PHY-107 Module 4: Motion in two and three dimensions

MODULE 4: MOTION IN TWO AND THREE

DIMENSIONS
(Dr. Rubaiyet I. Haque)

LECTURE 06
OUTLINE:
▪ Motion in Two and Three dimensions
▪ Position, displacement, and acceleration vectors
▪ Average and instantaneous quantities
▪ Free fall

POSITION AND DISPLACEMENT

Position Vector:
A position vector refers to the location of a point in space
relative to a fixed reference point, known as the origin.
- The location of an object in space is specified by a position
vector, 𝑟⃗.
- The position, 𝑟⃗(𝑡), is a function of time.
- In a three-dimensional Cartesian coordinate system
(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧), the position vector of a point 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦, 𝑧) with
respect to the origin 𝑂 (0, 0, 0) is given by,
𝑟⃗ = 𝑥𝑖̇̂ + 𝑦𝑗̇̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂
𝑟⃗ = (−3𝑚)𝑖̇̂ + (2𝑚)𝑗̇̂ + (5𝑚)𝑘̂

Displacement:
Displacement is defined as the change of position of an object
from the initial position (starting point) to the final position
(endpoint).
- Displacement measures the change in position of an object
relative to a reference point.
- It is a vector quantity.
- Displacement is represented by the symbol 𝛥𝑟⃗. And
expressed as,
∆𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗2 − 𝑟⃗1
- Using the unit-vector notation, we can rewrite this displacement as,
∆𝑟⃗ = (𝑥2 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑦2 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑧2 𝑘̂ ) − (𝑥1 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑦1 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑧1 𝑘̂)
∆𝑟⃗ = (𝑥2 − 𝑥1 )𝑖̇̂ + (𝑦2 − 𝑦1 )𝑗̇̂ + (𝑧2 − 𝑧1 )𝑘̂
∆𝑟⃗ = ∆𝑥𝑖̇̂ + ∆𝑦𝑗̇̂ + ∆𝑧𝑘̂

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 PHY-107 Module 4: Motion in two and three dimensions

Distance:
Distance is defined as the total path traveled by an object regardless of its direction of motion.
- Distance measure how much ground an object has covered despite its starting or ending point.
- It is a scalar quantity in physics.

PROBLEM: A rabbit runs across a parking lot on which a set of coordinate axes has, strangely
enough, been drawn. The coordinates (meters) of the rabbit’s position as functions of time t
(seconds) are given by,
x = −0.31 t 2 + 7.2 t + 28
and y = 0.22 t 2 − 9.1 t + 30
a) At t = 15 s, what is the rabbit’s position vector r⃗ in unit vector notation and in magnitude-
angle notation?
b) Graph the rabbit’s path for t = 0 to t = 25 s.
c) Determine the rabbit’s displacement ∆r over the interval t = 10 s to t = 20 s.
ANSWER: (a) Rabit’s position can be given by,
r⃗(t) = x(t)i̇̂ + y(t)j̇̂
At 𝑡 = 15 𝑠, the scalar components are
𝑥 = −0.31 (15)2 + 7.2 (15) + 28 = 66 𝑚
𝑦 = 0.22 (15)2 − 9.1(15) + 30 = −57 𝑚
Therefore, r⃗(15 s) = (66 m)i̇̂ − (57 m)j̇̂
𝑟 = |𝑟⃗| = √(66 𝑚)2 + (−57 𝑚)2 = 87 𝑚
−57 𝑚
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = −41° = 319°
66 𝑚

(b) The parameters can be calculated and plot the

rabbit’s position.
𝑥(𝑡) = −0.31 𝑡 2 + 7.2 𝑡 + 28
𝑦(𝑡) = 0.22 𝑡 2 − 9.1 𝑡 + 30

𝑻𝒊𝒎𝒆 (𝒕) 𝒙(𝒕) 𝒚(𝒕)

0𝑠 28 m 30 m
5𝑠 56.25 m -10 m
10 𝑠 69 m -39 m
15 𝑠 66.25 m -57 m Fig: Plot: y vs x
20 𝑠 48 m -64 m
25 𝑠 14.25 m -60 m

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 PHY-107 Module 4: Motion in two and three dimensions

(c) We know, r⃗(10 s) = (69 m)i̇̂ − (39 m)j̇̂ and r⃗(20 s) = (48 m)i̇̂ − (64 m)j̇̂
∆𝑟⃗ = r⃗(20 s) − r⃗(10 s) = ((69 m)i̇̂ − (39 m)j̇̂) − ((48 m)i̇̂ − (64 m)j̇̂ )

= (69 m − 48 𝑚)i̇̂ + (−64 m − (−39 m))j̇̂ = (−21 m)i̇̂ + (−25 m)j̇̂

𝑟 = |𝑟⃗| = √(−21 𝑚)2 + (−25 𝑚)2 = 33 𝑚

−25 𝑚
𝜃 = tan−1 ( ) = 230°
−21 𝑚

AVERAGE VELOCITY AND INSTANTANEOUS VELOCITY

⃗⃗𝒂𝒗𝒈 ):
Average Velocity (𝒗
Average velocity is defined as the rate at which an object changes its position over a a specific time
interval.
- It the ratio of overall displacement to corresponding time interval to achieve that displacement.
- Velocity is a vector quantity. Thus, it has both magnitude and direction.
- If a particle undergoes a displacement ∆𝑟⃗ in time interval ∆𝑡, its average velocity for that time
interval is
𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝑟⃗2 − 𝑟⃗1 ∆𝑟⃗ ∆𝑥𝑖̇̂ + ∆𝑦𝑗̇̂ + ∆𝑧𝑘̂ ∆𝑥 ∆𝑦 ∆𝑧
𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = = = 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑘̂
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑣𝑎𝑙 𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡
- The direction of 𝑣𝑎𝑣𝑔 is in the same direction of displacement (Δ𝑟⃗).

Example: If a particle moves through displacement ∆𝑟⃗ = (12 𝑚)𝑖̇̂ + (3.0 𝑚)𝑘̂ in 2.0 s, then its
average velocity during that move is,
(12 𝑚)𝑖̇̂ + (3.0 𝑚)𝑘̂
𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = (6.0 𝑚/𝑠)𝑖̇̂ + (1.5 𝑚/𝑠)𝑘̂
2.0 𝑠

Average Speed (𝒔𝒂𝒗𝒈 ):

Average speed is a measure of how fast an object travels over a certain distance during a specific time
interval.
- It refers to the overall distance traveled by the object divided by the total time taken to cover that
distance.
- It is a scalar quantity.
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
- Therefore, 𝑠𝑎𝑣𝑔 = |𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 | = .
𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒

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 PHY-107 Module 4: Motion in two and three dimensions

PROBLEM: A rabbit runs across a parking lot on which a set of coordinate axes has, strangely
enough, been drawn. The coordinates (meters) of the rabbit’s position as functions of time t
(seconds) are given by,
x = −0.31 t 2 + 7.2 t + 28
and y = 0.22 t 2 − 9.1 t + 30
d) Determine the rabbit’s average velocity v
⃗⃗avg over
the interval t = 10 s to t = 20 s.
ANSWER: (d) We know,
∆𝑟⃗ = −(21 m)i̇̂ − (25 m)j̇̂
And ∆𝑡 = 20 𝑠 − 10 𝑠 = 10 𝑠
∆𝑟⃗
𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = (−2.1 𝑚/𝑠)i̇̂ + (−2.5 𝑚/𝑠)j̇̂
∆𝑡
|𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 | = √(−2.1𝑚/𝑠)2 + (−2.5𝑚/𝑠)2
|𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 | = 3.3𝑚/𝑠

⃗⃗):
Instantaneous Velocity (𝒗
Instantaneous velocity refers to the velocity of an object at a specific instant in time. It is the rate of
change of the position (𝑟⃗) of the object at a particular moment/instant in time (𝑡), considering the
direction of motion.
- It is denoted as 𝑣⃗(𝑡).
- Instantaneous velocity,
∆𝒓⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑
𝑣⃗ = lim = = (𝑥𝑖̇̂ + 𝑦𝑗̇̂ + 𝑧𝑘̂)
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑣⃗ = 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑘̂ = 𝑣𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑣𝑧 𝑘̂
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
- In three dimensions, 𝑣⃗ is always tangent to the particle’s path.
- As the time interval approaches zero, the displacement also
approaches zero. But the limit of the ratio of displacement to
time is non-zero and is called instantaneous velocity.

NOTE: When the velocity of a particle is constant (acceleration is zero), the instantaneous
velocity (𝑣⃗) average velocity (𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) are same.

⃗⃗(𝒕)|):
Instantaneous Speed (|𝒗
Instantaneous speed refers to the magnitude of the velocity of an object at a specific moment in time.
It represents how fast an object is moving at an exact instant. Therefore, 𝑠 = |𝑣⃗|.

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 PHY-107 Module 4: Motion in two and three dimensions

- It represents how fast an object is moving at an exact point in time, disregarding the direction of
motion.
- Speed is the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity 𝑣⃗(𝑡).
- Speed, |𝑣⃗(𝑡)| = √𝑣𝑥2 + 𝑣𝑦2 + 𝑣𝑧2
- Speed is always ≥ 0

EXAMPLE: If the displacement of the particle varies with respect to time and is given as (6𝑡 2 +
2𝑡 + 4) 𝑚, the instantaneous velocity can be found out at any given time by:
∆𝑟⃗ = (6𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 4) 𝑚
∆𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑟⃗ 𝑑
𝑣⃗ = 𝑙𝑖𝑚 = = (6𝑡 2 + 2𝑡 + 4) = 12𝑡 + 2
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
So, the instantaneous velocity at 𝑡 = 5 𝑠,
Instantaneous velocity, 𝑣⃗(𝑡 = 5 𝑠) = (12 × 5 + 2)𝑚/𝑠 = 62 𝑚/𝑠
Let us calculate the average velocity now for 5 seconds now.
Displacement ∆𝑟⃗ = ((6×25) + (2×5) + 4) = 164 m
∆𝑟⃗ 164 𝑚
Average velocity, 𝑣⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = 32.8 𝑚/𝑠
∆𝑡 5𝑠

PROBLEM: A rabbit runs across a parking lot on which a set of coordinate axes has, strangely
enough, been drawn. The coordinates (meters) of the rabbit’s position as functions of time t
(seconds) are given by,
x = −0.31 t 2 + 7.2 t + 28 and y = 0.22 t 2 − 9.1 t + 30
e) Find the velocity v
⃗⃗ at time t = 15 s for the rabbit.
ANSWER: (e) Given,
𝑥 = −0.31 𝑡 2 + 7.2 𝑡 + 28
and 𝑦 = 0.22 𝑡 2 − 9.1 𝑡 + 30
▪ ⃗⃗ is tangent to the rabbit’s path at any instant.
v
▪ Determine v
⃗⃗ at t = 15 s.
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡 = − 0.62𝑡 + 7.2
𝑣𝑦 (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 = 0.44𝑡 − 9.1

𝑣𝑥 (𝑡 = 15𝑠) = − 0.62(15) + 7.2 = −2.1 𝑚/𝑠

𝑣𝑦 (𝑡 = 15𝑠) = 0.44(15) − 9.1 = −2.5 𝑚/𝑠

𝑚 2.5𝑚
𝑣⃗(15) = (−2.1 ) î + (− )ĵ
𝑠 𝑠
|𝑣⃗(15)| = 3.3 𝑚/𝑠
−2.5
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = 50° = 180° + 50° = 230°
−2.1

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 PHY-107 Module 4: Motion in two and three dimensions

AVERAGE ACCELERATION & INSTANTANEOUS ACCELERATION

⃗⃗𝒂𝒗𝒈 ):
Average Acceleration (𝒂
Average acceleration, (𝑎⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 ) refers to the rate of change of velocity of the object for corresponding
time interval, ∆𝑡.
𝑣⃗2 − 𝑣⃗1 ∆𝑣⃗ ∆𝑣𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + ∆𝑣𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + ∆𝑣𝑧 𝑘̂ ∆𝑣𝑥 ∆𝑣𝑦 ∆𝑣𝑧
𝑎⃗𝑎𝑣𝑔 = = = = 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑘̂
𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡

⃗⃗)
Instantaneous Acceleration (𝒂
The instantaneous rate of change of the objects
velocity (𝑣⃗) at a specific moment in time (𝑡) is
known as instantaneous acceleration.
▪ It is denoted as 𝑎⃗(𝑡).
▪ Instantaneous acceleration,
∆𝑣⃗ 𝑑𝑣⃗ 𝑑
𝑎⃗ = lim = = (𝑣𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑣𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑣𝑧 𝑘̂)
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑣𝑥 𝑑𝑣𝑦 𝑑𝑣𝑧
𝑎⃗ = 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑘̂
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̇̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̇̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘̂
▪ If the velocity changes in either magnitude
or direction (or both), the particle must have
an acceleration.

PROBLEM: A rabbit runs across a parking lot on which a set of coordinate axes has, strangely
enough, been drawn. The coordinates (meters) of the rabbit’s position as functions of time t
(seconds) are given by,
x = −0.31 t 2 + 7.2 t + 28
and y = 0.22 t 2 − 9.1 t + 30
f) Find the acceleration a⃗⃗ at time t = 15 s for the rabbit.
ANSWER: (f) Given,
𝑥 = −0.31 𝑡 2 + 7.2 𝑡 + 28
and 𝑦 = 0.22 𝑡 2 − 9.1 𝑡 + 30
Therefore,
𝑣𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑥/𝑑𝑡 = − 0.62𝑡 + 7.2
𝑣𝑦 (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑦/𝑑𝑡 = 0.44𝑡 − 9.1

Determine 𝑎⃗ at, 𝑡 = 15 𝑠.
𝑎𝑥 (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑣𝑥 /𝑑𝑡 = − 0.62𝑚/𝑠 2
𝑎𝑦 (𝑡) = 𝑑𝑣𝑦 /𝑑𝑡 = 0.44𝑚/𝑠 2

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 PHY-107 Module 4: Motion in two and three dimensions

𝑎⃗(15) = (−0.62 𝑚/𝑠 2 )î + (0.44 𝑚/𝑠 2 )ĵ

𝑚
|𝑎⃗(15)| = 0.76 2
𝑠
0.44
𝜃 = 𝑡𝑎𝑛−1 ( ) = −35.36° = 144.64°
−0.62

PROBLEM 04-16: The vector v ⃗⃗ of a particle moving in the 𝑥𝑦 plane is given by v ⃗⃗ = (6.0t −
2 ̂ ̂
4.0t )i̇ + 8.0j̇ with v
⃗⃗ in meters per second and t (> 0) in seconds. (a) What is the acceleration
when t = 3.0 s? (b) When (if ever) is the acceleration zero? (c) When (if ever) is the velocity zero?
(d) When (if ever) does the speed equal 10 𝑚/𝑠?

PROBLEM 04-19: The acceleration of a particle moving only on a horizontal 𝑥𝑦 plane is given
by 𝑎⃗ = 3𝑡𝑖̇̂ + 4𝑡𝑗̇̂, where 𝑎⃗ is in meters per second squared and 𝑡 is in seconds. At 𝑡 = 0, the
position vector 𝑟⃗ = (20.0 𝑚)𝑖̇̂ + (40.0)𝑗̇̂, locates the particle, which then has the velocity vector
𝑣⃗ = (5.00 𝑚/𝑠)𝑖̇̂ + (2.00 𝑚/𝑠)𝑗̇̂. At 𝑡 = 4.00 𝑠, what are (a) its position vector in unit-vector
notation and (b) the angle between its direction of travel and the positive direction of the 𝑥 axis?

MOTION WITH CONSTANT ACCELERATION

If the velocity of the particle changes at a constant rate, then this rate is called the constant
acceleration.
- When the two-dimensional motion has a constant acceleration, a series of equations can be
developed that describe the motion.
- These equations will be similar to those of one-dimensional kinematics. Motion in two dimensions
can be modeled as two independent motions in each of the two perpendicular directions associated
with the x and y axes. Any influence in the y direction does not affect the motion in the x direction.

Equations for constant acceleration Equations for Free-Fall Acceleration

𝑣 = 𝑣0 + 𝑎𝑡 𝑣 = 𝑣0 − 𝑔𝑡
1 (𝑣0 + 𝑣)
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = (𝑣0 + 𝑣)𝑡 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = .𝑡
2 2
1 1
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣0 𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡 2
2 2
𝑣 2 = 𝑣0 2 + 2𝑎(𝑥 − 𝑥0 ) 𝑣 2 = 𝑣0 2 − 2𝑔(𝑥 − 𝑥0 )
1 1
𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣𝑡 − 𝑎𝑡 2 𝑥 − 𝑥0 = 𝑣𝑡 + 𝑔𝑡 2
2 2

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 PHY-107 Module 4: Motion in two and three dimensions

Free-Fall Acceleration Equations:

Free fall acceleration is the acceleration experienced by an object when it is in a state of free fall
under the influence of gravity, with no other forces significantly affecting its motion except for air
resistance.
- In a vacuum or in the absence of significant air resistance, free fall acceleration is primarily due
to the gravitational force acting on the object. Its magnitude is represented by 𝑔.
- Since, +𝑦-axis refers to positive direction vertically, the free-fall acceleration due to gravity near
Earth’s surface is, 𝑎 = − 𝑔 = − 9.8 𝑚/𝑠 2 . And the equation of motions take the forms
presented in the table above.

NOTE: For free fall acceleration,

- While an object is thrown upwards, use acceleration 𝑎 = −𝑔 in the formula, as the object will
deaccelerate over time.
- When an object is falling downwards with gravity, still use acceleration 𝑎 = −𝑔 in the formula,
since y-axis upward refers to positive direction and y-axis downward refers to negative
direction.