SUBJECT CODE: ASCI 211

SUBJECT NAME: Thermodynamics

EDITOR/S: Daniel Gabato
EDIT DATE: June 5, 2019

FUNDAMENTALS
Thermodynamics – Science of energy and its various forms (it’s not just about heat)

• From Greek “therme” (heat) + “dynamis” (power)

LAWS OF THERMODYNAMICS
1st Law – Energy cannot be created nor destroyed. It can only change forms.
2nd Law – Energy has quality and quantity. Flows toward decreasing quality (Hot → Cold)
3rd Law – A pure crystalline substance at absolute zero temperature (0 Kelvin) is in
perfect order and its entropy* is zero.
Zeroth Law – If 2 bodies are in thermal equilibrium with a third body, they are also in
thermal equilibrium with each other.
*Entropy – level of molecular disorder. Increases as something melts/evaporates.

SYSTEMS
System – quantity of matter/region chosen for study
Surroundings – mass/region outside the system
Boundary – real/imaginary surface that separates the system from surroundings
Closed System
o Fixed mass (mass can’t enter/exit)
o Energy can cross boundary
Open System
o Both mass and energy can cross boundary
Isolated System
o Both mass and energy cannot cross boundary
DIMENSIONS AND UNITS
Fundamental dimensions – basic dimensions that are as is (length, time, mass, temp)
Secondary/Derived dimensions – expressed in terms of fundamental dimensions
(pressure, velocity, energy)
Unit Systems
English System – mostly used by US. Arbitrary relationships. Note: Metric System is best
unit system. But you can’t
Ex: 1 foot = 12 inches neglect English System kasi
lalabas din siya sa boards
Metric System – SI (International System). Decimal relationships. and eventually, in life. Hays.

Ex: 1 kilometer = 1000 meters

PROPERTIES
Property - Any characteristic of a system
Intensive Property – independent of mass (ex: temp, pressure, density, viscosity)
Extensive Property – depends on mass (ex: energy, volume, enthalpy, mass)
Specific Property – extensive property per unit mass (ex: specific volume)
Mass – absolute quantity of matter in a substance
1 kg = 2.2046 lbm
1 slug = 32.174 lbm
Acceleration – rate of change of velocity
Yes.
m lbm (pound mass) ≠ lbf (pound force)
g = 9.8066 s2
But
ft kg (kilogram mass) = kgf (kilogram force)
g = 32.174 s2
*Only by value, not by unit
Force – mass times acceleration *kgf is the magnitude of force exerted by one kilogram of
mass accelerating at 9.8066 m/s2
Weight – force of gravity on a body (W = mg) *They’re only equal on Earth. kgf varies with the strength
of the gravitational acceleration (g).
kg−m
1 Newton = 1 Confusing, right?
s2

1 kgf = 9.8066 N
lbm−ft slug−ft
1 lbf = 32.174 =1
s2 s2

Volume – amount of space occupied by a three-dimensional object

1 m3 = 1000 L
1 gal = 3.785 L

1 ft 3 = 7.481 gal
1 barrel = 42 gal
1 drum = 50 gal
Density – mass per unit volume
m kg lbm
ρ= (m3 or )
v ft3

Specific Volume – volume per unit mass

v 1 m3 ft3
υ= = ( kg or )
m ρ lbm

Specific Weight / Weight Density – weight per unit volume

w N lbf
ɣ= = ρg (m3 or )
v ft3
Specific Gravity / Relative Density – ratio of the density of a substance to the density of
a standard substance at a specified temperature. This is dimensionless (has no units).
For solids, standard is water
ρsubs
SGsubs = If SG < 1.0 it will float on water
ρH2O
If SG > 1.0 it will sink
For gases, standard is air
*mind blown*
ρgas
SGgas =
ρair

Where:
Value for air density may vary depending on which
kg slug standard you choose. (tanong mo sa prof mo kung
ρH2O = 1000 m3 or 1.94 ft3 ano’ng standard gusto niya para walang sisihan broski)
kg slug Values here are according to ISA (International
ρair = 1.225 m3 or 0.002377 ft3 Standard Atmosphere)

Temperature – degree of hotness or coldness measured on a definite scale

Temperature Scale – way to measure temperature quantitatively
5
Celsius (°C) = (°F − 32) x (9)
9
Fahrenheit (°F) = (°C x 5) + 32
 Absolute Temperature Scale – Scale where 0 is taken as absolute zero (lowest
possible theoretical temp)
Kelvin (K) = °C + 273
Rankine (R) = °F + 460
Conversion Ratio
Scale−FP Scale−FP
=
BP−FP BP−FP

For water:

C K F R
BP (boiling point) 100 373 212 672
FP (freezing point) 0 273 32 492

BP - FP = 100 BP - FP = 180

Pressure – Force per unit area

Absolute Pressure – actual pressure
Gauge Pressure – measured by a calibrated gauge based on a reference
atmosphere
Atmospheric Pressure – pressure exerted by the atmosphere
Vacuum Pressure – pressure below atmospheric (aka negative pressure)

Pabs = Pgauge + Patm

Units
N
1 Pa = 1 m2
lbf
1 psi = 1 in2
 Values for atmospheric pressure (at sea level)
Patm = 1 atm
= 101.325 KPa
= 14.696 psi
= 1.01325 bar Memorize these. Legit. I’m not even joking. You’ll need
these in aerodynamics too. It will also serve as your
= 760 mm Hg conversion factors when dealing with units of pressure.

= 760 torr
= 29.92 in Hg
= 33.9 ft H2O

Pressure Variation with Depth

P = ρgh = ɣh
ρ = density
g = acceleration due to gravity
h = height/depth
ɣ = specific weight
This is the start of the
atmosphere. It’s the
reference point.

Higher altitude = less pressure

Imagine a column of air on your head. That’s the

atmospheric pressure acting on you. The higher
you go, the smaller it will be, thus less pressure.
This is your head.
You’re at sea level.

Pascal’s Law - pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure

throughout by the same amount.
𝐹1 𝐹2
=
𝐴1 𝐴2
ENERGY
Energy - capacity of a physical system to do work
Internal Energy (U) – sum of all the microscopic forms of energy (i.e. activity and
configuration of its molecules)
Kinetic Energy (KE) – energy of a moving body by virtue of its momentum
1
KE = 2 mv 2

Gravitational Potential Energy (PE) – due to position or elevation

PE = mgh
Enthalpy - sum of the internal energy added to the product of the pressure and volume
of the system. It reflects the capacity to do non-mechanical work or release heat.
H = U + PV
Energy can be transferred to or from a closed system in 2 distinct forms: heat and work.
Heat (Q) – form of energy by virtue of temperature difference
Work (W) – by a force acting through a distance

Latent Heat – change in phase (solid, liquid, gas)

Sensible Heat – change in temperature. Can be felt.
Heat Transfer
Conduction – solid to solid
Convection – solid to fluid Fluid = either liquid or gas

Radiation – by electromagnetic waves

Work Nonflow (Wnf) – work done by fluid but doesn’t cross boundaries (closed system)
Flow Work (Wf) – work done in pushing fluid across a boundary (open system)
Sign Convention
Work: ( + ) work done by system
( - ) work done on system
Heat: ( + ) absorbed by system
( - ) released by system
IDEAL GAS
Ideal gas - hypothetical gas which obeys the gas laws exactly and whose molecules
occupy negligible space and have no interactions.

Gas Laws
Boyle’s Law - Temperature is constant
P1V1 = P2V2
Charles’ Law – Pressure is constant
V1 T1
=
V2 T2

Gay Lussac’s Law – Volume is constant No homophobic jokes here

P1 T1
=
P2 T2

Combined Gas Law

P1 V1 P2 V2
=
T1 T2

Dalton’s Law of Partial Pressure - The pressure of a gas mixture is equal to the
sum of the pressures each gas would exert if it existed alone at the mixture
temperature and volume

∑ P = P1 + P2 + P3 + ⋯
Pi ni
yi = = where: y = mole fraction, n = moles of subs.
P n

Amagat’s Law of Additive Volumes – The volume of a gas mixture is equal to the
sum of the volumes each gas would occupy if it existed alone at the mixture
temperature and pressure

∑ V = V1 + V2 + 𝑉3 + ⋯
Vi ni
yi = = where: y = mole fraction, n = moles of subs.
V n
Ideal Gas Equation of State
Equation of State – any equation that relates the pressure, temperature, and
specific volume of a substance
̅T
PV = nR or PV = mRT
where:
P = pressure
V = volume
n = number of moles
m = mass
̅ = universal gas constant
R
R = specific gas constant
T = absolute temperature (K or R)

̅)
Universal Gas Constant (R
̅
R
R=
MW

where:
kJ ft−lbf
̅ = 8.31451
R = 1545
kg mol−K lb mol−R
mass m
Molecular Weight (MW) = =
mole of substance n

Specific Heat – energy required to raise the temperature of a unit mass of a

substance by one degree
Specific Heat at Constant Pressure (Cp)
Specific Heat at Constant Volume (Cv)
Specific Heat Ratio (k) – ratio of Cp to Cv
R = Cp – Cv
Cp K varies per substance. K = 1.4 for dry air.
k=
Cv
K?
IDEAL GAS PROCESSES
Process – any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another
Path – series of states through which a system passes during a process
Reversible Process – can return to initial state (no friction, no heat loss)
Adiabatic Process – no heat is lost or gained

Isometric/Isochoric/Isovolumic Process – constant volume

Isobaric Process – constant pressure
Isothermal Process – constant temperature
Isentropic Process – reversible adiabatic process. Constant entropy
Polytropic Process – internally reversible. Follows PVn = constant. Can describe multiple
expansion and compression processes which include heat transfer.
Throttling Process – constant enthalpy. Usually seen in valves or orifices.

Refer to the table below

WNF = work nonflow
WSF = work steady flow
U = internal energy
H = enthalpy
Q = heat
S = entropy

PVT Relations
Isometric Isothermal
P1 T1
= P1V1 = P2V2
P2 T2
Isentropic
Isobaric
k−1
V1 T1 T1 P1 V 1−k
k
= =( ) = ( 1)
V2 T2 T2 P 2 V2
Credits: Engr. Rica De Guzman,
Mapua Institute of Technology
THERMODYNAMIC CYCLES
Cycle – 2 or more processes where the final state = initial state
Power Cycle - used to produce a net power output
Refrigeration Cycle - used to produce a refrigeration effect
Gas Cycle - working fluid remains in the gaseous phase throughout the entire cycle
Vapor Cycle - working fluid exists in the vapor phase during one part of the cycle and in
the liquid phase during another part
Closed Cycle - working fluid is returned to the initial state and is recirculated at the end
Open Cycle - working fluid is renewed at the end instead of being recirculated
Heat Engine - closed system that exchanges only heat and work with its surrounding and
that operates in cycles
Internal Combustion – heat from burning fuel within the system boundaries
External Combustion - heat is from an external source (furnace, reactor, sun)
Elements
Working substance – matter that receives heat, rejects heat, and does work. (i.e.
water in a steam power cycle or refrigerant in a refrigeration cycle)
Heat Source – also called a hot body or a heat reservoir
Heat Sink – AKA cold body or receiver. Where working substance can reject heat.
Thermal Efficiency
No. That’s not the letter N. “η” is the Greek symbol
Output Net Work Done Wnet eta. Because efficiency starts with the letter E.
ηth = = =
Input Heat Added QAdded
Go ahead. You can brag about knowing it now.
Application of 2nd Law of Thermodynamics
AII energy received as heat by a heat-engine cycle cannot be converted into
mechanical work.
Heat Added QA = ∑(+Q) Wnet = QA + QR = QA − |QR |

Heat Rejected QR = ∑(−Q) Wnet QA + QR QA

ηth = = =1+
QA QA QR

Mean Effective Pressure (PMEP)

- average pressure inside the combustion chamber
- means of evaluating an engine
- cycle work divided by piston displacement volume (PMEP = Wnet/VD)
- ↑ PMEP = ↑force/cycle = ↑work/cycle
CARNOT CYCLE
- proposed in 1824 by French engineer 13aid Carnot
- theoretical (doesn’t exist in real life)
- composed of 4 reversible processes — 2 isothermal and 2 adiabatic

Processes:

1. Reversible Isothermal Expansion (process 1-2, TH = constant)

2. Reversible Adiabatic Expansion (process 2-3, temp drops from TH to TL)
3. Reversible Isothermal Compression (process 3-4, TL = constant)
4. Reversible Adiabatic Compression (process 4-1, temp rises from TL to TH)
V2
Wnet = QA − QR = mR(TH − TL )ln( )
V1
QR TL
Thermal Efficiency, ηth = 1 − = 1–
QA TH
Where:
QR = Heat Rejected
QA = Heat Added
TH = Higher Temperature
TL = Lower Temperature
m = Mass
R = Specific Gas Constant
OTTO CYCLE
- ideal cycle for spark-ignition reciprocating engines
- Nikolaus A. Otto built a successful four-stroke engine in 1876 in Germany
- consists of 4 internally reversible processes: 2 isentropic and 2 isometric

Processes:
1. Isentropic Compression
2. Constant-volume Heat Addition
3. Isentropic Expansion
4. Constant-volume Heat Rejection

𝑄𝑅 𝑇4 − 𝑇1 1
Thermal Efficiency, 𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − =1− = 1 – 𝑘−1
𝑄𝐴 𝑇3 − 𝑇2 𝑟𝑘
𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑚𝐶𝑉 [(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) − (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )]

Where:
QR = Heat Rejected
QA = Heat Added Percent Clearance (c)
rk = Compression Ratio = V1 / V2
V1 VD + cVD
re = Expansion Ratio = V4 / V3 rk = =
V2 cVD
rp = Pressure Ratio = P3 / P2
k = Specific Heat Ratio = CP / CV 1+c
rk =
CV = Specific Heat at Constant Volume c
m = Mass
DIESEL CYCLE
- ideal cycle for Compression Ignition reciprocating engines
- Rudolph Diesel (1890s)
- uses glow plugs instead of spark plugs
- composed of 4 processes—2 isentropic, 1 isobaric, and 1 isometric

Processes:
1. Isentropic Compression
2. Constant-pressure Heat Addition
3. Isentropic Expansion
4. Constant-volume Heat Rejection

𝑄𝑅 𝑇4 − 𝑇1 1 𝑟𝑐 𝑘 − 1
Thermal Efficiency, 𝜂𝑡ℎ = 1 − = 1− = 1 – 𝑘−1 [ ]
𝑄𝐴 𝑘(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) 𝑟𝑘 𝑘(𝑟𝑐 − 1)

𝑊𝑛𝑒𝑡 = 𝑄𝐴 − 𝑄𝑅 = 𝑚𝐶𝑉 [𝑘(𝑇3 − 𝑇2 ) − (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 )]

Where:
QR = Heat Rejected
QA = Heat Added
rc = Cut-off Ratio = V3 / V2
rk = Compression Ratio = V1 / V2
k = Specific Heat Ratio (usually 1.4 for air) = CP / CV
CV = Specific Heat at Constant Volume
BRAYTON CYCLE
- George Brayton (around 1870)
- used for gas turbines
- made up of 4 internally reversible processes: 2 Isentropic and 2 isobaric

Processes:

1. Isentropic Compression
2. Constant-pressure Heat Addition
3. Isentropic Expansion
4. Constant-pressure Heat Rejection

QR T4 − T1 1
Thermal Efficiency, ηth = 1 − =1− =1– k−1
QA T3 − T2
rp k

Wnet = QA − QR = mCP [(T3 − T2 ) − (T4 − T1 )]

Where:
QR = Heat Rejected
QA = Heat Added
rp = Pressure Ratio
rp = P2 / P1 = P3 / P4
k = Specific Heat Ratio (usually 1.4 for air) = CP / CV
CP = Specific Heat at Constant Pressure
Four Stroke
1 cycle = 4 strokes = 2 revs
Two Stroke
1 cycle = 2 strokes = 1 revs
*These are the minimum number of strokes/revolutions needed to produce power
References:

• Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach 8th Edition by Cengel & Boles

• Thermodynamics 1 by Hipolito Sta. Maria
• Personal Thermo Notes from Engr. Gabato