MODULE 8: Non-infectious Disease and Disorders

Outcomes
A student:
- analyses and evaluates primary and secondary data and information BIO11/12-5
- solves scientific problems using primary and secondary data, critical thinking skills and scientific processes BIO11/12-6
- communicates scientific understanding using suitable language and terminology for a specific audience or purpose
BIO11/12-7
- explains non-infectious disease and disorders and a range of technologies and methods used to assist, control, prevent and
treat non-infectious disease BIO12-15

Content Focus
Students engage with the study of non-infectious disease and disorders, including their causes and effects on human health. They
explore technologies and their uses in treating disease and disorders as well as the epidemiology of non-infectious disease in
populations.

Homeostasis
Inquiry question: How is an organism’s internal environment maintained in response to a changing external environment?
Homeostasis:the process by which the body maintains a constant internal environment → uses nerves (the nervous system) and
hormones (the endocrine system) to do so
➢ Many reactions inside the body only work under certain conditions, regardless of a changing outside environment → refers to
many variables such as;
○ Body temperature
○ Water availability
○ Blood glucose levels
○ Carbon dioxide concentration
➢ Tolerance limits → inside = reactions proceed as planned, outside = negative consequences on the organism’s health
Stimulus and response model: the body’s way of detecting a change in its external or internal environment, and reacting accordingly
(note - homeostasis = only works to maintain the internal environment)
(1) Stimulus → something happens to cause change in the environment
(2) Receptor → recognise changes to the internal condition of the body (eg chemo - detect presence of particular chemicals,
thermo - detect change in temp, mechano, photo, noci) - once detected this deviation from a set level = send signal to control
centre
(3) Control centre (aka nervous system - brain (hypothalamus) & spinal chord) → information from sensory receptors is
compared to the normal/expected level - sends signal to appropriate effector
(4) Effector → involved in fixing the imbalance in the body (either muscles or glands (eg Thymus)) - muscles will either expand
or contract whereas glands will release some sort of secretion - information must be transferred from the brain to effector →
the nervous system (information travels via electrical impulses along nerve cells (ie neurons) or the endocrine system (uses
hormones to act as chemical messengers sent through the blood)
(5) Response → restores the body to its original state
➢ Note: all regulation involves responding to fluctuations around a set point - the size of the fluctuation depends on;
○ The sensitivity of the receptor
○ The tolerance of the central nervous system to variation from the set point
○ & the efficiency of the effector
➢ A sensitive receptor with a rapid and effective response = fluctuations around the set point will be smaller
Negative feedback loop: information produced by the feedback causes a reversal in the effect of the stimulus
 ➢ If the response cancels out the stimulus then it is negative feedback

Thermoregulation: Overall Process

➢ Humans have a preferred body temperature of 37 degrees (this is where reactions within the body work best)
➢ Endotherm = warm-blooded, ectotherm = cold-blooded (eg fish, amphibians, or reptiles) → don’t actually have very different
body temperatures, just heat bodies in different ways (endotherms = rely mainly on physiological sources of heat to regulate
our temperatures, ectotherms = environment)
○ Endotherms still exchange heat with the environment (conduction, convection, radiation, evaporation) - just able to
manipulate this process by changing our physiological conditions

➢ The body has two types of receptor to detect temperature changes;

○ The skin
■ Detects external temperature changes
■ Are triggered frequently
○ & the Hypothalamus
■ Cluster of temperature-sensitve cells
■ Monitor the body’s internal temperature by measuring the temperature of the blood
➢ Once these receptors detect a change in temperature, they initiate a regulatory response → can affect the amount of heat the
organism generates or loses
➢ Control centre (contains thermoreceptors)
○ The hypothalamus is the control centre for thermoregulation
○ It receives information about temperature (internal/external)
○ It sends out impulses to activate the particular physiological response required to re-achieve balance
➢ Effector depends on if the temp is above or below the average temp
➢ The response will try to reverse the original change in temperature

Thermoregulation: Responses (physiological & behavioural responses)

Responding to cold:
➢ Hypothalamus detects drop in temperature - initiates response to increase temp

Physiological responses:
➢ Reduce heat loss
○ Piloerection (effector = muscles around the hair follicles in your skin)
■ Hairs erect on your skin
■ Trap air close to the skin, preventing heat loss via the convection of air
○ Vasoconstriction
■ Blood vessels constrict so less blood travels near the skin’s surface
■ Less heat is lost from the blood
➢ Increase heat production
○ Shivering (ie muscle cells increasing in activity)
■ Muscle cells perform respiration in order to break down glucose and make energy
■ Respiration releases heat
○ Increasing the metabolism of the internal organs - rate of metabolism is controlled by hormones
■ Main source of heat production when the body is at rest
■ Endocrine system can be used to influence the production of heat via metabolism
➢ One hormone linked to temperature control = TSH (Thyroid-stimulating hormone)
○ Secreted by the pituitary gland
○ Acts on the thyroid gland to release thyroid hormones (including triiodothyronine (T3) and thyroxine (T4))
■ These hormones regulate metabolic processes (therefore, play a big role in increasing heat production)
Behavioural responses:
➢ Reduce heat loss
○ Seeking shelter
○ Putting on clothing
➢ Increase heat production
○ Voluntary movement (eg hopping or jogging on the spot)
○ Huddle together with others (body warmth)

Responding to heat:

Physiological responses:
➢ Increase heat loss
○ Vasodilation
■ Blood actively loses/dissipates heat to the external environment
○ Sweating
 ■ From the eccrine gland and apocrine gland
■ This draws heat from the skin to evaporate the sweat
■ Converting a liquid to a gas
➢ Reduce heat production
○ Decreasing metabolism
■ In response to heat, the hypothalamus reduces the rate of cellular respiration in the body’s internal organs
Behavioural responses:
➢ Increase heat loss
○ Covering body in water
○ Swimming in cool water
○ Removing clothing
○ Moving into shade
➢ Reduce heat production
○ Decreasing activity
Additional notes:
➢ Nonshivering thermogenesis = an increase in metabolic heat production (above the basal metabolism) that is not associated
with muscle activity. It refers mainly to the increased metabolism of brown fat, but to a lesser degree can also be detected in
skeletal muscles, liver, brain, and white fat.
➢ Shivering thermogenesis = a response to sudden exposure to cold and is a major contributor to enhanced heat production.
➢ Hypothalamic thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) stimulates thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) secretion from the
anterior pituitary. TSH then initiates thyroid hormone (TH) synthesis and release from the thyroid gland.
Dengue fever is caused by a virus transmitted by mosquitoes of the genus Aedes. Malaria is caused by a single-celled organism
transmitted by mosquitoes of the genus Anopheles

Students:
➢ construct and interpret negative feedback loops that show homeostasis by using a range of sources, including but not limited
to: (ACSBL101, ACSBL110, ACSBL111)
Homeostasis: the process that maintains a steady or constant internal state/environment, allowing an organism to function effectively
(at optimal metabolic efficiency) - this means the following factors/conditions
need to be considered;
➢ 37 degrees internal body temp
➢ pH maintained
➢ Enzyme activity maximised (optimal)
➢ Glucose levels
➢ Oxygen, urea levels, and carbon dioxide (waste removal)
➢ Water and salts

A feedback mechanism is a response to a stimulus (ie a change in the external

environment)

Receptors: receptors are responsible for detecting stimuli in the form of any changes from the set point that are outside the tolerance
limits. Receptors contain sensory cells and can take numerous forms depending on the stimuli that activate them.
➢ Interoceptors are receptors within the body that detect internal stimuli related to homeostasis.
➢ Receptors may be named according to the type of energy or molecules they detect.
➢ The receptors that are important in homeostasis are as follows.
○ Thermoreceptors detect changes in temperature. Thermoreceptors in the skin are nerve endings that are sensitive to
heat or cold and send information to the brain about the external temperature.
○ Internal thermoreceptors in the hypothalamus detect the temperature of the blood as it flows through the brain
○ Chemoreceptors detect the concentration of certain chemicals inside the body. Chemoreceptors are located in certain
blood vessels and detect the pH as well as levels of certain chemicals, such as carbon dioxide and oxygen
○ Osmoreceptors detect changes in osmotic pressure and are located in the hypothalamus. Osmotic pressure in the
blood is determined by the concentration of substances dissolved in the blood plasma. Small changes in osmotic
 pressure cause the body to implement processes that regulate the amount of water in the body, keeping it within the
tolerance limits.

Negative feedback: (self-regulating system) - a specific change results in a response opposite to the initial situation (eg if body
temperature is too high, the body’s response will cause the opposite to happen and the temperature will be lowered

1. Detecting change: sensory cells or receptors within the body detect a change in a
particular component of the internal environment, such as the temperature of the
body or the pH of the blood. This change in the internal environment is called a
stimulus.
2. Counteracting the change: a response occurs that will reverse (or counteract) the
change. This response is brought about by the effector organs (such as muscles or
glands) and will restore the body to its relatively constant internal state.
Positive feedback: a self-amplifying cycle whereby the monitoring of the situation causes more of the same situation to take place (eg
when a baby’s head pushes against the uterus, sensors near the cervix stimulate even more contractions until the baby is born)

Examples of feedback:
Stimulus Response Effect Type

Blood glucose concentration The hormone insulin is Speeds up the transport of Negative
increases after a sugary meal released glucose out of the blood and
(negative) into selected tissues

Blood glucose concentrations

decrease (decreasing original
stimulus)

Exercise = metabolic heat = Cooling mechanisms (eg Vasodilation allows heat to Negative
body temp rises sweating, vasodilation, dissipate to the surrounding
sweating) environment
 Sweating allows for
evaporation and subsequent
cooling

Etc.
The body temperature falls

Baby begins to suckle mum's Releases hormones Baby continues to suckle - Positive
nipple and a few drops of milk stimulates more milk to be
are released released until baby stops

Ripening apples releases the Ethylene accelerates the Releases more ethylene - all Positive
volatile plant hormone ripening of unripe fruit in its fruit ripen until the point of
ethylene vicinity so nearby fruit also consumption or spoilage
ripens

- temperature (ACSBL098)
- glucose
➢ investigate the various mechanisms used by organisms to maintain their internal environment within tolerance limits,
including:
- trends and patterns in behavioural, structural and physiological adaptations in endotherms that assist in maintaining
homeostasis (ACSBL099, ACSBL114)
Endotherms: animals that can maintain a constant body temperature
➢ Body temperatures are controlled largely by metabolic processes and by adaptive mechanisms that control the rate of heat
exchange with the environment (eg panting, sweating, and insulation (fat layers, blubber, hair, fur or feathers), reduced blood
flow to extremeties, hibernation, burrowing, nocturnal habit or migration and decreasing/increasing SA/V ratio such as
curling up in a ball)
➢ Endotherms can remain active and keep a constant body temperature under a wide variety of environmental temperatures
from intense heat of the desert to the freezing arctic cold
➢ Both production of heat and cooling require large amounts of metabolic energy
➢ Most mammals and birds are endotherms
➢ The ability to maintain a constant body temperature allows for a broader geographical and ecological distribution

Ectotherms: any animal whose regulation of body temperature depends on external sources, such as sunlight or a heated rock surface

Adaptations of Endotherms:
Adaptations: the characteristics that an organism possesses that will increase the survival and reproductive chances of that organism
in its environment
Examples:
Behavioural Structural Physiological

➢ Dogs → panting - allows
evaporations from internal body
surfaces
➢ Elephants → movement to
shaded areas
➢ Kangaroos → licking enabling
more heat to be evaporated
through saliva
➢ Dogs → sunbaking increasing
surface area for heat absorption
➢ Wilder beasts → drinking water
to maintain an istonic cellular
solution
➢ Wombats → SA/V ratio - more
compact bodies reduce heat loss
➢ Penguins → insulation trap a
layer of air next to the skin to
reduce heat transfer
➢ Humans → sweating allows
evaporation from skin to cool the
body
➢ Humans → muscle contraction
(shivering) to generate heat
energy
➢ Humans → vasoconstriction and
vasodilation allowing regulation
of blood temperatures
➢ Metabolic rate can be increased
or decreased to regulate body
temperature
 ➢ Humans → deliberate use of
muscle contraction to produce
metabolic heat

Homeothermy: countercurrent exchange to stop cold blood returning to the main organs of the whale → cold blood at tip of fin

Wombat example:
Physiological response Structural response Behavioural response

➢ Lower metabolism to conserve ➢ Thick fur coat ➢ Burrow underground (deep) to

energy + control the amount of avoid heat
heat generated ➢ Active in night
➢ Can undergo vasodilation → ➢ Soak themselves in water to cool
heat loss and vasoconstriction → down
heat conservation

- internal coordination systems that allow homeostasis to be maintained, including hormones and neural pathways
(ACSBL112, ACSBL113, ACSBL114)
The Nervous System:
Differences between the nervous system and endocrine system:
Nervous system
➢ Communication method = nerve → neurotransmitter
➢ Target = neurons, muscles, glands
➢ Response time = quicker (ms/s)
➢ Range of effect = specific/localised
➢ Duration of response = short-term (ms) → stops once
the stimulus is removed
Endocrine system
➢ Communication method = glands → hormones
➢ Target = any cell with a hormone receptor
➢ Response time = slower (secs/mins)
➢ Range of effect = widespread
➢ Duration = long-term (mins/days/weeks) → may count
after stimulus is removed
➢ Hormone examples = adrenaline, insulin, thyroxine,
etc.
 - mechanisms in plants that allow water balance to be maintained (ACSBL115)

Causes and Effects

Inquiry question: Do non-infectious diseases cause more deaths than infectious diseases?

Non-Infectious Disease: Any disease not caused by a pathogen, and cannot be transmitted between people - they can be caused by
genetic disorders, environmental factors, cancer, and nutritional disorders
➢ Genetic disorders - due to the faulty production of a protein (eg Cystic Fibrosis - CFTR gene most commonly mutated in
people with Cystic Fibrosis)
➢ Environmental factors - can overstimulate the immune system + increases the risk of genetic mutations
➢ Cancer - a group of non-infectious diseases which have unregulated and abnormal cell growth - they are caused by genetic
mutations which can be triggered by environmental carcinogens
➢ Nutritional disorders - caused by underconsumption, overconsumption, or an imbalance of nutrients

Symptoms, cause, and treatment/management of Cystic Fibrosis:

Name Cystic fibrosis is a genetic disease

Cause Point mutation in CFTR gene causes the production of a faulty CFTR channel in the cell
membrane which normally regulates sodium

Symptoms Build up of sticky mucus in respiratory and digestive tracts leads to breathing problems, infection,
digestive issues, and liver failure

Treatment/management There is no cure for cystic fibrosis, however antibiotics, mucus thinning medication and
physiotherapy are used to manage the symptoms of respiratory infections

Students:
➢ investigate the causes and effects of non-infectious diseases in humans, including but not limited to:
GENETIC ENVIRONMENTAL
Definition Genetic diseases are caused
and list 5 by mutations of the genes
examples or chromosomes of an
individual. Each gene
codes for the production of
a specific protein, which
may be structural, an
enzyme or a hormone. If the
particular gene that codes
for a specific protein is in
some way abnormal then
that protein may not be
produced correctly and
genetic disease may result.
● Cystic Fibrosis
● some cancers.
● High cholesterol.
● haemophilia.
● muscular
dystrophy.
NUTRITIONAL
Humans interact with their
environment throughout their
lives. Numerous factors that
individuals are
exposed to in the environment
surrounding them can cause
diseases of different types.
There are many different types
of environmental diseases,
including:
lifestyle diseases, such as
cardiovascular disease and
diseases caused by substance
abuse such as
alcoholism and
smoking-related diseases
diseases caused by physical
factors in the environment,
such as skin cancer caused by
excessive
exposure to ultraviolet
radiation in sunlight
diseases caused by exposure to
chemicals in the environment,
home or workplace, such as
lead
To maintain health and
wellbeing, it is essential to
consume the correct balance of
nutrients. Eating
a balanced diet that contains the
recommended amount and type
of food provides all the nutrients
required for all necessary bodily
processes.
Proper nutrition contributes to
better infant, child and maternal
health. It also contributes to a
stronger immune system and a
reduced risk of developing a
non-infectious disease, such as
diabetes or cardiovascular
disease.
Nutritional diseases are caused
by diets lacking the proper
balance and amount of nutrients.
They can also be caused by
psychological conditions that
lead to inappropriate diets. This
imbalance in the diet leads to a
condition known as malnutrition.
CANCER
Cancer is a disease of the cells of
the body. It occurs when
abnormal cells divide in an
uncontrolled way.
These cells can invade body
tissue near them, spread to other
tissues and disrupt the normal
functioning
of the body.
In a healthy cell, DNA repair
genes, proto-oncogenes and
tumour suppressor genes tightly
regulate
cell growth and mitosis. If these
genes are damaged or mutated,
this regulation is disrupted.
This disruption of the normally
regulated cell cycle leads to
uncontrolled cell replication,
which:
➢ does not allow cells to
differentiate, so they
cannot perform the
poisoning caused by exposure
to high levels of lead in the
atmosphere, soil and products
used in everyday life.
Broad categories of malnutrition specialised functions
include; necessary for normal
1. Undernutrition - body functioning
insufficient intake of ➢ causes the formation of
correct type of food, tumours. If the tumour is
quantity of food or both. malignant (invasive or
2. Overnutrition - spreading), cancer
excessive intake of results.
food.
Types of cancer:
Sarcoma forms in muscle, or
connective tissue such as bone or
blood vessels.
➢ Carcinoma forms in
epithelial tissue, such as
skin or tissue that lines
or covers the internal
organs.
➢ Lymphoma and
myeloma form in the
lymphatic system and
plasma cells of the
immune system.
➢ Leukaemia forms in the
The Australian Guide to healthy bone marrow and other
eating displays the adequate blood-forming tissues.
amounts of food intake from all ➢ Central nervous system
categories of foods: meats, dairy, cancers begin in the
fruit, vegetables and grains. brain or spinal cord.
Undernutrition:
In developing countries, where
food is often in short supply for
numerous reasons, many
individuals, especially children,
suffer from a disease known as
kwashiorkor. This is caused by a
severe lack of protein in the diet
and results in a failure to grow,
enlarged liver, hair changes,
apathy,
irritability and increased
susceptibility to infectious
diseases. Kwashiorkor is
characterised by a
swollen belly, caused by fluid
retention
Lack of minerals:
Iron Deficiency - explained
below.
Lack of vitamins:
 A diet that is lacking a vital
nutrient, usually a vitamin or a
mineral, can lead to a nutritional
deficiency
disease. The particular vitamin or
mineral that is lacking will
determine the disease or
condition that
occurs in the individual.

Eating Disorders:
Diseases that have a complex
psychological basis and lead to
an inappropriate diet and severe
undernutrition include such
conditions as anorexia nervosa
and bulimia nervosa.

Overnutrition:
The most common type of
overnutrition is obesity. Obesity
is a problem in many developed
countries. The cause is
consuming more kilojoules than
the energy expended, resulting in
an accumulation of fat in the
body. The
overconsumption of food could
be due to a number of factors,
including psychological, cultural
and economic factors.

Example 1 CYSTIC FIBROSIS
and brief
descriptio Cause:
n of cause an inherited disease caused
by mutation of the cystic
and
fibrosis transmembrane
effects in conductance regulator
humans (CFTR) gene on
chromosome 7. This faulty
gene changes the protein
that regulates the normal
movement of sodium
chloride in and out of cells.
This causes the
mucus-secreting organs to
produce abnormally thick
mucus. The CFTR gene is
recessive, meaning that a
person must have two
copies of the faulty gene for
them to develop the disease.
Effect:
LUNG CANCER
What is Lung Cancer
Lung cancer is a type of cancer
that starts in the lungs and can
spread to other parts of the
body if not detected and
treated early. It develops when
the cells in the lungs undergo
uncontrolled growth and form
tumours. - can spread by the
liver or the blood
Major cause of death in males
and females - overall, rate of
new cases continues to grow
even though the role of
cigarette smoke in causing
lung cancer is well established
IRON DEFICIENCY
ANAEMIA
Iron is a mineral required by the
body as an essential component
in the molecule haemoglobin,
which is responsible for carrying
oxygen around the body. Iron
deficiency is when the stores of
iron in your body are too low.
A deficiency of iron in the diet is
the most common nutritional
deficiency and will cause iron
deficiency anaemia.
Causes include; not getting
enough iron in your diet, chronic
blood loss, pregnancy and
vigorous exercise.
Symptoms of iron deficiency
anaemia include pale skin,
SKIN CANCER (Melanoma)
Melanoma is a disease in which
cells in the skin divide
uncontrollably due to changes in
the DNA of the
genes that control cell division.
These cells are called
melanocytes and contain the
pigment melanin,
which gives the skin its colour.
Melanoma can occur anywhere
on the skin, but in men it is more
common
on the head, neck and trunk, and
in women it is more common on
the legs and arms.
The exact cause of melanoma is
not known, but the chance of
developing this cancer is
Cystic fibrosis affects the Most cancers in the lung are weakness, unusual tiredness, increased by the following risk
respiratory, digestive and carcinomas - cancers of the apathy, low resistance to cold factors:
reproductive systems, as epithelial cells temperatures and difficulty ➢ exposure to UV light
well as the sweat glands.
breathing when exerting the from the sun or a
The mucus secreted is very
thick and blocks Causes: body. tanning bed
passageways in the lungs ➢ Cigarette Smoking ➢ fair complexion, blue or
and digestive tracts. This ➢ Second-Hand Smoke Anaemia: Anaemia is when you green eyes, blonde or
thick mucus causes Inhalation don't have enough red blood cells red hair, freckles, skin
problems with breathing ➢ Genetic or haemoglobin. There are many that burns easily
and with the digestion and predisposition different causes of anaemia. The ➢ severe sunburn that
absorption of nutrients.
➢ Carcinogens in the air most common type of anaemia is caused blistering, in
Some of the symptoms of
cystic fibrosis are: ie Asbestos iron-deficiency anaemia, which childhood
● recurrent and ➢ HIV infection (ruins is usually caused by not eating or ➢ a history of having skin
severe chest immune system) absorbing enough iron, or by cancer, including
infections ➢ Exposure to radon losing blood. melanoma
● malabsorption of Symptoms: ➢ having many different
nutrients and ➢ Chest pain types of moles or
failure to thrive
➢ Coughing up blood irregular-looking moles
● passing of large,
foul-smelling ➢ Chronic cough ➢ a family history of
motions ➢ Hoarseness moles or melanoma
● diabetes ➢ Facial or neck ➢ exposure to certain
● excess salt in swelling environmental
sweat ➢ Loss of appetite conditions or chemicals,
● liver failure ➢ Trouble swallowing such as radiation or
● infertility.
➢ Weight loss organic solvents
➢ Trouble breathing ➢ a compromised immune
➢ Tiredness system
➢ older age – being older
Staging: increases the risk of
➢ Non-small cell lung developing melanoma
cancer ➢ male gender – men are
○ Occult more likely to develop
○ Stage 0 melanoma than women.
○ Stage 1
○ Stage 2 - The malignant melanoma tumour
check lymph initially is confined to one are but
nodes for if left untreated will increase in
cancerous thickness, spreading to deeper
cells layers within the skin.
○ Stage 3
○ Stage 4 With the further passage of time,
the melanoma will spread to
Make notes on small cell lung nearby lymph nodes, lymph
cancer versus nonsmall cell vessels and skin.
lung cancer
The cancerous cells will then
Effects: travel to distant lymph nodes,
Respiratory problems: As lung other areas of the skin and other
cancer progresses, it can organs such as the lungs, brain,
obstruct the airways and cause bones and liver. This will
symptoms such as coughing, interfere with the
wheezing, shortness of breath, correct functioning of the body
and chest pain. and unless successfully treated
will lead to death.
Metastasis: If not detected and
treated early, lung cancer can
spread to other organs in the
body, such as the liver, brain,
bones, or adrenal glands. This
spread, known as metastasis,
makes treatment more
challenging.

Weight loss and fatigue: Lung

cancer can lead to a loss of
appetite, unintended weight
loss, and fatigue due to the
body's increased energy
demands in fighting the
disease.

Paraneoplastic syndromes:
Some lung cancers can
produce hormones or other
substances that affect body
functions distant from the
tumor site. This can result in
various neurological,
endocrine, and autoimmune
disorders.

Treatment complications:
Treatments for lung cancer,
such as surgery, radiation
therapy, and chemotherapy,
can have significant side
effects, including hair loss,
nausea, weakened immune
system, and increased
susceptibility to infections.
1. Cut tumour out in
surgery
2. Chemotherapy
involves receiving
medication into the
blood stream that
attacks the cancer
cells in all parts of the
body
3. Radiation therapy to
kill tumour cells -
tumours can be
precisely targeted
with radiation
Example 2
and brief
descriptio
n of
causes
and
effects in
humans

Note: genetic disorders occur when there is altered or incorrect expression of a gene whereas diseases caused by environmental
exposure are not caused by incorrect gene expression (eg a hypersensitiviy reaction, or allergic reaction, caused by antigens in the
environment

Risk factors of noncommunicable diseases (NCDs):

Genetic Factors ➢ Family diseases history
➢ Genetic inheritance
➢ Epigenic changes
➢ Environment exposure-based (eg radiation)
➢ Toxic material-based mutations

Environmental Factors ➢ Air pollution

➢ Weather changes
➢ Sunlight (UV radiation)

Sociodemographic ➢ Age
Factors ➢ Gender
➢ Race
➢ Ethnicity
➢ Education
➢ Income

Factors of Self ➢ Tobacco use

Management ➢ Alcohol use
➢ Physical activity
➢ Persons weight
➢ Food choice
➢ Dental health care

Factors of Medical ➢ Medications

Conditions ➢ Blood pressure
➢ Lipids
➢ Glucose
➢ Viruses
➢ Obesity
➢ Stress

➢ collect and represent data to show the incidence, prevalence and mortality rates of non-infectious diseases, for example:
- nutritional diseases
 - diseases caused by environmental exposure
Lung Cancer:

Lung Cancer Treatment:

Surgery: removal of the tumour by cutting out the affected tissue - could be open surgery or keyhole depending on the size of the
tumour
➢ Lobectomy - one lobe of the lung is removed
➢ Pnuemonectomy - one who lung is removed
➢ Wedge restriction - only part of a lobe is removed
Benefits Limitations

➢ Removes cancer cells in small area ➢ Invasive

➢ Only need to remove the part of the lung that is
affected - leave healthy parts of the lung
➢ Relative convenience - 1-2 days and under anaesthesia
➢ General anaesthesia is needed - potential reaction
➢ Post-operative pain likely
➢ Post-surgery complications possible eg infection
➢ Recovery time is 6-12 weeks
➢ Chance of remission if some cancer cells are left
behind

Radiation Therapy: use of targeted radiation to kill or damage cancer cells so they cannot grow, multiply or spread - usually in the
form of x-ray beams that come from a machine outside the body
Benefits Limitations

➢ Kills a large proportion of cancer cells ➢ May damage surrounding tissue that are close to the
➢ Targets a specific area cancer
➢ Relatively safe and painless ➢ Not as effective for large tumours
➢ Organ preservation ➢ Side effects - fatigue, skin changes
➢ Can be used in combination with chemotherapy ➢ Inconvenience - sometimes given daily for 2 months

Chemotherapy: The treatment of cancer with drugs that kill or inhibit the growth of cancer cells eg cisplatin - usually given through a
vein (intravenously) followed by a rest period before another dose - kills all cells including cancerous and healthy cells, such as bone
marrow and hair follicle cells
Benefits Limitations

➢ Can be used before (make cancer smaller pre-removal) ➢ Works on rapidly dividing cells (cancer), therefore
or after (reduce risk of cancer returning) surgery affects healthy cells also eg blood, hair follicles,
➢ Can be used in combination with radiation therapy digestive system
 (chemoradiation) ➢ Side effects - anaemia, infections due to low WBC,
➢ Reduces symptoms and increases quality of life mouth ulcers, hair loss, nausea
➢ Preservation of the lung ➢ Sometimes given for weeks

Immunotherapy: Immunotherapy is a type of cancer treatment that helps your immune system fight cancer. The immune system
helps your body fight infections and other diseases. It is made up of white blood cells and organs and tissues of the lymph system.
Different forms of immunotherapy may be given in different ways. These include:
➢ intravenous (IV): The immunotherapy goes directly into a vein.
➢ Oral: The immunotherapy comes in pills or capsules that you swallow.
➢ Topical: The immunotherapy comes in a cream that you rub onto your skin. This type of immunotherapy can be used for very
early skin cancer.
➢ Intravesical: The immunotherapy goes directly into the bladder.
Types of immunotherapy:
➢ Immune checkpoint inhibitors, which are drugs that block immune checkpoints.
➢ T-cell transfer therapy, which is a treatment that boosts the natural ability of your T cells to fight cancer.
➢ Monoclonal antibodies, which are immune system proteins created in the lab that are designed to bind to specific targets on
cancer cells.
➢ Treatment vaccines, which work against cancer by boosting your immune system’s response to cancer cells. Treatment
vaccines are different from the ones that help prevent disease.
➢ Immune system modulators, which enhance the body’s immune response against cancer. Some of these agents affect
specific parts of the immune system, whereas others affect the immune system in a more general way. - stimulate cytokines to
attract dendrites etc.?
Cancer cells can avoid detection by the immune system by;
➢ Changing their surface antigens
➢ Attaches to the immune cell and then other immune cells don’t attack it
➢ Cancer cells under attack → cancer cells release certain substances that call in other immune cells will slow down/stop
immune response (suppressor T cells)

Benefits Limitations

➢ Boosts the body's own immune system to fight cancer
cells. In the immune system, certain white blood cells,
called T-cells, are responsible for fighting infections or
cancer cells.
➢ As part of its normal function, the immune system
detects and destroys abnormal cells and most likely
prevents or curbs the growth of many cancers. For
instance, immune cells are sometimes found in and
around tumors. These cells, called tumor-infiltrating
lymphocytes or TILs, are a sign that the immune
system is responding to the tumor. People whose
tumors contain TILs often do better than people whose
tumors don’t contain them.
➢ Cancer cells can sometimes develop ways to stop or
slow the body's normal T-cell response.
➢ Even though the immune system can prevent or slow
cancer growth, cancer cells have ways to avoid
destruction by the immune system. For example, cancer
cells may:
○ Have genetic changes that make them less
visible to the immune system.
○ Have proteins on their surface that turn off
immune cells.
○ Change the normal cells around the tumor so
they interfere with how the immune system
responds to the cancer cells.
➢ Side effects such as;
 ○ pain
○ swelling
○ soreness
○ redness
○ itchiness
○ rash
○ fever
○ chills
○ weakness
○ dizziness
○ nausea or vomiting
○ muscle or joint aches
○ fatigue
○ headache
○ trouble breathing
○ low or high blood pressure
○ swelling and weight gain from retaining fluid
○ heart palpitations
○ sinus congestion
○ diarrhea
○ infection
○ organ inflammation
➢ Cost - expensive - not accessible to all
➢ Might not work - might not work for specific type of
cancer (response rate = 15-20%)
➢ Cancer may mutate and then the antibodies will no
longer be effective (different antigens)
Future Directions: immune virus that fights cancer + providing personalised combination immunotherapy with minimal side effects
➢ Combinatorial immunotherapy: There have been studies which have suggested that combining different immunotherapies can
improve treatment
➢ There is still uncertainty in terms of how much of each immunotherapy should be administered (dosage) and how to identify
the best combinations for the treatment of a particular patient or cancer type
➢ The potential for immunotherapy combined with other types of treatment (such as chemotherapy or radiotherapy) hasn’t
really been looked into at all!
➢ Personalised immunotherapy: personalised cancer vaccines are one of the pioneering examples. They're a type of therapeutic
cancer vaccine, used to treat people who already have cancer. They contain a modified version of the patient’s own cancer
cells and they strengthen the immune response by making the cancerous cells more obvious to the immune system.
➢ Recognition and management of toxicities: As new areas of cancer immunotherapy are explored, there will need to be
extensive research in order to determine possible toxicities in patients and how they can be managed.

Two Main Types of Immunotherapy:

Passive: enhances a patient’s immune response (eg monoclonal antibodies (mAbs): antibodies produced by the same B lymphocyte) -
there are three types of mAbs to know about → standard, conjugated, and bispecific
➢ Standard mAbs → bind to specific antigens on cancer cells - flag to be destroyed or block sites on the cancer cells which
helpthem proliferate
➢ Conjugated mAbs → attached to a drug, toxin, or radioactive particple → effectively delivers these toxic substances directly
to cancer cells in order to destroy them when they bind
➢ Bispecific mAbs → made up of two different mAbs and have two different binding sites → one is usually from a cancer cell
and the other for an immune cells (eg T lymphocyte) - able to identify specifc cancer cell and then deliver it straight to a T
lymphocytle cell that can destory it

Active: stimulates a patient’s immune response (eg cancer vaccines → contain antigens from cancer cells or viruses which can be
responsible for causing cancer in particular cases)
➢ Preventative cancer vaccines prevent cancer from developing
➢ Therapeutic cancer vaccines boost a cancer patient’s immune response to the cancer cells

Epidemiology
Inquiry question: Why are epidemiological studies used?

Epidemiology: Can be used to determine the cause of non-infectious diseases - involves measuring prevalence, incidence, and
mortality - through these studies many causes of childhood malnutrition and lung cancer have been identified
Epidemiological study: involves the collection and statistical analysis of large quantities of data
➢ They can focus on the cause, risk factors, frequency, or geographic distribution of a disease
➢ Collecting data from lots of people helps to ensure that conclusions are accurate
➢ The information gained in an epidemiological study can be used to estimate trends, predict outbreaks, and implement public
health strategies
➢ The three types of epidemiological studies are:
○ Analytical studies - aim to test a specific hypothesis - usually about the cause or risk factors associated with a
specific disease (eg following a food poisoning outbreak to determine the causative agent and the contaminated
source - so whether the people had eaten any of the same foods or been to any of the same restaurants) - the two
types = cohort and case-control studies
■ Case-control study = compares patients who have a disease or outcome of interest (cases) with patients
who do not have the disease or outcome (controls) + looks back retrospectively to compare how frequently
the exposure to a risk factor is present in each group to determine the relationship between the risk factor
and the.. - finish
■ Cohort study = different groups of people with varying levels of exposure are followed over time to
evaluate the occurence of an outcome - these participants have to be free of the outcome at baseline
○ Descriptive studies - aim to determine patterns in the way a disease is distributed (eg which groups - age, race - are
more susceptible to specific diseases - could also investigate which age group or gender is most likely to be
associated with motor vehicle accidents due to risk taking behaviour
○ Intervention studies - aim to measure the effectiveness and safety of a health intervention
➢ Data collection methods vary for each epidemiological study, depending on its purpose
○ No matter the method, data is typically collected in a series of six stages
Epidemiology is limited by only studying patterns in health, not total health - therefore, its findings must be confined with knowledge
from other fields (sociology and psychiatry), to promote better health
➢ Eg epidemiology shows that males who are 17-25 years old have a higher risk of motor vehicle accidents than any other
demographic group. It also identifies lots of risk factors that are associated with these accidents, including speeding and
alcohol.

Benefits:
➢ Epidemiology benefits governments by:
○ Showcasing priority areas of concern
○ Informing methods of prevention and control
○ Directing public health campaigns
➢ Epidemiology benefits individuals indirectly through the implementation of public health campaigns
○ Participating individuals are particularly benefited, as they may become more aware of their health or receive
increased health updates that they otherwise wouldn’t have

Note: samples should be very high and not confined to any one place - should have variations in age and ethnicity (equally distributed
categories of respondants) and data should be peer reviewed before publication

Students:
➢ analyse patterns of non-infectious diseases in populations, including their incidence and prevalence, including but not limited
to:
- nutritional diseases
Iron Deficiency: (don’t need to memorise stats - just trends/patterns)
➢ Gender → 29% in pregnant women, 38% in nonpregnant women
➢ Age →WHO estimates that 40% of children 6–59 months of age, 37% of pregnant women, and 30% of women 15–49 years
of age worldwide are anaemic
➢ Race → African, Asian and South American countries experience the detrimental effects of anaemia, especially the continent
Africa, in particular the western areas of Africa.
 ○ ‘ Studies have shown that Anaemia = 3 times more common in African Americans than in Whites’
➢ Regions of the world → The prevalence of anaemia in pregnant women is typically lower in higher-income regions, being
lowest in North America, and Europe & Central Asia. Rates are particularly high across South Asia and Sub-Saharan Africa;
in some countries reaching over 60%.
○ Incidence is lower in high-income regions such as North America - Anaemia is most prevalent in developing
countries, particularly Africa and South East Asia
➢ Suggest reasons for the trends you have described. → Individuals in those affected areas are most likely to be diagnosed
with anaemia due to the fact that they are from lower socioeconomic countries.
➢ Predict future trends for each of the data sets you have studied. As nutritional education increases about iron deficiency
and people try to incorporate more balanced diets anaemia prevalence should decrease
○ Trends have shown that overall there has been a 5% decrease in prevalence with some of the most affected countries
such as South East Asia showing the greatest improvement with a 7% downward trend in prevalence - it is predicted
that this trend will continue
Trends/patterns:

Suggest Reasons for trends:

➢ WHO defines anaemia as a condition in which the no. of red blood cells or their oxygen carrying capacity is insufficient to
meet physiologic needs - the largest causes of anaemia are:
○ Poor or insufficient or abnormal red blood cell production
○ Excessive red blood cell destruction, which could be caused by disease such as Malaria
○ Excessive red blood cell loss (menstruation, etc.)
○ Iron deficiency (nutritional deficiency - low SES, etc.)
➢ Although any individual can experience micronutrient deficiency - pregnant women and children are at greater risk of
developing deficiencies - higher physiological requirements as well as insufficient dietary intake

- diseases caused by environmental exposure

➢ investigate the treatment/management, and possible future directions for further research, of a non-infectious disease using an
example from one of the non-infectious diseases categories listed above
➢ evaluate the method used in an example of an epidemiological study
➢ evaluate, using examples, the benefits of engaging in an epidemiological study

Prevention
Inquiry question: How can non-infectious diseases be prevented?

Students:
➢ use secondary sources to evaluate the effectiveness of current disease-prevention methods and develop strategies for the
prevention of a non-infectious disease, including but not limited to:
- educational programs and campaigns
- genetic engineering
Note: Genetically modified cells alter the entire cell whereas gene therapy focuses solely on the use of DNA or genetic material to
treat diseases
Genetically Modified Cells:
➢ Mice B lymphocytes can be altered to produce human monoclonal antibodies
➢ And, human T lymphocytes can be altered to be even more sensitive to targeting cancer cells.
These techniques can be used to treat disease and to heighten the immune response to prevent disease.
Gene Therapy: This involves inserting new DNA into a host to stimulate the production of missing or dysfunctional genes and
proteins. The expression of the normal target gene allows a functional protein to be produced, relieving the symptoms of the disease.
➢ The gene can either be directly inserted into the host
➢ Or, through cell-based delivery, where the gene is introduced first to a stem cell and then into the host.
In any case, the gene is always first packaged into a vector, as this enables it to incorporate into the host DNA. There are two vectors
to choose from:
➢ Viral vectors → For a virus to be an effective vector, it must have:
○ Its virulent genes removed or altered so it's no longer pathogenic
○ Cloning sites to allow a therapeutic gene to be inserted into the genome
○ And, the ability to bind and enter the target cell.
➢ And, liposome vectors
 ○ These are small phospholipid vesicles that can diffuse across cell membranes or enter by endocytosis → DNA is
inserted into the liposome and carried into the cell where it is released. Liposomes can be used to deliver drugs to
cells too
Note: Only somatic cells are used in gene therapy. So, this only treats the individual and does not affect their offspring. This means
that the cure is not inheritable. This is usually motivated by ethics and economics

Preimplantation Genetic Screening & Diagnosis (PGD)

Note: embryo biopsy specifically looking at aneuploidy = screening (PGS) rather when looking specific genetic mutation = diagnosis
(PGD)
➢ Three main types of abnormalities that can be detected through embryo biopsy - these are:
○ Single Gene Defect (eg cystic fibrosis or spinal muscular atrophy)
○ Chromosomal rearrangement (eg balanced translocation)
○ Aneuploidy (eg down syndrome, turner syndrome) - most commonly due to fertilisation of an egg with an abnormal
number of chromosomes (eg 45 or 47) - increasingly common with advancing female age - rarely result in a viable
pregnancy
➢ Can be used to detect which embryos are XX or XY (ie gender selection is possible)
➢ Cost = $700/embryo with a maximum fee or $3,995 per stimulated IVF cycle
➢ Damage can sometimes occur, preventing the embryo from developing once is has been transferred into the womb
➢ PGD is suitable for:
○ Individuals that have a vchild who has an inherited genetic disorder
○ If they’ve been diagnosed with a heredity condition
○ If a member of their family has been diagnosed with a heredity disorder (one that they are at risk of passing down)
○ Or if they and/or their partner have been identified as carriers of a genetic disorder
➢ Benefits:
○ It can give the individual confidence that the newborn will be healthy
○ Testing can be undergone to determine if the embryo has a known heredity disorder prior to pregnancy → 95%
reliability
○ Other genetic tests can be done at the same time on the same embryonic sample → second biopsy isn’t necessary -
can test for more than one disease, even if its associated with a different disease
○ Can also include HLA matching for stem cell transplantation
○ PGS testing - can reduce the risk of chromosomal abnormalities (eg Down Syndrome in the embryo) + increase
transfer success
○ Increases the chances of transferring a genetically normal embryo + minimising the chance of a miscarriage while
maximising the chance of a healthy pregnancy
○ Allows carriers of genetic disorders to safely plan a pregnancy with a significantly lower risk of passing those
disorders to their children
➢ Rejected embryos are discarded and not transferred
➢ Risks/disadvantages: - note: information on risks varies across websites - check
○ Misdiagnosis
○ Perinatal mortality (deaths commencing from at least 20 weeks gestation and deaths of live-born babies within 28
days of birth)
○ Extra time is needed before embryo implantation
○ If the results are not recorded carefully, an embryo with a chromosomal defect could be transferred to the uterus and
healthy embryos are discarded
○ Not all genetic diseases can be detected and therefore, it doesn’t completely eliminate the risk of genetic disorder
○ Potential for no viable embryos
➢ Ethical considerations:
○ The issue of selection - sometimes based on religious views about the nature of human reproduction, ethical
objections to selecting offspring traits raises two kinds of ethical concerns;
1. The ethical judgement that it is wrong to choose traits of offspring, no matter how well intended - that this
is essentially ‘manufacturing’ humans
2. Fears that increasing the frequency + scope of genetic screening of prospective children may lead to this
world in which children are valued more for their genotype than their inherent characteristics - ‘designer’
children where genetic engineering of offspring becomes routine
 ➢ Overall evaluation: Ultimately, PGT is a highly effective method to test the presence of the known genetic condition in
certain embryos and thus, allows for the implantation of a genetically normal embryo that would maximise the chances of a
healthy pregnancy - however, I believe it important that this process is performed according to applicable regulatory
guidelines with consideration of ethical standards

- Next generation sequencing

it is a rapidly evolving process

Golden Rice:
Process:
 ➢ Reason for production: to combat vitamin A deficiency, the leading cause of childhood blindness, as well as the cause of
compromised immune systems
○ The crop, was developed to particularly target deficiencies in developing countries (being a staple crop in many of
these countries)
○ The crop is an enhanced version of ordinary rice, expected to cost and taste the same as regular rice
➢ Degree of use: Golden Rice has been released in Bangladesh in 2018 but is yet to be completely widespread due to the crop
producing a smaller yield to normal rice as well as opposition to genetically modified foods from organisations such as
Greenpeace
➢ Risks:
○ Potentially allergies (genes inserted into the genome that would otherwise not be present)
○ Potential for contamination of the wild varieties of rice dur to gene flow → would reduce biodiversity and
subsequent, genetic resistance → crops = more susceptible to disease or death from environmental change
➢ Ethical issues:
○ Threat to biodiversity through gene flow - cross-pollination and breeding with wild species
○ GMO - insufficient research on the long-term effects of consuming genetically modified products
➢ Effectiveness in preventing vitamin A deficiency: poses a highly effective means of prevention as it has essentially enhanced
the nutritional value of a common staple crop in developing countries such that rates of vitamin A deficiency can be reduced
without having to introduce new food products with added expense

Technologies and Disorders

Inquiry question: How can technologies be used to assist people who experience disorders?

Students:
➢ explain a range of causes of disorders by investigating the structures and functions of the relevant organs, for example:
- hearing loss
- visual disorders
 Eye Structure Function

Choroid Layer containing blood vessels that lines the back of the eye and is located between the retina (the inner
light-sensitive layer) and the sclera (the outer white eye wall).

Ciliary Body Structure containing muscle and is located behind the iris, which focuses the lens

Cornea The clear front window of the eye which transmits and focuses (i.e., sharpness or clarity) light into the eye.
Corrective laser surgery reshapes the cornea, changing the focus.

Fovea The center of the macula which provides the sharp vision.

Iris The colored part of the eye which helps regulate the amount of light entering the eye. When there is bright
light, the iris closes the pupil to let in less light. And when there is low light, the iris opens up the pupil to let
in more light.

Lens Focuses light rays onto the retina. The lens is transparent, and can be replaced if necessary. Our lens
deteriorates as we age, resulting in the need for reading glasses. Intraocular lenses are used to replace lenses
clouded by cataracts.

Macula The area in the retina that contains special light-sensitive cells. In the macula these light-sensitive cells
allow us to see fine details clearly in the center of our visual field. The deterioration of the macula is a
common condition as we get older (age related macular degeneration or ARMD).

Optic Nerve A bundle of more than a million nerve fibers carrying visual messages from the retina to the brain. (In order
to see, we must have light and our eyes must be connected to the brain.) Your brain actually controls what
you see, since it combines images. The retina sees images upside down but the brain turns images right side
up. This reversal of the images that we see is much like a mirror in a camera. Glaucoma is one of the most
common eye conditions related to optic nerve damage.

Pupil The dark center opening in the middle of the iris. The pupil changes size to adjust for the amount of light
available (smaller for bright light and larger for low light). This opening and closing of light into the eye is
much like the aperture in most 35 mm cameras which lets in more or less light depending upon the
conditions.

Retina The nerve layer lining the back of the eye. The retina senses light and creates electrical impulses that are
sent through the optic nerve to the brain.

Sclera The white outer coat of the eye, surrounding the iris.

Vitreous Humor The, clear, gelatinous substance filling the central cavity of the eye.
➢ Signals go from retina to optic nerve to brain
Visual Disorders
Disorder Description/Definition Cause Diagram

Myopia Short-sightedness - the eye can focus Lens too

correctly on new - near? - check objects, rounded and/or
but when a distant object is viewed the eyeball too
focal length is too short, so the focused elongated
image falls in front of the retina - glasses
with concave lenses to fix (these bend the
light rays a bit extra to allow them to focus
on the retina
Hyperopia Long-sightedness - eye can focus correctly Lens too
on distant objects, but when a close object elongated and/or
is viewed the focal length is too long, so eyeball too
the focus image would fall behind the rounded
retina - glasses convex lenses to fix
(thinner in the middle than round the
outside) - spread the light rays out a bit
before they enter the eye - lens is then able
to focus them correctly

Cataracts A cataract = the clouding of the lens which Caused by

reduces the transmission of the light changes to the
through the lens → causes blurred vision of lens of the eye,
both near and far objects, and increased mostly
sensitivity to the glare of bright sunlight associated with
ageing +
exposure to
ultraviolet light
→ cataracts
develop when
proteins in the
lens are
damaged and
clump together
→ reduces the
amount of light
that can pass
through the lens
to the retina -
leads to loss of
vision

Macular A disease that causes degeneration of the Unknown cause

degeneration cells beneath the retina (called the retinal - but it is more
pigment epithelium) - central vision common in
associated with the macular is affected - people who
peripheral vision is unaffected smoke - risk also
increases with
It prevents light from being focused age + is higher
successfully on this area, leading to loss of for people who
 vision - early detection = essential to slow have close
progression of the disease - - many family members
optometrists now offer this check as part of with the
a regular eye check condition → if
your parent or
This disease affects the ability to read, sibling has
recognise faces, drive, and carry out every AMD, you have
day tasks a 50% risk of
getting it
This disease is responsible for 50% of all
cases of blindness and is the leading cause
of legal blindness in Australia

The risk of developing the disease can be

reduced with lifestyle changes (such as not
smoking, following a healthy, balanced
diet, doing regular exercise, and reducing
one’s exposure to UV light)

Two main types of AMD (ie age-related

macular degeneration):
Dry: develops slowly and causes gradual
vision loss. It is caused by the gradual loss
of cells in your retina. It is the most
common kind.

Wet: leads to rapid loss of central vision. It

happens when abnormal blood vessels
grow into your macula and leak blood and
fluid. This is the most serious kind.
- visual disorders: spectacles, laser surgery
Laser Surgery → goal = reshape cornea to correct whatever is wrong with the lens - alters curvature
- Thin circular flap created - mechanical cutting tool or laser - laser used to remove some cornea tissue
Cataract Surgery → proteins can clump together and cloud the lens → cataracts → eye drops dilate pupil, area around eye washed,
local anesthetic, sedative, ultra sound gently breaks down the lens and is vacuumed (removed), artificial lens replaces the lens

- loss of kidney function

➢ investigate technologies that are used to assist with the effects of a disorder, including but not limited to: (ACSBL100)
- hearing loss: cochlear implants, bone conduction implants, hearing aids
Hair cells (stero cilia) → auditory nerve → brain

What is the ear? The ears are organs that detect and analyse sound. Located on each side of your head, they help with hearing and
balance
Main functions of the ear:
➢ Hearing: sound waves enter the ear canal - tympanic membrane (eardrum) vibrates - vibration → ossicles (middle ear)
○ Ossicles then amplify + transmit these sound waves → inner ear
○ Once sound waves reach inner ear - tiny hair cells called stereocilia transform the vibrations into electrical energy
and sent it along nerve fibres to the brain
➢ Balance: inner ear contains semicircular canals filled with fluid + hair-like sensors
○ When you move your head, the fluid inside these loop-shaped canals sloshes around and moves the hairs
○ The hairs transmit this information along the vestibular nerve to the brain
○ The brain then sends signals to muscles to help you stay balanced
Parts of the ear:
➢ Outer ear (external ear) → the part of the ear that’s visible
○ Consists of ridged cartilage and skin + contains glands that secrete earwax
○ Its funnel-shaped canal leads to the eardrum (or tympanic membrane)
➢ Middle ear → begins on the other side of the tympanic membrane (eardrum)
○ Three tiny bones - the malleus, incus, and stapes (ie the ossicles)
○ They transfer sound vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear
○ The middle ear also has eustachian tubes (help equalise the air pressure in the ears)
➢ Inner ear → contains two main parts: the cochlea + the semicircular canals
○ Cochlea = hearing organ (contains two fluid-gilled chambers lined with tiny hairs) - when sound enters, the fluid
inside of the cochlea causes the tiny hairs to vibrate, sending electrical impulses to the brain
○ The semicircular canals (or labyrinthine) are responsible for balance - they tell the brain which direction your head is
moving
Structure Brief outline of function

Pinna - outer ear This is the outside part of the ear - protects, amplieies, + detects

Auditory canal This is the tube that connects the outer ear to the inside or middle ear

Tympanic membrane The tympanic membrane divides the external ear from the middle ear
(eardrum) -middle ear

Ear ossicles - middle Three small bones that are connected and send the sound waves to the inner ear. The bones are called:
ear ➢ Malleus
➢ Incus
 ➢ Stapes

Oval window - inner In the middle ear, the oval window is a membrane covering the entrance to the cochlea in the inner ear
ear

Cochlear - inner ear This contains the nerves for hearing

Organ of corti An organ of the inner ear located within the cochlea which contributes to audition

Auditory nerve Runs from your cochlea to a station in your brain stem (known as the nucleus)

Eustachian tube - An opening that connects the middle ear with the nasal-sinus cavity
middle ear

The three types of hearing loss:

➢ Sensorineural
○ Sensorineural hearing loss is caused by damage to, or malformation of, the inner ear, including parts of the cochlea,
the hair cells or the auditory nerve
○ The damage is usually permanent, as is the hearing loss, which affects the loudness and clarity of sound
○ The most common cause of sensorineural hearing loss is excessive noise exposure, while other causes include
heredity, birth defects, infections, tumours, medication and ageing
○ Damage to the inner ear (including the receptor hair cells) prevents the kinetic energy of the vibrations being
transformed into electrical impulses to be sent to the brain for interpretation
➢ Mixed
○ A component of sensorineural and conductive
○ Not common - requires multiple types of treatment
➢ Conductive
○ Caused by a problem with the mechanical conduction of vibrations through the outer and middle ear
○ All factors inhibit the movement of vibrations through the outer and middle ear. It is the loudness of the sound that is
usually affected in this type of hearing loss
Age = little prevention
Treatement:
➢ Hearing aids
○
➢ Cochlea implants
○ Uses an external speech processor and transmitter coil. Internally, a receiver is attached to an electrode array
implanted in the cochlea
○ The microphone of the speech processor detects sound, which is converted into a digital signal that is sent to the
transmitter, then to the receiver
 ○ The digital signals are converted to electrical signals, which are then sent to the electrode array in the cochlea, where
nerve endings are stimulated. These signals are then sent to the brain for processing
○ Can make sounds sound different → can be hard to differentiate voices from one another in crowds, etc.

➢ Consists of a microphone, speaker, amplifier, and battery

Pros Cons

➢ Good if born deaf ➢ Surgery

➢ Improves quality of life ➢ Cost
➢ Can’t completely restore to normal healing (but can
help)

➢ Bone conduction implants - conductive, mixed, single-sided

○ Has a microphone that detects the sound and transforms it into vibrations,
which are then passed via the implant to the bone above the ear
○ These vibrations are directed through the bone to the cochlea, where they are
processed as normal.
○ These implants bypass the malformed or damaged outer and middle ear and
transfer the vibrations directly to the inner ear
○ It is worn on the bad ear and the opposite ear’s receptors are stimulated (in the
cochlea) + vibrations are detected

- loss of kidney function: dialysis

Kidneys: organs that form part of the excretory system. Their function is to remove nitrogenous
wastes from the bloodstream and maintain optimal levels of substances such as salt and water
(osmoregulation)
Structure & Function: the kidney has three main functions: filtration, reabsorption and secretion
➢ Filtration → under high pressure, blood travels from the heart via the aorta to the renal
artery and into the kidney
○ The renal artery branches into smaller vessels and forms capillaries
○ Capillaries enter the nephron and form the glomerulus inside Bowman's capsule
○ Filtration occurs based on the size of substances
○ Small substances pass through the glomerulus into Bowman's capsule
 ○ This includes nitrogenous waste products and large volumes of water (carrying dissolved substances eg amino acids,
glucose, and salts (ions)))
○ The fluid, now known as the glomerular filtrate, continues along the tubules
○ Larger molecules like proteins and blood cells remain in the glomerular blood

➢ Reabsorption
○ Reabsorption returns essential components that have been filtered
out of the blood back into the bloodstream
○ Amino acids, glucose, ions, and vitamins are reabsorbed
○ Different ions have different reabsorption rates - depend on
feedback from the body
○ Solute reabsorption occurs through active transport and facilitated
diffusion
○ Water follows solutes through the passive process of osmosis
○ Ions are actively pumped into the medulla, causing water to move
out of the tubules - causes the conc. of water in these tissues to be
much lower than in the tubules
○ As a result, water moves from the descending loop of Henle and
the collecting duct into the tissues by the process of osmosis
○ Water reabsorption occurs in all parts of the tubules and collecting
duct, except the ascending loop of Henle

➢ Secretion → contributes to urine formation in the nephron

○ Involves the removal of toxic substances from the blood capillaries and tissues surrounding the tubules and their
active movement into the tubules for removal (inc. metabolic wastes eg urea, uric acid, ammonia, + hydrogen ions -
along with drugs eg penicillin)
○ Movement of urea and ammonia is mainly by means of diffusion, whereas all other secretion involves active
transport
○ Hydrogen ions (H +), saccharin, and drugs such as penicillin and morphine, are secreted into the proximal part of the
nephron
○ Urea is secreted into the descending limb of the loop of Henle (the ascending limb and distal tubules are
impermeable to urea)

➢ Hormonal regulation of osmoregulation → the hormone aldosterone stimulates the reabsorption of salt in the loop of Henle,
to regulate salt and water balance in the kidney
 ○ The hormone antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin) stimulates the reabsorption of water in the kidney
➢ Removal → The water, nitrogenous wastes and other wastes that remain in the collecting duct are known as urine
○ Urine collects in pelvis of the kidney → ureters → bladder → eliminated through the urethra

Loss of kidney function: often occurs gradually w/ minimal signs until kidney function is significantly impaired - causes = many -
often = nephron damage (and subsequent impairment to filtration, reabsorption, and secretion) → failure to remove wastes effectively
+ an inability to balance water + salt levels in the blood
➢ Symptoms include:
○ Nausea
○ Vomiting
○ Loss of appetite
○ Fatigue + weakness
○ Etc.
➢ Some causes of kidney disease leading to reduced function are:
○ Diabetes type 1 and 2 - high levels of blood glucose cause the kidneys to filter more blood → stress on the nephrons
→ nephrons eventually become damaged + larger molecules (e.g. proteins) ‘leak’ into the tubules + cause blockages
+ further damage to the nephrons
○ Continued high blood pressure - nephrons are damaged by the constant high force of blood being pushed through the
walls of the blood vessels of the glomerulus into the Bowman’s capsule → permanent damage to nephrons - large
molecules ‘leaking out’ into tubules → blockages + further damage → reduces efficient functioning of nephrons
○ Recurrent kidney infections - damage to nephrons - damage + prolonged use of certain medications and drugs to
treat infections can reduce kidney function
○ Kidney stones, tumors, or anything that blocks the passage of urine - causes the urine to ‘back up’ into the kidney →
build-up of pressure - unless removed → kidney damage leading to a complete shutdown
Technology to assist with loss of kidney function: the process of renal dialysis has been developed to carry out some of the functions
of kidneys → blood may be effectively filtered even when kidneys are damaged - two types = haemodialysis + peritoneal dialysis
➢ Main function of a dialysis machine = remove metabolic wastes that have built up in the person’s blood
➢ The patient is connected to a dialysis machine - pumps blood through a system of tubes (coiled to increase their surface area
and therefore, the rate of diffusion) - which have artificial semi-permeable membranes
➢ The tubes are submerged in dialysis fluid (dialysate) which flows in the opposite direction to the blood to maintain a conc.
gradient to maximise diffusion
○ Dialystate has the same conc. as blood plasma (without metabolic wastes)
○ Since conc. Of metabolic waste = higher in the blood - waste materials move through the semi-permeable membrane
into the dialysing fluid by diffusion
○ Continual replacement of the dialysate is required
➢ Renal dialysis must be done for 3-4 hours, 2-3 times a week
○ Disadv: time-consuming, only limited amounts of fluid/wastes can be removed from the blood (other substances eg
sodium phosphate + potassium ions do not diffuse quickly enough and thus, accumulate in the blood) → therefore,
recommended patients follow a specific diet to prevent this as renal dialysis is not effective in regulating the conc. of
these ions in the blood
➢ Haemodialysis
○ Blood passed through artificial kidney machine + returned to body by tubes that connect to machine
○ Negatives → 4 hours, 3x week, increased blood infection, increased thrombosis (clotting), internal bleeding
➢ Peritoneal dialysis
○ The inside lining of the stomach acts as a natural filter - cleansing fluid (dialysate) flows into the abdomen via a tube
(catheter) and is washed in and out of the stomach in cycles
○ Positives → night, home, cheaper
○ Negatives → less effective, infection risk increased
➢

➢ evaluate the effectiveness of a technology that is used to manage and assist with the effects of a disorder
○ Benefits - technology to assist w/ hearing loss → increases the quality of life and independence
○ Limitations - technology to assist w/ hearing loss → surgery required, post-operation side effects, ongoing costs of
updating technology, programming + training required to teach the interpretation of sound (speech therapy), a
limited distance of hearing
 ■ Overall = highly effective (quality of life outweighs limitations)
○ Kidneys = section above