
• Send an e-‐mail of pdf copy
3
Data and Computer
CommunicaKons
Chapter 5 – Signal Encoding

Techniques
Ninth EdiKon
by William Stallings

Data and Computer CommunicaKons, Ninth

EdiKon by William Stallings, (c) Pearson
EducaKon -‐ PrenKce Hall, 2011
Signal Encoding Techniques
Even the natives have difficulty mastering this

peculiar vocabulary.

—The Golden Bough,

Sir James George Frazer

•Amplitude
•Phase
•Frequency
Data Encoder or Signal Decoder EsKmated
Modulator Demodulator Data
Digital or Digital or Digital or
Analog Analog Analog
Digital Data Digital Data

Digital Signal Analog Signal
Analog Data Analog Data

7


8
Digital Data, Digital Signal
Ø digital signal
l discrete, disconKnuous voltage pulses
l each pulse is a signal element
l binary data encoded into signal elements
Terminology
Ø unipolar – all signal elements have the same sign
Ø polar – one logic state represented by posiKve voltage
and the other by negaKve voltage
Ø data rate – rate of data ( R ) transmission in bits per
second
Ø dura6on or length of a bit – Kme taken for transmijer
to emit the bit (1/R)
Ø modula6on rate – rate at which the signal level
changes, measured in baud = signal elements per
second. (symbol/second)
Ø mark and space – binary 1 and binary 0
Key Data Transmission Terms
InterpreKng Signals
need to know:

• Kming of bits -‐ when they start and end
• signal levels
factors affecKng signal interpretaKon:

• signal to noise raKo
• data rate
• bandwidth
• encoding scheme
An increase in data rate increases bit error rate (BER).
An increase in SNR decreases bit error rate.
An increase in bandwidth allows an increase in data rate.

Digital Signal
Encoding
Formats
Encoding Schemes
clocking
signal spectrum
• need to synchronize
• good signal design should transmi>er and
concentrate the transmi>ed receiver either with an
power in the middle of the external clock or sync
transmission bandwidth mechanism
• DC is undesired
error detec6on signal interference and noise

immunity
• responsibility of a layer
of logic above the • certain codes perform be>er in
signaling level that is the presence of noise
known as data link • cost and complexity
control • the higher the signaling rate the
greater the cost
Nonreturn to Zero-‐Level
(NRZ-‐L)
Ø easiest way to transmit digital signals is to use

two different voltages for 0 and 1 bits
Ø voltage constant during bit interval
l no transiKon (no return to zero voltage)
l absence of voltage for 0, constant posiKve voltage
for 1
l more oqen, a negaKve voltage represents one
value and a posiKve voltage represents the
other(NRZ-‐L)
Encoding Schemes
Non-‐return to Zero Inverted (NRZI)
Ø Non-‐return to zero, invert on ones
Ø constant voltage pulse for duraKon of bit
Ø data encoded as presence or absence of signal
transiKon at beginning of bit Kme
l transiKon (low to high or high to low) denotes binary 1
l no transiKon denotes binary 0
Ø example of differenKal encoding
l data represented by changes rather than levels
l more reliable to detect a transiKon in the presence of
noise than to compare a value to a threshold
l easy to lose sense of polarity
NRZ Pros & Cons
Pros Ø used for magneKc
• easy to
recording
engineer
• make efficient
use of
bandwidth
Ø not oqen used for
signal transmission
Cons
• presence of a
dc component
• lack of
synchronizaKon
capability
MulKlevel Binary
Bipolar-‐AMI
Ø use more than two signal levels
Ø Bipolar-‐AMI
l binary 0 represented by no line signal
l binary 1 represented by posiKve or negaKve pulse
l binary 1 pulses alternate in polarity
l no loss of sync if a long string of 1s occurs
l no net dc component
l lower bandwidth
l easy error detecKon
MulKlevel Binary
Pseudoternary
Ø binary 1 represented by absence of line signal

Ø binary 0 represented by alternaKng posiKve
and negaKve pulses
Ø no advantage or disadvantage over bipolar-‐
AMI and each is the basis of some applicaKons
MulKlevel Binary Issues
Ø synchronizaKon with long runs of 0’s or 1’s
l can insert addiKonal bits that force transiKons
l scramble data
Ø not as efficient as NRZ
l each signal element only represents one bit
• receiver disKnguishes between three levels: +A, -‐A, 0
l a 3 level system could represent log23 = 1.58 bits
l D=R/log2M (D: modulaKon rate, R: data rate, M:# of signal elements)
l requires approximately 3dB more signal power for same
probability of bit error
TheoreKcal Bit Error Rate
Manchester Encoding
Ø transiKon in middle of each bit period
Ø midbit transiKon serves as clock and data
Ø low to high transiKon represents a 1
Ø high to low transiKon represents a 0
Ø used by IEEE 802.3 (Twisted pair LAN)
DifferenKal Manchester Encoding
Ø midbit transiKon is only used for clocking
Ø transiKon at start of bit period represenKng 0
Ø no transiKon at start of bit period represenKng 1
l this is a differenKal encoding scheme
Ø used by IEEE 802.5 (token ring LAN)
Biphase Pros and Cons
Pros
• synchronizaKon on midbit transiKon (self
clocking)
• has no dc component
• has error detecKon
Cons
• at least one transiKon per bit Kme and
may have two
• maximum modulaKon rate is twice NRZ
• requires more bandwidth
Spectral Density of Various Signal Encoding
Schemes
R=9600 bps
Most energy is located betwen 0-‐4800 Hz
Stream of Binary Ones
at 1Mbps
Bit rate = 1/Tb

Signal transmission rate =1/Tb
Bit rate = 1/Tb

Signal transmission rate =2/Tb
Normalized Signal TransiKon Rate of
Various Digital Signal Encoding Schemes

Table 5.3

Scrambling
Ø use scrambling to replace sequences that would
produce constant voltage
Ø these filling sequences must:
l produce enough transiKons to sync
l be recognized by receiver & replaced with original
l be same length as original
Ø design goals
l have no dc component
l have no long sequences of zero level line signal
l have no reducKon in data rate
l give error detecKon capability
HDB3 SubsKtuKon Rules

Table 5.4

B8ZS and HDB3


32
Digital Data, Analog Signal
Ø Digital CommunicaKons
Ø Used in public telephone system (PSTN –
Public Switched Telephone Network)
l has frequency range of 300Hz to 3400Hz
l uses modem (modulator-‐demodulator)
Encoding Techniques
Amplitude shiI Frequency shiI keying Phase shiI keying (PSK)
keying (ASK) (FSK) • phase of carrier signal
• used to transmit • most common form is is shiqed to represent
digital data over binary FSK (BFSK) data
opKcal fiber
34
ModulaKon Techniques
Digital CommunicaKon Problem
• Elements of digital communicaKon system
transmijer
(phase shiq keying modulaKon)
message transmijed + ∑ channel output
signal m(t) × (received signal) x(t)
signal s(t)
0→−1 +
1 → + 1 channel
for duration T carrier wave noise w(t)
Accos(2πfc t),
where fc=1/T
received T yT decision say 1 if yT > 0

signal x(t) × ∫ dt making
0
device say 0, otherwise
correlator
local carrier receiver threshold=0 36

cos(2πfc t)
M-‐ary Signalling
A symbol is a waveform, a state or significant condiKon of the
communicaKon channel that persists for a fixed period of Kme.
Binary MulKlevel
• Two different signals for «0» • M different levels to

bit and «1» bit represent M symbols
• 1 symbol represents 1 bit • Usually
• M=2L , where L is an integer
D = R/L D = ModulaKon rate (baud)

R = Data rate (bps)
L = Number of signal elements (M = 2L, L = log2(M))
Example: For M=16, find the data rate when the signaling speed is 2400? 37
M-‐ary Signals
• Symbol (with duraKon T) mi ∈ alphabet {m1,m2,…,
mM} T=LTb, L=log2(M)
• (ex) Quaternary : alphabet { 00, 01, 10, 11}
• -‐ Prior probability values { P(m1), P(m2), …, P(mM) }
1
• Equally likely p =
i P ( m )i=
M
for all i
• Output of signal TX encoder

Vector si with N real elements ( N ≤ M )
• Modulator : Vector si → distinct signal si (t)

• Energy of s (t) E = ∫ s (t)dt i =1, 2,3,, M
T 2
i i 0 i
• Average Energy: E = M P(m )E

s ∑ i i
i=1
38
Symbol Errors
• Average probability of symbol error
M
Pe = ∑ P(mˆ ≠ mi )P(mi )
i =1
• Receiver Types
– Phase locked, coherent detection, coherent RX
– Phase unlocked, non-coherent detection, non-coherent

RX
39
Binary Phase Shiq Keying
Ø phase of carrier signal is
shiqed to represent data
Ø binary PSK
#% Acos(2πf t ) 0
l two phases represent two s(t) = $ c
binary digits %& Acos(2πf c t + π ) 1
Ø differenKal PSK
l phase shiqed relaKve to
previous transmission rather
than some reference
€ signal
41
Power Spectra
42
DifferenKal -‐ PSK
0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0

DPSK
DifferenKal Transmission DifferenKal

Encoder Channel Decoder
ak bk=bk-‐1 XOR ak ak=bk-‐1 XOR bk
Q1. If a bit sequence of 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 is received, what are the bit esKmates?
Q2. What is the bit error rate?
44
DPSK NO ERROR
Diff. Decoder Input =Diff. Encoder Output
InformaKon: 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0
Diff. Encoder Output: 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0

bk=bk-‐1 XOR ak
Diff. Decoder Output: 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

ak=bk-‐1 XOR bk
Diff. Decoder Input: 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0
Diff. Decoder Output: 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0
2 errors @ decoder input -‐-‐> 4 errors decoder output

45
Quadrature PSK
Ø more efficient use if each
signal element represents
!
more than one bit #
A cos ( 2π fc t + π / 4) 00
l uses phase shiqs separated ## A cos ( 2π fc t + 3π / 4) 01
by mulKples of π/2 (90 )
o
s(t) = "
l each element represents two # A cos ( 2π fc t + 5π / 4) 11
bits #
A cos ( 2π fc t + 7π / 4) 10
#$
l split input data stream in two
and modulate onto carrier
and phase shiqed carrier
Ø can use 8 phase angles and
more than one amplitude
l 9600bps modem uses 12
angles, four of which have
two amplitudes
QPSK and OQPSK Modulators
QPSK
Passband Example
49
Coherent QPSK Receiver
50
Decision Boundaries
51
Amplitude Shiq Keying
• Two binary values are represented by two
different amplitudes of the carrier frequency.
– Commonly one of the amplitudes is zero.
– The resulKng signal is:
!# A cos 2π f t 1
s(t) = "
( c)
#$ 0 0
52
Amplitude Shiq Keying
Ø suscepKble to sudden gain changes – WHY?
Ø inefficient
Ø used for:
l up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
l very high speeds over opKcal fiber
Binary Frequency Shiq Keying
! A cos 2π f t 1
# ( 1)
s(t) = "
#$ A cos ( 2π f2t ) 0

Ø less suscepKble to gain changes than ASK – WHY?
Ø used for:
l up to 1200bps on voice grade lines
l high frequency radio
l even higher frequency on LANs using coaxial cable
FSK Transmission
Bandwidth Efficiency for Digital-‐to-‐
Analog Encoding Schemes
⇒ R / BT
Bandwidth efficiency
(unit: b/s/Hz)
ASK ⇒ BT = (1+ r)R
1+ r
M − PSK ⇒ BT = R
log 2 M
M − FSK ⇒ BT =
(1+ r ) M
R
log 2 M
RelaKon between Eb/N0 and SNR
Noise Power N N = N0 BT

Signal Power S
SNR = S/N
Bit Rate R
Total Bandwidth BT
57
EXAMPLE
58
Performance of Digital to Analog
ModulaKon Schemes
in
bandwidth presence
bit error rate of
ASK/PSK of noise: PSK and QPSK are
bandwidth directly about 3dB
relates to bit rate superior to ASK
and FSK
MPSK has tradeoff

mul6level PSK between
gives significant bandwidth
improvements efficiency and
error performance
Quadrature Amplitude ModulaKon
Ø QAM used on asymmetric digital subscriber line
(ADSL) and some wireless
Ø combinaKon of ASK and PSK
Ø logical extension of QPSK
Ø send two different signals simultaneously on same
carrier frequency
l use two copies of carrier, one shiqed 90°
l each carrier is ASK modulated
l two independent signals over same medium
l demodulate and combine for original binary output
QAM Modulator
QAM Variants
s(t ) = d1 (t )cos(2π fct ) + d2 (t )sin(2π fct )
Ø 2 x two level ASK
l each of two streams in one of two states
l four state system
l essenKally QPSK
Ø 2 x four level ASK
l combined stream in one of 16 states
Ø have 64 and 256 state systems
Ø improved data rate for given bandwidth
l increased potenKal error rate


63
Analog Data, Digital Signal
Ø digiKzaKon is conversion of analog data into
digital data which can then:
l be transmijed using NRZ-‐L
l be transmijed using code other than NRZ-‐L
l be converted to analog signal
Ø analog to digital conversion done using a
codec
l pulse code modulaKon
l delta modulaKon
DigiKzing Analog Data
Sampling Theorem & PCM
• Sampling Theorem: If a funcKon f(t) contains
no frequencies higher than B Hz, it is
completely determined by samples spaced 1/
(2B) seconds apart. The funcKon f(t) can be
reconstructed from these samples by the use
of a low-‐pass filter
• Example: voice data ~4000 Hz,
– Minimum sampling rate?
66
Pulse Code ModulaKon (PCM)
Ø strictly have analog samples
l Pulse Amplitude ModulaKon (PAM)
Ø assign each a digital value
PCM Example
4 bits: 16 Code Levels

8 bits:256 Code Levels
For B Hz signal, Ts=1/2B

PCM Block Diagram
QuanKzaKon error:
SNR (dB) = 20log10((2n)+1.76 dB = 6.02n+1.76 dB
Non-‐Linear Coding
Typical Companding FuncKons
Efficiency of PCM
• Good voice reproducKon via PCM can be
achieved with 128 quanKzaKon levels.
– Each amplitude level is represented by how many
bits?
– What is the minimum sampling rate?
– What is the data rate?
– What is the bandwith required to transmit this
data rate?
– Is PCM efficient?
72
Delta ModulaKon (DM)
Ø analog input is approximated by a staircase
funcKon
l can move up or down one level (δ) at each sample
interval
Ø has binary behavior
l funcKon only moves up or down at each sample
interval
l hence can encode each sample as single bit
l 1 for up or 0 for down
Delta ModulaKon Example
Delta ModulaKon OperaKon
PCM verses Delta ModulaKon
Ø DM has simplicity compared to PCM but has
worse SNR
Ø issue of bandwidth used
l for good voice reproducKon with PCM:
• want 128 levels (7 bit) & voice bandwidth 4khz
• need 8000 x 7 = 56kbps (Required Bw? Efficiency ???)
Ø data compression can improve on this
Ø sKll growing demand for digital signals
l use of repeaters, TDM, efficient switching
Ø PCM preferred to DM for analog signals


77
Analog Data, Analog Signals
Ø modulate carrier frequency with analog data
Ø why modulate analog signals?
l higher frequency can give more efficient transmission
l permits frequency division mulKplexing
Ø types of modulaKon:
l Amplitude
l Frequency
l Phase
Analog
ModulaKon
Techniques
Ø Amplitude ModulaKon
Ø Phase ModulaKon
Ø Frequency ModulaKon
Amplitude ModulaKon
ModulaKon index < 1 (WHY?)
s(t ) = [1 + na x(t )]cos(2π f c t )

Carrier
BT = 2B
Transmijed
power in carrier
⎛ na2 ⎞
Pt = Pc ⎜1 + ⎟
⎝ 2 ⎠
Total transmijed power 80
Angle ModulaKon Types
s(t ) = Ac cos(2π fc t + φ (t ))
Ø Frequency ModulaKon φ (t ) = n p m(t ) φ (t ) = n p m(t )
Ø Phase ModulaKon φ '(t ) = n f m(t )
BT = 2(β + 1) B Total Bandwidth
⎧ n p Am for Phase Modulation

⎪
β = ⎨ n f Am
⎪ for Frequency Modulation
⎩ 2π B 81
Summary
Ø Signal encoding techniques
l digital data, digital signal
• NRZ, mulKlevel binary, biphase, modulaKon rate,
scrambling techniques
l analog data, digital signal
• PCM, DM
l digital data, analog signal
• ASK, FSK, BFSK, PSK
l analog data, analog signal
• AM, FM, PM
QUESTIONS ?
83

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EHB

İstanbul Teknik Üniversitesi

Chapter 5 – Signal Encoding

Data and Computer CommunicaKons, Ninth

Even the natives have difficulty mastering this

Digital Data Digital Data

Analog Data Analog Data

Digital Data Digital Data

Analog Data Analog Data

need to know:

factors aﬀecKng signal interpretaKon:

error detec6on signal interference and noise

Ø easiest way to transmit digital signals is to use

Ø binary 1 represented by absence of line signal

Bit rate = 1/Tb

Bit rate = 1/Tb

Digital Data Digital Data

Analog Data Analog Data

received T yT decision say 1 if yT > 0

local carrier receiver threshold=0 36

• Two diﬀerent signals for «0» • M diﬀerent levels to

D = R/L D = ModulaKon rate (baud)

• Output of signal TX encoder

• Modulator : Vector si → distinct signal si (t)

• Average Energy: E = M P(m )E

– Phase unlocked, non-coherent detection, non-coherent

DiﬀerenKal Transmission DiﬀerenKal

Diﬀ. Encoder Output: 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0

Diﬀ. Decoder Output: 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 0 0 1 0

Diﬀ. Decoder Input: 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 0

Diﬀ. Decoder Output: 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 0

2 errors @ decoder input -­‐-­‐> 4 errors decoder output

ASK ⇒ BT = (1+ r)R

Noise Power N N = N0 BT

MPSK has tradeoﬀ

Digital Data Digital Data

Analog Data Analog Data

4 bits: 16 Code Levels

For B Hz signal, Ts=1/2B

Digital Data Digital Data

Analog Data Analog Data

s(t ) = [1 + na x(t )]cos(2π f c t )

Ø Frequency ModulaKon φ (t ) = n p m(t ) φ (t ) = n p m(t )

Ø Phase ModulaKon φ '(t ) = n f m(t )

BT = 2(β + 1) B Total Bandwidth

⎧ n p Am for Phase Modulation

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2 errors @ decoder input -‐-‐> 4 errors decoder output