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+4+ +GJl7l ¤+6I= 5E r+Aql^t HFol. gE+ E. (
t ,\
q9 Epl+ Eeq d-El] H++g +Eg + 9lrl. o D E
t )
+EE t
*4Eol d6I= q+EE Ee-+f= +7](zlill). zl+i}
¤E.J +lg+(.-4ill), aq +q= zlzJ@.Al)-g e+EI4"
E ++6[z1 9++. rez]"J olq+ ai$ ++6J EeE ts
+
46J 9,14. +EEl(pure substance)3
q, rlezl- B4E "JA.J a^Jg zlzlt- 91+. el$ Eq E
5C6J 44g= zlzl
{,t
4 !+ i?(gs+ iE, Nact)g 44 +EeolQ.
r.= +geg +liola+ slilEol4.
'flA(elemen|= q ++6J Edg +6llg + S.= Ee
ol4. EzI +=ql^J lt_E 4 gd= qI ao+E gz|_+eJ I I
+dElq g+(.rs 1.5(a)4 0)).
. ilE]E(compound)S + 7l7l ol^JE gAE +^dqq
9lq^l + ++ oltr-g fl4-= sEL6J+(rg r.s(c)). {l AIH EE lll 7[^lEal4 dfEH-+671, E. g= '-4^]lell1^]l
1.4
aEHel E3 qgre-+ _E0l^ltJ, +6zlE q0l^l ?J=rf. EZ^! al
Eq Ee +^e}^i^ F ++g g^E +cqq 9l
Bf+lts a= +EfLJrf.
=
E EI!*Eol4.
¤E= EEsl 7I.^l aEHTf
^ll ^]e
I 15r
^lE:Etr,
ollq^|,
=tr
o
o o
o o a o o
e o
o
oo o oT t o e
o
(a) -.J fl49 flxt G) Fr ?t^E E^l (c) -.J it-dE9 Ert (d) -.J g^el E}-J=sl
=--JE
TlEl oj-7u
-o/ BA(Carbon(C)) I fi ,(Alu minu m (Al) ) 74 (Copper(Cn, cupruml\^'l +4))
+4
L0% 5F9fl(Pluorine(F)) u -EtrJ(Bromine(sr)) B (tron(re. ferrum4ltl *4))
fc(Hydrogen(H)) zJ6(catcium(Ca)) B(Lead(Pb, plumbum\l 4 fr4))
,,.t,l
EA o1olgfl(rodine(r))
55% t8Y, ¤i(Chlorine(Cl)) i$(Mercury (ag, hy dr argy r um gl 4 *4))
4i(Nitrogen(N)) ¤E(Heltum(He)) sq+(Potassium (K, kalium\l ?r41))
^1
lH:(Oxygen(O)) 4E(uthium(l-il) $(Silver(ag. argentumil t') *4))
?!ill
oJ(Phosphorus(P)) u|:rllf, (Magnesium (Mg)) tE(Sodium(Na, natrium\l^l +4))
a rE 1.6 fl^el 8tH4 %r(sutfur(s)) fi(Silicon(Si)) f 4 (rin(sn. stannum4l\ *4))
E-"f)r.l E^11= + =rllHl*
ltfel tt]7 |
^14(H
ddl= fl49 EBt EEE
*U.5. Geological Survey Circular 285, U.S Department of the Interior.
1.2 l=trslE+ 9
-r-/
88E! Hz9 Pnlzl'Oz9 +trlEtl 01fr= tlB 6 o1t- 2SoJ7l?
=
(a) #l BrlTltl^ fl^tH.tl 7lH7l ttllEoltl. (b) +A 3^t7f $A flxlHtl37] ttt|Eoltl
(c) E E^l= -d THel tl^ grlet + 7He.l t^ fl^le 0|+ol^1 9l7l nHEolrl.
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E(H2O) +A Tlill(H2)
afB 1.7 d7l E"=11 tFu IE= E6t| a=E E0l dE flA +^et 4ta+ E6HEtl. eE4
=E
-??] + 9 +tr|= +qq + H|]olt|-. =
^l--J$oll ^t4
+4 ,^'t/\
t'r
O
=4]q]+.
+a (Hre *,r.1)
=^t
E 1.2q1^l trFol EE ceg r cE fl^=r+
'-,) H'g dol de s+. +^, &^, Ee 4
4 ^1tr_
+= +84"14. ol= 4 EeE +471^lE +E i1+9 EzlolTl ullEoltrI.
E s+6J$ql^l r fl^$ a+= ag gB ¤EHl Hflfiawof constant
a^dol 6J^J
composition EE law of definite proportion)olElI. 6l+q, ol B49 1800H4 g*^E
plelzl |oseph Louis Proust(tzss-Bze)z| xl-9tr gg.6}fltrt. ol Bzlol gqd zl 200
zlifzl+. olzlE HH srlEtE4 z}¤q ¤z116}= E}6JE-
^IBg ¤edq^l "J=
LJol
^Iol
ql: ilolTl- 9l+r Er 9l+. olel+ "Jge Efl 4o14. +++ aaol
=Ezl
dedql^l sa 4sqld sd ^Jss,ol, ae aaql^l='"}^J ag ^dEr+ ,Je 449. ?*
plelzle]. zl.flg ,Jg ?liE ol$a|_L zr¤ Bzlql uI4 a4"ilot .J+. F EeE a
=4.
c4 cd.l .rle rlEE, rEg r+= g[6JE.E o]+q4 9j4+ iE7y +e+.
A +4, ta, Ep s.+ E^lE ot+ot8 qtrt. t^el.tats g4?l uE, Ee Et-cr'Efl otp
v+r
| = =^to.
uttuaE
EH
*4zl ts= EH++g Eee ^le += +Eeol 4lq fl: sqlEolr}. + ¤.8"LEql Eq
9l= 449 +Eee r zl^jel slqtzl I+^J4 5dg +zl6lt 91trI. .JA+ 4$$ zlzl
r 9l= +Eeql Hl6ll g6JEq aCg HIE + 9l+. ql= Eq -J tE ,ltlql= ¤Bol a
+ E= r*ol E"l 9lg + 9l+. gB+3 +C6l+ +Eeg r gqlEel C$(component)
olep tJQ.
qtr g6JEg a^d, Ce, esoJ Fol d^ll4etr +F6l{ ?++. q= E'"1 "J4ol4 4
T aol+ ?r.o3.o1 ++ql q+ Hd+ql, ol4+ g6JE-9 Efg(heterogeneous) g.JE
=
ol4z ojr|[=al 1.8(a)]. H]8, E= ? Eol Js"6J g6J+g *9(homogeneous) g6J$ol
+r oJ+. *71= ei, 4}^, A*e] += zlilltr ol+qd +oJ goJEolr-I. *zl +el A
r$ f,4a3 e^e+ r Ceol gad ,J4. oli ++tI ai+ +rl 6ql ?lE E^z[ ?3
ei EzlolTl rllEol4. a+, ¤+, r Eig Be gee Eql +ot +"J E-6JES "J=tr}
[rB 1.8(b)]. +g ¤.BEg Ee{(solution)ol4r,E d4. *9Golution)ol=}3 +q: "lill
1.2 11
=EelE+
< fg 1.8 E-etE (a) "J4= E
-clolfr q4 7l'^l Etr3 Hg
e--J=oltl. oltaf 74$
rt= ^ftl! EJg
taF==sl
-cfEE=+
ntrJgf== qq +r =
g,l
(a) (b)
J"J_.J71?
#g E-E[E
fol
+
0tLl9 ql
E-g +
^dol
o)i)l?
(-
EAI
E== fol
gE EB=\O-/
=5te/-QoB\
+-
0l|-l9 I] ZE_d +=EE ,01
EaIEJ + ?1ts7t?
aI9loil aBe s7l7t 7l-=6191.+. olE olBzl B= + ?lSz[?.+= EF¤F6]0i ¤g,e EdS d
q 6tE E+e.E trJ^l ElH.+. r e+¤'oll 4ts s += gzll gH4. ¤4}ol *zlqoil'^}A'PI
^ldg
1.3 l=Ee] dE 13
,fo)
H2 o2 Hzo
ziol4. r'lle.l 214fl ¤i5o o,P ?16]l qlaxl *=d s tr+= d-dg 617ll gH.+. rli fz|$g ulxl
oll E¤EIJ, oluJo|= ¤tlol tsf^le+'+ApI.+'= ziS gzll 9fl.1. ol ge {zt dEPl aE 6
oll^l 718 elAtzlolH4. L}= o}^ls ol "Jg oflf xliulllzll 'J-d.+. ol rlzJS +ollzllE d5l F.E+
9 9o194. 'Et'6lzlE, ol$zll $el-$ ^lEql ..il6ll ull+= +"J-* "JHe d:ddqlrl "J6lul a
$E xlzlHE ziol4.'"
rl
tU
a r.\ +
W
r
NrTrilc
ACID C0'\.
Irt
L *HN,!_ J
l't', 2
k / 7 )
h
a-19 1.11 ?fl Edz[EttE trt+ HJB E|tql + +{= 8=4 Eo-4= oJ=tl. 888 !,J^q 7l^lE ol.tJe[ E4olrf.
tl¤ 6 qtr a0l Eal4 Etrtol-r., oltr a0l al-:qt4 Eal.?.171.? r 0l+= ¤E6l-^le.
(a) 4EP ol{talEJaetE-ePgl 'J+E UEtl
(b) 5o; 45zlzl trJ=rl.
=i71 ^lal=
(c) E(l8,t tzt +q 7l'= EE E=tt.
=.J01=
+GJEE +AI
g'J+g +C6l+ CEE$ ddol 4tl 4=4= 19 ol*al$, sql+$ 4r+4 Ctse
/ g +?-lE + 9l+. q= Eq 4 z4+ * zzqo14.J H"J sElEe 49 ++6|q er+
+es eelB + gltrI. trJ BE+ ,JHe zl4E .Jqg ol$dlq + 44e. *7la- 4 4r+
"JE4 LI= aol4. F++E +s-6Jslq4 zlol= ol-so6J+E 9l+. ¤4 zlzl 4lg a
$ \olzluJ +e +ol7l *6JtrL ar} +9 g6JE-g zlB6J 4}ql '-;eH eg +r +e B
Be;.9 a=71(filtration)-tr tsqdl 'J + 9i+(rzJ 1.12). +oI 9l= ag ilq^l Ell
\ =+.
j g e+o.I HI¤¤ oleo o|{ +^l gr-llel ++e-E Hp+^laq.
4)la I
1
ts'2-l+
a
,' Ef
LH7}
oll
Lr
A
=tr1.
Eal6fr.^[
l otE
=tsEE
Eolloll
=oJrl \\//- ,' ,
I
dE=o1
E4Eq, t
x{Tl/.t
oz.to tr
fr
-
il+
=eolEl"allrl S
r
-
-;} ) "aI
1.4 I qlL17,lel +e
++ql fl= E= ^l-gg Eae ol+q4 9l+. rrl+ Eaqlg-+: +4E 5q& ^ll^Jol
*zlolE olil= ¤B617l qB+. El+ eg Eolzl"J, +e & E+E Eq +dzlql^J #
n 9l= +g ++ql EqEflg "il +r-l= o[+ += AeS 6[r]l g+. olqoJ iiol= + E
ol E-fto|-r. ?lE
"llHzlq sflol
qErll, #i1 9l= Eg ilTte EH4 g{ gltlzlE
= 9lulzl
zlzla_ 9l+. sl+g olallalzl 916ll^l= qLlzl r zlille+, slE4 4dql^.i +Rlq=
E EEIE ol6H6llot 6J4.
Ee+= 84, qlLJ4i eeJE S,j1 +ql ¤ +E $.zl"J .llHxl9 sr+L *+614+ +
e6J + 914. olHrt(enersy)E "Jg 614+ gg dB61+ tsqol+. E(work)g q¤ EAI
ql flg zlofl E4lzI *zl9g q Ag¤ oilq4olr. E(heat)¤ E4lel gEE gq= ql
^I
s-o*l qq4ol4(=e r.rs). 4*E9 Eill gEql 4aJ 9olL zl+4sE g
^r+Eg
I |lzl"J, .Je-l Ce-lql qlfl^J= r+zl ?*4. .J(r)$ E,.llql Tl6llTI E(F)q E4lr[ d+7t30il
=+ trlolll
:d
"J3
+zl.J 44@)9 +etr Cel'JtrI. =E
--Jtrt.
w:Fxd ft.ll
$zl,tl fl(force)$ EillE g!+ tolBzl} ag "J:"I=q1.,t al+,* ql5 5E zl+
rr$
el+qol+ zI^19 Hlql + ^FIq .Jqe a;ol-r., Elqql^l E^llE Eq 944+ E
q 9l= at4g q4H S$ al]o1ajr1.
7la gg
rr: f,*r' tr.zl
BlLlTl-Eoll
EelSE= SaJq.
qE a+'il
A EaJ= + uflE -g nilet ++E + H,l.e E
',l =,
trr
=
EE 0il11^rsr Eatu 1g
| 't='tt
rt= ¤Ellg qlLJzl-tsqt ¤+eql zJ*g qlqzl, "lq +ls gfl +ql zl+g ql
=q
Hzl, Elql a6Jql 4ti¤ qlLlzl-= ElHl¤ ollujzlolri. qB E4l7I 7l^)a_ gl= E{E!¤ 0t!
t-lxl(potentialenersy)t trt= Ealq 46J tr-ql4ql +lilql el6l]^l Adg4. slHI¤ 9ltJzl
E44eE,4tlg' .llHzlol4, += Ei]ql el6lt 4r{ q= Ei{el .Jq E= +gq ql
=
Eql g^J*+.
slHl¤ qlq^l7} +F qlqxls HI+l= a+= e6l E + 9lEl. ql= tq flql fl=
zld4= ^J46ll u-zl(rB r.ro). 649 .Jq qlEql +lql il= zld4q =q slHl¤ 9lrlzlE *
qql flg trlltsEl q +q. t4r+ zld4= 43 uule4l fleg 4i1 q]elsE^l Elfl¤ ql
\zlzl +E qlqrlE HIflEl. 4 zl4A9 El¤]¤ 9lHzlE *olzlr, +^lql eF qlqzl
,t1l+(^l r.2). ol qlE .$E 9lHzle} EIHI¤ 9lHzlz} eq
= ^]s d++g + 9l+= 49
=+.
flzl4 +z[ ^[ol9 t]E ++ql^l=, "J^]E eeJ ^["lq] 4]+6]= +qe +^l6J aE
oll, {a}oll el6fl g^J6l+ Eol 4 +96}+. {dzl $fl¤ oflt{xl(electrostatic potential
enersy)i +Eql^J +$i zlat ?_sd slHl¤ ollrJzl z[$rl] 6[+tr., d6l-= S oJx[ ,t[o1
E ^Jg zl+q E6]] g^J*+. oi+l¤+ Hlql +gel d6I= ^lE d-otrd-7]il, Ag +EE
dq+ +ts6JEl= ^|dg * gr flg 4.14. ol ^Js }+q ^ll7l= d6l.el =zlzl t)zl
E +7161r., d6I ^lol9 44zl E"lzlH AA*+. See ol 49 ++6IH^l ddzl 9l
qzl= qel
^IEl +^l E 4o14.
+e qEJ!¤ o{Ll^l
EE ollLlrl0
a:18 1.16 trlEJl¤ 01lLl^lel.E5 ollHrl E.l fl0ll 8^16ll ?l= trlEJl¤ 0llq^l7l 9,lrL
EZ= fl== Lfl.1eE^-1 trlEl¤ ollq^|= "Jr, E5 olll1^l= g=rl. ^l-I7lot|: ^]8Elcl ^l
1.s l=E9 tPl 17
gcE'il .E
A ...== e+ErE
^[E6r.7r
,J46pt1,
+16,1 d+E
==-g
ol-LlE EsltTf g-E7l?
n,|, q'at org d^rer ar+ qrLl
| ^,= =71.61ts7t,
qEf- = =C*g Jq
+zltr +El-'J "Jg ++l= Eq6l E,¤6llot 6.Jtrl. qtr ¤gq aol= tz54 t
aolE 4¤61 B^l+ aol+. !}El +Aq^J: stetlt(metric system)el t+l= ^FS
",4
11,
Dt
cX,
".J+. 4E
olEl4l= ls^Jl7l +Hlql g=J^oll^J zlltsqol, Qzfl qlSgq ++ql^l 9l ,o
^FSqrL
4. ul+9ldE dF4eE ¤E4 i{ZlE ^l-8-6}B_q_+
dd "lrl4lzl-trSs}qn 9l t2FL0!-
+(.r.J 1.17). $55ffil)
st .J+l
arH 1.17 BlElZl EPI EJtS
+Ag 916|] EA.J H zlzl olEl4l *+l= ^l-.+6}zr= +rll BEol rsoo'J9l ol E9
r+qt
+nl7f g+4 391(84. fl
ol
+qA+. EEql el6J EI+IE sr E+t(sr unit)4t +trL ol= +41 ++l4l(systdme oz)ef !lElZl t9l(trJalalel, mL)
s%I^q E4ol+. SI 4l4l= 7711t4 zlE tflGase unit)E -tr
International d'Unit6s)9 e E^lElol ?l=ol. !l+oll^1E
olEl EtrJafqr
EL6|q, += l.= +9lE ols+El +E¤ f 94(e 1.a). o1 tlql^l= zJol, d=J., gEE olrl =8gsl ^1801
TIzl 7lE ++l= +Etri.
^]
deJ(vrass) zj-E-Lfl(Kilogram) kg
$E(Temperature) 4Hl(relvin) K
,r.1zJ(rime) i(Second) s Et sec
Efx1t ErJEol ?l= grpl= Ffl!(tumen, tm) .Jfle. B Eajolx.^lElol 91tr1. 771^l
A sr zt= q! =q
,l0l
E+l 6i +ElE de-let+fl01 ?1ts7t?
I
;116lr{ H}Hl
oH
--a
44'zlrl9 "l4rl *Ezt? qBrll Eeq, l1ol "Jg "J+ tr4c ol=3 gEI= Ee os Eol¤qa+. rczl"J +ul
{"Jzlts qgll "J + 9l+? rt4{-e=$ +q zl^lg q$zll I "J^J^Jgql glq^l= Newton$ gF H4S ?E6l tsot
+46Ir zfl{o}fiz}f 5'J + flg AE.q 4q6I+.
4+zlz| q$zil .Jg 6l+zl tultrg ag dE H+. a +lql^l oloFTl+ diil 4c¤.
=g 1.18q1 E^lpI6I*.4. ol
B4ltr BdB ae r+o+ zl^lg z}tsg +AaJceal 9ts4 rI+4 *B(scientific method)olz}I.6J+. rq+ 4qL4
=
*Hol t 7lzl"J 9l= ae otq4. 4oi zlrl9 4lB^l7l=
aolE+. 4qlz}9 +g +4e B^lr+ +4cg +n +a
= +q, 4+E +=tr+ E += +A
g ¤+ +Al= *oI Ell= "*g a H6I^l ?+= 6t+el s+ aa3,
^Iolel ^7I4I+6J+.
q3l +ag aq6[= 4.o]4. trts +41= z]¤9 et(why) * +qel ¤He ++rl +*qlot 6Iq, s4 zl-¤ Btlq"J E
a-6J EJ^le_s 6J5r5l+71¤ E= aol+. 44zlE ol eEql =6lot ql+:4o14.
B-6171 fl6lq +ag ¤E6J + 9l= 7ff;l(hypothesis)olaf-=. qB =o+q trI= 4aql^JE zlgol 6J^J-5ce %L
^]E
E,¤g 6886t4tr. olel,* Bd--$ lttt HE|(scientific law)o
^,11+trI. ^l-9--E
xJ+q 7L¤g oi+ e.czlol4, 6l+ 0l^619 fH=d 7l¤ e sEg + 9l+. qlE Eq plq H}+ql^l HI+EE dill 3
g 9l+. 7t¤ol *+8, olq "*e ^JC$E ditl ee}ll.J^J A+= ag
EJ+4es +3
^llg +E
Ar+
eI +eg ezl E+. olBl+ Br-^les 7l¤g =|6Js+=d.J
qltr-g + qfl+. ol elfl +$9 e"6E tr= B4(law of conservation of
trl g7l g1g r++4 +Ec mass)ol4L oJ+. olE4 rlol B4g +H6l]ot +tri. r+q}
^[.eg deg ¤zl6]E+ ++.
e tr+ 4tlq Eeg Ei6l7l 9-l6J +e deE ¤4lql ES Bzle. +47h.J:il 9l= qH "Jol .J^J "Jqt+=
Aq 4ql ^J+o14. HlEql ol# olE 9ol 'Jq\t aql ql
ol q= ,I¤g ^J46il g trll +e* q6Jg 6J+. =c6J
Ctrz]. dd *o14, azl$ z|{$$ AqAn 4Eqd4.
A+ +49 G44l zl* +6J61+ ai*9 z}¤"Jol Brll g
+. olull ol zI¤9 olE(theory)ol+7 E4= Egol q=ql, ¤-H. +g6t7l
olE+ a+= ql+6[n, -E= +ag ¤EB +
(^tE E80ll EH-d *grt d-deB+q)
^1:E1vl^19
9l+. E6J ol$g + trl H+lel ol$, ¤ trJ .JHI4oJ ol$
=
*, trl= olEq +.Jqqot 6J+. qE p+^I'l]+q]^l
"J
I
=q
q+= ¤tr-g ¤E6I.b olE+ gdB, l9 EI4 E"4 olE 7[¤ 81971
ql +ql6l.q"t
(6tLI E= r olAt)
++.
qq+e ol 4q^l ylg olEg "J+ril g 4o14. r+ q
zlzli o\\ltl^l +39 aEr+ 6*tr-"Jxl6t= 4.5o14. :4 I
2JAiiPl
+ qB olEE e44 os *+r +H.J + S4. *4E ol
71^J
(t:dg 56tG)
Eol *g ai.lH ^J4+ i llzl"J, 9-zlzl +eql^l= a*
qflg + ll4b zlSCg 6J^J BoI :14. +B6J 4lt: Isaac
Newton9 94 olEol4. qq olEe 839 +zl"Jql ql6}
I
olE lll?71
q ot+ 4+6l.7ll zlgolSe{, z04l7l 4vl^1= qlrl6J ql (7tE dA4?]7t¤0fl
9lE *ol^g + Sfl+. :244 Albert EinsteinS +zJ4 =Z6|'G)
^l
aql ql+ Newtonel olgol g*qg+= ag trq +*.+. I
Einstein9 ^JqC ol# +ArI 4* ^J4g tE4
^lzJql ol== BJ=4oe e=6t71
oE Ht+94. Einstein$ Newton9 olEol 4+qzl ?+= (d:d e!+ct +-st6tXl Tlld Ets EllTl)
,Jolel laJ
zlol(lengrh)9 SI 7lg t9= trlEl(meter)o]4.
"lel} g+! +fl zll4l.J ol=(yard)B4
Et ,J+. E$(mass)*$ E^ll= +^d6I= Eee] oJql+oJ 4sol4. 4d3.9 sI ,le +9
-¤".14 +rI= +e aol "iq4. a.6te EaE "Jql qi+ 4Eojr, +41: +q.l EeE a,jql 716[= aol+. ql=
++.Je.l +4lE 4+qldBEl Bql^l El z+gql, ol= 99 +qol 4+E +qtr+ ztTl rl+ol+. :184"J ++"JE
=q
e.*
3 Bql^l+ 4+ql^lL| 44.
20 18
^]E:Etr,
ollLl^|, +E
qH 1.2
5lt+qol¤-oPl
(a) 1O-eraJ, (b) 10-66, (c) 1O-3olalo]l6l].J6l.= Eglq Ee= +1oJ7l?
9-tr
0t4 rH= H? LIE E80l d?.!^1, Z]]Erl E+61^le. "d,Il8Eoll^l 1'zJ4e eBl3E0ll
1 2J4ate+."
^lE
tr flr flr
il NJ NJ
u uj u
310 K 37.0 "C 98.6'F co xi^t i.I-9
sl+E- tr+l
*E *fl(derived unit)t SI 71ts +98 ole"a|{ +E++. +E EPH al.4 ol 1m
t}9 zlts ++lE ^JE +6t71+ +hq BErJl, flz] oJ(quantity)ql q6J 49 ^ll
+r, olag 4B'J 7le ++lE zl+l-JE|. el$Eq +qE dE: o|Eo6J Zel
c| olEq afl ulolug, +q9 sr +E ++l: rl4(rJol)E sr tr+loJ m
^lrJel 1 dm3: 1L
SI ++loJ sE {hol, mlszl Etrl. ElEq^l e6l + TIzl +
= ^l+E
E. ++l= +"le} gEol+.
^l-S6I=
1cm3: LmL
+tr1
dqEillel P4(volume)E r..<121 ,JolE 4lzJl*i(rJol3)o14. rtr-I4 tulg sI 1cm
+E Bfl= ziole.l SI +91"J me] ^ll^llE-(m')g.e., ol= 4 !.^l4el aolT| 1 m 1cm 1cm
plEql^.]= zffi
"J AqHAlq +qql 6]]B-6J+(rH 1.20). ^ll^ll+djQulrl(cm3,
ccEE Ezla3rpel ,Jol + rJ 4g ++lE ,\l-$olzlE 6-J+. E +"1 +9ls Eq a.r.B 1.20 +tr|89+Al -sr_P^lalg e
olTl 1 m?.1 Sqflillut if^ldfE +tr|=
(liter, L)E,r.f$alzl E 6l=ql, ol= zll+Lil,t l ul Q (dm3)4 15, 7l E (quart)E
^ll 1 m3olr[. 1 m3= 1OOO dmsolrl. 1 Lts
4 ErJ rE|(?]El= ol 4ql^J xl+ "J+=, sr E+l7l otH olel4l r}9lol4). r4 1 dm3E +trlgl rJr(1 L=1 dm3). 1 dmsE
qE rooog44rl(milliliter, mt)ol:2, I mLE I cm3el ag +qol+(r mL: r 1000 cm3olr(1 dm3=1000 cm3). 1 cm3
E t mfq Pcf('1 cm3=1 mL).
.-').
qH 1.3
vF EE tt+lHl*|alzl
97l qlEoll^l 71801 31 'Coll a0lalr. qEI6l. tl. 0l 8Ets (a) K EPl, (b)'F trJ+|tr gDl.?.!71'?
=-g
AtlH ae qL 4elzl ?c6}^ls(ot4 +la= +7le} d+6lzl
(a) zl t.:9 ol$ K:3t +273:304
olo-o K "tr ?l+a rfA"J+).
(b) 1.4= ol+6ttr (a) ul^fe(Bil O) E+(Pt) (c) d4lts(se)
^l g (d) ,Jf(ca)
'F = i(31) + 32: s6 + 32: 88'F
(e) 74(cu)
> .H.= qlr1l2
> H6 qlr{I1
+E"-qE +CE?l qBql -rr.s"cq^l fl4.
Wolfram Alpha (http : //www. wolframalpha. com/)Li 4E ol q=dg (a) K *fi, G)=4ol¤3
"F +gE g"IoJzI?
EEg +r6l.q, q+ g4 + s2s Kql^l 941 r3Elle 9t=
22 13
^lF:
35. qlrlrl. 15
xl- rrlq
o-4iilel a==
atr-eltrl.
Y
rHat
LallplrJ
Eo
xrltl
T.\1, El9l +q
=al^r
I
=-Uut
a3 q! 4oJ)l?
P
rl'3 +tr|=
= =E:d
15 m2, 2.5 x 102 m3, s.7l L1s
"Jtr
"JE(densrty)E EAIE +91 +q'& ei+se Ael.J+.
et
"JE: +q t1.sl
E
E
l .00 o.J +7lq uJsH
=
"JEzI +.$ aol a flql
qlB{ 1.09
= = =El.
] E}
=+ol= qlLlr,le.l trJ+l
eo 1 .59
l-l-
.llHzl9 sI ++l= E(ioule, f)e, "J4 gql qlql ¤+* g+E 4elz} |ames |oule
IE 2.16
(rers-rsss)¤ zl'JoI9 olEg Eqq. gE qLlzl= cel.J 1.2-a+q, louleg 1I:
:-l 7.9 ^l
= r kg -m2ls2oJ +E ++l"Jg "J + 9l+. I m/s9 +Ee *4olE 4e* z t<gel EalE q-S
=- 19.32
E
4l4l.ll^.1 BFol l lel +F "ll,izlE r*=E|.
=¤sl 'J9l
1.s 23
ax : : mls)z : 1 kg-m2/s2 : t;
)mv' |<rxg)(,
\\ qHl 1.4
Di g5. +6|.71, EE-E+81+illLf {B'+,rl7l
(a)#3 1.00 x102 gol +tr17l.7.36 cm3g rtl +8el "JsE zlt!5l.,\lg.
^l.xl6l"=
(n) "Jszl.0.7e1 s/mloJ 0llEtg 65.0 sel+tr|= 75l.^19.
(c) -d E^1al7l 2.00 cm?] 8qEi1l EaJP * goltl? ("Js= t g.gz g/cm3)
=E
N}lU > H6 0lrlll
(a) d=J4FqzI+q4 914. l.sE+q E+(Pt)g ol+ q+l6J -I]4 ;' 6t+e, d ^llzl ^J4}rd=g
^l
trJE :++: T=#: 136s/cm3
"J Hq qI 118E {rolz, "Js} zr.+ g/cm3ol4. 3B
zlszf 44 44]*ol aoo kgt 4B trqg 0l+6]]^] g6J
15) +qTl e*rl "JE= ^I+6Iq ^l 1.s= gE ql fl= E+g gil4n +4. E4+ol I L aTlE EqE H
rr
A=d= 65.0 g :82.2mL +qq ilg ql, ol aE= 3l.I q ,l]g E+ Er.ll= trqql
EJtr 0.791 clmL ¤q E"JA i flEz}?
(c) CSHill9 +tle+ "JEtr+ q a=*g 4l4l-J + 9l+. E (a) rezll (b) zzl k) +z4l (d) 17I] k) st\l
,Jol=,tllzll$o|{ +ulE +6tE
^.lzl > H.# 0lr{12
*ul : (z.oo cm)3 : (z.oo)3 cm3 :8.00 cm3 +4 374.sg9 "Js= gEltTt? o)
(a) Pulz}41.8 cm3oJ
l.sE+El e+9 +6171 +l6J
^lg ^ll+7 a+Eillel q¤ +^gol dQl+se ql+g 1s.0 eol gsal4. 9l*g
^l
+!le+ BE= qlE6lE 9 Eszt 0.78e slmLolE, H -r9 ollts9ol gs+7|?
4+:+El x p-=.: (8.00 d) (rg.zz sl crt') :rss g (c) i3 25.0 mL9 e*g q g"J7I? ("JE: 13.6 glrnL)
=eqlEg 5a
0tel8 raJoll ,\l'E!ts eErlloJ(propane, C3Hs) 7l.^Eoll= ef 9.0 Xgg EeqloJol Eol ?ltl. raJ= ItE/.lTlE
el,EJ36|.q ol|lEl-EJAel-E¤ 8d-d+. t^el. ,J8--J nll, i]+trll?]e 1 g.J ao kJel olll-lxl= Ee cJ=-dq-.
(a)zl..rEql fl= E+trll?.lolEF t^el.uj3a|E g=Elts oilLl^|ts gEtoJTl?
(b) HJB rl¤oil^1 El+ tr1E!¤ 0llLlxl= rJ^dl.=7L e7l6t=7t?
=B0ll ^l8EJ
(c),JE g9 trjEJ!¤ ollL1^l= xle6lTl +16t|, E= Hlqtql^l 75 m Ealrl.Z 6l^|.. 0lttll ga.-d Eel traJe gElETl? (dn: Eq +Zl
(F)= ¤i+0lEel EB(m)oll rE-el ! F=m xg. frzlr19= 7[-Eoltl. g=9.8 m/s2.)
=ztolrl-. =al
6tlff oJ r gB 46 kJg 9ol o"r=qE ag ols"6lq 44}tr +
(a) gesloJE d=JS tg E+lq^l g E+le u1g $, e.+.gl 91tri.
24 13 ,tlE:=t, ollLl^|,
=tr
1000s 46kl +l e*E #ulE zs'Cql^J s60,000 Loltr|. ulE}^l 4%i9 nlHl
E: e.ok¤ >( x losU :4.1 x
ff>< t:4.1 108J
¤ qlqrl$ EIE+ qlqrle al+g + 9l+= ag "J + 9l+.
(b) u$ullolol &aetr Hlg"+ ull,s|+ a*ql zltlqq il'J
qlHzlTl qqzlel trIE ¤EI.J g.e di+94. ui
> 5.= ql41
ulel¤
++ + 7l* +E qLJ4E zlzli1 flE ae?
+^l p++ oilqzls 4tg El¤l¤ {qzl: AiEI4. =
(a) 100 km/hs 94fl+kg9 g-trHlol
s00
(c) al r.1¤. ol+6}q E9 zs m SolE 94i rll gef, "J
(b) so km/htr +46I= looo kg$ zffiz|
I olg 4&g + 1l+. (c) 30 km/hB gflq+ ts00 kg9 4-FxI
w=Fxa:(mxg)xd
(d) ro km/he gBd-= sooo kg9 E4
^lg C46iE
Ae}$ +6171 +16il
(e) skm/h-tr +q6l+ 10000kg9 EB
m: w 4.1 x 1o8J 4.1x L}skg-trPl*
8xd (9.8 m/s2x75 m) (9.8 m/s2)(75 m) > -H.= qlr'fl 2
: -:
ql^E+= *Ell6l+ HtB4 trJrSlol=' 355 mL
5.6 x 10skg ^l*ql^l
9 g*g s47 Catol4. ol= q I9 qlLlzl "J.J7l?
al=q, plelztEs .Jsd+ $lEu xzlolE (halide ql* dzl: dr.l= *Ad 4"J dzl"J+ol* .llHzl s94
perivskite) O1ge1 {eS ill= ga6}9Ecll, ol izl]E 4 'J ++ otqr+, +E^} zllag
os trIEql, rEl
"JE + 9l7l
"J qlqzl El¤¤ q *= + gltr|. 6JE4lp+ qIEH-ATIoIE +el dr-]= dzlB+ +d7 r+41
^J&E + 9l+. eEdl3r+
r.o l*8sl=ef¤6 25
ql-e.exzlo1e dzl9 tB4 ^J,tlzizl= ot4 6l]a6ilot g I ^Js 4t¤¤ "+t. s* d'J ¤t"l dB9rl *6141
6I=
Ezll5ol Bol:lzl"J, : ul4i ot+ BI+. a-e_-E -H.oJEi. 6J qls, eEg e++ql egg +lE ql^JeE
Ilg¤ flgollelEl|t +Eeg ot+ +zlE ^J=iol+ ^Jall a + dEq^1, :lal 1.239 Anle-r38b4E Ezl-= Fq6}qg
trll flE fBol, Fq4zl *e f q Elull+ Hl] oltr-=fl+.
zlE ++ql +eq} qtrg 5J+. = ,ll+ +"Jt 6+9 +Eqa
rfltsg p+qlE$$ oI4
z[$ri] Er-l$(prion) Zlgel +Eleol 9! z[z] da ¤+4 ^\+vl^\ ^I$ql4l 4+617lq=
4'J6I^l ?*zl"J, rE?IE g+= En+zlt
"Jd6}rll +¤qq fl4= aol 'Jqa+. 949 EUIaS e ^lEql 'J"*g B
qql fl=q]. aE ql++ 58,* ollzl s4. :-4,* zI= qg4l *9 1.JzIq 46J rLl"}.3 ^ll^16l--r, gtr+. +lql
= ^t*E ololzlfl s4gq 9lb. 4er-zlzl-.,.l4re_sPEl 96l+ +4
4e +9 ^IElq4l^l= qE g6}ql elal =qgol g* d zlq EBg trlzlzl gEl-+ +d-6fa ql-e= 6J= ,J2 4q7l
-d trl= E"JE EB gfl$9+ HIfl4. E¤ s4e+
el 8^J Eflgqlz]l^JE Ag .Jol .JqLlE+ 6||^.], A+=a Bq +q.
7l-=
q =
d^lle sl4 +A+. EB sEgol +4qq EolE ,-Jqr]= qle= +,flE il¤t4 EE ql+ z}*iql 4"J 4]Eql^]= e
+lEt
oJE=tr. olts llA ,\leoll ¤tlg oJq oJ=a1o1"l Bol4 uI il ^lrJq an sI+ eI*"] .J9ttrI. tr+4^J ^llgol EeE
A+ B f,oll,! EolS arl ag 6619 .l_lzJ4. ql+*g E+ol H?'tll "Jccol Bqdq. a4olq qp+
^l
s4g e+q dBg H= + 9l= ^lEHol olzl zHBEl"l E= rBE EEql Ezle+ sg Eeol ,*olH Er49 "J o zl
glrl= ?+^1"J, dqg oJ"ll6l+ 4 zl,.l +g +zl7l gaq -2, E4r'-?c}*9 4sl= rllzl$ zlzllo] Hlg"6J+. ql++g
: F q"Jol -troli1 gl+. ol= E^I= s4g +EqaE ^Iol +g6l='JB + 6t+= s+ ,lt "Jq*B HI*E ^JC+3
fl4E qEg + 9l= t}*ol4, "Jq*H HI*e] qHI¤¤
ol+61+ 4o14.
*):H O:" O =c
:z gls E^l? +7fS lfE$ Mayapanoll ?lE n{ u}o}
o :N
o :Br
*49 Eplzl 914. pooLS4ql= +zlel q!+= H=6I71 +l
6]l jr.Ez} i.Bg g*=Ell, d tr# zlrlz| r$zl. 7Bg q
o1u¤91 5:r+ ¤ol "*+= a¤ "Jrl qfl+. olq I+
zffii zllzlapzl9Ie+ qEl
"Hql a4l
&cl HI+r+ i7l. a
.J HI-s trllEql E6J6I-E r.Ezt= r qL +71 ¤:El]qlE +
zl ?*9t4. 2008Hql olB?]oi plalzls=3 qglql d
=ql/-?
-d
"ll= +zl ?+7
!.+zl sEdg 41461-= %r-Hg +9t+. r
AIE gCzllE +LtrlEl ez\! $z\ +,l] %'-
=e
901 i&$.il
^l-8.6}q,
trl^llqlgcg "J=q qelq +qE,
'14 9l=
Texf iEdg +.1 H"J + 9l+= 49 .J"].4fl4.
a feJ 1.23 trl="J¤ llEEt +"J-d E^l?.j Anle-l38b
^lEoll
t
(-.
-\
Liry1T==lLl*:gfl=*1*
*----T*.. .,
o t'JEel tEJE
I\, ..""*"*****flid 4"JEe+ 4qE= +A{}e-l Eq¤^dg ¤Bg tr]] +s E"JE(precision)* +C
,\tT.l^lal 0.1 mg9 8"JE= 7l ^Fs"+E|.
gEI+ g oJ7l6I:.71¤ 4441, gEtE(accuracy)i dzll9 '+#r+
xl.r. ?]ts rl-
ol86lE ts3 6|Eol ^Js
=C{}ol
EgEol+88 -g+ 9lrl. 9"t4 + 9z1{+zl¤ ,lEl-,Jr+. .ral 1.zq 9l: rlE rflg ol F zfl"l$ ¤86[1 9lr+.
@ Anamaria Melia/Shutterstock
dedq^t= gHi4sE dBg qq H '^lq'ql + ¤+6lq ar+= UE|. +4E ¤"Js
.s.= $i|(standard deviation).E +4U+(++ e.s). *.# ¤il-= +C{lEol ¤+Zte-tr
=
8qdt7l= dlLt ¤gdt^l g *q 9oI4 H."l*Ezl¤ LI4U+. qq Hel +4 44zl4E +Z aLg,*:+E(+ s
e A+q q6lfr E'4oll tlE i q^1714|+E), +4= +d ¤4ql z14lAg ,*=+. rel+ t4 r.zqy C"J* +Aol
E0l olEZl9.lil6l"=71? Aq.J +Aol olH +tr 9ltrl= 4.g s_q ql= Eq g* EAg oil+ "J+.J zlgg
=+.
e=J.ol al+6ll^l dxllB4 rl 244 z+rll +g 4o14. + ol ¤"J6I
^l-S6tE, =A
q+E Aq6}zl= t*9lolr-L =Ag
#E. izl
0.000re*qrTlzl +ag + 9l= zlgg ol+6lq Edg e+g +aoJ+-z 6IzI. qqB
g a"Jg 2.2405 s + 0.0001 s9 E4lE 7l+6J +E 9lEl. olull t +E= +AE Eqd
{g +4]Jq. r}Eq^J ++ +A ar_}¤ 7l+6J tril r= ^J+6}=ql, ol= qrq+ +Cql
8qE .[ H.-r.S i9 ,]zl"-t *zl+ 6]-t EJE B+dCg zlzla- ll+= 49 9r ilzl qE
.<.f
=P
tsP 8"JE ol4.
:aJ 1.259 gEalql= .lill9 'J 9lzt + b+ glE|. b+eE+El H zl4=
^Iolq +q
+E61 9lg + 9lzl"J, trlzl"+ zt4e-l <tg +d6l]o} eq. 8r41q1,<.1 sq^ll7l2s "c4 30 "c
^i"lql*= ag Hr, E4 zt4= qd6rzl ?*zl"J 27"ce +a'J+. olag Eq-g6}71
100'c
'*g EqE 80
oc-
E"JE
=P
"c-
60 30'c 27.coil^l7g +E
-zt zl0lt[. qaf^J
+aI^J*frt
40'c- OC
20'c- 25'C
OC
0
'+3 d+E
'fP E"JE
Laa 1.24 8"JSe15415
arB 1.2b +Eg EEJEd4?6 *rl
1.6 27
=8sl=.ftd
E 6lzl"J, gETI 27"ColH "Jg "J6|r 28"C+ 26"C+ olqel= grlol4. :4* gs
7t 4+61 27'C?+a "Jts += s+.
E+d+ zlEE izl-= sEr-¤t +d{Ig E= ixl-= ?= fr}(significant figure)4.7 t
4. z.z ge-+. E^l* e=*e + 7il9 +a +4¤ 7l^]|4,2.240s sel +E izlE 4d zl]ol
rt. +E *zI9 4+71B¤++ r +C AaIzl rl 8"J6I+: 49 9"104.
qa* 25 s?! ,\rE9 EaJB o.oor s9 dEEE ri=tr +E.tflE r,, E 7,lq BE +
A 7r.T!
Lj'=,t"=*
+4&9 +g- izr zH+= +6171 96ll^J= r <tg g+ql^J e$f og g.lsE^l i]+e
_e, 0ol olH xlrl+El zI*+E 41s1. u|-e4l ug +{Aq^l 0ol olH E.E i{+ +s.
*2}"il E+g+. o* +cit9 "J+Eg +E 9lr, Elzl 9lzlE't+u a.J +E
9lzl uIE9l, o3 fs izig fs, otB +E 9l+. ^+dg
. 0ol olH fz| ,r.1o1q 9= 0g 6}{r-+E *xlol4. - 100s kg(,?a *z| rll 4l), 7.03
cm(-ft.s +zI ^Jl
z11).
. 0olol9 4. *xI Sql 9l= o3 fs *zlzl olqr, tzl Aid9 qlzlE +qU
4.-o.ozg(Sa iz} aJ 7l]), 0.0026 cm(fr-s izt F zll).
.^+Ag 7l7la. 9l= +ql^J, ool olH ulxlE *zl +l9l llE o3 fra fz1o1
4. - o.ozoo s(+.E. iz} ^ll zll), 3.0 cm(f-s. iz} F zll)
^+dol fl= +ql^l fl+q il= 0g +E6llot ++. rBl+ a+ql trF 0g +E +zI
7l olu as.E .E= zl+ -E.TIE(Y q A.1)g 0ol +E fzlolzl o1g
'J+.JE+. ^l-&618,
,l .J + 9l+. qlE 10,300 e9 d*3 qBzl +tafHizlql q+ :, +, szH9 -fts
=q
izls -s^l6J + 91tr1.
t.o3 x toa g (+E iz1 711)
^ll
t.o3ox toa g (+s i^I LJI 7]])
t.o3oo x toa g (+E izl.4d zl])
4l4l l.z
+t?,loilA-l+E *at 7[+ +al-71
4lth{l^lsl +E +zl
qBl +CAg ol+6}q 41lg trI tr|g +!ol 4+g+.
Eq.¤col *?t z +c<l"l 44I ar+el qrJce 4+6rr, E|4^1 4l+ 44I rtel
+E izl-= a4+4.
4+ 4l& {19 s-4 t z}4.]lrl"J Eq¤Cg zlz)t- 9l9ot +E}. 41&q^J +E *xt9
7H+= *+zl +16ll rl+E + 7l7l +4g 4+ 6I'+E q6l7le+ mxzlgl 4
^l-+tr Lol4.
il aoli1, trIE 6l+= +6}7ls+ *hzl{l {EI aol+.
r. q6'l7lel4zlollrl 4l4I a4=, 4* 4e xlE= 714 +4114 ?9 zl]i9
^+
zlq= 7l4ol +q. Ar+E Aol gsel zfl+tr+ q Be +E +{-= zlz)t_ $eH ^+
HlgHf,+. El^¤. qlq^l E+¤+ 4 o + s^lqq 9l+.
^t*+=
20.42 <- + Tllel
4t{l urie-t+i ^+ ^lal
trl'='J86t= + 7.322 <- T|lel 4+
^ll ^El
83. il 7flE
.r.* Ad^+
^tal
704.U2 --
.- xEltr UEg(104.8)
+3 8^l.el 7[e, EolTl2:7+ 15.5 cm, 27.3 cm,5.4 cmolrt. dl^[e.l +tr|= frE *^l-= #?J6lq ZltJ6f,\l9.
^18,
tlz}g +El= ziBxr.,llBx$olol4. ol 4l+I arl¤ 7l+g EllenS 4=ql + +lB s}olH elE zlE ¤Hl= oJoitrn
q= +E ftzl zlllzl tl* 4+.+=i 7l=o +'J4. ol 4* dfl+. Ad A4Alzl osr.ru}9(milg +49 trll gtrE
ql= +olq 6l]=J6l-= +71+ zI9 *a f4_$ z[z]s+ 41 ¤. 7l-= iH+r Elqqzt, rsr+.+ui9g +48 r{ r0.rzjH
& Ar+= + T}]el +a izls zl$aJ4. G.l)9 ¤eE +^l il]fl+. + Hg a+ E+ ¤EEol e
: g +ols iH+la4H, ol ilE flEl= TIZJ g se6J a3
+:l1 71tr x tol
: ^Jlex
(15.5 cm)(27.3 cm)(5.4 cm) El-S + qL a.J7l?
: 2285.01cm3+2.3 x 103cm3 (a) a0 mi/gal 0) al milgal
4l&zli A+= trq izl"J, + 7]]E +s
228s.01o14= G) al.2milgal (d) a1.20 mi/gal
qHl 1.e
71 4ru'Je.l +E +zl- B'lnl7l
e-E 25Coll^l :19 1.264l. 2J0l,7lr.1171=01 ?t= ETlq EaJ= +E6tr, E7l= Hl3 + tt^l +E6lf;.tl. +0lTl tllolElE+E] 25C
g ttfl 0l Tlillq"JE=+6l,'.19.
6fl.J
"JE= Al&614H zlll9 de}4 +ul$ "JoI"t {4. zldl9 d*9 zl4lzl Eq 9l= *zlc+ el 8zl9 e"J ^IoltrI
-rls_4 ag a+.1 +E HlgH +zl¤. ^l-8C iE flrt. + 4l4Elqot 6J EJI g+ f47IsolE^J r Et¤- iz}TlOola
+ s: a+.ltr}. olrl
^l^&61+
.JHI4 *He s= HlgB6l*-g Eil. r izlT}4+4H HlgBaJ iE AJ1. g+?+E Rlc
e6ll^l +g +84 6I+ cl 49 +¤ r^E g+. r}+r.-i a.z:so9 4+e+ 4.74s0E A+, +E iz} 41.tr HlgB6IE E+
^il
4.7471 aq.
30 13 .rlE:=!, otlLl^|,
=8
> r* qlr{ 2
+El: 1.05 x 103 cm3 EaJ: 836.25 g q8l(:1H 1.26)ql fl= +rl9 4*9 zlill= rdllTl d+ql
trer: ffi7.63 g
s+ i+,t11 zlr-lzlzl +4619tr18, Zl4l6lq ++ TlillE
"JE= Lil 4lel +E *zl==zl4 f ?lEzl?
a.LE 1.26 +¤slE+ddrf ff6 *rl.
1.7 I il.eJ +4
+AAe +Eg ++l= 7l^)a.9lzl ullE"ll ol Alg AI4I6J trl= +S+ olq4
^l-S6Iq
++lE 6y6} Ielollot 6J+. ol 4ql^J= E4= 6l]A6I= ql ilq ilfl E4(dimensional
analysis)ole|= *Bg ol oJHql^l +gE=¤. +el6J4l +b +
^Fe"drl.. ^le +B +E,gHt=
E 91tr1. E+ E.J+ +91= {}4lg + 9t+. ila E4g E4l= E Elol trll +
^JE
+lE r*E+ 6]] E6J E*e +zl al^IE Bg +r s+= ql
da6}= ilq^lE ill4lzJ
.J *Bol4. =+.
+tt oJal
xlg E4ql^J 7l+ +st HI¤ trll *& .Jzl-= u|-Ezll 4o14. sltt
^lole +9lE ^l-8:6[=
9Ft(conversion factor)E eg E4elg Es.e| tszlq 4r+ L+= +flE -s^l* E+olE|.
qlE Eq 2.54 cmq l"Jzl= ag ol
'Jolol+(z.sqcm:r in.). +4ls+El ++r+ aol F
,l]E +& oJzl-= + 9lEt.
"JE
1.7
^13
E4 31
2.54cm oL L in.
1 ir,- { 2-54 cm
+ +t& "Jzr + a4l ae t{= d4"lrls +}t}g uI ol*aJ4. ql= Eq aolT} 8.s0
ln.oJ Exll9 ?ol$ cmE ulQu]l$ o}4e| ?4.
fl61+ ++l
ct4"lelf : (8.s0in)
+tr : 21,.6cm
\r +qd ++l
-T
slt} qlx}9 eEql fl= qlil ++l= 94 +qa a(s.sooJzl)9 .Jil E+le+ ^J4lg+. s
4I "JzlE Eziql flE d4ulrl ++l= 4+ Bq t9lzl. g+. +lt} "Jzlel EEe+ Ezl^=
ae *ol7l tril+ql ¤lt} .Jzl-= +61+ 43 19 *61+ 4,r+ aot^J E4 #ql sffi ixl
?+=+. trI4^l aol 8.s0 in.! zjol 2r.6 cme] zlrJ.
++l +&g 'JHI49E g6l+ ++le+ +q{ ++l= ul:zoli ase+q ^lz}.Jq. r7l
r +qd ++l= fl6[= E+]E H]#= i]& qlz]qli 9B 401 9lEzl¤ "J"]E+. +q11
7}g +4I oJzItr +E trL olqlel eol +flE EL4l +6llzlr ++qTl+.
fla}: tr"-l
, ,u u,,. +q{}¤f:--}-ll:g6l+++l
=c>)zl-#,.
g6[= Egz[ Bo]zlzl ?+sE, H]E^l +]1] r+a 6 9Bz[9] s+7] *= aolE]. +4 4.
,ll ¤rl-u-E s+E g"Jg *g + flg aol4.
qFl 1.10
tt+lstl-Bl-rl
115 lb?] q^l7l ?tl. l=Jo+ B[+E g0[?]71? (rqq ?r.xl gqql fl= E+l aJZE Et46laf.)
^tl60l
6}lU
,+sE=:18 oe. HI+eJH + ++l +41= +o}"t 6J +clTl El?l: lb
^iolE
+. Fl.E.zl .J+q trH l lb=453.6 gol4. vl+gE S"]]a 453.6 g
rHg BzlqE :tsg ts lql, +gE= +Eq 9l= +4I ^tE 1tb
oJzl¤ *-6]]oF,*+.
r+ ee; : t,rt*l(#\:
'\ lrb / t.rrx 1o4g
flolE A9: o
o
lts lb=
^Jl
7l]q+s +rl= zlzla 91o str BE +s +rl
,tll z|]E 7l4ot +4. ++l +4I$Cg s-ql r* oE +
4H4.
(a) 5763 x lo4 km (b) 1.496 x lo8 km
(c) t.49596x 108 krn (d) 1.483 x 104 km (e) 57,759,000 km
> H6 ql8l1
qH +rJql 4+= qoJstr+El e2,ess,o00trIoJ Eq4l > H.= qlrll 2
aos +¤qS.+. ol= ql ,1]E -ftc izle H ?eulrl +lErl .J+E +4I oJzl¤ ol+4q 500.0 mi9 zl-E"it c
"JzI? (+lsxl "J+ql fl= +9 +4I
oJzl-= +a6l+.) + 44= Lrrrg uJf.rl9.
as+t6l7l
4l4lzli 4+sI5a"lzl"J, e*E Bg "f+ drll eg + ++l=.Jt gqHa gH].= +l^I olz|$^[$o]f 4olr].
E 91trI. EE olaol t]6l-= ag "lqq. 4. zlzl +41= ,l E4l= +eE $ol rfrlaf,z|= ^J46}= 4o14. olql 'qH
,lE +zll+ eBg Elg + 91trI. a4= 4l^lql^J a4+¤9g+el+.
^leql^l
32 1At
^lE:=E.
ollLl^|.
=E
qBe+ +ae HlgB+ += ol+6l.q .l]q4-s.E al4l E E"J +lg+q 9"t9 Eg LAvl? +4 E+iql= p qlg
6I= aoe, 4l&zl5 ?*olE q:1Ie4 Altlg 44471il&tl? "Jg qeltsol ol e$ql ql{q 'es4lg'
^l-8-6}zl
oe. Cq6J Bg gg += H.zl"J gEI= B olap $a}$, Ll+ .Jzl s7l6l+ 1o14. qEE ++lql^l
"J.J4. ol %tH
ql4t qlqE Hg= e+tr + 9lEi. ,.fg 844 qBA4 d++ a=ql ql+ "#3 +AoI E7l Ht++. 4elol* "J^J
o_tr zl4}
¤4zI4B"Jzl dril dA6J + 9l+. qel BlEql^J +C6Ib d4ol dd 4olzlE 49 g
^Jge-l
gt}^Jgql^l g+g 6IE +46I.= dqol dd +.t41tr1. 4 4p14.
7l+^lql^] +ql rJ9¤4219 zl4= $of"Jzf? +EHe "J
qHl
F
1.11
+ 7tl olltel +t tlalE ^l*EJ Lr+l:?ltl-"lrl
8E 25'Coll^l Ez|6 ¤4 E^l"el EE +aiS 515 m/solrl. 0l +alE 0lg cJ9|tr E=Jdi^Ig.
^lZ'J
Atlff *g + 9lE+. oltr+q m=. km-E, : rl-s km= miE utg
ioltl -/s ++l= 96l-= mi/hr EI9IE Ht+elB trlEl= r,I + 9l+. E 60 s : I min, 60 min : I hrol Ir E, sE ming-E.
.Jtr, a=
rlzJe-tr Hl-+qo} qlEl. sr d+qe+q l km: I +s min$ hrE El¤ + 9l+. dill +eg E++4 eq.
r03 moJS "Ja 9la, Flg.zl .J+ql,tJ t mi:1.60e3 kmE
+old E9 36l: E9
km/s ^B r mi/s
i mi/min -+^tE mi/hr
m/s ^lE
1mi t 50s 60 min
103 m 1.6093 km l min thr
mi/hr 44 : ("'+)(#*x*Hk)(#;1i#)
: 1.15 x 103mi/hr
*ql^l ¤H6J'AB +A6Lzl' %1-Bg ol+6}q 4& er+ > 3n6 qld 1
E dAtr + 9l+. +qd +qe 44 soo m/solQ. 1000 Mexico Citygl Fabiolat +o.o 19 7l¤fl9 ql
^lE ^l+
9.e ++q mE km-tr BITB o.s km/sz| $Q. tmi3 4 3s7q4= 4E6I*tr1. lullA:0.075e9814H, FabiolaE
4 t.0k-o]o-e. +q+ 0.slr.6:0.3 mils CETI g+. 60 ,Jfl'& H gel= xlg6}gEzl?
g 0.3 x60:20 mi/minolj1, +^l 609 #6iE zo x (a) $1.18/gal (b) $3.03/gal (c) il.a7lgal
=:6tE
60:1200 mi/hrol4. ql+4e B(1200 mi/hr)4 aBol+r (d) $e.68/gal (e) $2.s6lsal
414aj $(rrso mi/hr)3 tsol-S9 + 9lg "JZ 21zA4. mls > H6 qlr{|2
+gE +qTl +qol ^Jl 7llq +E izl-E zlzlr 9o eg lrJflE zl¤floE 28EloJg A + fl= 7F"^l7l ql4. zI
ABg +a. iz} r'll 71]E 7[4oF 6J+. Ezl-= rr-lElel zt¤floe. H ?e"lqE zJ i,AYzl?
4lril t.tz
+El trJ+lst6Pl
eg + el+. ONASA
:
4Et +i,t (1.36
' ro,m*r(fl$X-+) Ettrtoll ?]= E3 e5 E alEloJTl?
: 1.36 x 1.021 L
(a) $2.2algal (b) $3.e8/gal (c) $2.e8/gal
> .5eB qlfil1 (d) $1.Os/gal (e) $8.42lgal
g+ +,ilqr il= g+E al49 PulE r.E:E
^ltql^lrJ4. g+ > .H.E qE{ 2
U.S. El]Br+ r U.S.u]]Bg er.szJflGat)olEl.
zl+el gH43 sro x Hl+= ol + Ttyo= 1l
106 km2ol.a,
ss+.oq 4?llgn 9148, ol=
^l*ql^] 'J EE fl#zl
rJ
zlt4. q^llq fl= zlEE g+6lq HI4E ¤+ ,JolE
fl'J H B=l.Jz|? ul E(ft) B9l-e 4l4}6t^l e.
ol^ol
uu-1 .=.o^l
0.Lo E
qq+
etzlE ¤#af4+ e+ azl= 6l]ts 4ol 914H, ¤+rI + 6171 96H^l= zlqE + trg glqot 4q, 01611617l
flol d+q g4"Jg "J aol+. *"-tg Ets aEJ_qtr= rl +Eg q uJol $olo| r;!c|.
olrL s+=.J + s.jl, BqlEldq^J aTlE E= a"JeE ol 4 dEJql aA d-^]+ Eolz} 9lE 9lx]lz} 914. !-" ql
* 471= + + S+. ufilz]-zltr i+HE ,]E"J Eil= 4l= 4E fl++ql ,J+61 BqI zl^lqq q+. qzllE ol+
plqg 4+e + H+. E ++61 ol 49 gln, ,Je.l= a|{ -'-,'-e ¤+6t= ag +!.6}+.
zle.l rEEE E+'61-= aEJ_s_s= +E6Izl
=r,
?+g 4ql fl= H+ qlrlle+ i+Hol ++ +zll= Elq r++g
^l'¤ =HlzI
aol+. qrl$E 4xIE cl49 qBl ,H'Jg oloflala. zllf; C+4sE ulzli ull gsBJ 3la6J9 fl#olr}. i9ll4xll
g ol+6l.q +^ll= AEql BE + 9lg AE-E g+6t trJe_-+= i+Hol fl61+ tolEe+ H+j= ++^1
=r
aol4. E4= Aqd Ezl ?lallrlE 96.o1 $ealr|. ¤ ,J
^lEq^J
+ Sg 1"14. ++= 6l+ Ell ilq^.1 zltE q76J ac
=
4l= 4l+ u3:o1 $ealcl. +qd xlE= qdd ol6ll6l.n. ol rl a r.qg qlt* + fl= a3 fl+. q¤ $x,ll$ $i rll
Ezll +olql 4+61-= Bg .JoPtA+r Et* EeH, + jil+H, ai, A+qlAl EqBTl El-++. .J
= "14*ol ?leE
q +Eql^l +g A+= eg + 919 1"14. o[-fa] $e-{ E^lql Ll+ "*g ^lrJg X.9, : +^ll7l-=E6l E
qdol+E, ol$ f]al],rl| rezl"J aa+ ^Hl6t=
^lrJol Aflq. d4oln 6g-a3.rl-le| Lqg _s-6lzl ?*= "J, n$!olxl5
q^dol B "Jol+. {leg zflLJol EE¤ ql¤¤ + H 9lr S gtrl.
d6l 01616l+ ^lg:g 7le.l fl+. 4 +E .I¤¤ ?+61 olEl
1.7 ^|fl E4 35
ol aqel +{
*ql^l fl+6}8.=ol, ¤+g 6l+ Ag ,}]+ +s_6I4. ^t .dE ¤Zl E4lE 3tlql^l il+ +s=ql, dEg ¤Al6Iq
¤g g+oltri. 4 *E ¤ ++ql= Elqlql q+ E^ll 6l]a * 7I¤g A=" 6I:
^l+4s ErllE +^dqq *+.
qg TlEE+ ¤Zl¤ trt.J6lj1 "*g ¤+ ExllTI 9l+. i/+
He ¤+ Exll 6 H zlj= 4zll.e E X"14. oJq9lql^j +qI4 +{g "*9 rjlolrluilol^= eg + 9lr+
. E+ Exilg *++ql fl='be-E -e= z]l'J'g 44+ol .4q 5E CRC ¤B(CRC Handbook of Chemistry and
zllHg E"I4 S olqlap fl=zl= +e+ 49 gF physics)e *g ++E EJlolElql ql+ s= +n -Ef,-e-s
^l-8:6}zl
n EE E4lol+. E^l+ql flq.
. fl+ ExI= Hl+"J aE.44 %}es 42194 ilEql, s+ . qr "*9 *zl +!lE, 561 SEqL
4ql(Merck Index)g
BE +zll(ga^qo-e. .E^lg E^ll)e.l Bg ol 4E fl++ 4 +dol 9l= +71 +'JEg SCql 4* s= +i1 Ed
q el+. oltrI.
. HEq t+a1z1 9l: ¤+ E4l= + trl qeJ+ Ezllol4. . WebElements(http : //www. webelements. com)E g^9
.*zt s# Ezll= +fl¤ pol E^lslol 9lzl ?+qq, t}_e- C9 tfie-zlql +g fl,tlo1eo1c1.
=
e 4^lq 9lzlE ?*+. . Wolfram Alpha(http : //www. wolframalpha. com)-E- 84,
. xll:zl+rl +s= 5.J ¤f ExllE E^ll= +71 +l"ll * + +il, r H+E 4.1qq rll6J rq--o:o
6J c_B= ",*ol zlxla !lQ.
ql^l Hllg 4+"1 gs,il Ezllol4.
qEl 1.13
"JEsl +t{E 'Jfl S{r
E r.oo,JaJ(sat)3 H r.JE7l? (=el gEts 1.00 s/mlolrl.)
6llt
dq ++ql ++6tz}.
ErlE ¤71
(l) +qd E9 4* 1.00 galg rH ++ls ul+aJ-z eI4.
(zl rp-=r1 ag +& .JZI7I +q4 fl4+, e .Jq4 9lA
b
+, E= +lszl "J4"ll^J +g + 91trt.
1.00SE 1L 1L l gal
tmLE tooo-L l"osrqt 4qt
flql^l a H4l qlzl= 96l+ *+l"J rflol +zlql flzl uI
Eql r E#qls ap, ulzluJ "Jxl+ ,JH¤. tl4l -Jd +Ill rll=.(Irex deck) (c) Petrut Romeo Paut/Shutrerst0ck
^l-8-6110}
,t'lzlzl 9loll q+E Aqlot 6J+.
rB 4* : ( 1 00 8a,)(,4*o)(#h)(,s#)('#)
:3.78 x ro3g E
!f 4l&ol "*eH +E *zl-= nqoilot ++. AB r{n ,H, : trJEE Er+ rrll +szl ?]:g 4.o14. trI+^] lrJflel
+46tzl EJH9 ^l-+6}q 44I arl= AAe gl4. t.osz i E3 s rUU_r1E = n, s0 lb-E_tri= z+g A=Jg 714 ?-olr+. 4l
g rs +gH6J + 9l+. 4"lzl rol otH +q +s_6lfl* &.J e*g 3.78 ksx).21blkg:8.3 lbol+. III4^'] +lql^'l
4x 1000:4000 g9 99 + 9la, ol= CqoJ 4l&+ rl9 .J al4I6J ilg zI*+E +44 g rll "lr cE 4B6l-+.
il6JtrI. > E= qlr'il 1
"JHlzl"J t4g
ol*at¤ B"l 4Bqlzl-= 7l-ts611 ¤ +E 6Jd +zl]= qlTl +r]l= 6J¤+q "J= +4 ql
9l+. 6I+ *9 Er 9leE EI+6I4.21"J, EI++g ^IBg =+^q4
++eE, otel+ qrql "*ol 4"J+. qld +zl]el "JE=
trJflE ++= 6J +e_s + 9l+. ." fi= ql?E Eolq 60.0Ib/ft3olr|. oli kg/r +flE gtrIoJTp
=
36 13 .tlE:EE. ollLl^|.
=8
(a) 138 kg/L (b) 0.e60 ks/L (c) zse kglL > .E.5 qF{ 2
(d) ts.8 kg/L (e) ll.s kg/L +71 p+6JEql Hl4l9 "JE= 0.87e slmLol4. Hl{l r.oo
qt= q :HoJzf?
s"+ g 6e tq
EtEi E+(1.1tr) ffi(chemistry)e Ea(matter)9 tC, +=, C qLlrle] EE(1.4E) olluirl(energy)E "Jg 6Ia+ gg dB6I=
e. Bclq rl6i g+6I= 4Eol4. EeE a^Jg E¤g +d6l bqetr. AE"JE+. ts(worDg qB Ei{ql oJg 7}ol ErllT} ¤.zl
E fl.^(elemenOg ++e+ +flol glj1. Eeg +4: fl^E flx] *g Ell dgg qlLlxlolr, E(heat)8 E4l9 gEE g?-li EJI ^I
(atom;5o1 Ell96I= rlBr+ +Zlrl 914. 8El(property)g q¤ E +¤ qlqzloltrl. qts Ei]ol= qlulzl9 + ¤EL + g+ qq^l
eol Tlzlrr. il: i1++ 5^Jol+. Erl(molecule)E F z]] ol*9 e+ EIHI¤ qlqalE 714 + gltrI. eEi oflLlrt(kinetic energy)t: E
o Hle-/'l
EO.rL E O -i
'w:Fxd [r. r] g4.JE B;6*e-e 7I4t qlol +g
1-
'Er- -mv' Ir.z) ¤+ qlqzl
'K:"C+273.15 Ir.:1 d.'^l (.c)e+ aHl(K) eEg +41^l
."c : 59 - 32) E-+ "F - + 32 [r.+] dr{ec)e+ E},r{("F) gEel +41^l
;("F !("c)
7l")
ao
. slu:
e! [1. s] "JEgI AE
+rl
oJ+ +41
tse.E _5rE 7flE! (b)
r.r +gq 4 rBol qEl6l+ 43 *9,.Jzt?(4 ¤Bq zl6Jt
rBg + 7]] ol^JoJ + 914.) tl.2el
(a) +++ g^ (b) F g4E sElE
(c) #fe} slllE (d) gde+ +6JEE EEJE
,..) 5?
,o *oo
*O,
UJ
,., .eG ooo 1.3 EHEoI+ EE+r+ zJ3 "-izlE +rEo-e--e. "JEtrl. +¤+ +
ao cot ooO 44 ot¤ gzle ol+qd HsE, g:q- ¤Ela os +e6l
E +.J6}7ll go3$ {e-e tr.J+. +Eql^l +4e} otg g
(i) (ii) (iii)
aCHl= 4l$ 2:1o121u3, Aq+ Hl= +-E' a4ql q4
^Iel
o o o E23.4 cpeq. tr.z¤J
3J G @o qL
OD oo o *j
(a) *# 94,
4og 5l+rlizp
p+qlE, +"J s*8. H"J gElE +
,t 1r,
tH (cl psamtik/Shutterstock
38 1lt
^]E:=tr.
ollLl^|, +5
1.4 oI4 fBql il= g i3=4 oJFulE +¤¤ !_^l-. [1.4¤] r.8 rHel ^l-4 4,Jg 44 (A) -E+ol ^l]tr +E6J+ee ^I4
(a) 7¤9 4*9- 44 H kgqlzl? 6lq gg 4H. (s) r.+ol zlql i="eE gg
^t7l ^I46lq
(b) gillql trl^lE 6qg p:msol4. {zlrl ,??9 E4lel A 4q. (c) +p olrjol^f46iq
ore-ELJol+. [1.6¤]
ts=olr., sy +q 7I+E(e.8 m/s'z)olQ. 4 ++9 Hlqql (a) 4rJ4 A$ql ql6}q AqEe+ C gEE b6}^le-.
4 z.zm gole gHg 4 9rI9 "J9 oI9*zI? (b) Ae+ cE ar+E"+El B9 e4tr. gd6}qE 44
"lrlaJ
(c) 7¤9 Eq g4E ulHl¤ {lulxlE +711}E+. "Jg"lts zlEol ge+7|?
+¤E ElHl¤ "llHzlE gq Hl61l q q?71,,J+
=71,
7l?
(d) F ++3 F^lq ¤qEqE. 7¤ol Hlqq +q6J q +
EE aq. olull E + Ag r7l9 gF "llHzlE ?*+71?
olq4E, qL +=ol q &F 9lulul¤ z*Ytl?
=
5d: "J+Elts x,\l: -q
A B C
"JE: 2.70 g/cm3 oJE: 10.49 g/cm3
Fi{ : 196 cm3 Pi! : 196 cm3
r.e (a) :H9l 9l= zl-= ol+6}q cm E9E tgg +A+48
¤gel ,Jol= gEloJTl? ol $a. fzfz| H zlltzl?
=cql= zf
(b) ?Eulel R+lc+
"I.J B+lzf i]41 -E^lg 5= E"JE
E;<I +E4l7I 9l+. +EZIE +qe 449 t9tr gEloJ
4 +qE +E i^l+ q 7HoJ7l-? [r.6¤]
7l? oltrll
I lrlrrlrlrlrlrlr
1 23 45 67 89
100 140
+ qL
t00
aoJTI? tl.3¤l 40 200
l0
220
.0
Q km/h iln' 240
j
@ SABIN KUNTH0NG/Shutterstock
+, E^l-^Iolel +gq 4Eql + oJzlf ,rJe EqA+. tsi ^l.E. 25.0 mL9 ee*g gEltTP
(a) olag qfl¤ qlq47l qH Bqlq qlq^ls HHI qloJTI? 1.36 (a) 2s'Cql^l E^J471 1.500 cmQl slE A+HillE 3=J
(b) + E^l-= Fzl d9l, oJx|.r.1-o19 44zI EfE u]Hl¤ o\26.31gol+. r,JEG/cm3)g go1917l? $) 2s.cql^J 4
qq4 G7l6lb7l, zJcalizp olrl-E #49 "Js= +.sr g/cm3ol4. 2s"cql^l +ul 12s.0
= mL9 E9 qlill6J + gl= EolEfE:g e*g gEtoJTl-? (c)
r.2s 4cql^l u]Hl¤ glHzlE G.7l6P.7l. +46]-+.712
trl-.s
(a) lJE EI{ d6I.J + Ezfel A47l +7|i;JY+. ls'Cql^l HICIE "JE: 0.8787 glmLol+. +qrl0.1s00 L
.J HldlE a"*g 4l&61^le-.
(b) B9 30m tolg EB=E 9fl4.
(c) ¤i E7,l(cl,)el ABol #q4^l F g^ flxlz} ¤4. L3? (^) * El^Jol ulzl$ o-|ijl EAg q.J6I7l 916ll, "JE= A
r.zs Ezll 1.4q1^l "J+olts ++ol Elqql Bb +rJ, +=E ¤+ C6I*E}. E# dflrlE ^l*S6iq ^lE 4s mr9 ¤%I9
qlulzl4 +E=? (++ol 9616I= F"J glulzlE tr¤Eli1, adlflqq 38.s go194. q^Jg "_qillTl ololztvE$oJn=
A¤4 zzl ulHl¤ qLjzl= l00zo ¤¤ qlLl^l_e. HEI+I. $(isopropyl alcohol, EJE 0.78s g/ml)olLt SFtl(toluene,
IrJE 0.866 g/ml-) U:9 6It+4= ag g9l+. eldol 4l&
7lA.J+.)
r.ro Ezll r.aglrl 3 *¤ol Elqql += +rJ, ++q eE qlLlzl
oJ
"JE= gElolq, ol Eeg +9.o1+n g + 9l=7p (b)
e+ +EE? (+¤ol 9-.Ial.L.F.J qlq^l= B=qn, +¤9
dElg 916ll ITJEzI l.l14glmloJ qe{l
=4olE(ethylene
glycol) o-4i'll 45.0 gol g-e.6}tr|. 6J e++zf7t
^l-$e +Zl=
4l
a7l slHI¤ olluJxl= 1007o 8F qlqzlE Hlfl+n 7IA++.)
E E]]4l E+ dflq$ 0l+6171-+ iR+$. ts"f"J*9 PulE
+8etE9.t(1.5tr) 6l=zt? (c) rB r.2rql fl= bE ¤flq= ¤El
rl-9 Eal+ dTIHE H zl+q 6I""+61-=7t? ^l.S6llot
r.:r ql^l s+61+ =Cel AqE= gC4Tlql 4ql+7p (d) 4
(a) d (b) c (c) f(d) r (e) M (0 k (g) n (h) m (i) p s^lel7l5.00 cmoJ ++ C+EAlrI glEt. ol ;4o1 "jrz}
r.tz rl-* +a<iq^l xlf$ .r.f$g{ol 4++ trlEl4 dFq= qaol+B, c+EalE ar*g gtrloJTp
s.e0 g/cm3oJ
^l
+6lq s¤6}^le. 1.38 (a) Hltl(benzene)ol+n q4^lb FB'J'-l4lzl BrJ HE
(a) 2.3x l0-r0 L 61 a.z x to-6 g (c) l.8s x l0 12 m
4Bo1 EqAE+. ol o_!z.llz| +q.oJzlE goi4zl glsl "JE=
1d; to.z x to6 s (e) 15.7 x 103 g (0 1.34 x 10 3 m +449+. o-qril 2s.0 mlel {r}o1 21.es solll+. E++ ¤
(g) 1.84x 102 cm gql qeB, 15'cq^J Hl4l9 Bs= 0.B7BZ glmLol4. 4)
rl-* Hgg SC6l^1e.. &¤ "JE= EBql 9lE <I+ +E6l zlrl$zl2 O) qtr d
(a) 72'F --->'C Ql
g +1 811 2s "cql^l ',JETI 0.7 7 81 g/mlt oJ
-133(b) 216.7'c ---"F (cyclohexane) I5.0 gol g!-6i+. ^fol=.Edl^]l
^I3-o6'J ^|ol=E'al,t1oje1
(c) 233'C +K +iil= gtrh"J7|? (c) zlEol 5.0cmoJ *ee g *.1 gl+.
(d) 315 K +'F B9 "JszI tr.34 glcm3{B, +el d=JS g"IoJzl? (+9
(e) 2500'F+K *-4Y @lt)nfolq, olgll rg Hlzl+oltrt.)
(0 o K---'"F 201:rJql EI^l SEE S+e1 ,,.1q1e ^Jtlge d
^,ilAlql^l
1.3a (a) q! +qg qEgg zl$ol 87'F9+. dale= E E"J ,,J^Jg ol4lal ta(cor)E oJ¤ :so9 Eol9+(lE= 1000
*g 4sI 'llolq= 2s.Cql^l 7l¤gEI. ol gE= A -r:s kg). ol,tlgl +Ael e+9, zl+= .r,'l'{ uir
7I? (b)
"lq4l d+q
Hl gEe| f+r{ gE-e. 44 oltr *^1¤. aoo"r
i_Rl"JTl? (c) E :1* oE giB6I^19.
^l-$6}q
el s*ql^l a?l6ilot t4. gse} dEl ss
"l eE= d,r{ 1.40 El-gel rgql^lxlH a+qE dee.,r14-q- dr.l=g
^l
a 44 g"IoJzI? (d) E4l Arj+ 77 Kql^l #=El. ol 9s Eol aoo mm, zlolz[ 2 moJ 'boules'4i1tr4= ¤flq q]
b p+r^l gEeI gEe 44 E"toJzI? q^l =
d,Rl
^J1Le+. ¤4=E "Js= z.:: g/cm3olr|. z.o m TJol
r-3s (") E4ol3qtsq
^F&qH.-q+
s9 +gg rHc qEql 9t bouleollrl d4 qeE EIE: Ell
^Fs6l+ ¤?]e
+llol
d^I zI+lE z]ft) zlt- 9l= ^Ige+qlpfll(tetrachtoroethytene) EIE +41 0.75 mm. ulE mm$ azle. Ar+Llln glq,
aoo
rlEb zs.Cql^] eelol 40.55 g, +-!4712s.0 mlol+. ol g (a) aI49 bouleoll,tJ H zll9 d4* 9llolill= ++'J + 9t=
Eql^l gEE 9,loJz}? Eql E=7}? (Etr 7l? $) dEe 9llolq 6I+E 4=*g gtrIoJTl? (HlzlEol ,,
^IgF+qlB{e
+ "JE7l-zI+ Eae Eq O) ts^(co,)b ^J +ol7l- ftoJ flzlF9 +El= ,l/,oltrf.)
=q.) "l&pl
F+ F^lt 41
s T
l.4l g+ ¤* qq +E4ql^l
B9l(nritish thermat unit, Btu)E
I Btub I lbe-l EE gEE l"F gr.l= Ell g
-
Stanton
^F&qr !lQ.
9+ gel oJol+. I BtuE P IoJTI?
r.42 4E(watt, w):
gE(qlLlzl trslE Bl)E +98^.1 l/sc+ rJ4. r.s2 qtr EE ¤flr]9l Et4 glq(rH +4). +E
"-q^ll7l izl¤
(a) 1 kwhY H I"J7I? 1qz1! ki a-8, w= elE, hb IE6lq "lillg +qE g4?,1E1 EflE ^A^ls.
^l
zJS 9"laJ4.)
I
O) qE 3q1o1 rooelEg Eqgd+e} Ae oJEE +9lql g
I
I
g q+I 9J4. z+^1r1E9t ol .ll+-L- qqzlE
^l*ol
+rlg q rcalglzl?
+8stE+gc(1.6tr)
r.43 q+ 6 qc+"J ag re^le.
(a) 3xsoJil rTlE 4ql 7LE e=J 0) lElSEq 6l]*61+
9a (c) 4sl qL +q +q (d) ru;gq1 6ll'J6l+ oJzl (e) r? (a) Josef Bosak/Shutterstock
1.70 Efgql^l +E i^IE ,tf$ol $ulz| !l}zl? L77 qA44 +A %Ltsg ol+6}q +g + 7l* +4& A4 zl
(a) 2OOsLJoll National Geographic *zl9 gq ++= * ztHS ag AA4^ls.
7Jxt s tU, ¤=J s kc, g r gat (89
7,8t2,s649.t+. "JE.:r.o g/ml).
(b) 200sH 7g lgq ul{ ilinois i cook 7l8ElE "J+b 1.78 g4trTlEE +Cet 941&(oleic acid)9 9bd(r:.c)4
s,303,6838o1fltrf. B::e (360'c)g ol+6}q gEZIE zld EJE4-r. ztCat
(c) ul+ oJ+E 0.621702| Brownolali- rj$ zlxll. !lr|. x|. ol $E419 gE ++lE o4.a a6I*+. gEll^Iel q=
l.7l q+g qE .J(zJol, *4, "Je E)ql ql6J E?l"JzI? d9 o'o. #=ag 100'oe ¤a6IE, ol g-Ealtr Eel q
(a) mL (b) cm'1c; mm'1d; mgl1, (e) ps (f) nm (g) K L? o rC Eol7L,
LEL xLl'lt
r.75 25NEr^14 "14 +cl+ 4*.1 s.6z g, FAIY 44 r.ss mm r.s2 ¤+4'=q ai.il 32.6s c4 E+qlg .J"l d;ll pv.lz}
^lE
ol4. 50.00 mlzl. qE+ 6}fi.4(r.ill E=+flq +zl ?+=
E=+flg ^lEY
(a) Washington TlHElelkoloJ szs ft.e +-s-qg 2stlE + +). rAle+ tI6J e*g s8.s8 soll, ol dE g--=.
slzl H Zl gs-+7|? ql^l E+elE 'Js= o.s6a s/mL4H, jr.Alg EJE= gtrIoJ
(b) +g +slq e=Jg g"ftz}? 7l?
(c)S3?sl9 zl43 9sf9zt? 1.83 E$ol, EE+ql flE HlzlEol 28.e cmoJ ;r-e_-E ¤ +¤
(d) 20128 l0g 28oJql El+ +71+41^l4l(US National Debt g ¤.ilElr tl+. +q EJETI 1e.3 g/cm3olH, ++el=
A=J
ClocDE $t6.2t3,r66,e14,8lloJg'lElB+. ol Hg trt g H ut+s"J?l? (+4 Bqi v:(+/:)z.lol4.) EE+ i-
+9qH washington TlHEl +olE +g ++ rlulz| p +q E.gE Sol ol f ¤3 En +gi ?lEzI?
4+ g!-6J7|? r.84 zlFi} ullElEqlE q}4i +Eol Eq fl+. ol +Eg'EIEI4
1.76 trl+g *zll*fE acre-feet t9lE +C6JE[. 1 acre-foot t'ol4n aJ4. ullE4.t}el "JEE r.2B glmLola, HHEI4&
el Eg Hol I acre, Aol 1 ftE tsg iflg + 9l= olol4. ql^t u{E&ol 38.17048, d}lElzlt} 1.004flq1
+^IE azJ.
1 acreE 4840 yd2olr|. E I acre-footg "JHI zl$ | zllzl E rBE *+lol 5q 9lEzI?
1.00H E$ + glE oJol+. =
^l-*6J
g+E
l.8s 40lbel eBol flE sqlg +4= 14x20x30 in.oli,
(a) I acre-foot'* B+9 z|4ol tesoBel4E, r-lElB =q
40lbq EETI Eq fl= sEilE +El= l.e galolu|.
7I4g gtrIoJzp
44 13 .rl=:
=E,
ollLl^|,
=tr
(a) eE4 s.E 444 ¤+ "JEE g/cm3 *?ltr +6}^le. 6l+ %]-.Jg xll,r.1t'31 9lEzI?
EEol EEHEI'rl zlB44l "Jg + ilEzl?
(b) E+etr Hol ls.o ftx20.0 ft, aol 3.0 in.9 B-g ill+
q7 6Jtr1. E+g q E47I g_s_6J7l?
1.86 oJ+Elts E'J t +$E e=*g 4* s.o oz. $ol=- 50 ft2ol
I
4. "JFolt.g EJEY 2.70 g/cm3ol4. egg .F4: 4q
H "J4ulEtzl?
*
I
r.sz 4 qqzlE +EJe a* 44 rs
^llzlql^l ^l+q=
TW(terawatt)o14. 4H.l 4+q Eg6Iq9 41 448(solar r.e2 trl.sg T.Jz|. AA cJzl? "J9 41.148 E}=7il n^l^le.
flu*)e oao W/m'zolu[(7-= c fl41 zl8{}4). qo}ql^J z] (a) +7le} Ee E + g^oltrI.
+= triig trll xl+= fl+-e-E -Eolq, .lql fl+g E4e (b) -trE s6JEe 4qE ++E g^el6l+E E+6JES E
t.28xl014 mrol4. zl+el gBzlg q+ 197,000,000211+ Et6fa 9l+.
ol-.JolEI. ql.J {q^l ilEzlzl qlo}sE+q g qqlq^lel (c) ElaJ$e-E oltE trl= +EAe +6ll¤ + ?l^1"J, g4
10o/oE zl$.;f, ollr_Jzle El¤ + gl.+8. d g E olq4.
^I¤- ^ll4ql^l
-s-E 6l+ qlqzlE E7l +l6li^l= 9,t"J*9 EEg Ell (d) 94= E4el 7I^j ^Jql + q! ^Jql+tr +
oJ qlq^l
^l+ ^ll =xllB
d¤zle HqoF 6l+2\? gltri.
l.S8 J. Robin Warren$ Barry l. MarshallS eqnEEl ulol$ (e) *99 Cr4ql Eq fl= :r* xl+g +¤-a4 EEzllE
*lltg Ba6}iL ol *il+ol 9-lgr|
A(helicobacter pyroli)t-lv +9tg rl ^I+ol ^t4zlE ae Er]4 Hclol+.
el+J.J gBql +goJol+b dB4 +rlE trq + ++e, (0 7I¤g olEtr4 444 +4rl E6ltrl.
200sEql rLrg ol oloizli $el$ (g) 0.00333 0.033-BEl El tlg +E izl= zlxll. 914.
^JqEqL^Jg +t'-6}9r+.
zloJ Warrenol ?ll"J +z}fl ,r{g z.Ebacillus)ol 9= (h) +91 H++ql +l4I t^l-= r {tol o}d} tol4.
=zl9l ^l^&qE
ag +t.J as.E+q ^lzI6J+. :r$drzizl ol= ol ¤+el (i) EI6JE-q zjqE + 7|^lel trtE fl4E sE-6|i1 gltrI.
q^l¤ *oI_H--7. warren$ a B4l z}¤g zl+61^ls. q¤ r.e3 + *F9 "l,tll grSolzf 4iq flE g6,l'Eol 9l+. 6}+e.l "J
azlEol 7I¤g "Jg IrJ6J olEe.-e. gd^la:7|? E? z.oq g/cm3oltr, trIE 6l+9 "Jg=:.oz g/cm3ol4.
l.se d+ ¤ol Eq 9lb zs.o cm zlolE gTlF E"J +?.]+ql ql gETt ag eqdl .11u1r aJ4. oltrll s+Eg
".l4ql Bol-
= EE
+gol 7l= Eq 9lq. +g ill++ r{ SeaJ q+gE g'* s=E +ae ag Tlzlg+l.. TIqg ae Ceg ol+6t
* as.zt sol4. q1ts99 I'JE:0.78e g/mlol4. +9 "J4 En ql{. ni,il= EJETI-q E^ll +lq g+. ?lEl.t.lLI +
q =
q Sgg +I6fq ;.l-$o] Sa(carbon tetrachlorid.), al,t]loJ
^lEg d4ul4"Jzl?
r.eo +g tAl+s "JE q= +E ++4 qH4q aEE + f (hexane), Hldl6enzene), 4ol olol I tr ull 9l oJ(diiodomethane)
el "JE= *e^le. ol q8l + q! aol de +4q1 4EI6J
.J+.
(a) ?(EJ.E.:t0,3 g/cm3)4 $(EJ-E:10.s g/cm3)e-e
,I? (._441e+ -r.41 s+oi4 ^JE {$ol gicp zi{oJ
"J5 ^Iolq!.
qB tr-d+E dB=ol e.8s goln, +E7I0.67s cm3ol4. +.)
+t+9 Fulz} E4 * +qg 'Jol+B, t} l+ql fl= 1.94 2009LJql Northwestern Eil+jlgl Western Washington Qlaf
*E e* EE¤-g 4l4}6}^ls. rq ¤+Hg qe, gi.lH_Ell.J, +eE ol+qd 4lEg ^
0) tffiql^J +9 tqlzl"J "J9 zllfl.ol4} tf1-e *.,.143 ¤^l Eeg ,llB6l9El. ol EAe gql Eq flE +eg ^ll
q. ++g 247llflolr, E1;.ql sEJg ?9 #s= z+zl 461+ Ell qlg+ -Erl¤ zlzla 914. ol ESq EJES 0.20
flE ^&E{tee -s.^loJ+. q= Eq soyo7t ;!oJ B¤!-s- g/cm3ol-L, EE4g rr+"J t2+2 m2ol4.
l2zll{o14. +l 1td+ql^.1 +E +EE 4As-E E^16} (a) ol Ea r0.0 mg9 9515 4l4lafrle.
O) ol 5e r0.0 mg9 sBzJg Zl.tl6}^le_.
^ls. (c) eHE E ro.o mLqlz.z48 mg9 iSol 5q 9lEl. 4le
r.et rEElEr4q= gi++3 r Cts EeE tsq6J q ^F86I g 4fl^l Ed to.o mgeE
b rJ+61-nE
"Jg "J+ BlBol+.
,g-rJ^!n+ El+4E +
^l
^lrl4f,q'], sgE Eql:
-i'gol 0.001 mg"J ts914. eg¤ Eql^.1 H q{lEg +
E gETf 4.J g.J+g e?-l6}qn 6Jr+. + Tlzl 49 =e
ule:44 15IBg gol 4l4qll=7|?
^l-S6Iq
rgl} ag ¤!l-E Efl+. qL
HJHoI q e 4E"6lg.=71? E47l *qr eEEg C=*s+ (d) +39
^.]4,* ^flal
Eeq 4+ ?*.g g"Iqlzl?
ffi
a
ffi
riLBIth,{&,.t}I :n*r5*"
ffiil
D
.v{
r ,{
E I a---. i}'
M
r
l,
)' '. -/
/r
t 'l
l.
p
Gr
,
I
I ,l
{
i I
/:
L] {
E il \
5
l
I
l-
.'l
i.
:i ;i.a
,J
*
|,1
il
2.1 > EEel fl^l'.E r+q|^l5ol flzIzI Ee
4 tl* ALg.JrJol+= 4Hg 4B6I
4 E q^14 uIAg ¤Heq.
2.2 > flrl +^9 gA dz}g Bd4 flzf
q .E.¤el sggl zlazl g 6s6J ¤
E4 Ar+=:re6il BEl.
flrl, Etrl, ol= 2.3 > g^t?49 trtll4 016ll i9t1 flzl-9]
^l
gzl HEe+ e*+E 449 otflx}
flz}(oJdz| +C^f, dz})$ +s E
¤61+ %IBg q+"JEl.
47
2,1 l#sl flzlE
*4zl ^l= ^ll^Jg +^J6t= 71ts 'Ee'ol F9,.JzI9l ql6J +=+ r4 ?qt4¤4 zl* G
-soJ ETll +9 6l.+fltrI. Democritus(aoo-:zo BC)= Hl*6J qq r4^ Eqrzls=9'rJ
ol^J +h!+ 4-= + S.g' ol4E f$ zl-tl gxl(atomos)4: 4|e "JzlE EAol +Cq
plato4 Aristotle* rl olt r+E + S,= Ezl+
"l *4_z ^J46t94. :a;l+ *B =46t
zl ?+=+= ,HHg qB49+. olg Aristotle oitl9 AEol zlull6lH EHq^l='g
^l+
,IE4'84+e ++Bzl *6}r{ qH+.
rq+ +Bql^] flrl(atom)9 zl]'dol 4^l 4EElfl4. qlqtzl¤ol r.]l-E¤ E
17^)17]|4
{ol uJgolzlE E}*ql^.t E}¤: giE oJg +AaJ + glrll EIE^J, flAg 4,-Jn+ flzt9
,IHg olq i= flz| o15.o1 CB6trll 5]fltrt. ol olE+ 1803LJql^J lso7LJ ,r.l-ololl lohn
Daltongl 96l] +Bqflr{. Daltonel flzl.E¤ uJl z}zl 7}¤ql 7la++(re 2.1).
ol-= ^LoCrL
i= vlM-|. /rl/\t6l^ll
lo-vll
7lq
EL
?l/\l
lE 2. +2 giE E= flulE zJzl"J, oJ gag flzl* 4E E= grE flzle)3 qe+.
o- rLxitl -! rli]lol Tl^fq E
alq= E+6lxl Elflr, B^l-
6|]
EE 8=J olZl qfl eq. rt--f!oJ
OjO"" ooO="
trlll,q
ci d=
Glrllll !l^^Ll.
E/
ElO]rL
3.3rlq Hlso e_8.6J giE flzlE 4E fli9 ?lzte Hlg + fitrI. flzl-E plql eI+
o s uJgolzlTl+ iEq4 9*=+. =
ll,l
a@,O="
a"F.ltlE g4el ?l7t7} ArJ6|q +-JEol "J=q{+.
4. F
+q4l +qlEg ¤d6t= ?z[9 6F4 ^]44.J 7H+=
'Jtr-g+
o.o O -------->
EA
I
o
+
NO
6l-Bt=
¤.E+ olE+ "JEl4l ^tdg ¤E6J + glrl 6ll Dalton9 olE+ r '*^l "J4d'J
=+.
9.zlzl slq a* H4g e ¤H6J + 91fl+.
. "J4 C+Hl B4 (law of constant composition) *=(t.zE)**3 zI¤ 4ql 7la6J+.
qB ql6JE-g ¤C6l+ flzl.9 ="#4 tI44.J 7ll+= "Jd6ltrl.
. IIBHE H4(lawof conservationof mass)3 zl¤ :ge ¤Hg
+ 9l+.
s+q} H}g"tr
"JEqd Eeg aa{ 4*g H}+ d EeE d4 e%}r} eq.
** Dalton,
Iohn,'Atomic Theory'l 1844.
.se 4.J -u.$r$ zlE(re): i^uel *++q.! olEl dtg 4H.Jc.s^l+EI
48
2.21 1^l +401 "Ja 49
+ fli Ae| nz| eq]6}q + 7Vl ol^Jel s+6JEol "JEqe ull, gA'J oJq Ae+ HI*6I
Bel e* rJ+6J Cfulz} CB.JE|.
= ^Iolq=
ol H4e +de+ ta g^E ol+qd E!+ r+4}p+ +^E ql-E 5q ¤Hg f ?14. r.o g
4i|zl a.o99 &Ae+Hls"6lq +3^Jc6Ir, +i l.0sol 4Ia ro.og4Hlg"6}q 4&
s+ +AE
^JC6Jrt. + plilEq^l +i r.o gB HI86I: 4149 eeJEl= 1:2014. +
=
i gzlql 4¤I &t flz}9 +: r+&s| iizl Eq El6ll + tsl]7l E9 0alton9 g^lEe
tr ¤Eg + 9lr}.
{¤ E oJzte+ +d{-= E "JzI7I sEllq 9l+. ¤'Hzl flzt s¤9 gd 4Cg ola|a| olEl^le, ?^1.= fl7ll ?ts-=r +
?lEE 4+El=
71 gd^l= d6l-= E .JzI rJE Ell6J ol6H7i g,c6}+. +*e a6I= Irl= E
^Js 4+ql ol:olrl TDlol r,\H^l86lq
HM-|. E--lq -1,\^!=
| L
9l
Il+ I
(-)= (+)E
t- t
)
\-j,*r*- J' *7
, ,.
I
-5-5.*
a----n
7|]^ E.S(drlE (-Eoll,'.l tr01 E"=||d E'J ?ll]' E^lol 7l=E Tl,\l
^=alg
(+F-oe 0|5-dtrt. THi cScl ee= Eq 0ll el6t] +lqaltl.
fuuE/\lnl
/ULlvt HElilEi:olil
TXUTU dO
=q
EEoll,l.l "!ol utrl.
N
(+ -
S d^t ee
(-)+
xl?rl
E7l8at
^t7l8e)
a:d= ol+E ^1l7vl
Ell-alel
oJolLtrl oJ=trt.
d^14 =Eol
a:lH 2.4 d7l¤iol +4?] zH.r^c5g 7t|^ -d(E^l)3(-)=oil^l g86|q 690il +B0lEaJ(+)=oE 7l+Erl. +E= 5rl
^l7l8rl
-Lf 8^l¤g:dB^fzloll6E6G ^le gE L.!rl-. 17l8rl^l7l8el^1171= z]co+ E¤idl4l -=t+ ?,ltl-.
^E--Jo=+ul8^l¤01
TleHtg
fltol ]ol
(+)
rJ= -dDlz
HUtU, /TleHlgq
too=L
l
^til[H
3d6lE ttlzll EJtt.
Il7180 e
6IdE trJ
Afg 2.5 E^lel E6FJE +E-g + ?,lE Millikan9 7l=oJE d-d EdF= E + trJ
4t= 7l=g8
7I=HJEP 3E6l-= trlll ELl. MillikanP F Er ^l0l=
0l q6fo=l1l -srtl. X5= eq +ts dge.l
Ee[o]l qaf 7l=gfEel ^^l6lE
q6l+E7l 0lE-szl Etrldf=^l= Se6lfitf. 0l ^l0l0ll
7l=U=sl d6PJP
'r.602 x 1O te Csl =+e+El
8+uHzl- =J= g + ?fir, Mi[ikan3 o | ilee+E1 E^l 17l|e] 85PJ= T
=6tHrl.
,J^IB
1896LJql EeJ^ 4olul Henri Becquerel(1852-1e08)g +el+: +oJEg E+dl-J +, a-
-rB 2.6 Marie Sklodowska
qLlalg %r-^Idol x].$!eE %r-=q= Ag ga6IH.4. ol z}ts4 %r-^ld %I=g S^t Curie(1 867-1 934) 1 903Ll0ll
E(radioactivig)ol+I oJ4. Becquerel9 4l*oll rt4 Marie Curie(aal 2.6)e+ rE BE Henri Becquerel, lr4arie Curie,
pierret: EIE.Eq 5q fl= EJ^IC Eeg q.J6tn +ele d,Eq^1, ol Eaol +?+ts g ralr rLlE .JtrJ Pienets B/.l
5(rL17l^ll?lCt 8Gl) Eotel N
z|.Jg q.J6l-9E1. -lxlol OC-l= r-Ell e=l6t/\tq
l-!!tr!=="t-o=
¤=t9 4elz} Ernest Rutherfordzl +E+ HJ^kq q+ 4+¤ ¤+E+q .ql zlzl S +86f*tf. 191 1 Lloll tr/arie
49 ", B, 7 *rtdol "JAl Elfl+. Rutherford(l87r-r%7)Y flzI7a
ag CurieE E-+tsrl 4ffi gz-d
ql q6J S+ql =zlloJ+=
zlq= aJ !+qlz[olr+. RutherfordE Cambridge 4${lrJ f. f. Thomson + fl4 r=gd= +-* E
=B+
0t01l,tl +.86|-fi r|-. O ruerett
=
4 ,Jol ¤+= oJ f, Montrealgl ilE McGill ql+e.E zlEl= *a+. r qolq^l oJ^k Historical/Shutterstock
52 2Af B^t. E^L ol3
Bdg olE 0l8rl gxl(Sdrl'. 6811, lEts dx|)oll 6llB6lb7l? Fdol adEcl tj B0l 401ts 0lffb (a) c] zlEzl tttlEoll, (b)
(+)
-J AtIt E6l"= qr 91^l"J= 7dg
6tdE $0ll g:Bi= EII
t I
| (-)
olo
6ldE
= ;LxlEl a Al-9
EJ +o+
90
Eltrl.
=
B^ltlEE
L ra 2.7 E7 18 +0ll^1e.1 grt(a), 4let(B), #n l (y) g^l'de.l 7.15
ql q.J ¤+E 6|9eq, olae r7I reosHql rEg Elqtr-g g+9lrll fl Al717l qH+.
leoT¤ql g+9tr SoIe+ Manchester .llqq a+71E Rutherford: r*ql^l l?E6J CI
'Jzi tI* dEg 614l qfl+.
aC4 Fd9 dzl*"ll EBll ^]s gq1 ula.te-e Eeqq, ^yd* dzl*9
Rutherfordt:
g6}.3 Bzl ?+=El= ag ga6}fl.+(f.J 2.7). dE a4E.+q Fcg uulezl ++
"cr}
6l-= d6l-= ts "JzI4r aEg .IH4. dzll.s B 94+ i1+g dztE, zH&c.c*qlrj %I
6]]B-6Jqr, g + 9l+. B Erl= oJeE 6rdg +se olpfl+. o "Jx|b
=q=',J^idql
oJA6l¤ 7V\q, (-)++eE olEfltrI. Ezl+ dz}9 dal ++le 1-el d6l-= tlxlt_,
B
a oJ4* 2+E d6l¤. 7l4c+. r+r:4 o "Jzl-b {z}el zaoouH AEq A+g z}+14. s+
I gl^Idg xd!+ Aol E3 9lHzl9 {z}zlu}o1q, oJz}tr +dqq glzl ?+r Ad}E trl
r. 9lzl *trI.
flata{ E_B
flzt= q zlg "Jzle +^JElq il+= ^ldol ¤E4ee .J+¤ql r].4, : olz|$ol ^lE
qBr]l tsllgqq fl=zlql 4aJ *dol d+q9+. 1e00LJql aql I. l. rhomsong flzl ¤
*q^t {z}$ ul6ol ,l]+ *g-EE dzl-b gx} q"lld z}e ++"Jg z}4g 4.ol4l ¤
86l.fl,+. E r= rH 2.8q1^lilH, flzlE "Ja6I7[ +.J6tr]l Es+ +¤ Eeolll, q7l
oll d4¤ol Ei4 gl4r 41.J6l.fltrt. gE olE¤ uig ol 'd
^IBEol =4 E= +^lql^l
str +B (plum-puddins) l-B'g:z4 9-{7lzl *flB+.
ler0Eql Rutherfordt: a "J^l7l flzI ft 7ll cE +419 sg +Eg E"46J qlql &
? di{oil
EEEJ gd6t *qa+ Hl^Iq= 4E= g+6tj1 9lS.+(r=J 2.e). r= rlel E= oJzl-=ol HI^Iqxl ?*
ArH 2.8 J. J. Thomson9'zJ r +Eg E"II6E, ,ll+ 4g f9 " oJzluJol Ezl r" CE fl= ag gaal9e4, olE
g-=. F=J' Brl'-E.E Ernest Thomson9 asE +B l-Brl oJil6l-= a49+. RutherfordE olE E +^l +oJ6I7l +l
Rutherford9f Ernest Marsden
6Lq ¤Edql^J 96I= E+ q^J Ernest Marsden(188s-rszo)4141 4E +I+ d¤g 6l
3 ol E:dol E=ElflE¤ =
dlfitL =E E+ 6[9tr]. ol deql^l= ts*zilE i+s_l Ez]7] {+ 4E.E t]+El= ag +a6J
=
+ glfltrt. E6J q zl]9 gzlE +Ele f.l_e HI^Iqq oJztz} B-6Je-e &+qflEl.
=Bt
Rutherfordt ol {ffi HtE ol6ll6J ++ flflzltrJ, BH6l Thomson9 aEE +B .EBr+
oJil6l-zl ?*=El= ag .J + 9l9E|.
=RutherfordE flrFI sEl(nuclear model)ol4E zlge rel dE A+= ¤g6J + 91fl
2.2 fl^l+^sl gz 53
¤(beam)E Ed6l.= gxle-l Eoits +XoJ7[? gd6l'= ttlts flxl"]8 0l gxl¤ Eol'J71ts71, "JolLt|=7i?
=
416{
6ll4
EnloE
=vt.!L
a "JI[
a "J^tti
fl^t.-I
-
a5a
4il.\=al
6114
Eole=
fl^l= Tlel ulcl ?l7l a E^[
ttHE0ll EH+EI9 aoJ
taJEi^l g=rt.
^t=
flIIET
afB 2.9 Rutherford9 a Bxl{!aJ !-d a g^l-71=EE 54g q, rflffio| oJrf= ?J^lLf
g+ts ||alElq, rl]+ 4oe +E e?E 9lr[. ?^f7[Zstr +.J E-drl arlE, "J^lsl=EEl^l E-E= a
g= aoltl. ralLl=E 7Ho1cr oJ^l7l 4-e.e Ft= 013: flxf-"] seoe ¤gg + flq'. =tr qq4 fl^l
^l r=Lf^4 =
floe LIE|.L^[^|"J, -"-! +?l Ql-p51o1 8rJ0ll= EaJOl 0l+ ArP E^l"J ,i= 0l6Hd[E
= =^Hel+:
aol6e6El.
Rutherford dEotl^'l
A r++ata=7f, +al= e7,,r171|-, a zfEtr &aJEE a oJ^lel +E
=Hfel =71'6fa
otLtE Ea[7|.gtrJt=7t?
| =.
54 28 3^t. E^t ot8
AIH
F-'^l
2.10 Sxlel+I uule
oJCzlc+ 6^Jrl+ gzlq +ql B4l
=46I=
,l]+ 4e oJztol+. flzl Pvl9
'I+E
.$ dzl¤ol 4+l4l zz3o1Q(=al z.ro). 4*89 flzI zl$$ I x 10-'0 m(roo pm)e* sx
Zl 3E6l'= E^lel +=01 fl
+trlgl tH+E= r0-'0 m(soo pm) .rp1q1 ilq. sr t+l= olqzl,J, g^I rzl= s^l6}= z3olel g!1tr
^l ^l^l-sttl. g-reE(angstrom, A)ol4=
g¤^le+ ed^ttr ol+qTl q ¤ul.J ++lE ^|+oJ+. 1A:tx10 r0 m:100pmolI,
g g^[edsl +61 4.fP BE E, flzlE zl# r-s A dEol+. qlE EE gi grlel zl# 200 pm EE z.o Aol4.
E -l^l-Lrt[. -4e.] EBFgI ?^l
el tE4glE-Jolrl. dzlE Hlql d6lE oJzl-p ^[olq 4]+61+ e ql$ql e +el "Jdzlql ol¤fl+. fltql
d^|e+ q olqE ,qlzlz] flAE z]zl xtolE ¤B.J + 9l¤¤ Hll+
^J ^[o]el ^[olE 94
zll E 4o14.
gxlg eele,ll+ 4+. ql= EH 7l7$ +A& fldg e*e 4x1s-zz g {rolq. o1q
zJol are. eB,¤. s +gl-s HI+6ll^J s7l6l+ aol .E¤6I71 ql+ql flr] eal trJ9t(atomic
mass unit, amu)**4i t+l= 1 amu:1.66054x l0
2a
gol+. oJ^dzl+ l.OO73
^l-S'*+.
amu, irJzli 1.0087 u-r, dzl* 5.486 x 10-a amu9 e+g z*=4(s 2.1). dz} 1836
7Il= olCxl lrHE eE}r+ *a,44 t83e71171+CzI lrHE e+q A-qEE, fl4 e"+E
q+Ee eql el'* 1o14.
82.1 oJrJrt,
+trt, trtel HIE
grt E6[ EaJ(amu)
olCz[ oJ(r+) 1.0073
fl2}49 zlE+ 10 4A Ctre, flzI dill rTlq Hl6]] ql+ 4g llol+. ft: flzlz|4
+ 4?l**+ r+H, qe Ie +¤q zzlt]:L ^J46|H flzlq eE t}ql4 aTlE +<
6J + 9lr+. olaH zlg +qE +q 4Ig 4ol szl. a=JE 45+g ilzl6l.Tl ,IEq, fl
-dxl+ q oltl ztg oJz|tr aa + s= rlE .Jca}e++c4+ +lr+i161^= El +9 Eals ol+q4 fl+
"JXI.J HlH,
**94 A* B9(atomic mass unit)9 St *zl'b uolzlEJ, $HI! o e amu4E Eal-= E}ol
^l$+q.
2.3 I fl^l+^el -drH5 ol6H 55
flzl Hs: ol 49 g}Ezl "J+ql g4E ol+ "i TlEe+ q+4 ++qq 9l+.
ag g^el flzl4g fz| u1g + 9lsq, IIl+^.] ¤elE,r.1e rl-5 + ilq. ql
=.czlE
Eq .I++E tsl gz13 67H9 +d4¤ zlzlu], qq +A flzlE +crl-= q y+ol E
=q
4rll z)zlE-6JEl. 7lE'3c(+a n'+jr- gl=rl, Ed-12)-e +El-u +i fl4+ oJ¤
=
zI0zll4 +CzI etll= z*Y Ba fl21o1r1. oJCzI67Ie+ +Czl8ZlE ol+qd B^ grt
L n"++zr raolE, ,lc ++ ,*ce 444r +4_144-r. gl=trl.
oifl Azi= flz| HEol{, +l e^Itr s^l6J 43 E=J#(mass number)tr.^1. gziE oJ
Czli4 +^dxF+E rJt zJol4.
qH
F
2.1
gJzl r7l
ol4 EE(dime)ol xlES 17.9 mmolq. P fl^l-el 2.88 Aolrl.. EEg 6lltrJ6lE E 7tlq e fl^|E L|.aJ6l H|1E
-g+ ^l=e ^lEoll ^1c0ll
91=71-?
+qe 4* 4zl trIEq e+qr4.J +edg fl+. Ae d6I9 oJ4 ^Iolql= qlgqol 4*6lzlq},
=x]]6J+.
force)3 dd¤ q 5il+ ,lC olC4¤ol ol+n 9l= Ae rJ+ q
dxlzlH(electromagnetic
^ls Eq^l 92t49 ol o].fl2| oJz|
al
^Iolq ++q+ dee. eqr+ Hlgq E.+ 7l+614. d aol+. Cg
H(strong nuclear force)9] el6J
6l-= ¤ + EzI
^lolql
zle-o6}= dzl93 Coulomb B4
^Iolq
zI+61+ oJol+.e +E oI+ sg 44ql^Jb "Jq
(r:ke,erl*)ql Lilq= drl7leec1go167l= a+ arqol trllEql, "J
"l=+. 9zlr.l e,4 A= + EzlE d6}e* =zl
ol{, dE oJz} +d ?J9 44, kts Qe} dE E}9lql q+ A Czl-Eol *a 9lzl g+.
^Je
CEE tfolr{,-:r=> (r.+fl). rz} gq <}.lE q]H9 444 s++ qq (weak nuclear force)P dzl4B4 E6tzl"J +q
q, "J9 {tolE q}gqg ++u+. dzl43 g^q a}q}4 -E_rlu = (lol+. 5a BEllel oJ^kql^J"J "+* qqel
Ceg AC6I-= ql flq z|{ fea}r}. xl]= qtB + 914. =
in5 x1olaj s= gzlE 4ql= + 7]] olt}g oJCxlzf +¤ g+ E4: 2.114
Eg+(oJd^l+ + 65^t+)
\
'ZC..- 3a z1;
fl^t flE(gd^t+ E= E^t+) "/'
6.Jg^E EE 94+ ?¤ flxl dE= z*zl oHE9l oJ.Jol otEl Ezl-E E7l6l+ ae H
ztr+ goloe B¤l ^J+"J+. trI4^J +i_r2 flzlE A+61 ,rc.E ,+4BrI.
zJg gt +ql^J 94 Hn: ae+ A*izl +E gz[(= oJ{2143 ?Jeq +Czl=+
7I +e gz})E¤ .J+. +iel 9. zlzl ++l g^E E2.2ql
^lEq E?tfA(isotope)4r
++619+. "JHlzls.e +l erF= 6J giel F9l giE +48 utlE} ^l-S,*E|. Ag
gAE 5l+l g^= ElE4 oE =A ,,c gzlE
'}]+ t+6lEI= a3 + Bd6l]ot +r+. "l+q
+l oltl:4 e^E slol4 +ce "c9 olcp} +Ae+ 5"J6lEIr g + glEI.
,,C 6 6 6
l3c 6 6
l4c 6 6 8
qH
F 2.2
B3|sl offlxr g;,1+ +6lil
fl^|ts 7tl9 gd^l-,6d^l-, E^tE ol+ol^l o^)=71?
(a)1s7Au
=
(b)^-=EE-eo g^|ts E Tt|elgdxL E^|.tr 0l+cl^1 o^)=71?
=dr|",
(a) 9l Ezl tsz " olCzl-+$ +^dz1+= 6J6J e"++ol+. zlr. flsq, dzl razl]e+ eo-3s:S2zllg +czl-=.7t4r.
ol 4E **21 q]*"il 9l= g^ IIleH, +e g 9lEl.
zI En 79ol+. ar+49E reTAu=+q
g7t= o3=,r321 zszflo] >ie=qm1
$zlzetll, a4a-D7-ze:1182H9 +CzlE qq q4. El-8-gz} +ql^J +^dz}A izl ?l* r++ Ae?
^EEEE gzl HE= 38oltri. tr]4^l
(b) oJCzl- 38rlfl= 7l tt'oy
(a) la8Eu (b) (c; 14eNd
(d) 162Ho 1e; tsecd
2.4 fl^PJ 57
qHl 2.3
E7'lsl trdtr sttj 7la a7l
n EHI6P traJ+7 l. 24. 25. 26?] 7 l.^l Egl fl47 I ?rl.
(a) ol?iE9 EE-.J al-qt 7lE(91 E^iel-0lzll E^lsE9= l
^11
^1e..
(b) 4,+el Egl fl^ fl^|'oil= 6d^1,7|. z1z1\ t|il871?
2.4 l elzp"t
flzlE EeE zle a4olq, 4+^.1 a+g ,*b+. ol ¤q^lE flz}.il ^Fsq= e'* +
9cl flzt=&(atomic weight)9 ,llHg 4.Zl+tr|.
eJ7,f lal 4E
1e^ll7l9 rlql4-E=g gr=s erd.ol +sr+= ag .Jzl qflq. ql=
trls
^Js ^J-e, =
q E 100.0 g3 ia tt.t 94 &i s8.e se-e qq 9l+= ag "Jl. gflq. q?+^J Eg
{=JEIE +aql ulall s(:8s.e/rr.r)4q1 6|]B6l+ {li= sEL{+ ag "J + 9lS+. g
+ rlE4¤ol Eg +^ flzl zzHB rzl]9 &^ flztE +Cg ag 94 ¤ olg, tI^ fl^t
r7H= ABtIE +a flxt tzl|9 r6(:2xs)ullz| g+= ag "J + 9i9+. zl${E zlzJ
7Iq+ flx}.J +^9 ^Jq 4+g ¤q^J 1(++l S.gJE C6lr, +E gzig e"*g ol al
q Elql6fl tI44sE c6}s.+. tr+4^J flxleJ=¤ 160-+, C6r9+.
sEg +4= 4?+9 gzlE A"*g ot+ ^IAEaq6lrll ACg + 9l+. qE 'u flxl9
e*g r.6z3sxro-24 golE, 16o g^IE Aetg 2.6s60x10-23tolQ.
=q
zll2.3¤q^l ++fr.
*"1, oll* 4le e+g +4.3 qq= flr] Eg E9t(amu)= 0l+61+ 4ol ¤4oI4.
1 amu : 66 054 x IO-zn g, I 9:6 .02214 x 1023 amu
1.
¤zll9 flzI er* ++l= +4E ,,c E ?l giE e=*g cqal rz amu4tr c+ aq 4E+.
ol ++lq^l 'u flzl9 A"*g 1.0078 amuolE, t6o flx]9 e*g $.ss4s amuoll dlBdE].
A aJq= E^|.-d 7tt7t ETgrllel traJ EEIE LtEtLHalE, amu Efle azlqg tt4-16 fl^lq tr
H Ttlel ?E i^l.7l.rJe6tfl=7t?
i
flataJ
zl$ql .il++g g4$e Efl 949 sEl$s trl{^l 44 zlzl Efl
=7]|61+ =41+tr1.
58 261 3^1,
=^1.
ol8
rlBoil^l gzEl= E^oll= + 7l-^lE?l fllu l.9lt[. 1oBel traJg to.ot amuolE, 1189
tr83 11.01 amuolcl. +TlEx.el E flxFJ= olE6lq, 10Bs[118 6 qtr EPI flAz|'11 i:
ol=^t|6lE^l=
=86t^le.
qH 2.4
gfl sa *4HHlrttE flaE tszEl4ltl-Er7l
35ct
fl^l(3^t traJ 34.969 amu)z[ 75.78o/o.37Cr 3rt(g^l traJ 36.966 amu)zf 24.22% E^'9 ilPJ=
^l.Ezloll= =^t|-dtr|.
+61^19.
4 Efl g^E Aelr+ +.J + r.f rja[{ $z}ef z}flq= u'Cre} utc,r9 + TIzl .JCt E+l gdzl
=4lHlE =46J
g +g + 9l+. 75.780/o:0.7578, 24.220/o:0.2422018 4, 4. Cu9 flzt%+ol $.s46 amug rll, trl-g + *g ¤Eg?
6scuE t'cu-Hrl oJCzi-= 24 Ll r*a
: (o.zsza) (u3as amu) + (o.z+zz) (a0.so0 amu) 1a) ilr+.
flz}="t 63cuz}65cuB4 q
: (b) ++6trll fxflaf {olc}.
26.50 amu*8.953 amu
: 35.45 amu
(c) E.E cu flzl9 ?%+3 0r.s+o amuol4.
> lr= qlrll2
gzlelg 9z[ 3*9 *tl{loloe,
942] +6J gz[?to] 4gzlql^l: ,tll zlzl$ +^ t9l flaz1 9294. "sl
+ E+l g^q ee} rlolel 6|ol{, ^}qi4eE yj:ol (sz.zzv")E 27 .97 693 amuol tr,
2esi (+.
ogyo)i 28.97 649
=xl]6}
ts 35ctq1 zlTl$ztolsE EI'J-6J a4oltrI. amuol4, 30Si(r.osol")E 29.97377 amuolr|. +AE E+
flzle.rg 2l&61^19.
eal E {71
$zI=JS C+6f41 +61-= rJBg *f ff71(mass specrrometer) H, (-)e 6tdg *+"JGrid)9 6}6ll olgg 7l+^lrJ4. +
^I-S6I=
4o1r|(:EJ 2.11). trfo}* 4z[.J9 ¤a] E4zl +"Jg 5r+6}8, + 7Hq 5qg ols-"o|¤ ztE olg¤ ¤ql
=
7I ilzl"J, 4lE6l= flel= +^I6l-q. a H4l +zlb gxl-+ 7I g+. ol ol$.rjol zl+E^l {ez} flolxl4
^l.4 ^IolE
Exl-= 7lx-ll tr-qle trJE= 4o14. ^lil7l Tlxll tlEH"J a+ ¤4. ol99 d6I7L eq$, e*ql qE+ qq4= dszl9
E glzl"J. 7li.ll7l olH a+ql= ¤, dzl^J, qlol^] g^ E 4T1+. +4+ olg.J++ E fl"lzlzll g+. trl-+^l e*ql
I zla}q 7le+^lrJ+. 4+g zlill flzluf tszl-E oJ rI4 olgol Ezlg+. 471*9 EE+^lrlz+ ++"j
^lE= qlq q aq ++ doJg HI+q +8,^ll7l=
e.E 6ld¤ .Jz[, ol$(ion)oE
"JE= aol+. +g dqg e"*E olgol ?¤
zlE d^l-gg = trl= Tlill E te}g slql HI* F zle $olzlzil 84.
=^1617l+
olgg ol$ol uJ$olzl olg gzl e Jql ql6J a=rl tEel
+.J6J BlBs-E "J=+. ,l^ll ^Jqlg ^ll7l= +4ql=:a;H
2.51+)laE 59
7l
^ll
otnl-qaf 3scl+
Ne-7 S
4at
=x
(+)
T]E ESOII E'J traJqlqat
olE+^l7l= ol8olEalE 34 35 36 37 38
d^t+I ExPJ(amu)
a.rH 2.11 EaJ E47l Ct E^l= E^l CrE Ol8ilE + E7l6lee 7[+E101 Laz12;2 g.4 fl^lsl EaJ 4EIEH
es614 3761
2.5 l+rlEE
1800LJ4 g^E El+4 a6}cg *eEl
ZTlzl Bg +e.l flizl "JElzlH^J, :*ol4-==g
l. ^lE6tH4. ole+ Ag rc.H oe ls6eHql trIaLil ?zl&xzl "JEqzl4l qfl4. ?zl&
E= Flql^J + q +^ll4 o-a ¤B6l4,zl"J, izl¤Ez| Qu|{ 6s-681 *S'*zlE zl#
ol6ll6llot 6Jq. qEl+==e * azl&xz}44xl-501 +q4 7lq6l7l +l
^l+!g c46}r
4 ,rl-a"al-L 4t f++ E++= ag "JrI B 1o14.
*g fl^= ^Je a+ +^lcg _H_.Jtrt. 4E(1il, iENa), sEl+(K) F9 g^Eg EF
,11+ +slr eISCol ++ol+. gE(He), rile(Ne), ole*(tu) F9 gi5g HI¤-Bol
=
4el fr} Tl,llol+. gd=g gz| Hn +^Je Ellg6tE, clq}4 ^Jerl E4zl caol Hl+
aJ fl^z} ++6ll^J, +7140 1+4t+. ql= fH 2.13q1^JrlH t}*col s= EJE,
,19, ol_=.* =
Eg zlill Ele q-¤-ql, =E
+sr H}*col 48, iE, sEl+ Eol 44 g+. =
?.!qt F7l EJBdol e Hl=+ola|E, q7loll^l -Hq +E Aa 6 Hl+Ei ¤88 ,*r ?lE ,tee qHE|E Hl=+ E4= +1?l7l?
.)
fl^t c rol 11 72- --77 79 20-
EA
7la
1
H Hc
2 J
Li Be
4
F Nel Na Mg-
l
"
cr l":
l
K Ca-
'J
uJ3d0l tqll^
B I HJ3d0l
fl= 7li1l +er. otE I tiJt
fl= 7lill EE7
!ot-glt^
B
ovt I Hlqll^I B l-ql{ n I
3f,^
LE-
==4
LE-
Arg 2.13 flA= fl^l"EE +-e.-e uHg6lE +7l4oJ LlEiUtl. 0lalzr,3-8|501+7lEtrsl )l^)l E)LI.
=d0l
60 2Af 3rt, E^1. 013
+)l-7lE= Ht+-d
1A =-+^.lgoilts
CtrE fl47lgilEt 8A
1
18
gA= gII EE
1
1
H
2A +Otr BtlEE 3A 4A 5A 6,{ A 2
2 zlE-d 53
=+rt
13 1.4 15 16 17 He
ulB+e] elldoJ
J 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
2
Li Be B C N o F Ne
8B
J
L1. 12 38 48 58 68 78 1B 28 13 L4 15 16 17 18
Na Mg 34557 8910 11 12 AI Si P S CI Ar
t9 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 JJ 34 35 36
4
K Ca Sc Ti v Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
37 38 39 40 41. 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
5
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 71. 72 /5 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
6
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta w Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg TI Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 103 L04 105 106 107 108 1.09 110 111 1.12 113 714 115 11.6 t17 118
7
Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Nh FI Mc Lv Ts og
l--l o-
Ll -+ 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
[ ==+ La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
n ot=+ 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 1.02
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm BK Cf Es Fm Md No
LaH2j4 fl^el+7lEE
?]}# flzI da +eE ul]90}¤ HIiEI CeE fli=ol +4sE EHgqzl "JE ag
Fz|E+(periodic table)4r EItrI(r=J 2.14). +7]r&Eql ilE 444 gi= flzt H:r, fl
i 71c.. flzlaJ¤ +-s4 eg ElHetr sTlql+.
19 gzl trE
K g^ zlE
39.0983 flzi*
qq¤+ += jr4l+ ,Je]dql ?zl¤s ^Flql ErJ.4 ilolTl 9l= ag ga6JzlE
?lE
EEr+. 6lzl"J olag Ezl u]flo1r-1- ge91 q+ 4EE zlolq 9aJ 4o14, ?zl&xtl
,*r 9= 9"l9lE zlolT} Sl+.
=84"J
+zlgsg +q. a H4l +7lql= +4(H)e+ ¤E(ue)9 F
7lE.Ag=;zl(period)El
gA"J 9I+. + H4lel^ll H4l azlYzJzJs\14 giE ol+q4 9q. H4le+trI{ H
'll
all fzl9lE 4zJ tszllq fl^7} 9l+. qd H4le| tHjA ?zl{lE :zz1q g^7I 9le+,
+ol e+ql rg + 9lE+ 4?+4 147}lel fl^(flz} qje- s7-70,8e-102)= sE oI4+
q +ElUtrl.
?zl¤s9 +zl gg =(group)olep
*+. +9 HE= Eol= %r-Bq= ErJel ilol
7t 9l+. HE z]-zl $s o-e ol=g Eol=cll, a-4 z.r+9lrJE + 7l7l \Lr-BsE +4q
^ll
fl+.
. 49 B-t z146}= %IBe +ul"llrl +E
ec+ olq* +g s^lg tr]I= ot4
^l-s94.
Elot +zI7I o|{ Eu} ixtE *t
g714z1s. +4. q= EH 7A+g vrrA.e .s^l6.J+.
. +Eql^lE Hl*d %IHg Ae] BE 4e4l zlc6J+.
^l_g_6[zlE],
. ole+ ag gf,$ ul6}dja +rll ++ "t ++ sl4 ¤rJ (rnternational Union of pure
and Applied Chemistry, Iupec)¤ a-A 2-14 +7lgs.q F H4l E+ TlEe+ Aol
=
2.5 +7lE_E 61
+9 HnE Ae+ B-E ++zl glr., l-18-tr ¤+61= 4sg +zlg ^ll'J6IBtt.
ol 4q^l= +E HE= zld6l+ rupAc ,JHg
t-18-e.
^l-sg 4014.
E"J'J +ql +61+ g^=g e6l elqlzl cer+ E?]4 ^J¤ol Hl*6I+. el= Eq '3rlql
+a ?4(coinage metal)' - +4 (cu), 3(ng), ;(nu) - ¤ t t4q1 +*+. ol5 flA: trI
E ++ql uloll {9.<Jol ,11f *zl qlgql d ^ll!lzl_e--e qq1 7a91 E4 rl_&94. ?zl
gEg +E +5E e z.s4 zJol H49 Eq
^FS*+.
,J+ 4 flrE=e flz|9 el4ql fl= dxlel ull¤ E4zt ?zl ulEql +^toJ Ceg *=
+: 49 "JeE 6t}4 7*q^J ul]g aolr+. rq+ +7lgs= ErI4 s-+ ol$olzl fla[
/ tu\Tyzl7lrlg gs= s,+. +EBrlE +7lgE= dztE =4lE "Jzl FaI9H sle}
zl¤q 96]] "JEqAzl ql$ol+. +7lgs= qI='J^l slqrzl¤ol otqfl azle, +;-l=
+7lgEE ol+6lq g^E 'J9 tI++41= ql+6l.r, E+e plq4 atrE a4l zlqg +
il9 4o14.
-74 2.144 44 E^l= -uH, +7lgsE g+4 6.Jq fl= g^Eg +4= zllelalr.
E+ El*flA(metallicelement) E= Et*(metal)olr|. .ErE ++ ?}'= "Jqol ilsq,
=4zl gg dtrtr7I krlE
") +Feol gl+. E+ ie(ue)s Tllel6J E=;r+g {}eql
rillol+.* +a(B)ql^l o}^48(e091 oleE 4l+ E"Jel dg trl+ ++r+ HtE+ fla
^J
(nonmetallic element) EE ulEt+(nonmetal) oE +B+(+^'= ?zl&99 g+q glzl
ul++.Jql +E6I+). tlg, tl"J 6lql^J El++g Tlill+ niJl tlqe .lill
"J ^J
=z}l6}q,
*EE -o43 i3+61 7IS6IE .l4lrl ¤4. ug9 *dol 4= s= ++tr+E *¤. gol+. AE(N"), sEl¤:(K). +ulEi
(Rb), 3+(ca)3 ^Jgq^l nzilzluJ, 1ss'6 ol;foll,<J \ir|.
^ll+(cs),
62 28 g^t, E^t, otP
EIel gi= l4l7t glrl-. ul!i{$ .J+4str ?Eo}(f.s Eq4 cdol ++4=
2.16)0l+
+s+. ++r+ ul;{g $sa}E dg tr}+ +q fl= Hq g^= ++r+ Hl++ +rJ4
CAg ++B'1. olE fl^E gal ffi(metauoid)olqL t4.
;4 ol-afl rts011^1=+sl ,Jsgol Hl=+al.qE E + Tlxlb?
Hl;t+
=+
¤ (Fe) ial(Cu) "J+Etts (Al)
L ffi ,/
tratrl
(Br)
J --x {E ti
^/
a\ L.--- {
'xk=i-f "J
(P)
3(Ag) H(Pb) a(Au)
arts 2.16
=+rtHl=+olql
qH 2.s
r:i
+7l¤-s ^f¤.rlrl I
rtg fl^= 6 3^1-d Eal4 dtral El.+4 dtrE r-[r[Lj z]oe q|8E|= + fl^=?
B, Ca, F, He, Mg, P
2.6 l$xlsl+alEt'Jg
gAE zl* 42 EI+l= flzlolzluJ, ul$rJ zlilluJol z[$zJlol],<l llBg gxl r]rl_+ ¤xll
qi+. ql++E Eeg Bzl E= olgo-e. +^Jqq flq. q7l^J= tszlq rlla|{ oJo}Hzl
tr 6I:/, olg"ll ql6ll^l= z.zg4lxl gqg 4,o14.
+zlel-ElEJt
qq ga= zlg4l"ild ae ++q flzl¤ol 27H old.
^1tr
a6J6[q ol+qd Ez] B4
-+ Sd¤4. ql= EE +71 +ql^l gaq: &^= 27Hel &^ flzttr ol+qd EztE
+Cqq 9r1. xllt.z¤ql^.i ¤8619=0l, ol EzI tqq &^= oz4e EIEI^I(chemical +A
O t4
formula) oE +411tj1, '9 F(oh two)'4r 9l=+. 3tl-o+^19 oI4 A4+ +4 +^l7l 24
(Hz) (o:)
9 &l gzlE ol+q7i 9l+g +ElU+. ole+ Aol 2Zl9 gzl.E ol+q4l Ezl-=- otflrl
Exl(diatomic molecule) 4r tJq.
&4= e¤(ozone)ol4I "JEltl += B4e-l BzleE s+ E4+ 37l]q & !D ,e +a
i gz}_e ol+q4 *zl rll${l Elql^le orol4. 'BFg't4(oJel s=e E 4 &le.
=xH++. E
(Hzo)
altE}
(Hzoz)
tI "l${4 ?lzl"J, olEel Elolzl Cd4 Er,l4 Cee ,H+ rlgtrl. ql= EE ^J$^llql
ozL gf4olxl"J, o.E f+6I+. 02! S,rllz| szl"J, 03: ts]il4 ,J3 4-*c H^U7[
el+.
"JHlzl"e olgzl EzlE B4E +4+= fl^= +i(Hr, ta(o,), ?a(NJ, EE
O
gllEl
(co)
EJ^ olt+
(Coz)
EJ^
d(p,, clz, Brz, Iz)9 E + 9lrl. +A= ^llel+ olgzt +4-=e 7zl¤e9 sE+ql -E.q
el+.
tszls ol+qd sI+59 Ert $EtE(molecular compound)ol4i1 6[q, + z[z] o14-g
fl{# E++trI. ql= EE ullQloJ(methane)S tzfl9 Ei flxtc} +zll9 fi flzle o1
+q4 gleq, p+ol^lg cHnzl g+. +iql olull flzlzf s= ag qql.J Ez] rzl]ollE E DllElloJ ql=all
g^I 17H7I gl¤¤ +Elu+. aeJ2.fle g^ (CH+) (C:Ha)
^J4 "t slEtE ^JqlE =^H6l+ Hp tszl
^ Hq aLl. rf EAel e^dol p+q}4q 4+ qB4l B4xlExlgl +E6I+. EoJ ol Ea LaA2.17 E^lqE el.*^lol
= E^19 dErl-qE aJzlg^l=
E9 -45 El++ gJ.E ol+q4 flgql ++6lE+. +E6tal:
*4zl E= Eil+EE tszlC Eee tsl++ greEJ ol+q4 9l+.
+al^.lal- t6.r4.l
B4-= +^.i61= flzl9 fp* ++E +4ql= e++^lg grl+l(molecularformula)ol4l
'*+(re 2.t7ql fl= Elo,I^lg tsz|4o14). rzlil tszl 4"ll =461+ flzl.9 ="+eI tI
ql4.J += ,+Err]l= +E^lg ¤E+l(empirical formula)"141 6J+. dfl^].il qlE ot4
B4E=¤ alt zltt +g d+Hl= ++UrL ql= EE 44lir+ +iE +z}4e HzozolH,
¤e^]g HooltrL qlg{E Ez}4g czHaol4, ¤¤^lg cHrolq-. E Bzl.(Hro)e} rJol,
Y+g Eeq^l Ezl44 dErl.l zJ4.
qts sl6JEq ts^I^lg "JE : tszt9 ¤E4g "J + 9l+. 6[z]uJ r q]qlE 43* zl
b6l^l ?*+. qL Eeq ¤E^lg "J_r 9lr+_il BzlutE azl g[zl SsE Ezt^lg .Jor
'J + flEl. rflEJl slqr{-==$ ell qE 849 dfl^lql +dg 7l7l=71? xll:*{lrl "Jzll
64 23: g^1.. E^1. ol8
qH
F 2.6
tuJ43i sal4lel oJ+^J
-H-7,1-
r r alTl
qH EAg Ez}4g +zl-= +C6l+ flzlzl qBril a*q{ ?l=zl= trq +zl= 9+=
4. +=*l(st"ucturalformula)3 El-¤- qlql^JilH, ol4t dts-E dB6I= ql 996}+.
H
H- C- H
I
o
H H H
I
E rl^l+ +a ollEllfl
olqq. gz|=ol qts 4E=l A*qq flEzl-$ ut44zl +l6ll^J= ts_q Ajz+ *Bol B
s_6I+(rA 2.18).
8-Erll EErtEil itlt sE 5, 6C Ext+9lel 46J4e llolts rll .H.rlE7F1?.! ae ol! 7i-0J7ll?
tI
^=
H-C-
I
CH+ H {tl7ld3,J-ctol gE
I
d^t
OILrL
6ELI.
l7H= rt
Na flxl Na+ ol8
ol99 dxll d6l+ 9l Azls +4url. 9l dzl +, 2+ , 3+Y 4r+ dzl¤ t/]. z\1. ztll
4l gqqg 4 ..JzlE dxjl dal¤ 9uloJ4. 9l EzI -, 2-, z-y 4rf azl-= t4l, zz\,
3Zl Eg 4 xJzli Aq-= 9rlaJ4. olCzl t7711e+ 4zl fizl= r*r 9l= gr= e6l s]
q H}*ql^l dz} rzl]E Eq +s-4 z;ol cl- olgg BC.J+.
66 2ei fl^t. E^l'. 013
I^t l7|l=
GL.L
d-Lt.
48(olczt+e++czl+E tl)o14. dztiql Hl6Iq "Jc H ol99 dz{ dat"J s,tlap.. e++= s^16}zl ?+=trt.
zlizl tz\ q g:-e-!-E d4l ddl+ 3+ol+. :a;lE e ol > -H.= qlr.il 1
48Ti3*o14.
"lgE Sd.J slel zlE= trl-g + oJczl+e+ dz}.+E
^lo)717l^* =
Eag?
(b) +71&Eql el6IE, :*r(s]r zlE s)9 gz} H.cTt 160l (a) Ti2* (b) p3 (c) Mn (d) Se2- (e) cea+
4= ag g + 9l+. trI4^1 ol flzl; t6zll old4-=,* > H= qlril2
E* ol olgg 167l]el +Czl-= zlzlsa A=*+: 7ese2- olgg oJ^daL
+czl, 4^l7l+7+ H zl]oJz}?
=trL
dxl¤ H ,l] E4+ geE, fl4 flzleft dq qE E^Jg ,*Al g+. qlE Eq +
+g E4 4B6}rll HI*6|zl"J, iH E6J6l+ NaCl 'Jg olg A6J EI6JES 4E^E ++
EI+ 4g6}r] Er+ HI+6[zl* *E+.
olS rJof qEEPI
E 2.3q1 E^lg AalrJol,18+ gA}$ HlgC gas)fl44r *+. ol Hlgd
7l^,il(noble
zli{: o}+ 49 +e1 E}6JE"J$ "JEq, 3r+q}4os q}*Col 4E S* gAol+. y+g
flzl-==g d^l-= SZ.+ g¤.sE.Rl, +7]¤E^Jql^l zttl zlzlol 91E ul$,tJ zlrlle) ulf
+ +E d4¤ +ril g+. flzl-Eol olsl* dzl ull¤g alzlj1 6l+ a6}g, ul$rJ zl;{e}
ag dz} ts]]gg 6IE {l+ .JC6J Epol 9zl rllEol4il +e-B + 9l+. ul$C zllls+
ol*oJ+l^Eg dzl-E g4+ eq qlA.J {z} ullzlz} ol+qe + 91tr}. q155ol Na fl
zl+ dz} rT]|E gq Ne(fl21 Hs r0)r+ Ag dz} Hllil$ B + 9+. u[{ziz]-e. cl gzt
2.7 OlEr,f 0l3 al-ct= 67
=-Bf
dzt 17l]= gq lsTl]e qj1, gzl. Hn rss.l Ar4 rJg dz} E]lzlTI ¤4. xllszJqlrl sl
=
q a'Jg ffi rllzlzl, olel eol ,J+$
"lg ^JC ,HHg ^I-SB 4o14.
qFll 2.8
o|$ {4 qffittTl
tstE olgr| olgg zlz! tlTl$ ulgd zl^,ll flzte+ ,J "*3 ol9ol Elgc 7l^lle+ ag dzt Ellzl= +q= ag
g d4+= ^Ii ?*A1 2 a oE q^Jg + 9l+. +7lgEtr+q .Jn 9l= 4e E¤.ol g+. 6Ixl"J B:e gA, +61 d
HlEq flzI HEE s09 o .J + 914. zlz] tltl$ ol* Hlg ol #+ gael = olgg ul$^J zlillc_|i += dz} tsl]zl=
C Tlill= 9zI Bs s+el xeolQ. trt4^"1 Hffi'g 27114 4^l 6In 914. -t4 z.r+4 ?zl¤s= a'aap, ol4E olg
E ga sa2* ol99 ec6l.q {z} s+z}lel oJ{fl {z} ullzl + qE aol Hlg{ Tlzlle} ag dxt ul]zl= 6}r. gl_s_q,
7I g + 9l+. qE aol ulpl.J zlx,llsli += dzl. tsl]zlE r,t=zl ^^^l
e. Hlgc Tlille+ ae {z} uflzl$ 6l+ olg9 a+ql=
&cel $x1 HE= sol+. zlz] zlTl$ oli ul$rJ zlxlli q¤ gds++^l*7I?
ueola, flrl HE= l0ol+. Irl+^j 4lA: dzt zzHE 9ol
(a) Tia+ (b) Mn2+ (c) pb2* (d) Te2- (e) Zn2+
9I46J dz} HI]zIE olg {olr., 02- golgol "J=qe
^l > E5 qlrll2
4o14.
(a) Al, (b) Fel 7I^J.Jdfl ol99 d6l¤-ql+6}^ls.
3, olE. AilEe-e.+E] uEol^|ts Tfti gHJ4?l olES Ag+, zn2*, sc3*olrL ol-zll s"oll^l
0l 0|eE0l Eole + flts 7l¤l rlEft ila? 0|E 013 olrEJ aol Hlgd Tlill B+g eg
+E dxt=,;aoli7l?
=
1. L7 18
H* H_
2 13 14 15 16
Li+ N3- d- F_ Bl
r{nl -4 E}
Na+ vg' A13, s2- cl- ,/.l
Cs+ Ba2+
Aal Na* ol94 Cl- olgol 4zJ r4l4 ^dCg+. Hlql d6l-= ,*= + Eill ,J
Eo6J4. _a
ql= "Jqol 4L+6t71 tr]]+ql 5u+ ol$$ Cl ol$ol {,$a}q gE} rE(Nacr)ol?+= s+
ql+g ¤c6J+. *4zl a+ol4r "Jr gl= gg} 4Eg 4ezl.J 0|g eg iElE(ionic
compound)E^J, "Jolg$ 9olgo e ol+qd slg.Eol4.
gE-el +sl fl^t# EoIEP aE gil4E Erlalr. 84--J + 9) E7l?
1 1e- Z
11
E^l l7tl=
OlLrt
0e- -l
EELI.
-ry
Na+ ol8
Na 3xt i"
e
7-!7-
18e- r.-=# 6t
-&,
rE/
lL ?'
crt17tl= 7-!7-
cHqrt
CI3II
Cl- 0lg Oinewsfoto/Shutterstock
Laa2.20 0l8 eEf EtdEel g¤ l,la fl^l0il^l Ex[ 17H7[ct flxle 0lE6lE Na*e] ct- 0lg0l E¤Erl-. 0l 0lgE8 Ee] :1
illoll^l 4^l.trEHe Ht|gElol ?lrt ^aNacD
9+EIEE 6C "E+q :r. Ela]$ol ol$e-P +Cg olg A.J p+q+Etzl, +4-=e +C
g Ezt p+.JEoJzlE +g6J + ?l+. "JEl4es oJolSe ++ olgoln, ¤.olg* Hl++
olgol+. q+^1,
olg a6J +B¤e {zll Nacl$ a+e+ zJol, *44 El++e.l dE}4lol4.
qHl
F 2.e
ol8 AtJ !:lBEl} $zl EuJgel S+
olg ¤6J 34-qlEql^l olgEg :7A2.20E Nacl4 ?ol d}zl_fl +zE tsllgg+. gp+
iEg Sqg Nacl'EzI'¤El]e ?*zl ullE9l ¤E^loE"J.Ezlaj4. +='lt+
=416|zl
EE olg a.J +BEE {E4g_e"J s7l¤}+.
2.7 Olgr.f 018 ;,lEf ofaf= 69
olg slql$E a+, e+6J+q +C6l= olgel d6l-= .JE ¤elg 4= ae u]]+
A6J
,J+61-rt. 3rlq} E¤g alt dzl4
"E +^dol+. Et4^l olg a6J p+6JEql^l drll
oJd6l.
e+ dill +d6I7I ?olol EiEl. trI+^J rzlel Na* olg4 rzll9 cl- ol$ol psalol Nacr
qHl 2.10
ol8 {6lE oltElol ol8. ,js E}SEE ;a.rq lzl
rt8 0l8e_e 0FclTl itaJEel d-d^lE l
^19.
(a)At3+q ct- olE (o) nt3*q 02- o18 (c) Mg2+glNo3- o18
> HE qlrll2
trl^8- olgeE ol+q4l EI.JE.9 dE^lg r^^19. (a) Na*q po43- G) zr'** sor2- (c) Fe3*9I co,2-
slql$g ol$r} +ql^le p+Elql 9lq^l g+ EzI{aJ f-{olrl. EAe.l ol$g Eol=
%]-Hg E|E!E BBEI (chemical nomenclature) olu|-L 6}:ql, nomencalatureE 4Eol9
nomen (oleo) 4 calare (*e +) q +4 6tH+.
^l
flzlzlzl s000EI 7l] oltel Elq Eeol "JEl4 gl+. ol Bg EeE ol+g 6|+6t+ a.
E ag Ezl-L"6J.Jolq. E(Hro)olr-[ oJeloXNur;23o1 s4*'"J g 5Eq + "JBJ4
-e+ Eeg zflp{eE dE4 olEG gH}B (common name))g *=tr}. rel+ q++9
E¤e Eeg +c6l+ c+ql zla* 41414.J E¤Hg ^l=&6[q olEg Eola, olE"J
g Ea r EeE c+ql ql6]l "J + 9lE+ r+6J ol+g +q++.
Elq EBE9 +4e Eag a"FEE #al-E ,JHql 7lz6la- 9l+. +e+ Efr +
zl +.J84 gzl elt'J$-olrl. +ie} +A= E,*6I= *zl 4.JE(organic compound)9
++ tI^, e^, EE +E g^=r+ a6J.J+. olelel += E= Eae +71 +El
$(inorganic compound)olrJ. =zl slqlzl¤$ #zl pldJE¤ rl$ol4 EEr+ +flz.]9
a. +7!slgl$e ^JHol S= E4+ +flz]fl4. ^S$ille+ +d6lq E{g ++6]i ae
trl ol^J 45J6Izl ?*zl"J, Eag #zl E}.JE4 Fzl slaJEe 55;li ag
"t4E +s"61
+. ol aq^l= +71 sI6J+g olg e6J E}6JE, ear +6J8, ++q EH6t= +4
ql ql6l] ="P6|4l ¤4(92| +: ol 4ql^J= G EBH4 +41 +'J EHH(¤q^l)g E
^IsE
or.kr).
l. elolE
a. +4 flzls+q EJEq4= ololgg +++ ag ol+g r*YE+.
6l+ s^16[z] g.=r[. "J"J ++o] 6]+ ol^J.E %tol¤g r8ca]Ezl s¤6[zl ?+eH
su} fzlE. d6l-= s^16}4. olag Egsgzl E4E g*g 43 olLl4.
+ 7l7l d6l-= *= ++ olgg +E6J rll 9"191 -ous$ -icel {ulq-= EolE d
F rJzlol oI4E gl+(e}= ol+ql^l= xllr, xllzts Fetr +E5t7lE 6J+).
^l-8-q:Z
Fer' zllt{ ion) Cu* zlll+r-l ol$(cuprous ion)
ol$(ferrous
ol 4ql^J r+-f} olg + olcl ?ol olE+ tsol} olge +lel F .lgllql $.+.
7|t| .JEl4fl *olg p zlzlg olEn+ sl+^lg E2.4ql ++,lflr}. 4 rle4 qI
4 HqlE gq}4e.-tr. dEl + 9l= olgq E7t 9l+. g+ql +g.J olgg t zlzl d
6}"Jg z*E tflz} ol$o11, e=+ql qg+ olgg 4flx} "Jolgola+ {el z}zl
d6r$ ,*= .Jolgolq. Hszz* olgg *Szlz} olqqE dol 5016}+. ol/.$ zzl
9 Hs* olgg Ba aol+r ^J4g i glzl qlEql +g(r) ol$olap aJu|. zffi ,A
ol= ol¤+ #g +ElH+. ol$ olgPQ oJolFxI.
=r^lE
2.
=olE
a. +gzr *o199 g4 olEel E +Bg dul4 -ide(-*)e EI+EI
aJ= ezl{lrlE d"lri'-+= Eeq.
H- fds](hydride) ol$ 02- &ol(oxide) olg N3 dte*(nitride) ol9
P. tlz\ rJ+oJ 49zI +olgE -ide(-*)tr ¤LI= olEg ,*=+
-ide hypo_ite
Der ate _ate gr}
&4t rtE4tt 018
+O E^t oq/\/\t nl-? -o E^[
olgatl 013
:-O
r--+ 6folEg^ti olg
(perchlorate, Cl04-) (chlorate, ClOl-) (chlorite, Cl02-) (hypochlorite, CIO )
=0t3
olHlx1 E!
-ite
EtlE4E +tI i B0l8
LaeJ2.23 gol$ EBE$ +^l 9E E^++El .J=Gl^l= 3+-zr +fl^l&Att 3013= ql= LfE.lLHfltf
=0l8rl =cl
A Boleg olgol -el-(-rde), -t(-are), o[-t!(-ite)oe E.J nfl, ol= +-cr'=oil rtl6}l g + 9,1ts
| ¤E=+q?!71?
afl2.24= +a6IH +o&"J 4I44I *ol¤9 d6l"e+ 4lr gz14g 7lq6I= rll E¤.ol =t
4o14. +7lgEe.l 2+7\ fl|oJ ce+ N gzl+ al4 :2119 o gzlel aB6lzl"J, z+zl il
2.81+)l al-ctE BEg 73
Lae 2.24 u u g0l3 gEJ^lqe t^t 30l8el a54 861= r flA9 +7lgEo]l^lol Pl^lef ESol 9ltl
4 H*= "lol *ol9(parent anion)9 +dol¤ 6t+ +^^lA aql +q6I+. qldql
ol7l'* 4. zlz) olgg EEts tr]] d+q +-(bi-)* El4^l HCo,- ol
= ^l-s6l9+.
gg ++ *B& (bicarbonate) ol$, HSo+ -= ++{} (bisulfate) ol gol +='JHlEg
6J+.
^AzlE
"JHI4.J¤-olgg olEr+e+q4eE2.5elol 49l rlezl q}4"ll gl4. _iae(_ED_e
¤+= olEg zI4I ol¤+ gqq, -ate(-g)oe ¤LI= ole+ EE sEqql +eq
q 914. Ez-], olE olgg ir+ol^]4 ol+g oJot"l +4. -;,r1o1-4})s ¤'+* olEel
olglg -atetr-¤\v ol$-s--E*Q o= t7]| 4l46lq "JE + ?14. ?zlSEql^J ol
74 23 g^t. E^t, ot8
oH- olg
2- o2- &4(oxide) olg COr2- t&(carbonate) ol¤
or' r}4}ol-(peroxide) olg CrOa2 ?E#&(chromate) ol9
s2- *alG"tna.l olg Cr2O72 qolrtrE olg
Son'- 3*&(sulfate) olg
^Xdichromate)
3- N3- dtpl(nitride) olg POn3- oJ&(phosphate) olg
a4+ Aol: ole-$ -r. ol=+ tg +4qsE}
=r{e
olgel +lilql ++61+. 174G , Cl , Br-, r-) Bflzl ol¤+oltr r-9 d6l-=r*
* EiH, 164(02-, s'-) ol¤* 2-e-l d6l-= ?*YLl.
3. olE ElgilEI=
olg eqr +BEe.l ¤9
"lE¤ "J"lg "l+g Bz] 4r, *olg olE¤ fq-gq ++.
a.h= olEg a+qlE +olg ol+g Hz] 4-/, oJolgel olE¤ r+.*ql +q.
r. olEol -de.E ¤4E ¤-"lS9 4Ig -de= -icB tsh+r d+^I hyitro-= E.J+.
f,= ol+olld= golgg _F+E _i++^4IsE H[+q
=+.
30t8 golEsltl
Cl- Su|(chloride) HCI goPltftfdrochloric acid)*
& u+oJt olE(bromate ion, Brog-)0ll H+= rl6H trJEolIlts tsl 0l== 1 119.
76 23 B^l-. E^1. olE
qF{
F 2.13
te.l olEsl Etcj^l!+el oJ+¤
tlB +lsl 0l==^ ^19.
(a)HCN (b)HNO3 (c)HzSO+ (d)H2SO3
I oll
9"1 -ic-tr Qlila;!4;. > s=qF{2
(c) SO+2-9 ol+ol +4I ol$(sulfate ion)olstr, H2SO4E trtg,tie.l Etqllg 4^ls.
ol*3 ++Gulfuric acid) olrJ. (a) u eulffi4.,i!(hydrobromic acid)
(d) so32-= otFJ4l olg(sulfite ion)olEtr", H2so3= otql (b) B4}(carbonic acid)
EqT! olrd+ EloJ+g soJgl ttll ol-S$$inary) +zI E+.JES BEE ull
^]-Sol+
+zle olg a,* plq+E-g HHB UIE
^tt6ti t+^t +44 Hl+6l-tr1.
d+^t slEl
4lr'll z.t+
ffi ol^J+ szl El.ErEE olBrl.r4qiqalE
"J{.t
tl8 trl-sr'Eol 0l=E i.\119.
(a)SOz (b) PCls (c)ClzOo
glloJ
H-C- C-H
I I lll
H-C-C-C-H
H
I
H H
I I ltt
HHH
4lEloJ (methane) 0llEll"J (ethane) E + trllg (propane)
+F++i= olcB $z| eFJ$ol7l= 6rzltrJ, #zl E}.JE9 EEBS 2.8eql^] ++fl
H Fzl ol^J+ s+*EE A+e+b +s+. ?frfq.J4l"Jg ol= ¤ql -ane('-9loJ'ol4a
=
ts*+trI)g B'J+. Eafz[ 4rl]?l "J4l'J3 tHIgl6utane)olr1. *A+7i szl] oltr-oJ oJ
4eE A+ql= E 2.6q +4U dF^l-= ^l-S6Iq 'J4leg ol+9 ll=+. qlE Eq +
i7I87l]ql ceHre9 A+ql= Sql dl'J6l-= d+^I octa-¤4)el "J4lqlg elulali olul
-ane9 Eq^J 941?l(octane)ol ¤+.
tttt
H H BTH
lllllll
HHH HHHH
I
H
2- H e tr+ElloJ +Eleti oil= += 0ilE1
#zl sl,*EP +i-+4 ¤6J9 a ^l+g ¤^"ig .f ?lzl trIEq oH+ +.S"J sl6JEol
"J=qTl+. ,llEll"J, qlEll"J,
i.Eqts-t "J4lql ,llgn+ qlBg, ql+g,
gE+
^l4}q=
ge gzl4eE oJ+ E+ ¤rlg + 9l+. ^l¤ol trl eq
^l4}q= "Jag 4193 ^l+g
zlZl EIE "Jrll"J4 "Jig C¤g Eq-rll g+. 44loJ(octane)g szllel *r flzle o1-7q
1l .Jrll?lee, "JHI4"J 4a4ql^J elillolEl. "Jz)ltol fd zl]9 +4. fl,.lvlzl ¤tlElB,
HlHBoF. *4 tr+ 8zl, dEd tlHle+ ag 4l+¤ u.l$zl $lal] ^l-8:El: ilijl
Ee'J E49lB{(polyethylene)S gg + 91tr}.
=4^q
qH 2.1s
EJct+Asl +atal tsfqt{ .tt z;
E! el | ?.! (pentane) 0 |
afE gl I
oJ il':dlEo | ?ltt.
(a) ol el--JE9 EJ4z1-6 E=Bq ?1+r 7l+!6|r, EJEII?]q +4^lE 4 le. (b) E!Ell?1g E^l4l= a^|9,
=E
8ilu > .H.E qlr1l1
(a).J41.J9 +^'e} fr*oE 9"1 llr,4 *LY q4 (a) tsae o17qd "Jrll{ql dl4lgl(hexane)9 E
67He.l
I
+= gTte+ ¤aqq fl+. fleleg d+^t {4 44e +Et7l? b) al,{qle-e+q E}Eqd oJ7g9
(penta)E s(-*.2.6)= F6rEs, flql'Jg szH9 tsAzI olEr+ +zI43 *i"Jzl?
5J=E +gg E+.J Xol4. _74a4 EazI+zl]9 *l > s¤ qlr.il 2
4e+ gaqE+ ++{} +g +^ flz}c+ ¤Ea}H, ot4 ot4 + EI.JES olEq '+ql"J(butane)'o1 fl+. ol
rHrI ,Jg +6!9 9rl1 ¤+. Eg olde4"J7I? =q
HHHHH HH
ttttt
H-C-C-C-C-C-H
lt
H-C-C-H
HHHHH
tttlt -H tt
H-C-C-H
o1e1aj Tael qlll"Jg 17-¤lElloJol+.r1E o3r|. ru-$'normal' FBI?l(butane)
tt
HH
g*61q. *^-7I6'J =e Llgg A+q oJ(
^L.s"oJEI. cyc lo b u tane )
(b) g+ plqlEg +4= rfl + ?zl9 4+E d+.
,^ f 0 |
El I
trI+^J =E+
¤lEil "Jg ts2t43 CsHrzol4.
rlt{-g-
--lde at H!
e +L
HfH{
O H
tr]l ,J^[
2. ffial ltt!E{t olfl +¤E E^ilql^l= Bol
B + 9lE+ +5qe+. C4¤ ExllE =.EE ^l
=xllB
Eg E= -H-717I AB-oJ axJH EolE+ ++. rBls
ol
"*eH ++ d+E tsg + 914. r4,e Aa.J =
r^le EEEE ZltI 4Ag 4"lo} ql4. E+ Ex{q^l
e_ llltl glq Bzl 9*n
^J#6irll B-g r.s= s+E
80 2d g^1. E^t ote
?"ltl Ctszt +9ola q¤ Bg s"+61+zl= 4E+6l dql 6J^J izllE ++.61+ ^}J+g B9.z| 9l+). r
uletufl.F 6J4. =oJ
Bql 'l]+ ¤Hg #g6LZl E¤ot.J4.
9s_a149 ,J+qI ¤B6l.2l+ E_s= rqE g q+
4. Beo1z11 al4}6tr=E
ufzlu-|etr B.9 r.5 ull9lE: Ez{ql ^lrJg Ezl
dq+ +9lE ^l-s"6}4 ^Ig ql r]
"Ji1 ++ql -H-E+ 4lr6J + ++ E:xlls LJqTro[ aJr[.
4g olgalq *9lz] rJqg= n+49 ts-q
=q. aol bleE trI^l ¤qE 9zl"J, E_s=.Ex{ql 4+ rl]gr]
3. ral E8l ol 4 +HI+ql TIot rB Ezllz} u|ezlu.l. ul
+ BE += Ezll= ^laol ++6}al gq.
4 olfl +¤E Ez,ll= += sB-E oJol}Lz}(^lql B7I =
so+ "J 6s tq
Etroll tll-d flrl olE, grt+49 ';zj(2.1H,2.2tr) 8r](atom)E * E= tszl.=Jg Cq6l7I zld +Ag + 9l+.
E49 zlE +aolq. gxl+ Els fl^En+ aB6J + llE zI* +7lEE(2.5¤) +zl=e(pe.iodic table)t gzf HnTl 67I6t
lte +glol+. g^lE o]frl grt(subatomicparticle)4E: q +g E +9.e g^=g ul]g+ sol+. olp+4 caol +^I6J +liE
oJzls +cElq :14. o[92] E^] + H z]xl: d6l¤ Itln 9ls
g tsl]ilqq 9l+. g^E¤ E(group)ol4-r.
q d6l= trl: "J^tE SCg r*j1 9l+. Ag d6f=.7ITl E,{+ ^llEaql ^Jle¤q
6JEl. t]}=o] +q fl= 7l-trgg #zt(period)4n -J+. ql++
^1tr "Jq45 ElE, +E d6l¤ 7Id E^l-E=g ^JE gq'Ja+. 9 fla5-g gEL6l+ E4 8A(metallic element, metal)i izl-$
ol tlql^l ol-fl2[ oJz[e] ga4 5dq] +6J dijg j1+6] .sE g+r+ +,J ++ql 91.L. ul=+ flA,(nonmetallic element,
H4. dzlat A zltl* r-1e1
=!,s-6J
rl|s¤(cathode ray)91 46J Thomson
ga6lgi1. E+ epJ= rI d6tHl(m/e)E +a6I
nonmetal)E e- *+ql 9lilql4. ++ ?lie+ El++ gig
¤eq^J d^l¤
A4ltr-ql 9l: gi- ffi(metalloid)ol4r. t+.
94. ulttanq 7lE%I¤ dEeE d^Iel d6}r*g g + 919trI.
Becquerelol gaEJ gzl-=ql E6J +^ldE ztg4 ,,J=, + A^l E^tel Exl iFdEe.6tr) flzl¤9 A*se. E&(molecule) zl "J
i(adioactivity)E Bag 86il g^l7t El zlg +4= r*= Aol + Eqd+. ezle +dg Er] tlEEt(molecular compound)$ -Hf,
Bqfl+. Rutherfordi Sg ++Eql^l 'Jq+= a .Jxl- &* ¤ g Hl++ 94.-+.EJ ol+q4 91tr1. g^l2rlltr +dE Ezl-E olfri
+= F6ll tlxlt4 EE!(nuclear model)S olEq Hn. "Jd6l-= ¤ E!r[ (diatomic molecule) z]i .J4. 5A el 3C g il=t*l (chemical
+g "JEel dl(nucleus)ol gzl qlq ¤{6Jg Bt-dqfl4. formula)eE +4utr].. +aI EAg +C gzl-=E fr-44 4+
e +qzl= tlE*l(empiricalformula)9.e +ElE f ql4. r
flrl +69 Et}l4 016]|(2.3tr) ga]ql: gflrJ(proton)s]
Bl+ E# qI Ezf qlql fl= 4 ++ flxl-=9 dx] +e +q
=S
Il(neutron)E +dg qol ?|r} trl(etectron)t.q +9lE +rJ xlE Er]4(molecular formula) o-E -EeoJ+. i5'Al(structural
g +zle+. dz}g d6}"*g Eri Eol(electronic charge)af-L o|
recol+. formula)$ Ezl Llql^l flz|p9 e{l +^lE ts-{ 64. *-etct
4, t.oozxl0 "Jzlq daf= "JHI49g ol d6I"*9 Ell E¤ (batl-and-stick model) $ 8Zt itE Etl (space-filling model) 3
+e LI4U+. r4^] dzFb r-9 d6l¤ z|^Ii1, olCzl* r+ tszI +4ql 4'J izI4"J Ce.g z1;,..3r1.
I d6l-= TlTl+. gzlel A?*3 .JHI4ee. flr] CB E9t(atomic
mass unit, I amu:1.66054x10 24 g)e 4rlu4. flzt rzl= + olEat 018 itgE(2.7tr) g^t= dzlE gzlr+ 99 ot
=B
t(ion)o1a1-'. d6l= E oJ^l7l g+. rE+g d^l-=i ga oJd6I
t #E(angstrom. I A: l0 '0 cm) B9l-e. -E¤6JE}.
fl4=s tfil EE(atomic number), ?]z]qq 9l= .JC^l-g olg, + Sl¤(cation)9
^JC6J+.
Hl++e d^L= gq +d6t
ie = ee g^L+E
5gq-. +qTl g^E EE g^I.= olg, EolE(anion)S ol+q{
'*=4. = ^J^"i++. "Jolgq ¤.olggs
g^lel e$+(mass number): "Jdzl+e| +Czl+E q}o14. zJ olE EA EEII(ionic compound)¤ 4lzl4 oe 6Colq, trE +
g g4 + 4*+71+g gzl-= Ei?tfla(isotope)zp ajq. + g^el Hl-.+ fl^= E+ EB.J+. flxl-Eol s^l B4e aqi
99 9al d6l¤ E ol$$ ctfr] olE(polyatomic ion)olap oJ
fl^PJ(2.49 gz} ee* B?lE "c flz}9 deJ¤ {$ol 12 amu
+. olg aB c+6J+g +EI.I= slql^lg dil^lol+. olgE d6l
4j146J 4g Tlloe 6Jq. 6J gigl flrlEJ(atomicweight, $ .JE, olg aEt E}+gq dil4g ¤rll ¤ + 9l+. FfilEql^l
r
+ g^I e"J)g g4E E+l g^e.l +xllEle+ e=6tq q+ 41tI =
ololgE diJl old6}= golgq di] ¤-d6}e+ aE+.
¤I-l. Eg f;!{71(mass spectrometer)E ol+6l.E dE4 o-e. gxl-
6i9 HJS4 81
+71 EIEIE EBE(2.8tr) EIaJEE olEg BIE¤ e}qr. g lE E Tlrl ,JE-et *71 Et-dE(2.99 Szl ffi(organic chemistry)3
ElEl(chemicalnomenclature)ol4l +EI. +4= olg e'* +6J +i cl.JE.g ¤+61= Eolol4. +rl s|6'JE +q^J TI^L A+
E, 4I, olg^I +zI pl6JE F ++9 +rl sl-ql-Eel olE¤ E 6J ag +^e+ +^-tr"J ol+qd eJil*4(hydrocarbon)olr].
^ll
olE ,.llZl4.J %}Bg EI*14. olg A'J sl.JEE olE+ oJolg 4 +^ flzltl ttll! trIg g^l-e+ e6.J6}-ar 9lb esl+^s gxl
I Hzl HB.J + +olgg $H"J+(G olg$ f,,tlz| Hlql). + P!(alkane)ol4L qlq. "Jrll"JE olE gql=,ilq1.J4 qlEI.Jql
+ gzle +^dg olol¤+ ++n+ ag olEg zI+14. ++ol ^l ^lilH
-q{(-ane)o145 9,15 E"J4. += ++q #zl s+*E
E += d6IE oJol+g ^JCg + gleE, r {ali euf fzl-$ 5g "J4l"Jel +^ fl^|= zlf.zle il+6J aol+. ql5 5q s
*.¤tL+. oJflzl. *o199 olEel ¤q -ideCpl ol9E ?E(alcohol)g'J4I"JE H gzlE -oH7le. u|3 Tlolr|. oj?
^I.s"6Iq
Eqlq. }^el +E g^E s6J6iE 4flz} Solg(ttat! Eol 99 0lB3 qltsg4 q+gq^l trFol "J4l.J olE:g ¤ +Bg
E(oryanion))* olEq ¤q -ateC4} ol$EE -ite(o1-41ol$E -9(-ol)ol4l H|+q 5¤q. +z|^le azlEJ e6JE Hllgol EIE
E.J+. ol^JE BzI pI.J¤g olE¤ E"J Ell rrl^ dFq= +^l o l¤Ei{l (isomer) 4-7 6J4.
^lq^lel
4 grq izl¤ 4444. +Tlgsq g+(++ g^e}
Tlrl+)q\ fl^E B^l 4=+(Eql^l= Hi4).
=xll6l=
z o HFgl
OrL l- o -
gr}"*: >t(Fg 949 d*) 5+l g4
=xflu1;l lz.rl
. x (F9l fl4.e1 e*9 716 B+ -e. gzlr6t Zl4I
"
OE
i'.
.'r'r'r' j
(i) (ii)
(a) ol F4l4ee.
NvE ql_s.t+n z|{i}r., 4 9a
^lE7l
9 {dle +a}^ls.
(b) 2e3Nrr9
=4iul= 2esNvq
e"d.ol 293.15 amuola, d*ol zss.ts
a-u48, Nve-l flzlg=3 g"IoJzI?
OOOO 2.8 trl^g rBg olg eql E},fl¤g LI4u aol+. 834 ""9
oooo ololgolq, +=4 +g 901¤o14. El*E rsr, K2so4,
? ol4 rHq
:::i: +
Ca(NO:)r, Fer(Sor)r 6ll%:61^= slqlBg?
ElEel olE_q-? O.24. z.ag)
(b) gtr 94zib zlE*¤ol rJzlE ol-+L? 2.t6 _74 z.z4lt) .tr= ar+ pol, ulzlel .Jzlz} F 4E 6}dg
+ ^Iolql^l ¤-zloll gl4. ol E^l7t olC^l-4r.71-C6f^t.
t f
(a) zl-{o1 "*48, ol .Jzl+ B Ezte+ ag E}a}e-s glqzl
:TL olqH Hlql H'6'Je-e +l9zliz}?
f o a (b) ol EzITl-fl"lzlE aE= B E^lB4 afl$z|, olulg
o o 4AYzl?
2.r2 +E+ +^E +4e+ +9 + zlzl fl4.tr ol+q4 9l+. de (a) TlEHlgel d6l7l-^le ++ ae +{g EEl6}=7}?
+4ql^l +El +i 6.s00 sol $d6l E6Iqq gi ^J47I (b) ol dE aqe dzlE d6}ql ql6il qH +q4 ^Idg "J
slflEt. -r olLTLO
II
^t-/
(a) 0.38a cq +i7l ^Jdqfl+H, ^Jtg qlE oJg grl-oJ (c) dzlel d6K+E i^l +q)= B"f4l -H-nts + ilYzY/
7l?
flrt 7^el EEll4 01afl, flrPJ(2.3E, 2.48)
(b) ol ¤f, Ar+= qE B49lPBslizt? 2.ts + (ao) 9zI9 Hlzl¤+ "* r.:s Ao1r1.
zr: + g+^I7l30.82 g9 ¤^'zf 4Ia 17.60 s, 35.20 g,70.40 g, (a) ol zjolg 4:.ulr.l(nm)q ulaulel(pm) +9ls +44^ls.
s8.00 g4 44 Hlg"6}q ql ,lel EIE e+ql+3
^Jd6l- (b) 1.0 mm aolql uilg6} + 9l= + flz}e] +=?
^lE
agtsd6}9Et. (c) g^lel EoJol +Bol+:z zf{a}n. ;- g^t lrllel +ul=
=
(a) 4 ElElgql^l a4. r gB &.i9 e-*g ah}6}^le. cm3 tfl-s +61^19-.
(b) (a)9 ¤4E oaltonel gzlE4 + "*=^lql 4"ll ¤B6I 2.20 -e.E(Rh) flx}9 xlE¤ o+ 2.7x t0 8 cmol4.
^ls. (a) EE g^lE HlzlEgA4m Elgle +q-^le-.
2.14 oJflel ,JEg F6I ololgHr+ 5+9flo +"J ol+qd
^.il (b) 6.0 pm aolq HHS.J+ 9lE .EE gzlE +=?
++e] +EL+g ild6t9+. ^.ll EaJ¤g ol+il 9= 4 g (c) Rh Szt9 EoJ'ol +Bol4i1zf36}r., Rh ga} ITI]E +
e*e +-sr+ a9I+. ul$ m3 ggg 7a[]e.
^9
ej-JE otoletrJ9 EaJG) EFeaJ9 EBk) zzt x.z.t+$ao1z1 "Jr ++ eEqlB6I^19.
1 4.75 3.s6 (a) ?zl¤ +d6h= .JzlE *q"Jzl?
2 7.64 3.43 (b) dzlE d6}ql ql6J 4 .JzfE
^JrllzJ"J {ali $u}olz}r
J 9.41 9.86 (c) oltr 6)*7171*
(d) qH oJ^l7l 7l.} =A&tl?
714+71?
4slElE.llr.l ololefl r g%l¤Fefl9 e"J=g gEloJTt?
(a)
(b) (a)9l.tl ++ Aq+ flxl$g +E6l+7I? z.zz 4* ¤Hol "*Ezl, Er]=4E E^l6l^le. Eflg a+q=
zrs ^l =.+9 otflxt E^1, oJ^J^|, +czt, 4^l + 7t+ Bal *4 nil^le_.
ga¤ E4+ +qolq,= ,LlI Llaql tsag Ezl+ +E.J (a) g^tE 4++q e+g gzlqql E+ aolq, g^I4g
7l? flzt 4*89 Pu.l$ z1z1;3r1-.
84 26l fl^t, E^t. ol3
TliL ',2cd 2.3e zI¤Zlql^J EE u}:r-llf, t.+l g^q +xllEl= trI¤-4 rJtrI
*^J^l-+ 38 92
E+|fl^ flrl traJ(amu)
6d^I+ 58 49 ,,Mg =r[Hle/.)
78.99 23.98504
dxlf 38 36
"Mg 10.00 24.98584
a*+ 8l 235
'uMg I l.0l 2s.982s9
z.:t IBzlp] o}4l azF=i ^l-*6fq q-+ Eeg plct zln-a 4 (a) Mg9 E+ g^l4"*g gtrIoJTt?
+Lll^ls. gs6|E *E^l qI+E g^ ++g ol$alr.le. E^l
(b) tvtg9 e=* r4^le.
(a)f{xfz11187HoJ E+9 E9l g4 ^EEB9
z.+o 4* +^l7lE g^Itr+E E^fE g+q q E+ol zll
(b) a++ 840J aBEel F+l g^ ^i^s"gq.
3+ql^l E + 9l= a4 eol, +z}*g E^l¤ oli= -gzlE
(c) d*fzl-zst ul^9 E9l 9l
flzle*g *o14. H, +^l.71-H flzte EaliElzl ?+= saql
(d) ,Jg f9 olcz}q +txl-= Tirl ElrLll+q E9l fll r.l Hz9 d* 9fl4. z}¤4lql +^E E
2s2 g r+ag g+61-= %LB +q 6F+= s4 + g4: ^EEHS
lH(flzl =zl]6l:
^l+714dol 9l de*:r.oozsl amu, ¤xl]Hl ss.ssaso/o)e+
E6 85
=^l
,u(flz]-
d*:2.01410 amu, ¤^l]Hl 0.01ls%)z} glrl 2.47 Ll+ 4 p|.J¤q Bzl^l!+ dE^lg F9..Jzl-?
(a) d* E+ 9lE 4=$ 211i52 H
H
(b) 4
^EEHql^l
q39
^J4zl.J A"*g? N...
(c) 7l* ulee+ rltl z+g qr= q- 4"J71? -N
= H H H
+7 EE, Er Et Er l Et-srE, 0 ltu t 0 |3 eEr 6,F!f;(2.5*2.7 8)
l
2.48+ E.eE Ez}^lr+ dql4ol .Jil++. + E4ol a3 elEi
z.q 4* 4 ?aq clq zlse+ +7lgsql49 9l^lE? E6J 4 Eol4r E+ + 9l=7|?
fl4z};-4, Hl++ + qqql dl'J6l+zlE ac6t L4, q*E^l49 ?*Y4 e+,*Eq ¤E4g r
=++, ^ls.
^ls. (a) A12816 O) CsHro (c) C#sOz
(a) rEE O) gE (c) oJ (a) oI¤
(d) P4Oro (e) CoHaClz (0 B3N3H6
(e) u|:uil6: (0 trE"J (g) HIA
2.s0 trl^S Elql-EE dql^lr+ Ez}^lg +d}^le_.
2.42 E.l+ g^9l olE. gz} Ha, +TlgEql^lE +l^l=? E+
(a) tsi gx1 02fl4 +d gz}67]|E ol+q4l fzl *,ll.J {l
4 g47f ++, +++, El++ + qqql 6HBal=^l= AA6f
dGenzene)
^lg. (b) +c ?17,1- lzle} g^ gxl4zl]E ol+qa a+q a9 g
Li (b) Sc (c) Ge (d) Yb (e) Mn (0 Sb (g) xe
(a)
qE
.E7l +A(silicon tetrachloride)
,$ q+ 4 glE p]4 zlgel olEol +sL aE ol=.(s 2.3)g (c)
^Ig+
B}' flzI zzll4 +^ gxf 6zle ol+q4l H}+dol .ke
lrr', ol{ol ++, El#+6 qH aq dlr}d}=zlE oJ(diborane)
=++, Ee oJ
4ol Eq
ac6I^le. (d) ts4 gxl0zL +a gz}127H, .tla $z| ozfl-tr ol+qt]
(a) e461 (b) olol9tr (c) n|rLll+ 1a; ole.E (e) *
+ qro}(glucose)
2.44 14+ gA= +E Eo.e LlleJTlH^l 949 SCol ull+ +
zsrclg 4 E4ql= 9 zl9 f4 g^I7l 9=7I?
olBzl H+EI. ol +q fl= 4 g4q olE+p+E 7ln¤ )^
(a) C2H5oH (b) Ca(CH3Coo[ (c) (Nrq)rlo,
j1, *+, +-'=+, Hl++6 q¤ aql 4'J6l+^l= AC6|^le.
2.s2 .-l;^ EIE+^lql EEL¤ g^Iel +s-?
* :zB3 n-*El"Jnl- olol4+qloJel +a^lol+. (a) CaHeCoOCHs 49 *a gz;
(a) 449 +a}4g r
-zas(b) 449 dfl4g ^19. (b) ca(clo3), +el &4 g^I
^A^le. (c) (NHT2HPO+ 49 i4' fl^f
(c)F cI6JEg +B6|EE dql^], BzI^1, +44 + qtr rl-g- BzI EBg r*E +EIEE E^l4r+ +a4g .,A^ls.
ag ^l-+6llot
6l+71?
HHHH
tttt
H-C-C-C-C-H
HIH
rlr
H-C-H
H_C-C_C_H
H
I
-2s3
eoa " e"
HHHH
tttt tll
HHH
(a) (b)
-butane isobutane
benzene
e=$
acetylene
(a) (b)
86 28 fl^l-, E^1, olP
TliL s96o3+
2.6s trl-g plelEol szlcoJzl, ol3^dglzlE ql+61^le.
oJC^l+ 34 76 80 (a)B2H6 O)CH3OH (c) LiNO: (d) SczO:
+^J^l+ 46 116 120 (e) CsBr (0 NOCI (g) NFi (h) Ag2Son
dzlf 36 78
2.66 E.l+ alql-gg olg aq} +tlE"J7L B^I +*g.J7I?
9aI dof 2+ (a) PFs (b)NaI (c) SCtz (d) Ca(Nor,
2.sd trlg Eel HlrJg ifl+^ls-. (e) FeCIr (0 LaP (g) CoCOr (h) N2O4
3lP3-
718 +7t EF*E EEg, rJEEt 37t EtgE{2.8tr, 2.etr)
olCzI+ 34 50 2.67 E+* "lgel Els}^lg A^ls.
6C^l+ 45 69 ll8 161
olgi4}(chlorite) olg 0) ¤+(chloride) olg
dzlf 46 76 (c) Bi4}(chlorate) ole- (d) rlgi& (perchlorate) ol9
Sai dot 2- 3+ (e) 6|0l Eg i4}(hypochlorite) ol8
2.58 EleJ SoJ g}oJ dql# +4 +^I6J ++$-9 "JEtrI. +
z.sz rJS9 4 g^= sl4 HI+q^l olgol g + 9l+. +7lgE g olgel olg$ jr.rle.
+r6}q ,I+.JC{ "lgel d6l¤ ql+6t^le-. (a) SeOa2- (b) Se2- (c) HSe- (d)
=
(a) Mg (b) Al (c) K (d) s (e) F
HSeOr
2.7s c++ olE E= +E^lg 2.80 zqg 9l+ trH El-gr+ ee ++ +fl Etlg dE + 914.
^A^le.
^}9 0)
(a) HBrO3 HBr (c) H3POa qzlql t#g 4Eaq slol^lg?
(d) 6}0l gg^&(hypochlorous acid) (a) *{}fi }S(sodium hydrogen carbonate)3 gf^I.tr.
(e) ol-ol9Bt(iodic acid) (0 ol*4}Gulfurous acid) 4"J+.
2.76 I:l+,tI9 olE E= ++^lg r^^ls. O) alols.g4& zJf(calcium hypochlorite)9 sul *.-!91
(a) ofol9fl ffi4.{!(hydroiodic acid) 4rttri.
(b) ¤44}(chloric acid) (s) o|{4}(nitrous acid) (c) .i.|o1 oj51 f3:(hydrogen cyanide)i Ed='C 71 4l ol trI.
(d) H2CO3 (e)HCIoa (0 CH3CooH (d) +,il+ u[:t]1f,(magnesium hydroxide)g ¤^f4ls raqlE].
qg olCts ts^IE olg EE clE4g r (e) EFsflol i4(ID(tin (II) fluoride)* ilEel E+sA
^le. flzlzlltr A.JtrI.
(a) SFe 0) IF5 (c) XeO3
-y77(d) ol ei(dinitrogen tetroxide)
(0 *sl *&e_e 4E6lE +s+
zfEE(cadmium sulfide)g
(e)
^I,tlcl
o,191
.r.1-o1
f4(hydrogen cyanide)
i^z141zl gdt+.
++el rlol(tetraphosphorus hexasulfi de)
(0 isl (")- tsi++4+ #g.JzI? (b) S4l9l(pentane)g ++' g^l
szlel ol+q4l grllql a}+Eol+. +a4, E^l^],
2.78 4i 41ffi-q E^l zlqg +s +71 eg Eeol4. +¤- + ^l¤.E
6JE9 ol+g r dE{S'r^^19.
^19. oldeill+
(a) NzO (b) NO (c) NOz (d) N2Os (e) NzOa 2.s2 (a) F{¤ "5.1.b71? $) oll4loJ(ethane), E_Esll
ol$ropane), Bell oJ(butane), {lEl (pentane) f oll,!
oJ
4 o1
+71-oJ+ +zll
ol ¤+ EEI= ol tlql^J ¤E'J r]l+ +^JE +gqq 9lzl"J, + Eizllllzl?
xllBtr L+h^l= ?+9IEl. ol E4lEe %}etr qq flzl e*4. (b) !E
ar+q 7la6}q d49 d6I+3 warmomb t9E
2.87 qB 4*ztz| Millikan9 7lE%Ig dEg 4¤al$.+. :r.fl +6f^ls.
rll ol $olzfi %Igq d6l-= warmomb(wa)4= ,Itlg + (c) (b)9 Bql 4+ 4 1llgs.l d6}q +dg {z}el /1ffi
2.8e + Eol 1.00 cmoJ C+Eal soJq +9 e*g le.3 eol4. ulE r.a, 24.1. 22.1, 52.4Voo14. folt rJlolrlE
^F*6lq BE
+ g^l lZlE e*g le7.o amuol4. flz|ffifa[]e.
(a) ol c+Halq= + gz} E zllzl o,JYtl? z.g6 zJ#(Ga)g zl$4lq a=J'ol 68.e26 amu* 7o.e2s amuoJ F
(b) + g^tE zlBS Aee 4* g"Itzl? 7I^l Eg $az}9l4.
(c) (b)9 B9 Bzl 9l4q q¤ T}dol gs+7P (a)4 F?l fl^9 gxtqql 9l= *C^le+ +^dztel +=?
2.e0 +HlE:(Rb) gxtg zlEg +.ss [olr[. -sH9 g^]7] ++:r. 4 F?l giel fli zlc.E }'r flzI Hie] {r3;g g
BiJH dHgqq llrla z1zga1x1. Ae-.I Ellgql^J= EE gxl- ^l6I^lg.
7I .JBe ullgElq A^I4B 47,1-= ol+a 9lEI. Be+ Ag (b) ca9 Bt gal e"J(gz}"t)g 6e.72 amuol4. 4 59,l
Ellgg 4"J $oJ(close-packed) ullgol4n 6Fbql, E+* g $ie] fz1lu15 +6I^1e..
^l+9 *+6J *91 flzlEol +lil,J+. 2.97 CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physicsuf http://www.
webelements.com F9 +il Edg +461q Niql qlql q-¤-
+++ l.l'l. g 4^t6l^ls.
+++ YYY
al.,^
Y. Y, (a) 944i F9l flaE +
+++
Y
l..l^\ g^t {g(amu Egl)
YYY (b)
(c)
^lsql^l
7I+ Elol s7l^l tl9.1 94$ fr1lu1
AB =7ll6lb
2.e8 rJsEJ g^Iq Egl g^b + ++olr+. -trFq
(a) A tslgql^l Hol 1.0 cmoJ C^l.4¤ .Jql EqrJ + 9l
6J =aql^Jb
gd t}49l H-e,EJg Br2 $z| tr4e Br' $zle1
Rb g^l+ H zl]"Jz}? ol =zl]alq,
= e"*g + SzI9 3=J9 +r| aq. eEJ E^l
(b) .EHel flz| u|lpol Be+ Ag ql, '* Hol r.0 cmoJ C^I rJglzge1 ^ElEHql
^lE
El^q-I+ 4=zI44*4.
4B .Jql 5qa + glb nu 9zl* H 4lc,J7l?
(c) A ullpoll,rl B HIg.tr. H6}H^J .trBql+zll6}E g^IE zl EB(amu) EleolSEll4 ?71
+= qtr Elge +7I6Ib7l.? +i}+loE *4.J48, m 157.836 0.2s69
2.er (a) flzt4 fl2}49 azlzl tfl 2.10r+ A+.r. TlAEl ull ?l
16r.832 0.2431
zlel +qql^l flol rizlalf Hlgg? (b) oJ,{z}el zl5$ (a) cl=z}444E ol+E +Et7I? (qts Ffl g
4l zll9
l.0x 10 tu rn4tr 7LA6J q, oldz}9 "JEE g/c-'BflE +eqq ilEz}?)
^7|
(b) 4F+l g4E e+e 9uI'JzI?
+6I^le-(E 2.1e1 oj{z} e+3 A.
^l-&ts
2.e2 L+* 7lo+ s^l6J g4= +l.J7t? 4 gdE "J^J^Ie+ +
(c) Br2 $ulel gt ea}g QuloJzt?
(d) u euJ g^I9 ¤+ A?*g gElglTp
cz}9 i= 4 o^ls.
(a) 1lx (b) "ulx (r)'?'rx (a) '33x F F+l flrel 3z1lu1g +6}^le-.
(e)
2.e4
^|fl41q= ^il ++q
&^ flzlzl 9lirll, 449 6dzlE e, 2.101
^Itrfr(Sg)9
!a fl4s=3 leT4LJql "JEqAq. "JEqd
e. l0zlol+. +, 7l* sqSq} t.+l g^E eE*+= 26601 *.trI.
=zl]+
E+l gr9 sd.J++ TlqE r
(a) ol ,q TIzl (")'uuSg gz}g oJ^JzI, ?Cat, dzlE +E?
^ls. (b) sg S4+,ll+ B"JA6l7l EIEqI g^IE 5Cg ¤+61
(b).rll57e14I^ gzlE Ae e+ +g dg ¤B6I^le_.
7l7I EI+
2.es zl-gZlql B(pb) E9l g^9 A*e 2$.e7302, "184. fzlgE.ql^lE ssg +laE nqEl
=xll6}.=
20s.97M, 2M.97s87, 207.9763 amuol4, 4 Ffl fla9 ¤xll
ull, sg9 p+El4 5dg qg $l9l zl$ zl,l$zll
+7lE+ E^ll 89
2.104
6IEII 7lC6In, Fdql^l +Eq Ag Zl4I6I^le.
El+ 34+e ZE +3ee. tEqd olqqrJ dcl ol3
.>,
(American Silver Eagle)ol+-7 Eq: lBBl 5dg
H
^J,tI+
+. ol Fdg xl.=ol 4l mmoltr +4]712.s mmol4. 3 ^Iol=eE+qltg Elq ulfxll_E ,r.l-grlzlE 6i9s+, t
3rlCol q+ rJ6I^l q oltl ?+r 9l+.
el "JE "t ql+zl"J rlat
zl43 :tqcl7:7f r0.5 g/cm3 "i ^l-+q^l
o.slgelol+. Fdq F4lrI +"J61+i1 7IA6Ii, Fdq^l
(a)
^Iol=EEEq{el de^lg Ft.Jz}? seqloJ
(propane)9 ¤'¤{q=
ge1l}g 4l4}6l^le. "lBZl 4Ezl?
G) rzll9 +a gal+ BEql +q 91trt. + ao+E 4lTldol
2.10s o}4el Ezl +4 + rts slBEql 6il"J6I= 4g?
9olali 43 tttzl?
(a) ¤4 Tlal O) E-etlloJ (c) d4I ol8 (c) ?l :H I +a6lq E ol (chlorocyclo-
-tr ull
(d) at4lc+ * (e) EpI EllB(cH3cr)
propane)$ rE =EE^|ol =E
-H-^19. ol^J
dillTl
=Etr^tol=eEsgl'J*
=416|=71?
2.10e +71&e9 ?g +ql *= giEol "Js5 469 olee
glq^lol +^16I+. +olgE eg BIBSE BBtl4. .lel
+ a"Jql 44 trI.* 4 ol89 cl.q}^l EE olE$ *.tle.
(1' (ii)
Broa- (b) SeO32- (6) ul4,l!(arsenate) ol-o
(a)
(d) B+E& fi(hydrogen tellurate) ol$
SI 2.n0 +tl*.E +ql= +oI 9l= ol^IE+ E^tr+q et
lcl (carbonic acid)ol El-=qd4. B+Iol ++cl qEr+ qls"6t
I I
tt
,/
4
)r/
"l
I
A
I
\
' :rar'
+
\
T
\
!
!
I
rrl
H.
rIt!t{
:*(H il
r*t'.
i ,,
r I
,. I rh#l
iil |ill
t L
4r
-i-.rrat---r-r.. tI tl .+{
ffi
I
l-lr - '- t
L a--. f-
rc
l.EfE
t" ..,
{
-a 6-''/
{ \ - ¤:7, fr
I. ,l
i* IB.jr
7i'
\
.rS
l.i
l. G$
fi
,.< :L
: ) sp
/r
/
t
Fl
\
/
L
\
/
L-
b
7
/
I -
7
, -t
7
\ 7
7
,r'
7
3.1 > Ettrl UA4 slE^lg ^l-*4q Els+ H]
+g +4{= +s".^lg 4= %IHg "J
, olB4.
3.2 > al-* uSet eil HI+, Eix HI
E[6[ I
o *, 9a Hl*=+F +q Hl*E ++E
*l
-
-t o
I
o J 3.3 >
o_IoL-H-LL
illTl's:EtElgl
^l*q
gltl. 3.5 > al+ EAoE g= d-d^i E ,llBg
4+6Iq, +qd clqlEg 4 fl^ql
, 4t d=j.ee+q +q^lg aa+4.
tstlolrJ i+zi 4ll} HIa".$ o|| '+9.= 4Ee qlg += r1l f-eel 9 3.6 > EE *= U8^.Ietr+El E= daJ4
Bg 6}=ql, 7lA1 co27l uu|{u}zf,eEal ulr-zl t}4o14 ST]lol ?l dE +44, slq+ HI+^], E 4lH
s4B rll co,E I,JE= 4= %IHe ol^E i ^Iolg aElzle +4lE ^l+6le +q+
=. EI+g +=4 *+. HI*ql^J Ede.l
¤=Jg coz, q+g "l zl4 $zl Elaj$E H{}61+ + ^EEl7l+ ^JcElb
"Jg ql+oJ+.
= ^l¤-6l]^J
¤¤ 0l+6l.= 4o14. ole+ +g e+q} +¤+ +a 'J Eql Bg +=
3.7 > El4 [J8E +E H]+q^l d-+q H]+
^Fsqq *r, E++
ql sE+e+ ,J3 ++E "JE= EJIE
^l-8-q Ee B?glol EF ^I+E+. ol= +
q *+. "J5qzl= alqr-HI¤+ sEql"J +6Jqzl 9+r, ^l
cozTl Al HI¤-Eol4i1 +trI. 6J4l HI+gg
Er-+el z|Fi} el1| E +oJ* *ql^J B + 91trt. + iEE]n, rle}g.tr +^l|6l-: trlE
^llELI ¤B Eaol tssB^J uJ*ol ?zlB4.
ol t}ql^l= slq HI+g B+{}tr}. +d H}¤¤ +E},-ll= e}o}^l
4 HI*ql +¤g E{EE CeJ4 AEql +6Iq +d4etr trl-E a
ol+. s+o+ H}+ql^l E4E "Jql +6Iq +44
^Eqrl+ ^Jdq=
o-+. 1155 BotE llffJ.!(slsi.hiometry)olap. a;3r1, ol +q:
r4 1q I stoicheion(fli)r-| metron(=C).I 4= +q ql ^J +4 6I
*.4. ol Eoh= e}+q^l 'J4 ^F&q= g+4e E+e+E e+.
< 0l .\ElloJal^3 HJ87lts E+tr galT] rJti griE"BeE oJs! ep+ E1=
0I g0lLl"= !0 lt[. ii:;smspsy/Shutterstock
91
slq=JEE 7l4Y flzI ae} ..=. \2.4F), e+o+^1, eg t= llEl .:r.= (2.111)g olollolf
Lo14. oeJ49 fl+olfltJ Antoine Lavoisier(l.al 3.1)E tzoouJtil +Elql qlq B
49 ga6l94. := r H4g +gr+ eol HE6I4I zl¤al.g4. "oJgl4olE zt¤4ol=
==-g-6J
-EE e lql^l ot+aE +3Elzl ?+sq, + de old4 ol+ql Cqd}rll Ag "JE E4ol
6lq. q+^l 94 eFb 3r+ql ¤Eql +oJ E= zlHol o1 gqql E44q q6l]
=7l]6l]01
zloh.J+= ag E{E 4zlzl fl= +48 Eo|=qot 6J+.',k Daltong flzlEol qlFrel
Erl sl*zl¤g 94+ 44 HI+ E+q ]8CEIZ+ ?*=+= ol H4E +42
^gq4
ol6ll6lrll qHq. ¤xlls e+qt HI+ eq gq+= HEI+ SxI9 zlltsHg"J gol+. qI+
dr+ +ql Ag gzl¤ol ¤4]6J Bol4.
=
A rH 3.1 Antoine Lavoisier
(1734-1794) LavoisierE E4
tE *+,Jt^l
ol4zli .J^J H}*ql^-l HI¤¤I+
^JC+g 44421 9l6lq sf$
HI+^lg +El. rfl+
gsoJ Hl¤¤g olg aa6}7l +16ll e+q} HI+4g +
"JSgzlE dcEg "Jr+
uo= ad= B *= Ee-21914.
2H2+ 02 ---------------> 2}{zO
+B "*= EIEI HI+^lg trJE7l fl6ll^l= H7l g+ql= HI+E*=g 3rlE^lg,
I
sE{q= ^JCBEE
plqtlg ++. +ql Hl*!g r
"J+ql zJ $zllzl zloy
w a zlE+ Al+= aA6fq plq +8^lg $a.J+. "JHlzies ,lt} zlg A+= 4l
s 0
+E ^l-S6J+.
e
+ ------)
HI*4g sa6J qlql= slq^l *el al+e+ s+o+^lel ol4 a^lE ilol= 016l]
6I.= aol +s6t+. f.al 3.39 -trZ}. 6J Elq^le.l oleN frzlzf H6]= ag(ql=
arH 3.2 EE "f= il-qt HJ8^l 5E urozl H2o2-tr-) Elq Eag +ol Ht+l= 1o14. J+&E+ +A(Hror) E4
*Lavoisier, Antoine. ":449 7l='. 1970.
92
3.1 | al-+ EJ8^l 93
e Hzo
E^t EElts ?d
,\1-q ql 6L6lZSOl
EilE TtrlEEt e rl&6tt4 E^l l7l|
QTHEHeIZTHA
o g^E EEt-.Jtrt.)
3 E(Hzo)4 ot? 4s4. ot4 EzlE ++ HI+4g SAE 4 ¤a H6Izl ?*otot ++.
ole}= 84, p+ql^l g}ql 4l+= Eol= 49 E4 E¤E o}(amounool H6I= 4olzl, E
d9 t(identity)Tlzl H6l+ 49 otrl4. trI4^l z uroi E Ezl2zllg elulalf 4ol:1,
a uroi E ExI:zfl$ slulflr1.
E-F HI*^IE oJ+q^l E+o+4q 7t* 44l+4Lr= gA= zlH E4-= Exl EB *
+= aol ++. +19 qlql^l c:6J zlzl HI¤¤(cHJ4 t ztzl CCE(corql +4++.
11s u|$zlx1o1r|(cHa4 Hro). rfl+ o= + zlxl q1s--e1or4 + Tfrl
^JtE(coze}
Hzo)oll +4ts9 +s-6I4. ui+^J c+q H]+E cH+9 e^+e+ ^JCE coz9
^lz16}z[.
+a+= aq. Irl4^l ol= EaE 4l+= aoFt 6IE.-8, +d 4+E E+ 1(471 ?+g)tr
6tA+.
lll ls
!oa
I u
{I
+
l
)
(
CH+ O2
COrel grg
O o
>:lH 3.5 CHa EA HJ39 EE
"*=++ HJ8^l (}
t.t
O
+ --------) +
(1 C,4 H, 4 O) (1 C,4 H, 4 O)
lrl
^19.
8tlff
1* +
g.tr qel
H *qr^t+ 6IE^-l +Bol "*9 ullzlzl a34e1
(a) Hi*E9l oll*6l+ g+ tr-zlql= + ++E +4, + 27H 4l+e} r+g +E. +E zl+¤ HtE gsTf ?ltrf. ¤x]]g
9 &e flzie o15qd ExKoz)el, liie+ ei gz}Tl- a+ql= Nor9 4lf 2= 6lq el84 s-E+E o g
^l-s:o
44 v11a1" s ol+qd +zl(No)7} 5q fl+. ^JcE xlf$ ial5:+ 6}zl.
ql 4'J6l-= e_=+ /*zlql= ar gz1 rzflo{ gz} t}i 02 + No + (+¤ "*zl ?+9
2NOz
27l]E ol+qA 6J ++q +zt(No,)EI Eq fl4.
:r.BlE e_E+ql= zz11g N gzlel azHg o sztzl gl4.
(b) +¤ *zl ?+g HI*4e q^s=r} A+. ui+^j g+sB EotTt^i NoE al+E 2-tr 6t8 N4 o
02 + No Noz G¤ "*zl *9) E+ +¤g "*+rll ¤+.
-
+l Hi+^l .J+E gzf 02 + 2No zNoz (+E "*eJ
+E¤ !.H, E+¤E 94q1ts rz11
*,.ltl ilr, ol= +¤ "*+ HI*^lg olfzl fla|{ ,${ e. HI+44 g+(HI¤¤) *z|9 48Eq q4
=A6Iq,il.r1s.
E No,E ts2145 HI*E No9 +4+el gil+El= a 9 NHr $zlz|e.g{(^JCE) ,g.z}oll ilgotolizl
I9"1{}4. 2(a) 3 (b) (c) a (d) 6 (e) e
**E ttz}"llE No Eztgl azfel N flzfz} 9l
sz11E >gEqIfl2
+. E6J Oz tszt"llE 4x2:s7HE O flzlz} 91r., NO + +-S:leql^] ¤4 +g +^ gzl-=, Ae^q =oe +^ g
zloilE szHg o flzlz} glq + r0zHg o gzlzl ?14. d ,l-=, grJg 3o9 &t flzl-E 44t4.
gzte+ 8x2
^JE ^Jzlql= azH9 No, Ez[9]^] azfl$ N 02 E^[ g+
:167Hq o flzlzt 9l+. +
^JzlqlE +rJg +9 N "f o
H,.l+zl gl o o-tr rHe ¤=J= !_= Bzl¤- EI+6J+.
a
t
>H=qFfl1
+i gzl-=, ei g
+
++:r.Hql^-l ¤4 ""9 +¤4 :7og
zl-= +4u+.
ry#'s ry
0
tm. ffi + ?
olq}*9lr] A zlxl Hl+Eol 9lErll, -aolE utpl zJol
Hfll(czHJrl rJ49 orzl 9ln, + 7I7l
"il
core+ ^JdE"J
ffiO#om H2O7l fla E.+ +EI+ 9lE+.
(a) t¤ "*= c++ HI*4g 4 o^ls.
+ HI¤¤e aql4q 6l+9 ^JCgoJ oJEqoKNHr= ¤ (b) g+(HI¤¤) txt9l flqot d+ o, EzlfE .tt,tle.
pI4 HI+^lg a^l
^"r4=q, 444 ilzl ?++. +¤ "*+
t\s qH 3.2
VA Et6J {lg{ tE q+71
tl.8 HJ8^lel Je= "f+^le.
Na(s) +H2O(/) +Hz@)
-NaOH(aq)
Ttl'J
+el al+= *tr|r*trI 6rE^l Zl+= "*+= +^J= H2o, _CH+(S) + _Br2(r) _CBr4(s) + _HBr(g)
NaoH, Na t^lgq +E6I+. Elq qI+4E +Bg "*= -
trll uE"J BrrE
+¤ol "*g Al+=?
ull, HI++seq .J+r+ Ei= +g *+r*+ 6tE^'l 6J+E (a) 1 (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) 4 (e) 6
4l+E Hzl ar. +l1 += +9 4l+E *+q 4a +Bg qtfl
> -H.= 2
"*++. Hl+49 +Bol g "*+qa=zl= +"J6lE BJHS tr|g 4 HI+^IE A|f= *"t HI*^IE +Bg "*+^ls.
El¤s oJqql 9l= g^9 flzlf¤
^]q
tr: Xol4. :4 (a)-Fe(s) + +
I q}*alql +Bol "*:4^el 4l+E dq++. -Oz(8')
O)-Al(s) + _HCr(aq) +
-Fe2O3(s) +
(c) _CaCO3(s) +
-AlCl3(aq) -H2@)
> H.= qlr.fl1 _HCl(a4)
+ _co2(g) + _H2o(/)
4ql.Jq HstrJ ^IolE Hl+B Hi+4g q-q=4 ar+. _caclz@Q +
3.2 lEEl''Js"E ¤+
olxll+El= ol 6lq^l ,I+ r}+rll 9E,rll zl-zl #¤9 Hl+(aq+ EI*, +6]] EI*, HI ¤i
s")ql q6}q olfl ao+9 ql6}q a^I6-l= a H4l ol+=E+61
"Jol^E 3o14. HI+ql 3I+
r
q HI*II El¤-^lel +Bg "*+= "Jql A+6114o| alzl ullEol4. + Hrll olfi H]+
+g .Jil 9lg tril r ^8CEol +9."J^l=
qltr.6J + 9lE+ 6|71 9l6ll^-loltrI. +q1l= HI*
Eql E6Iq {¤q= EAg ql+61-b qd
s^= s+o,} EiAq "JH}4.J "Jo}B=
4o14. qtr ++9 Eaol q$Tll Hls"6l=zfp go[E_fl, =Cg
++61 +Be H]¤¤.J"Jol el
+= a:r+ +Hzl +qI EI+ql Qla|{ olaqa3 + 9l+.
EEr-H.Is"rl E6|l HJt
EB E!8(combination reaction) ol t + 7l^l ol^Jq Ee$ol,tl E Hls" 6Iq * zlzl C ^dE
g ^Jc6l-= t}¤-"l4(e 3.1). ql= Etr trlrql+ ++e +71 +ql^l 5q-,r14 4g Llltr^J
¤+ap 4}sl "l:tllf9 ^JCfl+.,=. (lH 3.6).
zMg(s) + oz(s) 2Mgo(s) [3.6]
ol RI+g aB$ol4 E*Eol{lrJ Ele Elgg - +16ll
^JC6[7] ^l-Sg+.
++!+ El++ ^[olql^l EE] t]*ol "Jqg ql, 3.6q1^l EFol scEe ol$rJ r.xtl
^l
oltrI. olg A!} e+lrEg plql^le +C olgq d6[ql q4 aAq= 4¤ trzla]4 ,.-,-
(2.t4). u|:ujlf,$ *i7l Hlso ¤ ufl, u|:ullf,$ d4¤ $l u|:rJlf, ol$(vgz+)og q
r, &dE d4-= Eq^l &E+ ol$(6,-) o g g+. trI+^J HI* ^J{Eg Mgoolr}.
ol4 qqBe q}¤¤ol ++4 El#+.J aq+ +8e1
"lE t}*ol ¤!* t}*"Jzl, ^JdE
ol +EoJzlE g"l-B f gl"lo}6}4.
3.2 alqf EJ=sl=+ 97
x.3..t HJ_"q4.E6ll
fr8
=oJ
7i=l
aH Ht9
uO
Cao(s) + H2o(/)
-+ Ca(oH)2@q)
E6llEtB
C+A+B el zlzl HI*Eol *
zlzl ol^Je.l EeE +?]g+. "*g
2Kclo3(s) 2KCl(s) + 3o2(5) +6JEol ,IgqE ol;lal grlee Hl+++.
PbCOr(s)
-
-+ PbO(s) + CO2(g)
#
? C
I I
t G
I I
Mg
r.
e
+
,I" v, Y Mg2*
l
Y
/. 92-
olrLll6 alES 871 MgTl Ozel U3-Etoll qal HJB + eJ^{gl olgd aiiloJ
tt^ =+tr+6ll ?ltt. =el
Tlillel ,Jg:Lr Eco1 uEoltltrt. MgOzt oJEolTlct.
UJ- 88E
2 Mg(s) + O2(g) 2 MgO(s)
@ Na(AE)elS(Ef)71
=-ct
HJ- go7lE, r SdE9 Et-qt^lg +!?]71?
qFjl
IE
7f
3.3
?6J ,Jtrt 8"1 HJtel +E *+ HJ¤41 .\ 71
tlE U39 EE "*= HJa^lE l (a) 4E TlxllTt HJ8-g q gqLlts HJS, (b) rill EJ{t HIE¤ 7lE:g tttl
^le. =+al=+eal
gqLlts E6t| U3+ 7!^l 8dE0l EdEJtl. -.Jri1lel -d 7li1l) =-d
=
,iHtrI.
"llu HI+6J aol{r ^J45J + "J+.
(a) f99 zllglt E= ++e ¤eql^l ?iiloltrl. =+sfl BaCO3(s) -+ BaO(s) + CO26)
¤. olflz} E Itr ^8C¤trt. trI+^] HI¤¤g Li(s)e+ Fr(s)
> H= qlrill
^JcE3 ++rl El++ee qq flo
ol+. E+ olgc
trI-g HI* +qL aol &el3(r)ol ztgqflg Eil .Jq+
r.!l-e qltl-¤q. r-l$ olgE d6l+ 1+, + Li*ola,
= +¤ "*+ E6}] tI¤¤ 444=zi?
+e-fl+ olgel d6l.'= 1-, + F-ol+. ul4^i ^JCEel = Ago(s)
(a) Ag(s) + o(g)
e+E+4g LiFol+. tB "*+ +q HI+43 q-q=4 aq. (b) 2Ago(s) - --- 2Ag(s) + oz(g)
2Li(s) +Fzr6)-2LiF(s) (c) Agzo(s) zAg(s) + O(g)
(d) zAg2O(s)- + 4Ag(s)+ O2G:)
(b) +tI El¤E E+oi^]g naco,o14. fl#6J ulel rJol 9el (e) Ag2o(s) 2As(s) + Oz(S)
7l^1++ +4}gg 7I$6IH. +tilElq #$ {}ffi$ o1 -
> .H.= qlrll2
tEI Ea= ^Jt6J+. ¤xlle rl 3.7i+ rJol CaCogE E q-s q}+g +¤ "*= Hl+^lg r.A^ls.
all9"l caopl cor= u[{z}zlE BacorE E
^8c6Jr|. (a) lll *s+ +3(II)= 7Ig.J trll g^E ts6118trI.
ql^Jg + 9l+. Hl+
^8rd6J aetr
aH99 Baos+ co2=
n+ a+g E+ +7lgs 24q1 9loeE, eg EJ^lee
(b) 'J*"lE ++ sBg *71 *4.t}}e+ Aq] Hl¤¤ +tr}.
t "dA ut
T t:_ ELA u..fEi(combustion reaction)$ ++g *4zl B + 9l= 'il+Eq
L}]= UBI= t}*o14.
,l t- ¤^ HIgg +71 + ozE EI¤.EE ^l-&+r+. ^l 3.s= +sl+A qlqlE(e^e+ +i"Jg s
+6l+ Elq+E)g gi HI*E "JHI4ql 4E eq 64 * Q.s9).
pffiaz| t7l +ql^l gd¤ 41, olE=g oz4 Hls"6|g cozq H2oE ^Jc6.J+.. ol HI
8ql ge+ oz Ezlfq, HI*ql^J ^JC¤ Hzo "i co2 $x145 ol HI+e.l ¤Eql 4'J6I
+q+^E a^dql 9=6Jtr1. qE Eq g.ELl klHlq ^F.S6l-= E-e.qloJ(c3H8, .r.H 3.8)
=
9 fla= q-9. ^l-q-E +48 + 914.
A rg 3.8 E7l se4l?19
EA Eoll = EeqloJ
fl= q^ll CsHe(s) + 5o2(s) Jcoz(s) + 4H2o(g) [3.9]
(CsHaE 6"Jdlq tTlel # -
H8l^llf3 BTlelAl?lrL csHe
nfl .orel o3.o1
*C q]ql= co,e] Bzll oJ&+ tsi(co)7] "JEq{q. ol= EgA Si+r1 {}4. orE .}9 ,ll+
+ts6lal
el oz"l E4 Hr8e E+ 4Zl +;!6IE * dB(soo0ol4-r. +q= El^ll+ gr gzlolzl- ^gtE+. sd ¤iqB co,e} H,oRlg ^Jt6J+. +861
E
-^!
.J tl-. O showcake/Shutterstock
t+61^l ?J:= 6J. ¤i: +d S^= gElt+.
3.3 .l-E4al 99
\\ qH 3.4
IB $tE tB q+ t1.¤4ljr7l
oJa
ollEJg CH3OH(/)ol87l601111 EA-E| ttll gclLl= HJSE J-d "f= HJ8^lo+ r ll9.
3.3 I E|6J4]%F
s+q}44 ElqI HI+4e c*4 +ecg i*=+. + 3+ql^lel oI4 Szle+ slql H}+^lel al
+: d5+6J "&g+48+. ^l H2o= H2o E:^I 17HzI Aq+A zzilA H gzlel t7H9 {}
4 gzlE s.6J6}J 9l+g Ll-4U+. ole| $;.|alzll +¤ "*+ El8^lql^lE 4++ HI-&E
r+ 4CE9 .Jg +E}Ur+. rqB *4zl ¤Edql^l +46l= oJn+ Ez|q + E
^J'il4.J
gzlel += qtr sAlTl il*tt? +oJ H2o= "J5zl +1611 4++ ule f^4 4I^= Hl
=
¤.^l7lelr. ++H, HI¤¤ol 2 : 1 Hls +4 flz}e+ &^ ?lzl-= golo|-7 9l+= ag qB
,ll qt6J f flEzl-?
449 E4¤ ¤ +: $.zlEI, A%Eg ?IrlE ,Jd4eE flx}+ EzlE izl-E ¤
gz14
+ 9l+. EI4^J +qd ^JCge_l oJg gzl 9161] gs_6J H]¤¤g "&g 4l4I6IElE, E= trt
100 35f 6l-sf EJSrlrlS al+aJE
=E|.
H2SO4E Fw : 2(Hel Aw) + (SE Aw) + 4(Oel AW)
: 2(1.0amu) + 32.L amu + 4(16.0amu)
: 98.1amu
¤el^J, 4 flzlz}g i+d o16| a4l zlQTlzl HlgH6-lgq. *ss ol z4ql^"1= olEl+
H}4se flzla} &g HlgH6J 4.o14.
"J"J * EAg :+olalol Nae].
pol 949 elql^14 gg ql=, gdg g4elol plq4*
!+ aeq, ol a+= 23.0 amuol4. E * EdE :+el^lol +zl^lr+ aeH, +q^l=*g E
rlff(molecularweight, Mw)ol4rE +r+. qlE EH *s.61C6H12oJE tsxlu}9 +s-r+
?JL+.
qHl 3.s
El.*Jqal 4htBtTl
(a) #=slE +Cfl-= gzlE gzl"*g tr16}tr Elo+!=*g trl-g + e& ,J+q qlfl gts|= +q^l*e?
342.0 amuol4. (a) 310.2 amu
(b) 135.1 amu
C gxl D7n : 12(12.0 amu) : 144.0 amu (c) 182.2 amu
zzzl\:zz(r.o amu) :
119.J,z.l 2L.oamu, (d)278.2amu
(e) 175.1 amu
o gz} 11Zl : 11(16.0amu) = 176.0amu
342.0 amu > -H.= qH 2
(b) slq+^lq EazI 9ietr, gE HtE ot4 BzH= gE oJ +* E4e.l El44=Jg 4l&6t^le-.
4 flzt9 ,H+e|#6Iq Zl&ilE|. tr|+^l ca(NoJr9 4 (a) A](OHL O)CH3OH (c) TaoN
q^l?tg 164.1 amuol4.
Elqt^1$ at ,4+g
7l+ aC u{B8(percentage composition), + EAg +^J6k zJ $lzl zlzl
oJ E+qlEs.l
\I qH 3.6
/7 a¤ qs8 4hraPl
CrzHzzOr0ll.\ EJ^, +4, tag gg 4d '-{EEg /l^fdl,\l.".
6tlU (22\(t.Oamlu\
o/oH:
-ibn# x 100o/o : 6.40/o
ol +4= 9lE "d*d+: Szll $zl"oll,rJ cfllal E^llE + (11)( 16.0 amr)
+4lql 44 Egezl-e ,J4. oloO : x :
= lnZOuna 100o/o 51.59o
e4 ++^lol +qzla, 4 g^e] e+ a¤ E++g Aru ,JE 4 g^el E+gg 4^l q+6}tr 100o/oqot ++. +E *
alf $xllolcl.. ztE +E trl Bol ¤l += gle+, szte"rg +-tr *4E
llq 3.109 ^1.*6Iq +Tlgse+rl 9zI*9 Tzlt
^l
Al d oI4 a4 zlzl AEql^J ^]-$6[floee, BE +E ^+ +zt
4I6IzlE olz|. C12H22o,,9 444%I3 qlxll 3.sql^-l Al4I+ s {golfl "J+^H+.
ol
EI fleq, :42.0 amuol4. ol &g ^l-&+q olxl| .!l TIzl g > !e= qtfl 1
iql ql4q A1&6I71-E 6J+. e4I A+ql^l e^e.l e=* 4C EEgg g"tqlz}?
E0l (a) 8.54o/o (b) 17.LVo (c) 13.7o/o (d) 24.4yo (e) 82.9o/o
(1.2\(1.2.O amt\
: -iirn > .H.E qlril 2
"/rC x 1007o : 42.1o/o
a+ftit- K2Ptckq^l EQ$E A%I4C E+g-g +61^le.
102 33 atq Ff8,rltl8 al6leJ=
Egalfull, ol ixl+ oloflalzl qeg aEE izlol+. trlri^l ol+al gzt+ tszI
= =
gt^}gql^l "}-g rl-= trll 4= ++l.J 4^(dozen, r241)t+ r.-tr^(gross, 1447H)= q-
CE Bg ,l]+E tr|E ql ^F&.J+. E}+ql^l flzL ol9, +zl-= trIft +fl= dE* ezl
mol)olr1. rE(mole)3 Cq6I4 ++d Ffl fli rzq flzl t2g
^lgql^l E(mole, EzlE
ql fl= flzlf"ll 6l]'J6l+ Exll(fl2t, +zr E= :a Eisl qtr Exllol=zl)$ aj$al.= ${
el "Jss AE.Jr+. 4qrzl-==e ¤egtr+q ol +^l¤ 6.o22r4rsx 10239-E eA6|9r,
HigH6lH 6.02x 102301 g+. ol <I¤ ol$4otg 4elxl Amedeo Avogadro(1726-t}s6)
7lE6I7l $-lo[{ Avogadro #(Avogadro's number, N)-tr HE6}9r, ++ q+ +
= l-e oJ8S4.. ol =
++l(Ei E(inverse mole) s.t: EB(p.r mole) o
9oJ o.oz x 1023 mol
tr 9l=tri.)= E%r o.oz xroz3t\zl9l+g 9"loJ4. flz[ t mol, Ez] I mol EE qE a
ol=zl I mol$ Avogadro itrJ* r E,ql= ++Eltrl.
tzg flz[ l mol : tzg flz[ x to234
o.oz
H2o Ezt l mol : Hzo Ezt 6.02 x to234l
NOt ol9- l mol : NOt ol9- O.OZ x tOz3tl]
t= tI^J6I7l qeg
Avogadro AEE rl]+ iol4. 6.o2xro234el
++g zl*Eoll
3o1$eE t *4\zl eI :u1go1u1 g+. =
ol qlB"l+ Edg 6J
"JE +"ll +g6lE,
=E
et:oa1: x ro'a)H Ag + 9ltrl-.
qH ^l+=
3.7
F e,Jxls.l 7|.|+ qhr'61-?l
6[l'J
E{ 7}xl9 += Eeg rB, E, +z}+ *fl-e *r1a}g to23zH9 c flzt) .-CzHz I mol(12 x t0232fl$ c gz[)ol+.
^ll
7, ol+ql^l +d gzlel 7\+7171^\z+ce +g6llotd+. ,Jtr g+: flzlfql ulfllols_tr, 4 c g4E E+=
^lEg
^lEE +A+= "JolBelH '2C flxI
Al¤J r_+ t2 g, C2H2
I mol3 2 mol C 9lz|, CO2 9xlo23zllts 1.5mol C gzlql
I mol, COz 9x 10237H E^I + EIE ag Avogadro +E- ol
+6Iq +&dl]ot +EI. EI¤F6}sE. ?8 tdzt ¤4.
> ![B qlr.il
Eol I mo13'2C flzt rzgg oliE flz|$ zflfol+. III4
1
qBl 3.8
¤¤ fllf+e Hl.+71 I
E0l
-E-zlat
EO
=
r4^(dozen)= BrJol= avlq= ro*$.ol ++ol 12zllo14. rq+ +E6l *zJ tz49
E"J EXI
4e p Ttzl Eeel r motgl 6l1Bq= "&g trq
s 3.2q +Elu N4 N,i 5 zll'd¤ ^F*6J ql=q. qE E4q slq}4 BEI= Cq6|rll ¤E
ol-b lol +eBJg zl{ap 914. zt{ qB H}+ql^l dt t mol¤
^JCaJ+E Et}g 9l
g+lt 6lzt. oltrll ol Etlg ei g^l 1 mol(14.0 s)g e_ltrl6J+r. 6114g fE. gl4. :4
H2O E^r Ufl
(18.0 amu) q +g6l 94 fl+61-zl ?+sE, ol E lol 9ulatE ag e^ $z[ t mol, 4 N2(zs.o 9o1
4. glr*-.IB Nrz[ z giE .JH]4.J e]q]4 ¤4olzl rllEol4. ollullEEt dg ul6]El
Plmololl,\'i EE^lel
Avogadro f E, ¤B6l+ slq4 BEll= +E6trll ¤E6l+ 4o1 fr:ealr|. ql= EE N E= Nz4L 4
l6l-4.
ql^.lse E^16'[H oll4EEoJ ¤g !l6J + glE].
(
:1
a7l LIH
83.2 ¤q +al
-=.Ila! r-E
t= E6
=t6t/\tat =46
EEq 0l= EtEi^l (amu) (g,/mol)
"Jrteliel=+
e^ gzl N 14.0 14.0 N gz[ 6.02xrc2371
gl(fl^ltraJ .JPlel ral .Jgl) ggl. H}E BaCl2 208.2 208.2 (BaCl, alqralS9l O.oz x 10237l]
7[ +e+= 4g +s]6fal _" olg 6.02xrc234t
{ru'*
F ral Uge EEdtE ZtH (ct- olg 2\6.02xrc23)71
-Lr ¤aJ HzO E^[
^t017l'?lr[.
17ll= 2.99 x 10 23 gola, "dzlE e+g oJcz| "l +ca}el e+trE} rsooull 44E ag 7lq6I4. trI4^] olge gzle_l e=Jr+ e+
HzO 1 molP 18.0 golrf.
i
I
H2O(/) 1 mol8 18.0 golrl
r'
'T*
.1
AfB 3.10 r.ill(NaCl). o+i1l(H2o), 7lill(O, z1z1! 1 mol 4r-roll/.l 1 mol9 EaJ(EtraJE g^ltraJ E+l
?.1 trlqf^laJ4 +^1)l2JLl.4 /.|e= 6.02x10237Hs1 trl+^l E9l= s-J-slrl.
3.4 I Avosadro #el.E 105
qF{ 3.e
'.
Ee%r 4ltr-6l.rl
E%r'a^t
+4 Ee dat ql++E +4g EEr*-q-tr Hl-E+. EEB (rtJ 3.11). EllolEl= +tl6l+ clrlq=e +il EqElql EI
g islg + tl= 516ll dB¤+. {s= A7l +l"ll E + 4=ql, 4e d+= gla+ :llql HISq^l +eb Hg +
^lls-s,
ErJol gs6lr.. .J+fl$ sE%Iol ql g_s 4B 4o14. +C.J +zlql q?+ Bl=B ¤lzl-i "J¤fl ?rl¤
^]lsE Eq9-E
6ItrI. trf, +e + BB4,*41 e+fl +EE C^J C "*4+B+A+ ag Hzl "=F.l.trJ4.
^l^I
B EoEoJ 70-120 mgldrE zffi!9E. 3et4. r3l+ B
r.H +IzI= 49 E= d4 "J¤flol EElq4 *44(r¤
'#.), ?l+flol EElqqals,rllezl. 4a6}rll ^l-8:6rzl * 4
6J+(2¤
'Jr-). + a+ E+ eB +rlzl C^Jelurl 5r1. I
8^ln ol^J 6}zl ?jar 96o1 t26 msldL oltolE
^l^l¤
'*ktr +Cg+.
t
¤"& +a7l= tr5 3zt*9 4Bl^l 'F+ HI36l+ alts¤
ol 9l= +olql ¤Eg +.J6lq +46J+. a:r.q} adzlE
4E6l= atl{ tolE dq BsE CBE bE= glril g+ A fH 3.1 1
ffi]
EB IO Proxima Studio/Shutterstock
=¤7
-
{aJrl Eel EtJ
e+g Etr, +g eelsE +lt6l+ ae E9 ,llHg 0l+6r: 94 zlzl 4&q xl-+ ^t
+.J+. olfl al&g q-sq ,il^l+ ql4 3.10r+ 3.llql^J -E-*ol, ;(l-fl 6ll^i * (1.7¤)g
86il ++Elg+.
ql4l 3.10
faJg Ee +{-al7l
+ trEJ(C6H1206) 5.380 Sol E+= Zlt6l,\19.
6tl'J Elol4.
E+1 Eeg fts+el ElsFlol +q4a, E+E Z1416l+ + Il4 EaE Ee;*e rBg EE H+Id+ +l& 'J4¤ 4*
106 33 ale.i HJBTIBJB El+eJE
*tr}. c6Hr2o6E 54elg 180.0 g/molol4(q4l a.s). 5+= B"loF *4. E +fl= 4e4q. il¤.ql xil^l+ ziE
EOl CoHrzOe 1 mol:C6H12O6 180.0 Col+= +Al= 0l+61
q, 4%+qI9++.Jzl-= q-s=4 a+. > EE qlr1l1
^l*s"6tH
e&+4 AE(NaHCo3) sos gg p moloJzl?
c6H,2o6E E+ : (s.380 *,r*,(#ffi#) > H.6 qlrll2
: 0.02989 mol C6H12O6 E t.oo LqH H molel -$ol ?lEzI? (*, Eq "Js= t.oo
-rc qH 3.11
''; rEJ_e.EE,tEPl
"ffi ¤¤
Eu rJ#(calcium nitrate)0.433 molS P raJ?.!7l'?
a9 flzl=$g 6J6IE t0+.t umu9 *44*g ?=+. 4'J6J > lrE qld 2
(a) rlololsg(c) o.so mol9 4*3 q f.gqlTl? (b) g
s+.JEk 0.155 mol9 e*g H rHoJTI?
ca(No3)2$ rts+ : (0.a33 morcawodr(ffi)
: 71.1 g Ca(No3)2
eaJal "Jal+e] Et
Eg 4H* e=d.J} "Jzl+ ^iolE ga6l+ r.* q6Jg,*q(r=J 3.12). qBal 4=},] flzl
+E +&61-=zl oJolBzl +l6}q +4 Ed r4q1 *= +?]E fl2145 Zl&6ll trZt. +4
Ed 12115 dz}"l *: gol4, ol{ol 100%o ++6J *441 7fA6}H, tr]-Sr} rJ"l 4l&E
+ 9+.
cue nzr-f : (3 8¤")(ffi)(te+#;ryn)
: cu flzl 3 x 1o227ll
EAIAF Avogadro
r aH- ==6 9 El-*^lE?l
=T rLQ
^tE:
a.tts 3.12 traJ4 Etrsl El--qt^l trJ+lel +E s^l6l.= +^l EEel E+: zlc rfSol 6c0lrl. qal^1
THLJP rH E9] ¤eJ4 al-+^l -JPl= E=61= ?BFrf ,JLl
=sl =!9
3.5 trl-+ E4o-+ E: d--J^l 107
qHl 3.12
!%ros+El sxl+ rLE.fl7,r+ +6|.71
E0l
(a) cuH,rou rfli= c6Hr2o6 E CuH,rou$ +zI+ : (5.23 gl6IIr2O.,(ffiX c6H1206 6.02
l mol C5tl12O6
x 1oz3
ro23zfl!-Q zlg Ezl-+E z|!o[ o[EE, 7oj gg cct4r2.2 cqlE g4 gzIT| P zll ilEzt?
=zl
EIE-140I+. ql+4eB al+6tH slzoo:z.sxro-2 (a) 4.77x1022 O) 734xrf4 (c) r.srx1023 (d) z.ozxtf3
=
mol, 2.5x 10-2x6x 1023:l5x l02r:1.5x 1022 +4+.
> .H.* qd 2
t+l(Ezlas+ +E izlE zflf(rzll)| 4B6t+. g9li e4I +z\7l H zll 9tszt? ft) ol ,t1
(a) HNo3 a.zo
(b)+6J 93 (a)"ilr] +tL {}9l 6Hl]olqo} 6IsE, C+6Ial
Eql= &^ gxlz} H 4 "AY7l?
"*+. +E *zI 7l]+(37l])e+ tgi(o $4f)$ zflfz]-
¤E silE "J6rq, +'* gHlE 9zlr.l 4l&t ailH 4+.J Aizl otH +E gl+.
1.e89 2ql7lq7l qlEql ol 3rltlEsl del4g Hgch4-a qd6l acg + ?l+. ol El6J
591 ¤4olE flz}9 HIE Ll4q= 7l* +e a+E o|=ll flzlE 61971 Ell+ql ol ¤
^]-s-o
E^le *q.
dql^lg aC6l+ "JElzl $Ce f.zJ 3.t3ql eEqq 9l+.
qH
F tts{|+rPl
3.13
014-"._H^!(Hl0lEl-.J c)3 traJHltr c 40.92%. H 4.58%. O 54.50o/oE EEr'-.Jt[. 0[4-"rr{lel ¤-.J48 ?6|.119.
6llB
Eq ol^iE-4}q 4 SIE ee} EBg.l +qA 4le dEl4g aa6l+ %lHg fB 3.r3ql +qd 41 +41=
tl4q^l ,J!l^lg =4d+
foli $xllolr|. ^F&6J+.
E0l
(1) cqd Ea 100 gol gl+a 7ta6J+(^Idt qB zzlE e=*<tg ++). 100 gg otaa-E^Iq: +
'J+6lrll, ^l-*6llE
4 40.e2 C, +i &4
a.ss g, gui.
s4.so gol
1oo g 7r s,..or
fl^el gllzl
aao + 4 Alel EBI +> 416{,\l
r1+
4a! Vo
f Lxl -,
rdr
-;; E
ET ztt
^lB
(2) ++, 4 gi$ E+= 4lt}{trI. dezJ ¤;*el A"JEe* *+zl +16]l +E izf +z]|oJ gz} e"Jg ols"oJ4
3.5 | a|-+ E4ee g= d-d^] 109
r;il
100 g tlte!
34"1
-'-'+ .,\le+ --) 4 flaq H ==d
4 fl+el ----+. d:d^l
f afl^ IL.Q g
EH 7n
7tE I
He E+ : (4.s8cD(*H:?) : + s+morH
og E+: (s4.soso)(+ffiS) :3.4o6moro
(3) 4 g4q gf= zl-^J 1tg E+E ++q 7L+ a++ a+E EEI= ea+q.
g^el 100 g g^lah
----+ /.lee -+ 4 Sasl aad 4 fl^el EUI
+
eeJ % raH^ 9
lttl dE4
lxl
-to
7
^fE =T
Hel gHl= dE e^l-ql q= aol+:il BTlql= 1r+ q+ gl+. ald ol43 r+"1l rl*Ll. olzll r9 4 EHlql *6IE
^Lol7l-
c+= eg + et+.
C: H: O: (3 x 1:3 x 1.33:3 x 1): (3:4:3)
trI4^l dE^lg C3H4o3ol+.
91tr1. E* c3H403el a^d E+sg 4I4I6IE g4E E+g (a) COzCle G) COCI2 (c) Cq.s22Os.s2zClo.o+n (d) C2OCI2
4,H+ Tlvl&<kg eal ¤+. > .H.= filrll 2
> :e= qlrlll 6J+ z]]aq ollp Hla.t}(methyl benzoate) ::}.JE
^FS6l-=
4lrz}
^lalrld
,ll Elq +7lE
^l¤-¤
+^ALzJ+qsqlE c el
^le
s.32s gglts +^. 3.7s8 c, 0.316 g, +i &i 1.2s1 g
0.260 g. o 0.347 g, Cl t.537 col E+qq fl+. ol Eeg ol rlElqq gl4. ol E.49 dB^1.g .+q.JzI?
tEJ^lql^j+al^] +6Pl
"J"J E+ElEel Ez}*ol4 sd+g
.Jr gl+H, dEl^lsE+rl Ezl4g dril +6J + 9l
I 4.o14. EeE +rt^]q 4q q= oFt A4+ S4l+ ¤E^.I"il 9l= ot;t dzl9 4f
tsllol+
",- 12.0¤). ol H}li= dE^l%Eg +zle*4 Hli6ll^l +++.
cfult:im dE-o
[3.1r]
Cfuli:"-*:#H:,
ol4. ar+zlee. dE^lel ol4 ezlql ol a+HH= *.6110} *.3 Ezlrlt c6H8o6g +6I
,il g+.
110 38 ot-* EJ34 EJA 6t+aJE
qF'il 3.14
F +al.{ +I,1-71
fl8q 4aJ9E -d Etit+^oJ 0llllEJaJ!(mesitylene)9 t-.J^le c3H40lt[. d:d4oe 0l Et-Er'Eel E^PJS 121
=^1161.= =EE]
amuo lrl. ql/.l=aJlg E^l-^.l3 +1oJ7 l-?
o{,s !L,$
r
=+illoll
Oz'* ^lP
I I +
qH 3.1s
F H}. Sl{{se ttJ^l +6t71
4!g g7e= iiJntlEl= opl^s+g f.i.Sisopropyl alcoholE C, H, OE 0l+q^1 ?ltl.. ofolaEe=J giE 0.25s gE fl4
/.l7l COz 0.561 ga[ H2O 0.306 SE Efltl-. o[olaE+rJ g?Ee] t-d^l= ?6iAl9.
s.s I +* E4eE g= Ae! '111
Ttlff
Eq olol:rE+g "J7¤.g c, H, o-tr olFq4 9lr, gr q Eel zl]Hg ol+6J+. ol aelg ¤uL d ololis.-Eg oJ
+4 ar+ SC¤ core| Hzo9 oJg +z}^lg +61= ?g +9 cel H9 e%hol+. gI"JE + oE 4r*g plqlEg
=48 c, H, 09
^lEql fl=
Exllol4. + c, H, oE E+= zl4l6lot *+. e*ql^-l ce+ HE 4=*g U ;lolEl.
^lE
4q co2 + c9 :tsic+ Hro ? H9 ]B+E 9zl gal e+g'J+'JH. 9lxll :.tl9 EJH9 ol+6IE 94.
gol .rl.e9l 9l= E= +r= co,E E++qfl" Ee zl-g "l]4 "t trI* rlcg Er e+g 4l+6J + tl+
^l-ssH ^lE +
8dE CO2 CO: EEZJ 8dg co2 CO2 EITEJ + aot
v-l
Extat
xla! 44.0 g/mol g
C17|l ^lE
/'q
L=T
==d
g/mol ^le+
C trAJ
=d =T -
{lxll9l i"ttl al- ^l-+6tB
cg eq}g
cE :a++ : (0.s61 r*r)(ffi,Xffi)(ffi)
: 0.153 I C
EE +a= H2o.E H+qfloEE ilg q]4n+ r+ag + H aElg 4ltlg + gl4. s,o
^lE +
El-g d%rg
^Feo6tg ^l-E
azH9 #E. izl.ll "i4 n 4*91= rzll -ss. izlE
^l-*,+El.
8dE HzO HzO EtraJ 8dE HrO H2O EI['J LIol e^lal
rr- ,llP +
Ita! 18.0 g/mol q
HDI ^le+
UE
rr 1.01 g/mol+
= =6
HEg
=d =T =T
tri+^] c, H, o g+=
^lE 4
cel E+: (o.1s3s¤)(+#) : o.o128morc
^l-&6I=
Pql"J(cnHro)el ¤i= ^Jr+6l]
trzl.
zC4HrcQ) + r3O2(s) .----- 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g) [3.13]
o
HzE^l D| 02 E^l 17fl H2O E^l
g=g
27H
E^l +=
6tl4:
+
H2 4.0 g 0232.0 g
&
Hzo 36.0 bo
4g e=oll-6tat
(4.09+32.09=36.09)
3.6 I E-d "f= EJS4qe+El E= 5aJ4"J gE 113
c4Hr0 1.00 sol tsae- trI^J¤El= coz9 4F*g 4l4I6H Hz|. ^l 3.13q1 +4+ 4l+= ^t
*PI cru,oE oJol ^JCg Coz9 "Jq
qq+ *?lz} 9l=zl= "JEl f 2 mol CaHls
=tt.
6lEE C+Hro9 gA=}"J s8.0 g/molg r|
= 8 mol COroltl. olBl'* e+qi=JE4 +4lE
^l-s"
+6Iq cnH,o9 e.+g E+E *4lollo} aJ4.
C+Hro9 E+: (t.00gaaH6)
/ I mol CnHto \
\s8.ose4t6/
: 1.72 x 10-2molCaH16
r.q¤- +¤ *+ Hl*4etr+q slql=*E "Jzl-= ol+6}q coz9 g+E 4l4IqI+
./ 8molCOz \
COzg Ef : $.72 x r\-zmu|+ffifi
'\z*d CnHrn)
: 6.88 x 10-2 mol CO2
ufzluJ9._tr Coz9 Ee=+"J 44.0 g/molg ol+6}q Coz9 e+g:aE oe. Al&.J+.
ol s+& r+4e feJ 3.16q1 ,ll^l¤ 44 rJol +41tr ol+q4 fl4. "lele t4l9 +
^ll ^ll
tlg 6I+E ^lsE -tr^l6l.H q-q=4 e+.
HISrl E.l3ql^l aHlg oz9 oJg '1141617l +16]]^l= +B "*= HI¤:^19 al+E+q cI
q=JEzl +4I ?lzl-= oJotqo}.J+. + 2 mol caH16 = 13 mol ozol4.
A9 A E¤g-I so E|^
=a xI Ht.g/\l
uof Bel
A
r =89
aI- -+ + g
PT
0il^l Ael B9 + B EEq
g
AT
.+ El-J + B
=¤el
=EaJ 4l+
^tE ^[E ^t3
o
arB 3.16 HJSoll,'.l ^trEJ HJ
IR HJEBII ^8{Eq
oJ 4l{-61.?l
(l) c6Hr2o69 5e+g ^l-&4q c6Hr2o6E }J+E g+ ¤-6[q C6Hr2Oe9 E.fE HrOe] E+-tr El-E+.
tr Hl-E+. (3) H2o9 EA+g Hzo9 EiE fH+E El-E+
^l-S6Iq
(2) EI+=JE4 +41^l'J I mol C5,H1200 = 6 mol H20E-^l
E0l
(l) E^1, coHrzor9 rH+E E.e+g ^l-e"
6Iq E-+tr Hl-E+
A9 A aE "f= HJS^I Bel
A EEE B EEg B EtrE
-il1 =Eg
rLQ
+ E=trE
l-* oil^i AelBel + E ---+ E¤eJ ---> -all
=T zt+ =T
J ^tE ^tE
(2) tri¤r-s--e clo++84 +Al^l-J 1 mol c6H12oo = 6 mol H2o= c6Hr2o69 Ei= Hroq g+tr El-t+
^l-+4q
Asl gllol go EIE
fa xI BI.9../.l
uo- Bel
A EtrE
r all + EEaJ-+
rra
q==- oil^l Aet BE + B EEg
E
=eH
+ B EEg
-afl
r L.Q
,\lo =T zt+ =T
^l"E ^|'¤i
H qEl 3.17
B u$gal^8{Esl.J 4lt6Pl
aillanal-alE(rithium hydroxide)g ++,!011^l ?ToJolEEe-e L||Ee olttrtEJ^= 111716l.= rll,\fEEJrl. + lEl.alE¤ olti
Et EJ^et HJSstot -rr.ll EJ^J alfi(lithium carbonate)al.-4ill EE 8¤-drl-. +ts[ alE 1.00 g0l E+61'= 0|t!a|. EJats H raJETl?
LioHE r+ eelol i94 lil, corgl -f.H eeJg 41& LioH)= lts+ ErJ ++= aql +E6I+. trI4^l BE a
6l+ EzllolEi. rB 3.16q1 il= E4lel H{} 4Ag 7]r, + o.ete I coz= LioHg oJ¤- zl=-e--E ts
^ll ^F8 ^l+ ^l-8.+
g Ell 4B6t+. +E iz}e} sgE 4e4+.
4q Ezll= + 9l+. r+41 H+ql^l= LioHE Sa-J
ol
(o. sa + re. oo + r.ot :23.e5 g/mot)ol 9s-a14. 2+41 H+ql > ie* drlll
el+ H}+4_e_tr+q ciq=jE4 +al4g iaEqoJ(c3He, :aB 3.8)g s4el rtC+
^l= +B "*+ ^t \+%Iql
^FSq
+++. 2 mol LiOH - I mol COr. 3*Zl H+ql^J= Corel flEol4.
"JHI r.00 gg e_Eullolol B46l+ Ell ozE
ge+g t2.0t+2(r6.00): 44.01 g/mol
=
H rHol
^l-s+El. ^Elq=7I?
E0l (a) s.00 e b) 0.726 S k) 2.18 g (d) 3.63 g
02 7 molol eI* azl9l HzE 9d6l A.Elg rll (z mol 02-5 mol O2):2 mol
=zll6}u-+
o2z| fxllal 4,o14.
+ iHlq= HI¤+3 EUlEltE(limitingreactant)olrlz 6Jq. r ol+
HISql^l .sd6l
ulEol4. r elel += HI*EE¤ r+* HL
^JCE9 "&3 AC E= ^lle6}zl
ol Eeol
=
*E(excess reactant)ol4r Etq. ql= EE :a 3.17q1^Jz]H, gt lt= H27| Sd6l A,ul
gH **ol H+sE HzE 6J4l HI¤¤ol+. oz= 4* HI¤¤oloe H}gol H+flg trl
Bril g+.
{H rISolE tril* HI+EE "Jq qq HI*q^l +
^il+ol S+. d4lE
EI.$ol
^l4g
116 33 El-+ BJSrl-EJ8 6t-+aJE
eroi
=
:{eI
:.i-t cga {
1
+
e
l0H}el 7 02 10 H2oel 2o2(H2 ErE fla)
AfB A.t7 -dXl HJBE HzE eJE6l AElElo+ -dzl EJ-olrl. or= HJBOI S=E + sfz H7l rrtlE
0llaBF HJBE6lrl. HzO9 $¤aJe -LfZl EJ- Hz9 Soll q4
=!Etf
7[zl r]E]ss
^lEg ^l-8.*+.
rq'+ dHlg +¤¤E "Jr] ^Jcg ^J^JEel o]g 6.J4l +
*Eq E6ll ,ll+g *=+. qlE EE 4zl 69lrJ ¤^ Hl*ol "Jqg ql &^E +E
oJql
6|E.tr 4=J *¤¤ol4r B + gl+. zl5" il¤ gq6IH E+ql 7]+ilol l_+ 4_E.qH ts
4 HI*ql^lE *4 HI¤¤'J Ee.zl EF
^qqfloE-tr 4s"il-L 4zl6J 1o14.
:H :.rzoll ql= trlil7l
+qd z[_eE Xql -9.lta]l Bz[.
2Hz@) + ozk) +2E2o(g)
HLg
uo z.lu.
.
l0 mol 7 mol 0 mol
uo 6'
HL_Q- -r. 0 mol 2 mol l0 mol
B7l 6sl NzE tr4 EtEtEe Hel6lE 69.-d 894 rEl3, Nzel HzE HJBrl7l NH3E trJE= aolq
Nz(g) + 3Hz(g'-------+ rNHs(g)
Nz 3.0 molal Hz 6.0 molEtsEj NHg E E0l 8¤=J + ?1ts7t?
Etl*
E4 HI+q ^F+q= 4 qI¤¤ Hzq Nz9 .Jol +qzlr., ^J HI¤¤E .Jq 4+ 4l4I6J+.
cE Nu,g olg 4l&6I= E^llol+. +zl Hl*E Exllol Eol Nz 3.0 molg Sd6l 4Hl6lts q g.s-+ Hz9 EiE
+.
= El-gr+ eq.
HI¤¤ol $d6l HlsooJtrlH, += Ql Hl*Eol gEI
4lEf 6J
Ef = tr.o*.tl;)( 3l moHq ) :
mol Hz'
Hz9 e.omornz
4 9s-"}z15 4l4}g + 914. AllI*.J+ +qd o3$ ul.:z
6Iq qtr aol 6J4l *¤¤"JzlE ae + 9l+. relH +41
3.7 Efzl EJSE 117
H2 6.0 molE}+qd,o Ir.E N27I Solzlzl d9l urzl Ez'l Nz(s) + 3rr2(8) +2NHs(a)
i4l$ 4o1p tr_, H27l +4l elt=ol+. tr14^l H2el oJe-+_ HI* d: 3.0 mol 6.0 mol 0 mol
^JCq= NHr9 ""t9 4l4l* + 9ltrL EE+(Hlg") -2.0 mol -6.0 mol *4.0 mol
NHsg E# : 6.olllat:H;,(i#) = +.omorun,
BLe- 6'
JO -r' 1.0 mol 0 mol 4.0 mol
> E=qF{1
NH,g "$g 414}ts + 9lg B olq4, eI* I BoI
^JC¤ ,ll+g za mol4 tlA gA Hlgoe *ll r+=J HI+
15 molol
9l: HI+Ee] .JE 4&g + 9l+= aql ++4+. E HI+
E.g +9oli1, HI+ +ql H molol tsdlz}?
z7\4 H29 "Jol HI+ + Nr9 oJtr+ q "*zl"J, +B "*=
2 CH3OH(/) +: Ozk) z COz@)+4 H2O(g)
E}*^lql^l Hr9 4lfzt 4 zzl4lE9l HzTl6JAI HIe--Eol -
q= aql ++6I+. (a) CH3OH(/) 9 mol (b) COr(g) l0 mol
+et sq +* qlolqE s_E6ll +e_tr f+6I+. 3 F{.Jzt? 0) Alcl3 P Eol ^JCEEz}? (c) Hi* *"ll
r+e} Hi¤¤ol H mol Bof glEz}?
=
qHl 3.le
F sJAl U8EE+E1 EJEq{ ¤tEq S 4l,t_r-6l.rl
4 Eeel EA+g 4 HI¤¤E E+¤ Zl.ilqlq. +9 Et4l Hl*E nrg "Jg iEl¤ oz9 ""Eg. Zl&q+ qlql
^l*&6}o1 E, + 9t+.
osos]r,)(ffi,) :
^l-&¤
uzg Ei: z+morHz
oz9 :tsf : (7 4 m*tr)(ffi;)(ffi)
ozg 5f : (lsoosq)(ffi) :47motoz : t.2x 103g02
+e "*= HI+^lql^J 4lf= o, I mol%+ H2 2 molol g9-6t HI*ol gt + Bot ?lE orE ¤*3 az19 olql^l iHlg
"&g u a+rJr+.
47:e4 mol 99614 . Hrzl Z+ mol"J ?19Etr EE OzL HI 1500g - 1200g: 366t
¤¤ tr + S.jr., r14,t] orzl-r+"* HI*EoltrI(.J4 Hl+Ee >H=qll{l1
7l* 4? o}e-tr ¤7l]61+ aol olq4= aql+E6I4). ¤+¤ a$ol Hl^e+ EI+61-E g%l trIolsEe+ 4oJ d{
?qd Hr(f,al HI¤¤)q "Jg EE o&9 al ql Hlr^1o.1 Hl^!+ aE(caes)o1 r34uo.
^l-s"5Iq ^Jcg ^Fsq=
118 33 6tqt UBrl BJB al-+aJ=
qH 3.20
HJtsl ol.F4 ++aJrt EJ.I!E +¤¤ Zltra[7|
0lrl::t(adipic acid, H2c6H8o4)g LtgE 8d'0ll/.l.E6l.= EtrE, .3g4oe /.pl=e-dlAll?.!(cyclohexane, c6H12)al-tlael-sl u
30_e E= + ?trt.
2C6HDU) + 5 O2(9 zH2C6H8O4(0 + 2H2O(g)
(a) goe u8E +=d6lgr, - Etzl HJ-olatr 7186fl Hx[. olrlEtlel 0lE4 ++aJe gEt
^f0l=tr-dl^il?]zs.o ^t0l=E:dl^11?]01
E7l.? P) trJ"J ol'tlE{J 33.5 gE eflq$, oftlE.llel trj.llE +ifig gEPJT[?
6flff 1E
E4 3+q HI*44 aJ4 HI¤¤q oJ(CuH,, 2s.0 g)ol ;q (a) olEzl "JEqzl= olqs&el 4l4I¤ "JeE.
+=*g
A+. +d CCE"J H2c6H8o49 olE4 +5"J9 4l&6}r, -zH :.r6ql +48 E++ 4Ag ^F.&6IE 4l&g + 9l+.
a:.s s9 dxlls Eflg tril q41e ;# 4ltl.J+. (b) rl :.r+E: qdE +=¤¤ 4l&6}r. +qrl d
^JdE ^l-&4q
^-ll
+="J.(33.s d4 olEzl +==o}g Hl.il+4.
E0l
(a) olE4 +5'*e +-94 eq
H2c6Hso4e rB+ :
:
(zs.o sa6+ri) (ffiffixffi)(ffi#)
43.5 g H2C6HsOa
(b) uldlc +=Eg Elg-r+ a+. qdE +--;ffi-tx 100o/o : ** x r00o/o :77.0o/o
eEg6stq
Et+ HJ84(Eg H 3.1tr) slq}^14 slq} HI+^l
^I.19 A=J4 + *+ sl¤t uf-al(chemical equation)3
HI*^IE "J+q Ag +E
Zlql ql6J ¤*3 aee*=(stoichiometry)ol4l ++. slE*Eg ?zl¤ol +4lilg Eq +E+. HI+45e s}+^lq^l ezF= HEI
T]]Lj + 6I+b EeJ E= E4(law of conservation of mass)9 olq4, 6J H!+E s.!=t(reactant)z} U8E(product)
¤!g6J ^l7l= aol
E, qtr H]+E ^J^dE e=JE .Jg HI¤¤ e*9 'J+ Aq= a el s|+^-l *q 4+E Eq +Bg "*+tr}.
oltrI. e++ HI+g dr+ +ql 4 gal-= +.J-J i_e 3x1.3q. 7q at+ uSq E+(3.2tr) ol *ql^l rI+= HI+el ¤EllE (t) +
120 3Lf +q EJSrlHJS +-+aJE
7I^l +*-3ol 6J ++E ^8CEg ^JC6Irll a6J6I: ee uJt aa"J + ilq. r Eeol tsxl-q BqlE z}¤alql .+xI6.In, Ezf
(combination reaction), (z) d ql*Eol F zltl ol^JE C^JEg e*"1 94zl ?lsE, r E49 Eu|43 dEalee+q AA6J +
++q^li EEll ElB(decomposition reaction), (r) $1144t1 o1e1 *4. ¤a B4e +r, +^, E=/r4j1&^E Eqlq+ s+qlE
g;.fal rlaJgol 4}4el HI+6Lq co2e+ H2o=
^JC6l= ag E4 I ¤elg a{6l+ tll +E+ %l$ol+.
^l=*E]E
E!8(combustion reaction) 4.
ol
aE "*= u8^lee+E1 ets gHqE EEet -dxl u3E(3.68,
E[-st^laJ(3.3tr) flzt=]g ol+6]H +q]^14 +¤ +q] H]+^l 3.79 EE ,HHe Elq,I H]+ql s6JE H]¤¤-==r+ ^JCEEE *ql
es+q g3 a'6+4 aBE Eg + 91trt. + E|6JEq 4Et^t 4"J "JE 4l4}q ^FSB + 91trI. +B "*+ HI+49 4l+E=e HI
*(formula weisht)g r s}+!g +C6I= 4 flxf9 flzi=J ¤¤4 ^J^Jggl tr-ql4 Ef= xll*{}+. {} u*gg fts+e+
g +.F+ aq. El.J Elol-alol tszlalolH, : si44*9 +rlg El r*+E 4lt6}elE. +d Hl¤¤E rBg HI¤¤
"J ^JCEE
(molecularweight)olelz 6J4. g^leJq EzI*9 ol+6}q F+qt I E+e ++4I6J+. rq+ tB "*+ HI*4E 41+# ol+6}q
E9 flA+e(elementalcomposition)¤ aA6J + 9l+. Hl¤¤q g+E ^JdEE g+e +^I"Jtr|. ElxlEoE ^JcEE
Avosadro +et E(3.49 qB Ee I molS r Eeg sF+^l Et g+= ^J^JgE
rH o-e, +4}qiEi.
$lzf Avogadro *(Avogadro's number, 6.02 x 1023)EJ+ +z116l+ t!z{l Ettt(limiting reactant)g H}*ql^] Sd6l dulqE aol
4ol+. gz| tszl, ol99 r molgl EI{} A"*(E{*(molarmass)) +. "J4l t]*Eol Sd6l rElqE r HI¤+ B+i1. tr+4^] ^J
¤ zH o + E^l6I= r E.eg slolal*o]4. ql= Eq HroE E cElE ^J^JEE "Jol 4lt¤EI. tl*9 o|Eq ¤*(theoretical
ta.o amuoli, tr++^J HrO 1 molS ts.O goll 6ll"J.JtrI. yield)e 6JAl E}*gol E+ HI¤-S trI Zl4Ig dCgE olol+.
^l=Jg =
HrOg Eer.l3 ts.o g/molol4. tI*9 dz] +5"*3 olEzl +5"*!.+ "J^J zJE+. 4.u!E #t
(percentyield)g dxll ++*r+ olE4 ++"*g HlrL6J Tiol+.
el-4 E40e E= d:d^l(3.str) qts EaE de^13 r Ed roo
sol ¤xlati 4 gz}9 ^Jql4 g+= 4lt6}q 4c E+ge+El
Z O HF9-AI
OJ'r- l- o i
g^9 (Sa9 flxHxflae] gxl=d
.
=4 ***: E+{}EE +44"* x l00zo t3.l0l ol 49 s+6Jgql^l 4 fl^g ee; EIeSg 4lt6l+ ^lol+
s1*Es1 l.= gis1 Eggsl s3100%ool4.
oJ+ E4l
tso..eE= 7flLJ 3.s f,zl4l9ld +Eqag EJE= Eil olulk&?l
^F&q= =?+ol{
3.r Hl¤¤ A(+=-.4)eI Bee^q) HI¤e q-g :1Br+ AEI +zI EB
Gtycme)e trl-S
o e +49 + 9l+. [3.3¤, 3.5e]
oo o ^lolE r^^ls.
t r, OO
(a)tszFl9
(b) g4+g a46}^le-.
t.t I (c)
(d)
34olt ^l-t 100.0 g"il Ei
416I^le.
e^el e*
9l=
=4ol41e]
Bqe.$tg 4l&6}^le-.
E+¤ 4l
!i: o a o
& Oo
oO Qa
lp rn
1.4 El-¤. f.Bg EEI+^= Sd ¤46Iq ^J^Jqb Co2e| H2o
3.8 g+Ipl e4= &4e+ Hlg"6lq ohlcl eA= Bd+EI. E+g
e^IE dl}g +Elu aolq. ol +sl+^E dB4e +E.J rB4 Ag Noq 02 g*Eg ^J4oll ez}. +¤.q *g N
tl? lt.z9)
g. se4 +e oE +4u4.
Go* ot-
(a) HI*ol SAgfl+j1 7lA6iH
^JCq= No, E^IE +
LO
=1
a c , (b) +41
(c) dull
HI¤¤e +q"J7I?
iSelol zsot4B. H]*+ 44e.1 +4g
o ALO
..-l.--I
=461+
122 33 al-+ UBT1HJB al+aJg
ool
o oo
(c) r4l o|$ frtr$ ql&r+ Hl*61-q +i
++"lg "JEtrI.
+lggl .Jg Eql zlalH ofol.l!(H3po:(oq)) f*"1
(d) .-Iill
7l8le+ +4I ol¤
O ro 3.16
a4l++ eoII)+ i?zlE "JE+.
trl-getr 4 ¤Eq ql.J+B "*A ElEl HI*4g ^A^le.
EFq Ela^l "J ,JEEI Et-* E!3(3.1tr, 3.2tr) (a) 4ltF l r* 7vll7l E+ qI+6Iq Elt +.lg
"J5trI.
3.e 4 E4lq ql6l '**' .E='EB'os B-61^le. (b)++ Bd(B2s3(s))71 Er+ 496}rll El¤'61"1 +,lI
(a) ollulzlz|E=qE+ ++ HlAel t¤g *+4. (H,soJ +'-l!+ ++ +4 Tlillg EJEtrI.
(b)
"J'J 2 o:(8)
-- 3 ozG) HISol SAqB, HI8 d orE (c) +r-g(PH3k))ol gA6Iq d4}s+ #zl*
EI=.
^i.Jg
A-;*g HI*I o,9 4"*+ AEI. 4.
(c)'E dl4 U*'Hro(l) - Hzk)+ozk)e.l +Bg "t+E e^I +e(r)g 7Ig6tH tI+ +e0r) r.ale} olt
(d) ir.a-ll
H2O2(l)
- Huk) +Ozk)o14. al-31e1&a-a 3a11gq.
3.r0 s+q HI+4E #Bg *+= q\ 7l* 6s6J talb EI¤¤r+ (e) 74E E43 +t *En+ Hl+6lq +4I +4(ID ++'-l
-
3.12 ++ H}*^lgl +B-s- *+^ls-. (b) +tl uffi$ zlpolq t}e} Hl-Er+ ol4}sl ts^ 7li]ltr E
(a) Li(s) + Nz(c) LisN(s) 6l]¤ EII
-
(b) Ticl4(r) + Hzo(l) TiOz(s) + HCt(aq) (c) ,'-5|olfll(QHa(/))g +71 +ql^l ¤46J trll
trElf^
(c) NHaNO3(s) .+ Nz(g)- + Oz(S) + H2o(g) (d) qolqlB qlq(cH3ocH'G))E *zl +ql^l s^g q
(d) Alcl3(s) + Ca3N2(s) .+ AIN(5) + CaCl2(s)
3.20 El-g 4 a+q 4B6I= +¤ "*= +El HI+4g .a^le.
q* HI+{g t$g "*+^ls. (a) ri ++ol o,(g)e} e+ HI¤¤ B trll
(a) AIaC3(s) + H2o(/) Al(OH)s(s) + CHa(g) (b) tlpiS(r)9 zl.galq e4 t^ 714l-e.86il6J trI
-ers(b) CsHloo2(l) + oz(S)- COz(g) + H2O(8)
(c) Ee*9(CaHroH(l))ol +71 +ql^J B oll
- +
(c) Fe(OH)3(s) + H2SOa(a4) Fe2(Soa)3@fi + H2O(l)
(d) MggNz(s) +H2SO4@q) + MgSOa(aq)+ $Ha)2SOa(a4)
*t\+ql^J g4g oll
(d) 4lE-rerr-FB ollel(crs,ro(I))zl
- 0f^llE.|l ol0l^trJ!=
itEt^laJ(3.3tr) (uLlLf-Bt)
3.23 +g EI*EE El44+g +6}^ls. 3.2s q+ EB oe. +El.J 4 EHIEq^l ts^el e=J EE$S 4l
(a) d&(uNoJ 0) runon (c) ca:(poa)z (d)4g(sior)
4l6f^le_.
(e) *p] aE (0 silI re¤. (rr) (g) ,d:¤E].J
\
0
3.24 cl+ ++EE El+^lr*g +61^le.
(a) oI^lE+ ei(N2o, *+ TlillE "Jq4 9eq, ilr+ql^l
"IA4le ^l-S¤+.)
(b) HI3&(c6HscooH,
^FSq=
4+ %I+rlltr Ee) (a) (b)
(c) ug(oH[ (E]rLil^lo]+E gC d+)
(d) a +((NH2)rCo, e4 EIEE sI*E)
o|,rlle{!
^h+q:Ht++6]q gql Ee)
(e) ololi¤lB(cnaCozCsH[,
t I
3rs rlg ElElE.ll^.] 4149 e=t E+Sg 4l4}6}^le.
(a) qefl(CrzHreNo3) {
!
o) ?qloJ(cr8H2rNo3)
(c) nTtoJ(cr7H2rNo4) (c) (d)
(d) ql E r+^lol=fl (c22H24N2os)
(e) qzl+tl(c{Heaol3) Avosadro +st E(3.48)
(0 Elz"1o1 41(cuuHrrclrNrorr) 3.ze 4 Erllql ql4'# E='All'eE B6I^ls.
+ E^l¤ giE e=6F q++g 4l4}6}^le.
(a) I mol9 99lb t mol9 'J 44zl 914.
3.26 L+* slqlE
(b) 1 mol9 E3 ts.o go14.
(a) o}^ll gql(c,Hz,sd oil ^]-sqE zl xll)oll.! s+
oJqe)ql^l (c) E IB^IE ¤r*3 rs.o go14.
(b) oI^?-E-^(HC6H7O6, ulolE|"J C-e +4
(d) NaCl(s) I mol9lt:2 mol9 olgol 9l+.
(c) *& "JEE:((NHrrso4, ea HIEE
^l-.8'q=
¤e)ql^l
AL
-_T-r 3.30 (a) r2C 1 mol9 e=6tg H r+oJ7t?
(d) Ptcl2(NH3)r(^l^=4H(cisplatin)ola-p 6l+ ++ s.B (b) '2c I molglE P z1l9 E4 $zltl o)lzll
q? rl"g. gzlE 7H+7I6zlop +^.le +g61^ls. C
^l"+)ql^l
qc EsE)ql^l ^lE5g.
6}al gr., +TlgEel szl-*g
^l-&6lq +a6I
(e) 9l^trEI4olg(C,sH24O2, +BJ Ahlg
(0 a^Iol4l(c13H27No3, aql n+ql^J ql+ *g^IAL|]b +.J -331^ls.
gql^l ts^ H2O 0.50 mol, Na 23 g, N2 tszt e.o x 10232H
H
3.34 Avogadro i
".H9 lCjE Edg El+ql 9i= 3E 2l00EJ B
9 tszL qz| qflolqlll +E"6tZl ++q 7]]7]]"J$
C o gE4 =48,
BAI qE p olE El+ +ql +^J4I(cDp)(201sLJ
il
H
UPJAJ
(b) Ho- C_ C- H (Hl-Jat-d) 4l v.qrgz g4)r+ El.il'6l-^le-(cDp+ +zl9 xll+e+ +q
/
E + ^l4. TIilolEl.).
-C
H H q¤¤ 4l&6}^1e..
(a) f,=E^(CreHzzOrr) 0.105 mol9 r+ B9l e*
-3.:s
124 33 6l+ tISTluJB EIalaJE
2.0x 10-6 g/Lol4. ;Lzl r L* g+ HtolHe-l EiE gut.J 3.s4 4g 4 EeE dE44 +^I^lg +9.J7p
7l? *711 LB ge+ HlolEel Ezl45 gotoJz}? (a) ffi'-i'J olHEe{lg c75.69vo, H 8.80%, o ls.sl%g
Ee Erl 125
rss (")- gHlzlt #zl *,l]t EFql(toluene)9 tst +^l Ag 3.62 ar+{l+ Effi(potass'um superoxide, KOJ4 CO2
^lolE
CO2 s.86 mg!.}HzO 1.37 mgol4. ol n+E-Eol Eiel HI¤+ trI-g+ e+.
+^"J !].+*+8, dE Fq,.Jzl? 4KO2+2CO2+2K,CO3+3Oz
^le ol{e +4^l7I n+ +Aql fl= aeE, oz$ E
(b) ulalalol Eq 9lb TlaEq^l H^llE .J + 9lb Hl ^l-&61+
E(menthol)e C, H, oEJg-e ol+qaE+. HIE ^ltr ^J^1717 cozE Sfd4.
o. r00s g9 ¤d E46IE co2 0.282e g4 Hro 0.115e g
g Eb+. HIEE dE4g +9."Jrl? HIEE Ee%iol
g/molol4E, +zt^lg +9,'J7P
156
-r51
'126 38 Elqt tjJ8rlHJB al-+aJE
(a) tB "*+ PIE H]+4g,, ^ls. ql+ Es+ 4B= ts6 Exll r.0s9
^lE +6|^ls(+ql.Jql
(b) +i a.s00 g¤ "JEzl ?l-J +4+ a+q rts++ gEt +a6I4).
oJTl?
-dltHJ3E(3.7tr)
ts7 o1z1o1=EltE(NaNr)e n|s7ll +44q 4-FiI qqEg
L?3 (") +41 Hl¤¤nl4* HI¤+E +q= aqdl^le.
+gzl"JEtrI. (b) 6J Hl*ql^l Bdg olg ql .J4l Hl¤¤E
.+ ^JCEE 'Jql
2NaN3(s) 2Na(s) + 3Nz(g)
goll^l"J AAqE^l ¤E6I^le.
5ol ^JC!Ezl?
(a) NaN: 1.50 mo19 E6fl6IH Nz H
(c) ol: slqlEol .JAl HI¤¤.Jzl= dq6}= 7l+g ril
0) eA Tlill P rtsol gs6J7l-?
cg ^J^J6ldlH, E+19 d=Jol ohqq E+E te ol+= ¤¤61^le.
10.0 NaNe
(c) d^ TlxllE trJE7I t.2s e1L4P,10.0 ft3E B+ 21i115
3.7a (a) trl=s +qE aE4^le.
EsqH NaNr H rgol gg6J7p
ol${ f-$, d4l+s-e}, qdea=¤
3.68 7]¤flq +s CEoJ +Elt(caH,e)e.l $d+ gA Hl¤+ 4
(b) ell H]¤.ll^J dzll i5*3
olEE +E-E*B4 6Jt 4g-z}?
s4 e+. (c) EI*9l.tJ r10% d4liFEol tll-apll
2C8H18(/) + 25Oz@) l6CO2(g) + 18H2O(g)
-
S+apg
(a) 9EloJ 1.50 mo19 oz H Eol gs6J7I?
.14 rflq +ElU oll+g(crHsoH)r+ orel g++9 ^J4
6,il H zI
O) +q'J to.o gS gi6l-EH 02 p:.9o1 gs+7p -3:s(a) ql+¤r-l^l^elE +B *+ +q HI+^lg r^^ls.
(c) 941.J¤ 20.cql^l lJE7l 0.6e2 g/mlol4. 94loJ rs.o
G) t4 HI¤¤e F9..JzI?
cal(B+ SE Br r7l)g g46IqE 02 q rBol gs
6l-719
u't l
(c) HlSol $A¤ +ql tsoI9l= co2, H2o, c2HsoH, o2e-l
Ez14y 4+ gEloJTlz
],:eg +q 0.550 mm, E4 r.oo cm2s-l o35u1;, E.olol ueu3q-
++ rBr+ zJol e}*olq H_e.EJsl "JF"IH ^JdtEI.
a o
(a) rl-*t "JFultse q g"Jrl-? (g+ults9 "Jsb z.rss
g/cm3ol4.) o. s
(b) oJ.f-ulEo1 $dq HI+6}E EEI,J9+.J+olts q rqg .t o
^JC6l=zl-?
o o
3.76 oI4 rHq +4t lr+qloJ(c3H8)4 orq eB+g
^J46l]
tr^|.
(a) otrqloJ44I4e+9 +B "*+ {A tsJ*^lg r
Lr O) e4l HI¤¤e +9t7I?
^ls.
(c) H]*ol $aE +ql tsoI9l= co2, H20, c3Hs, o2E +
gu}"Jzt?
^l++44
3. 70 +o I
E -tr-=;l r,ll fl (nitro glycerin)$ ul-o- $ zio I +ts6J+. oao
o & a
4 C3H5N3Oe(/) +
r2Co2@) + 6N2(g) + Ozk) + 10H2O(J:)
o a; o
(a) ufoleg-q^]lfl(EJE=l.sez glmL) 2.00 mlzl. g
fa
^ltr.
$:.IE zl4 P gol ts^J6l==7t?
(b) +g aaql^l 4 zlz)l1 molol ss LE ifzl6}H, zl4l H
L7f +5qzl=7|?
o
(c) *891! H r*E Nrz| uJ$olzliz|!
3.77 ?*q ol4l+ tr^el Hl¤+ 4.q-r+ Aq.
"3i1
qleg(cH3cH2oH)
-o1o1 fl4ofS klsl gol
I 1367 ^Eq
2NaOH(s) + CO2(3) + Na2CO3(s) + H2O(/)
g^J6JEl. ql+S zrs.o col fl48 Ell g^J6Fb g9lHzlE
-rn El+'$trt{, q¤ aol
NaOH 1.85 mol4 COz 1.00 molol
+6i^19. +Zl HI¤¤'J7P NazCo: H Eol rJd4iz}? Hl+ol SA
3.72 oq4l +qloJ(cH3(cHr6cH3) l molol 946t8 s470 klel g E + 4=JE Hl¤¤ 6 BoI9l= "Jg H E.J7t?
ol g^J++. 9rll9l t.ooo galol $4p trll B^Jq+ gqlq
3.78 +t+ "JF"ltsg +4ir+ trtg-r+ aol HI*'J+.
+71-E+ E^ll 127
2Ar(OH)3(s) + 3H2SOa@q) Al2(SOa) z@il + 6H2O(t) 4 e+ 3 s.oo g$ -*.6Ja}b +.-qg 96J6194. H}*ol $
Al(oH)3 0.500 molol H2So4-0.s00 mol$ $e"a348. +41 eE + ts& et e, ts& e, d& +=+ zf4 P. s4
+¤¤g q!= 1"J71? ol adql^l H gq Atr(son)r7l {c ^8,
=xll6l=7i?
q*zi-? HI+ol Sag + 4=JE BJ¤¤ 6 BoI 9l: olg 3.82 +{}+ oI^llE4I B(rD +q.l rill
+4I B(rr)q of
Hlg"6IE
d E-617L,
i. erl/li +o_qol ^JCE+. %r& s.oo gg olrilEtl B 0D s.oo
^JlE4l
Atku-s.lzer' ojelol Eql +'ll Lll='q^1'A4E +4i+4 c+ e'J6'JElil g trll, Hl+ol Se¤ + ¤zHalE +t, o}^-ll
E et(H3C6HsO7)e.l HI+ql q+ a "l +. =tI B0D. +4I B0r), o|/.11-e&9 4"*g +6}^le.
-3re^E(NaHCO:)rl- ^l
3NaHCO3(aq) + H3C6H5O7(aq) q1411coHJ4 H +EJ(BrJg q]+^lzlE tr.+Eddl(ceHsBrz)
-
3 CO2(g) + 3H2O(l) + Na3C6H5O7(aq) ol
qB deq^J +4I+C 1.00 s+ e,$ 1.00 gol qI -rs3 ^8cg+.
^E: ^lE C6H6+Br2.+C6H.BI+HBI
s"t4E (a) qts aol e4 +¤¤"J7I? o) q r+E co,
grl H-srrJ 6s.0 Bol Els"¤ q ^JCq= treE
(a) H14130.0
zI CC9bzf? (c) EI*ol $eg + ts* 4=J HI¤¤e q
HltlE olE4 +E=6Eg ¤oloJz}?
rg'J7I?
O) H eqHld9 dxjl i=e+ol 42.3 sol+E, ul{le ig
3 g"I"JzI?
3.84 qqoJ(CrH6)ol gi(ch)e| HI+61tr +^JcEg c2Hsclol
n, Clol sElg(qlE C2H4C1, {CEol ErJ Ca4.
olE9 CzHsCIE o&3 =:q
rJ+.r.1234.
(a) c2H6 l2s gol ct2 zss g4 H]*alE a+. c2H6e| cl2
7I Hi*6Iq C2H5Cle| HClEJol $d¤42 7IC6IE.
(d) (b)e+ G)ql^Jg 41d'"1 e%r Be B4g "J+.++g Eol^le-. Eol "JEq4l4. H2S 1.2s gol Naon 2.00 sol Eq gl= +
r.er +^I +"q+ a^I g +qg g.J6IE jli]l +4I e+ a "l-3 E4g ull, NazSg +=¤ol e2.0o/o4:L 6IE q r*g
& ^E +.-qol sdg+. +4I gg e'*alE *9 Na2S7| "JEq^l=7I?
^E ^.E.3.s0
+7l-"Ja E4l
3.87 r+¤-Hl¤¤el fB *= +ol Hl*4g .r^^le. 4iel "Jql ge 9l+. r-ll zlzl "JqI4"J e4 HIE= oJEq
(a)4a9 +g rlBoJ of,rlle{l(cH3cooH)g sd s4' oL e4l "JEE., +t oJEk', _s-^(NHr2co)oltrt. EELg
0) r4l +&+ a+9 l14l t}e+,J+(rD(^Jsl)+ ;6.tlE e4el a=* E+¤g ^l-&6}q olEE +91= A6I^le.
9 E6l] 3.e0 (a) ,Itt "JEI4.J 61941 6 6I+oJ o}^llBg4¤,t}(o|^ul
(c) ...12 *+4 g^ Tlal ^lolE a.J El+ fl)E +zl-^lg ceHso4oltrl. 0.s00 galal "i^ulfl gEqlE
3.88 C2H5OH 1.5 mol, C3Hs 1.5 mol, CH3CH2COCH3 1.5 mol q 5E ceH8o4ol +4dr=71? (b) ol "JEql= ceHson $z|
ol tlae+ gd6l g^61-8, qL Aol zl* E*3 Eig Hzo 7l q 4, ilbzl-? (c) ol gEql 9l= ts^ gz}.b H 4l"J7l?
rrJs=7p 7l* 4+ 5+E EIE= ag qL a"J7l? E
3.el 4q 1000-10,0007l]e1 gxle +dg oI+ 4lg llEill AA
=
E6I^le. g oJzidol4a 6J+. HlEill cdSe-E ¤ oJ^fdg qg a.I
3.8e a^ EIEE Egg a^=
^lEql
dg6}= bq4 dg:"t= r, "Jzfd zTlq q+^l +"J"J ^q?¤. 4zl rll+91 d^l +
128 33 trl-+ UB4BJB +-+aJE
Ezlr+ ql5q. q^¤qlolE ¤^l] cdse9 "JEE (bubbler)oll +71 5.r+61+ aee, r1-g- +-&q Edl
^l-Sg+. ^l.EE
s.a2 g/cm3ol4. e3g 4lA'J+.
(a) zl4ol 2.5 nmoJ cdSe oJzfd t zll9 A+g? Osk) + ZNal(aq) + H2O(l) +
6) zlaol 2.5 nmoJ cdse olz[{g E=EH +E/+g 4+= Oz(g) + I2(s) + 2NaOH(0q)
+. .JzlEg +Boln Hl +rJol fi4a ziaal-B, ,t zll (a) O: 5.e5 x 10-6 mol9 Ell ggt ololgflE| i
^11716l=
el .Jzldql fli ca gz}9 zil+E? EE E+= gutoJzf?
(c) zl4ol 6.5 nmoJ cdse *xld 6J 7ll9 e"*g? (b) 03 r.3 mg9 ElZal+ ql ge+ ololeHal dEq rg
(d) 4aol 6.5 nmoJ cdse olzldS EEH sg4g LII-68 fL goI'JzI?
E|. "J^Idg $a6J +¤ol4 zlcalE, ,tI 4 .J^IAql 3.100 e+q} aot}9l^lb dzl 9lHxlE Nacl +¤-eqg ts6i
^l-s6}q
9lE ca g4q 4f 6iq ch, H2, NaoHE Hl-E+.
=?oJz}eg o}z}fl$
(e)
"J.J {4 zl]9 2.5 nm
^l.*o1l
0.s nm 2NaCl(aq) + 2Hzo(l) 2NaoH(aq) + H2@) + Clz(g)
trElE Ee t+ E"I"JzI? zl-A6J ql, zl%L 1.0 kg9 4,\1tr ^dCqb szo9 de}g 4l
3.e3
^ll-e.EH(serotonin)9
4qql^l {a ^l+g dg4= Ea
&6I^le_.
ol+. ol Eee e+HlE C 68.20/o, H 6.860/0, N 15.9%0, O 3.162 $ffi4$ A$el $zloll,<l 4*E coc+ corz| .t3,t3gq-.
e.08%oE qq 914. .laq Ee*g 176 g/molol4. olael +5++4 0.as0 g9 *71 +ql^l elflqq co 0.467 8, coz
+4^le F9."Jzt? 0.733 g, H2o 0.4s0 Col
^J^Jqflq.
3.e4 ol=BF^ Ll-Fg"Jg H=El. 7"J49l 4+ 41.E' (a) El-6J¤9 ¤ql^lg *q"Jzt?
=.oJ+=
g +E Eql4= Eql olSBF^ s"Jg dlqtlEl. .l=B O) HI+q^l q }dq orTI
^F$qflbz}?
F^ g"JE +s Cgg ol=BEol+a 6t=Ell, C 77.87o/o. (c) $d gi= r+9
916ll^]= H 0271ge-+7p
H 1r.76 "/0, 4tr1^l OE eq+6J+. 3.103 N2fu)e] Hzk)9 gd-Eol "Jql¤ +rl ?Iqld HI+61-q
¤.49 de4e Fq.JzI?
(a) ol NH3k)g ^Jc+trI. Ei¤¤ Ei¤¤ + qL {ol ${al }
(b) ol=BEel e* +^l 4EEBg E 154 amuq^l ,.1=.E ullzl d{l H=tr}. olql N2 3.0 mol, H2 3.0 mol, NH3 3.0
++UtrI. ol EeE +z}^lg *9..Jzt? molol 3xllql4. gq q E9 Nrcl H27l ?1fl=7p
3.es EiH49 +s 6JoJ ulpfl(vanilin)g c, H, oE s*6J4. 3.104 KClo3, K2co3, KHCo3, KClg E*61+ g*+g 7l¤6IH
ElBfl t.os col $A6l ¤46f8 co22.43 B, Hzo 0.s0 gol trl-S ++^lql rI4 cor, 02, H2o ,l^llE 4d++.
2KClO3(s) .----- 2KCl(s) + 3O2(8)
"JEq4]EI. EtBflel dfl^le +Eql7p
2KHCO3(s) .----- KzO(s) + H2O(g) + 2CO2@)
3.e6 qE +71 EI.JES c. H. clg ,tl zfzl g^El s*6ln 9l
K2CO3(s) .- KzO(s) + COzG:)
4. ol pHlE ^lE l.s0 col +zl +ql^] $d6l ¤^6IE KClg HI*ol adql^.] Hlgo6l^l ?*b+. g6JE 100.0 gol
coz3.5z col C^J¤tr}. EEq dQlql^J ol +tlE
H2O 1.80I, Coz 13.20 g, 02 4.00 gg dC+48, 94 g
1.00
^ltr.
g9l 9lE g^E+q Agct 1.27 col 4Cg+. ol s++EE ¤ qlEE 3cg F9..JzI? (s,*5e Sd6l E6l]gqa 714
e!g AA6I^Ie_. 6J+.)
3.e7 KBro,E +461-q Br 52.e2o/o7l .E*qq ilgol 99t4. x {l 3.10s o|^JIEHI(C2H2) 10.0 g4 4ia(oJ r0.0 99 EdJEol BE+6I
Igulqlzl? H 94 Hl+ arl, CO2e+ H2O7I
^J^J¤+.
3.e8 g4 X= XI3 "l XCl3g ¤d'J+. XI3= Cl24ql^l 7IS6IE (a) olHI*q +B "*+ +al HI+^]g r\^le.
xCl3E HIfl+. (b) +41H}¤¤e q! a.J7I?
zxb+3C12+2XC\+3lz (c) HI*ol $eg + q r+q CzHz, Oz, Co2, H2ozt
xr3 0.s000 g9 rl*alq xcl3 0.2360 g9 ?flg 4l (a) fl^ 6lE7I? =4
xel flz1gg 4l4l6l^le. (b) g^xE +lql7[?
3.ee X-71 69 s+ +EE 4l&61-71 +.16ll El+q +IA!.Ea
(rre;o1 g'Es- ololetr+ g.QI6l-= nlBBl
^1.*6I= ^.#
E* E+ E^lt 129
Eg "J=+tr, H4g cm2 tglE g"loJz}? (r nm: Eq4l4. Acrilan"9 de4g CH2CHCNolr., trI4^l
I x lo-e mol4.) HCNoI eH.gtr "l s+trI^1g 50.e7oE oJ+zl
^Izl*+.
3.toz ulgrU*(CrrHilNo,r)$ ¤edql^'l= tlC6ITl 'flE 6JS ! tz\z1.12xls ftolr, yd,g:0959 Acritan. dS
xllolr|. !.n¤ 6JCts 6ILlb 11t41= 4a+. 3l+ +- E s.d-61-7. 914. o}tsulzl +48, dEdql il^l*E
3 syooll Er+6lEl. E= +zl= FoJ6J +¤¤¤ tlflQt_tl HCNoI nJSq^l4l=71? (d+E 1165 fffiol zovool
ilII R,R,H
/\ I
t6J+b 19 utl¤ {olr}. przf 6}= + z}zl eEg +!+ & {} Bt¤+E, gse orE H g.J7I?
471 44 HI*6}E so2, so3, E= olE gE¤ + qL aol B 0) Hl+ql^l so:"J BC¤48, ge+ ozi P g'J7I?
Cq3zlolut. ol e$g 6aaJ4l, soaE E I Hlg.+q *84 (c) I ?qd dE E+= z;2, HI* *zl"ll 4 Hl¤¤E E'+
es rll=t {4}q= Hzso4= BC6l7l qEol4. ol eEql ql+ E 4+6lr,ll Bflizl "JeH q¤4 6llot 6}i7t?
Bg 4 s+6J5E ^Jql4.J .FI HI+ eEq 4+¤+. ql= EE (d) HI+
^J^J+g +"J6IEE
q¤ *B.lut dE uJBol 9e
tsi= tl4'e+ Hl+6lq tr¤l CozE B^J6lzl"J, ,tl47} +=-'e oJzl.? soz$ sor9 E44 de zlol=
^h&6lq
dCEg
a+ql= cozl. u35qu,q. tE, A*4.J Hl$ a4a1q,t15 +EB + 9t.7t? r-3+ +ql^l ^JCE9 +E6l= ¤e
HI+61+ Hzel OzE t'-'llzl"J gr.l *alHol 6Jt H20E
pJE+ tlilT} t+g 4ol llEzl?
(uror 4d.ll). (e) *4 &4E EIE H+^14, ol Hl+s] so3, E
^JCE(soz,
L+^! n4l"J *ol BzJ H, oz dfl44*. tlr "t ^JC+g b olE s6JE)g 4eg + 9lgzlE.JTl +16l] qts dE
Bg FB"J tI* 8zl, HI¤¤4 ^JdEE A"tg A + fl= zl I ald=z}? ol e+q 96.lz1 gdi se+ o,E qtr ul= ^l
g, HI*B ql ql* *zl= zoo"ct\zl zI9B i 9lE zI9 zlzl A4AE7I?
z| 9|Ql alz|.
a)
..,
H l
N
N
ffi
\
-&\
\
K \-
E N:
EE
\-l
!
\ s
\
N I
\ $ft
4.1 > +AEq guJ4E ¤tr Eeol Eq +
= ol.$e-E =^H6I=xl, e^IE
EE olgr} +^iel gElEtr
=416l.
+
=zl. 4aH 9olE4.
^l]6l+^lq
4.2 Ed u3 7I+C H}¤¤tr+q E+C
ccEg "JEE Hi+ql ql6iq 90|g
trI.
qtr Eeol Eql $$ +qg f_o4(aqueous solution)ol+r +q. 4.6 Ee4elit-*UE"t itqt E4 slE*E
r+ T]]Eol qB7]l zlaol4n 6I
bEq
ol +ql^J= ++._qq^l "Jq+= HI¤¤ tsl]g aol+. +zl4-eE g %IEg F.ll +E +ql Eq fl= E
o-IE E"Eel E^lc+ 3+ql^J tsl]g p+q}%iEg ul]¤ rri6H =
eq oJ Eb +EE AC6l: ql ^FS
^F8¤ q=zl5 o_IoI-H-rI
4.o14. ol tlql^l Eelg HI¤+ HlJl4 ,J+6I^]"J sEo+, zlao+,
6ll"J+E +tL+ EI¤¤¤ olailalzl ilxj tlzzl ¤ 4o14.
< Eg rF8oll^l 718 5+'E! eq^lloltL Hllt=el +de Tlsl -sE 8E^llE
0l?= i.lle{ 7dr} "Jtr6lZl g^16[q, olag H]tloll^i .gEillTl Seq= ri=
"J,A. l-JtL (ir) Ep i c Stocki.4 ed ia i S h utte rstock
133
uh
li
'{
t
ffit
i
!
I r.3'
Ir:: rf
I}
t t=
t E
r1
t
-,I -E
TI .t
:1,i,
i I.
rr 1 .$
I
tr
il l4
i'1. ) ["r
#.
A:lH 4.1 El|EaJ E-4 EB Ludiwigshafenoll gil-.J BASF +ql A6te "JddeJql Eqd Ll3 4E[EE 8ll6f-a ?ltl. ospecialviewshutterstock
134
4.1 +Eo-4sl gEJ4?t 8E 135
fr
t t
\t I
.-
-.rt Y!
!
i,
1'
-- Liil
iI- t \.
Elg
++:.J E ^ieda
H2O(') CrrHrrOrr(aql NaCl(a4)
4.2 E6tlEe E7l 4tr7l.S¤Elol E+ollEol ZT]ti.
^aC
NaClg EoJoJ +.-4e. d7l EiltrE "JEzlq +E+ d6l-= E .Jzl-E q]r-6 e EE EgA+
9l tsol ad+. olag Na*q cl- olgol ++Eql^l e¤g+= de4 +401r|.
NaCli.lH ig.l"l ol¤.g E6J6I= Eeg E6llE(electrolyte)ol+11 iI4. ¤=J
(C,rsrro,,)xlH +Eql^l olgg Sd6lz1 9+= EAg HlEallE(nonelectroyte)ol4r 6J
Q. NaclS olg eEL sl*Eolr, crzHzzorr9 tszI ElElEolee, o1 Eg trt= ++
^-]tr
9 :+elf."l4.
EqFl ElB,fEE E6tl
lill +44eE ul]gg Na*4 cl- olgoE +dqfl+g trzlat4(:H z.rs).
NaclS
a
Naclol Eq +eE 4 olgS r.4l +aE+q EEEIq +q ailql +^lg+(f.J a.3(a)).
ol$,tJ rxll.} +oI4 CE olg_s_tr flEgtrt. 6-
Eg olg BEI sHlge^J q]+ ¤3 ¤-,Hol4. ul$ H2oE 4z\4" e {={ $z}olzluJ, 6+
P
r|.3 EEelE._40il El-+=e +i?]7l.?
=^|]51.=
(a) KCN (b)NaClo+
136 43 +Eo_4oil^lel HJ8
E rill
=^t7tNa+g[ cl -& a o
o I e
Nacl3
#:
olSoe Eal-drl. (
g \
RI
a c
-\
'l
Na*9[ Ct-
0l=01 Eo-I
+o.-tr EttEltrt.
) #c OIIEJE
f;
0 c
I
cl-
Na+
Na+ef cl +9=
E E^l7l=altEt.
c D t
(a) 018 al--JE?l Eef +01013= 88-eltrl. (b) E^ld DilEJ-e(cH3oH)3 018 gd gtol .+Ef
=--J ^flNacrE =E?l
afH 4.3 Eoil^1e-l Eoll (a) Eaf E4 a3 013 alEfEol Eoll + E^tE 018= Eal6fr. Eal/rl^l EilE EtJ^la+.
nll H2o (b) E
EE?l DllEJg(CHsoH)g 018= 8¤61^l ?ja =Ef (a)e+ (b) -slF0ll^1 E E^lEoll 96H gGl^l LfZ tE g^lEol EoJLl.
^l"d ==+.
¤ztol4 ql+g ?9 Ez[ E]6JE(rH 4.3(b))o1 Eql +eE +E dilql tszl-=ol ul4
9lrll g+. :a4oe. ql+eE EzI e+ElEg uld"ll4ol4. rel+ qH Ezld EAe ++
Eq^l olgg ^Jt.J+. olE 6 zlar 6sB ag 4}ol+. qlE EE HCI(s)o1 5.jl 5oI ¤
&(HCl(aq))g ^JC6J El] +sqq^J H*(oq)+ct (aq) ole--e-tr olgElg+.
,JtrlllI.f "+{rt|I
d6l]A.9 dzl dgC9 ^[ol= ,*l. 9l+. ,JEatlEl(strong electrolyte)S *991^] Sd
6'l E= z9 gddl ol9oE 8¤o14. tse4sE Nacl4 ag E= ++
=4]6I=
C ol9 A6J sl6J$r+, HClr+ Ag P 7l^l E^l EI6JE$ ,JddeolE|. elEallfl(weak
electrolyte)g EzI +6JEol tot 49 }.Eel olgg ^JC6l-= 4o14. ql= o|.tJlE&
(cH3cooH) +.-4e: +e9 49 4 Y Eol cH3cooH(aq) flzlE-_ =H
cH3cooHE
g+E(E cH3coo- olgsE
r7o)qfo1 H+e+
=46J+.
=4++.-
d6ll4ol += CE(+6}lE)e+ dol]Aol A-*zl sf*zl= eE6l.zl ?+E+ f9oilot.J4.
q= EE cH3cooH= Eql ,l]+ * +zl"J, "Jdollaol4. HlEq ca(ou)rE 5q Ael
+zl f+zl"J, 4YEol 49 $d6l ql?]6rEe.zj{all{olr}.
=eEeE
ot^llE&r} ag Ed4eol +aqoil^J 6l]elB qlel HI¤+ EI-s-r+ a+.
.o},!lE4l9 r+E43 ++ HC2H3o2+l *4. olBi,ll 4E scl;lB .JHl4t 4I=E +EI^lr]H B.J+. E+4
cH3cooHE oI^llE4]E +zI +ae+ .Jil6J+. + slo+^lE "J+ql 9= o gr} +lql tCC +Elql= H7I 9lEI.
4.2 EI EJ8 137
Hlql 7l47la_ 91ts H]+ o}gs1-;= HI¤-ol oJ+ HJ:6'Je--E dqd+ ag e.l
%16J-9
^JE
"loJ+.
q¤ +q{ +rJql cH3cooH EztE g++ u*4 cHrcoo- olg9 ^Jc6l.El
a olgs+d4. EqI ag +rJql u*s| Cri,Coo- ol¤+ cH3cooHE ^JC6l-elr. 4lA
f
,*6J+. ol zlxl Hlql r+c +¤e 6c Bz}el olgel tr-ql4.J += ?caJ4. ol
^lolE
+¤e .Ja.J HI_&ql 444 olg EE EzlE ^Jq4e fz| "JC+, EtEt s
=4]6r= =
El(chemical equilibrium)$ olE4. plolxl¤$ Ed6HeE olSplE +4.J q15 ,tl-+ HI
'I %I"Jg zlflzl:r.91= HI+ 4jJe(:)=, ,Jd4eel ol$ffi +4,-J trll= +"J F+,gE
(------)E
^l-e"
++. HClg z"t{oN{olE-e. Hclel olgl}E +4q1= H}¤^lg +gq e+.
H*(aq) + Cl*(aq)
Hct(aq) 14.21
-
g+g zlqzlY E|$sz| H= ae H+c+ cl- olgol +8E +ql^J HCI tszl-=
^Jc6I7l
fJ6I 4A6J6l+ A.Jol $.¤=g +ElUrI.
EdqA, ul{oNpolzl-g ql+e'I s+*+o q
+.S Aql^J sqlEq Ctsol ,Jd61]e,
BTll ol+6I=7F=q aqg 4o14. +d ++c olg at} +tlEe zld4dol4E I
¤ zl9aI4. olg aEI s+ql+E=g +++ ul#4o-e ol+qTl s+qlE(qls Eol Nacl,
FeSOa, Al(NO3)3)ol+. "JE.ts ol¤.(NHa+)g Ee-6r-r. 9lE ol¤. aq+ e+6JE(ql=
NHaBr, (NuJrcor)S rJdBIAol +.
=q
qFjl
F Tolgq
4.1
oJolEs.l
ttrll4?! +e+ E|.qtt!+E ry41
qg raJe MgClz, KCl, K2SO4 6 6tLle.l+t"4 SEllE LfEtL.! a0lq. oltr ,ielE+= LIEf'-.! 4oJ7l?
Tll'J
o o
I
E^l olgd Eeol +ol9l= +E.il
o (I o
ol-e--$$ {o}
=4161^=
E +tr..s^l+ rHg ^J46il 84.
=
4E +qd Exilql^l 44 +Hg olgE +e+ dq¤ acdl
!-zt. -r.elr. fgq^l Eol= olg5r+q.J6ll EzI. (t
¤ol
+4
KzSorE
q Bq.
r?q^l Eol: azlH, oJolgol +olgtrtrl o
EE olg^d Eeg dzll ofa| {a}z} o"J¤ Bda}4.
> .H.= qlr{|2
>HEqEll1 (a) NiSOa, 0) +
Ca(NOJr, (c) NagPOr, (d) AI2(SO4)39
r.5 mol9 HCI ++qq= q g9 olgol +"_q t}4ql^.l 47+ 67n9.J"lgg r*=48. g"l¤¤ H zll
=461+71?
(a) 1.0 (b) l.s (c) 2.0 (d) 2.s (e) 3.0
"J7n
.JE7l-?
\,.1 Pbr2el tsEol s=E + Eo4oll= olE 01301
Pb2+(ag)ef I
-(aq)9
etEolBdEJtrl. =--Joe
r-l,il
7
\ -''t
TJ Pbt2= olE¤ EE
G 0lo+ slfl +4=
r- I
-, - a,\l6lr I
Pbz*
C I
¤
tc Noa- e
I
D I o
t
e e ii !l
e
r
uo= ^fl/\-lP
2 Kl(aq) + P-b(NO3)2(a4) 2 KNO3(a4) + PbI2(s)
r.+^49 E+C rill= "J=+. E+C ^j^dE-g ¤¤6I= HI¤¤ flE El$(precipitation
reaction)oli+a qI4. fltlE(precipitate)3 +'l HI*4^J 4a B+^J -Lxllo]4. aH 4.4
ql^l aaEe opl9-Ho* B(purr)oll, Eql^l +6llE7[,ll+ *e p+6JEol+.
Pb(NO3)2(aq)-+ Pblz(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
+ ZKr(aq) t4.31
^JCEe et EEI+:(KNo3)ol-r.,
ol EI+e.l +E olag +._qql ts=+.
ed HISg ,rl_e *4 d6l-= q* ol9E9 %tol ,ll9 rJ6|4 ¤q'JrJ rll E¤:'.d9 olg
^d
r4l e+*Es ¤d6IH^J "JqkI+. ol99 atlol E+^J B^"i61+zl= ql+
617l f.l61]^l= "JHI4"J olg a6J sl6JEE +"liEc} +¤g zleg _r.El6]10} EI+.
.J + 9i+. ql= Eq ¤Eg Edl e& $ol$(nitrate anion, Noa-)9 .Eeo.J E= 'JHI4
oJ olS aqls+.JEeEql g+= ag "J+ 91tr1. E4.1g.JHI4fl olg A6Je+'JE9
+6l]E zlag,q-Eql4o14. Eollr.l 0|a3gol *olsgl trl+ sEqq flzl"J, oJolgql ql
6l]^lE gg +s+ E= grJ?-l ++ olg(+7lgeE r+)r+ olr-5 o1s-
^tdg +ElU+.
(NH+*)E "JHI4{ olg Aq} +t}Ee Eql g +=El-= dql ?L-6}4.
ql4l 4.2
+otlE +zl^lg
t|= 018 Efcl=o| Eoll Tl.EdoJ^|, EEdoJ^l= E+6|.^19.
=-J gti .J(PbSo4)
(a) EJt! AflNazCos) (b)
-tr= 7l-&d ,Jd6lleg ol9oe. Lt4'J olqe ¤qlel HI+4g eJTlolE u.!$l(complete
ionequation)ol4l d4.
K*(oq)q No3-(aq)z| 4 sJ+'J+ql ,IEItsg ++61-+. $? olg qI+4E Hl+E
4 CCEE o}+q Eg.J ¤qE +++= olgg ;rZE oE(spectator ion)ol+r d+.
+4t olgg H}+^lql^l ^J+6lE(rEg +q!ilH 4l4g+) effi 0|E u.lgl(net ionic
equation)ol ts=+.
Pbz*(aq) + zr-(aq) ------- Pblz(s) 14.71
d6I= HI+ +"ll -H-39o-e olg d6}el !+41= +B *= oJa[ ols- H]*^lE "J+ql^l
,Jolo},*4. ol a+ql 2+ oJd6}e+ + zlel 1- +d6l7l.6Jsll4^J 0ol qEE d7l4 s +
+C"J rJCEol gq. SA olg Hl-S^.lq +4+ E$ oJ$o1 +r# olgol4H, HI.*ol
$ol*xl 9*+e 9"1t4.
n
rF3 U8oil^l q! ?lolTeil olSoJTt?
$al ol9 H]$!e dtflArl +Ag qel HI* ^Iolel +^lCg ¤Hdl= Ell ¤;.1 ^Feot
q. qlE 5q +.2&pb2*(a4)E sEt6I-= rld6iler+ I-(aq)E E.J6l+ rJddle
^l ^lolE
ad Hig-e-l eezl.J ECg trq pb2*e1 r olgg A6J6|q pbr2 adg ¤C+
rI. tr+4^l gx} ol9 Hi+4g aJ tt=+. = t}*Eol E"J6Ir]l .Jal tI89 gerJ + 9¤.
olt9
g .H-q KreI Mgrz fS99 E-+ r-= Ee'6}zl trIEql ¤4 zizl elq}4.J
qlE Eq
=+.
+^I^dg ++++. "J+ +Eql pb(No3)zE.9!+6lE pbrz(s)= ^JC.Jtrl. HlEql, 94 0I
e Ei*^le qH HI+ql^J edq= dx] HI*E# "J + 9l+.
grt otE HJ34 sts gg
r. EI*ql ql* #¤ "*+ Erl HI*^lg ++
142 43 +E._4olt^lelEJS
2.4 7l*4 rJ.dofleol ol$eE "]];lg ,ll +"] +ql d^dEl= olgg ++.lt= Hl*^l
g +^l +trt. ++.lq +oI gE rld44"J olg $rlle *4.
3. +4t olgg
^lE6Ir ^ll4oJ{.
qFll 4.4
gal ol* trt{.| .!7l
+^lg +6JtrI. ulzluJe_+., +A+ olgg xllzlalq oJal ol Atr ga.e} d6}el +¤ol "*=zl= q"J+r}. oJ z1]9 cu,
e Hl*^lg +6J+. oJ zll9 c, 7l]g o7t "J+q flr, 'JxI d6l+ 0014.
^,ll
B0l gp} vJiz rJ+ o1$(ca2")rl- gEl olg(cl-)9e o19 +sl olg Hl+^lql^l qE olgE +"les+El xll4qzl 9*
qd fl+. r4o e Ed9 ++Eg cacl2(aq)olEl. g4l 9Ia+ qB *H-o +q B6Izl ?t9t+8, E= ole+ +at
=
aESNa* ols-_$co3,- ol$9-tr ol+q4 914. rEloE ol$oll H]¤+ "Jq+al ?+=+.
ol EI6JEE ++Eg Na2CO3(aq)E E^l¤+. ad HI+el
> je= qlr1l1
Ezt H}¤.^lqle +olgr+ oJolgol :r.+] *4e +4t+. IIl gsl HtE ++q+ 34I a5'++'lg 4lg trI qtr ¤t'-
4.r1 Ca2*4 Cor'-E BilE caco:7l 4a, Na+el cl-E ol golr-ftzlr
*ilE Nacrol gtri. s 4.tE +6l]E zleql q+ CaCoai (a) HISol gol*zl ?+=+, E= EtBEol +ol ?l+.
E+doln, NacrS 7l-&col+. +B "*+ Exl HI843 tri o) e4I Ht+"J adg+.
*r+ a+. (c) ¤5* adg+.
CaCl2@fl + Na2CO3(a4) CaCO3(s) + 2Nacl(4q) (o a& ^E"J
Hl¤rI gE uffiol Ef adg+.
$? ol8 H}*^lql^l= +e -,Jdqle(ql= 7F+^J ol (e) ddol {CE{ *=+, gel Hlfi$ +zl fl:n ed-l
=q
g a.J EI.JE)EI olgoE t4. @q)zl F6l-Fol cacl2, -E B=tr}.
Na2Co3, NaCrS E+ ++.-4ql +=4. al+7r f=g E+ > H* qlr.il 2
,Jd6ll e ol EL cacogb g ail ::lilEol xl tI E+d ol +.
"l A4l g ++eqr} "J& e'16, ++'lg 49 q "Jq4:
E+C ElEJEq plEi4g C+ olg-s--P r^zl *+4. trI+^J ad HI+ql 4{}.Ja} olg H}¤-^lg ^A^le.
rJt
l-
4.3 l t-"J7lsl 6EI
I
u- {4 z}xl 4}4 EzlE +E+ "i z}c+ Eae llolq(:al 4.s), SE
^llE +E
+s
6JCBolTlE 6Iq. qlE E"l Et}(hydrochloric acid)3 +,qfl +E+ plql E*'J
: S"J olq+ 9l4lE +s+ CEol4. t}4 EzlE E6J .JH}4.J dqleol+.
L*
a
f
,)o
HO
< rg 4.6 Lll
9.IETIEE
71.^l .JHJ4?.!
^l
tr,o oo
CIC
G,/\t
(HCr)
I tlt
(HNOr)
:it^l
(H2S04)
ot^llEtl
(cHscooH)
o0
NS
H2so4= rJddleolzl"J .Jil olgs+ HI¤:EI $d6rrll .Jq\++. l4o-e. +4I ++Eg
u*(rq), HSoq (aq), soqz-(aq)A gq++g sq+'Jtl.
o}^llEt(cH3cooH) Exl+ +c+olE|. :.H +.oglrl H*ol, o}^llE4Ig ql 7l]
^l;9
e.l +4= zlzl:r- ?lzl"J, cooHTle-l H 6I+ElE"ll^J olg3l+¤+. o[,rJ]trtoil flE +r,lxl
rll zll9 +A= +^eI AB6E1 9lq^1, c-H A6Jg Eql^l BElqrl *E+. olelal zlol
ql q* ol+= ullg SultrgH r6aroilrJ Ee_l6J 7o14.
\"r ,.Esl+dEE ,rlE=ll(citric acid)9 ?4^lg q3ll eq
HO
H
tilC-C-OH
lo
lil
HO- C_C-OH
to
lil
H-C_C-OH
I
H
-elE^19 nll H Tt|el H+(aq)z[ 8dE=71?
^E-e!olEoll=¤
"j7l
Ez!(base)E n* ol89 ts=, + u* olg4 Hlso6l+ Edolt| EzlE Eql +ol-+4IE
ol$(hydroxide, oH-)$ CCoJ+. NaoH, KoH, Ca(oH)r$ rJ$ olgrd +tlrl$ol zl*
.J+4ql ¤zlol4. olEol Eql+c-H +._4q oH- olgg'HE^l 6llq*+.
oH- olgg E6J6rzl *3 plllEs ¤zls g + girt. ql= EH g:EqoI(NHJE "JHI
zl.J Ezlol4. "JEqoF= E9l Ez[a[E EE+q s* o]99 pof oH- olgg 4C++
(=e
I t
a.z).
4.6 +
<
^l=
rH 4.7 #4 013 olE E E
Bd^l+7H(t1), NHs! "Jd
rlETH(g7l)olrl.
NHs Exl9 "J
+.J Erl EJBEltl. qafll NHe
Hzo NHe oH- NH+* : s+I6Htr0lrl.
1M 48 +Esqoll^.le]EJB
84.2 oJHJ4oJ
?tIt TolTl
7t^l
ou Tldi
oE, l
l
4+ trllEol4.
g6l d'J + 9= "JHI4"J ,J4I4 zl9zl:- E4.2ql +Ei'Ifltr}. zJd6lleg 4+6IZl q
ql6E gat ol9 HI¤:^lg lrTl 916ll ,J4Fl zlgzlz HIE^I Tlqbllo} 6Jtr1. ol tte +
+e q+89 &ol of.I4E 49 9"laJ4(H2so4= a H4l oJCzltrJol Sd6l olgp+¤
+: aql +gld-+). "JH]4eE z*Ezl:_ "JHI4"J 7l-SC ++ +4I+Eol4. zltt .Jqlzl
.J *EzlE NH3E^J, E4 *41 HI+6Iq oH- olgg U4(HI+4 +.ro).
qH 4.5
tq^ll7lHlJ?
+=e E E^1.71"8+EJ 7l^l t!(HX, Hy. HZ)el +Esq 8E|1= EE-d raJolrl. a&ll^l Etig +^jE LIEIL[|^Ig.
^l
HX HY HZ
+J J
@ @ hl o--o,
+ J JJ\.J
+
Hil
)
d +
J\
Q; G J +{'
6ll'J
E4 4 +Eq rBq zla6lq, 7l* rl1} tlPq zl,J sFdJ &9 +^ls +g6i= E4lol+.
4.3 I t-E7lslaElu3 145
r{lEl :gq1.t1 dd¤ trlzl ?*= Ez}-=E t}qlzl"J += A o[.!lE4}, gil], rjEql+ +i&
aB+ 91trI. 'J+&g+++"1 d-qlql^] EilHE +a ole qL +Eol 4zlzl *:ao a|32[!
(u*)¤ zlz]|t-,.ll49zl ?*e 4e oJel Exl-= zlt4. "f* (a) 94& O) u +ElE++r l
4I.J+q oflelqzl Se Y+e +9 Bzls (c) olxile41 (d) gA&4E.tr.EJe++r I
=xH,tl+. (e) ,tJl *9 E+ E'JtJ dEdg ?*++.
Eol +^.1= Hy>HZ>HaolQ. HyE rJ,liol4. ell+6}E
+d6l olgEqq 9lzl qlEol4(+.-491 Hv tszlzl ssJ. > .H.* qlxll2
tlE, tsztc+ ol$$ gaj$E ol+q{ Hxe} HZ= E&ol 1szfl$ Na+ ol$$ rozflel oH- olgg z*i:89 rJ4
4. qzl,tlE HZzl v) a&oJEll, ol= HZT\ HX-H-r| H+ ol 6ll Bzl. ol +"-qol ql4l 4.sE Hye+ gElE+B, 7l-eo6J HI
gg ".tol sd-6ljr. 9|-L, gz6zt 4zl uilEol4. *ol 'Jq* +ql s'Jg +'-49 +44= rBql e+
=4ts
>H*q|fl1 4*9 Fi.Jz[?
ag r-"Eq 4= s6JtJ +¤:ol#
^Ig =Hl6I9+.
0lEd nE
Stri fl+
Erlt! ,J&(E q.z *z) oL,{L
]J!
otodTl
fE'I zlQ e5 o1o;-5
qHl
F 4.6
,Jrdqa, .J?d6lla, Hruill! qrqlqTl
^l
4.139 qB ,J+F+ 9B z"rgzl +E +E+ HI+g zlt4"J sE* 4o14. u"
(oq)q oH-(aq) ole+ a.J6Iq Hzo(t)5 B^d++. =Cg
4.ei g4}r+ Eq E+c.J Hzl.J rvre(ou)29 HI+g Bq
=aJ =q.
E4 +*4: Mg(oH)2(s) + 2HCt(aq) .+ MgCl2(ail + 2H2O(l) 14.14)
"Jel
ols Hl*41: Mg(oH)2(s) + ZH+(aq) u**(aq) + 2H2O(r) t4.1sl
-
oH- olg(olql= n4l HI¤¤)r+ H* ol¤+ a6J4q H2o7l g+. olEg olg iF+ tI4
ol o e, &4 ++ +tI+E r++ HI+ol+.
^Iol9 +s+ HI¤+ ^Js
-elqlE +Eg *E+b ae EE +g elE= olq+. rql+ +?]= oP.nH-4I(H[ol4EJ c), o1.r1ggr1g4](o]^sla)
,<l=_et(r.lE+)ae ac q o q, rE.E +_.J {*q "l+El fl+. r "ie g7l¤"J El+ *!+= +-e+.
4.3 C-E7lel6trl BJB 147
I
tqb_ \.,,,
;aq L-
'8rc
"a--
l rH.""
E'r
7 ;l
T
I [,i!r ]', ri _
F
CI CI
H+ --s o oo 0
o I
i.)
J O o
e o ¤, o o
J ¤ o
Mg(OH)2
oc Mg'* 6
H I9
J-= oo=
a:18 4.9 Mg(oH)r(s)et E{tel=El'UB llrLll^l0f?(milk of masnesiap +8E EE¤"J +taf 0EL1l6{lt/g(oH)z(s))ol
+. +tJ+ ![rL1l+P E&HCt(aq)E E7f6lE EJSsl = s:*61ts +E.-4ol EJrl.
N4g2*(aq)e[Ct-(aqE ^l^trJlNol
=Eol =rle
qHt
F 4.7
*r+ rJtoll Etltt stBJ uJ8^l A7l
0[^llEt(CHgCOOH)r.l+tJql HIE(Ba(OH)z)fs-o-49 HJ8oll tHEl tl-B EBotl =J61.^19.
(a) EE "*= E^l EJ3^IE i.^119.
iflu
8414l+ ¤zl9 cl44$ zll;.lalr, ++ Hi¤¤ 9l+ +¤ Xle 4.114 *¤:
^l
¤¤!B, +E} H}g"g F Ttzl ^J
gg =r{el ggl atg 44al7l +l"l] g
*= +rl HI+^l, $¤ ol3 qI*^], "J,t olg Hl+4g &= CE, + H2oeI ^JC.J+.
Exllol+. 719 ololgr+ +I9 9ol*9 4^l*+.
E0l
o}olg(Ba2*)+4I9 +olg(cH3coo-)
^Jd E3 Ezlg
(a)
I +aJ-tjq-. feloe. gE slo+4g Ba(CH3Coo)2ol
+. s' 4.1q qsE, ol p+qlEg Eq^] 7l-SColE+, + cH3cooH (a4) + Ba(oH) 2@q)
EI HI*E +¤ "*rl ?tg EzI HI+^lg -q=4-r+ ?+. _- HzO(/) + Ba(CH3COO)2(a4)
149 43 +Eo_4oil^lstrlS
+&gr+ B4I+AeE &r+ +*6Iq Cozk)E g^J.JtrI. &rI cos2- EE HCor- ol&
ol HI*6Itr ts+I(urcoJg
"J=+. qE 5q g4}g *4I+^ 7}61tr 4¤. q}Sol
^Eql
"Jqt+.
HCI(aq) + NaHCO,(aq) NaCl(a4) + H2COz(aq) [4.18]
-
+4Ig E.JA6Iq +eq ts4lE LoETI +E6IE E6fl6}q Hzoel coz=.(8da}a, zlzll
=!
+EeE+q tsoizJ4.
=
H2CO3@fi HzO(l) + CO2(j:) [4.19]
-
dal HI¤+ q_q_rl zJol 3-.J¤4.
4ltx{
+r-lE +l1te g4EE i!|E Ezl 96ll &g $ulaJr]. ol %r-Hg (1) r++ ?l4l 4lA, Q) +l4I EHI a^ Eol+. r+4
&3 +.-q 14ElB H* 0.1 molg .traJa13 gtlol4. 9^J4 +lt}¤ xllzlalE Eeg 4l&41(antiacid)+-r, ap, {!.$ul
7l+e dEql 96il +1419 +^l Er+tr+El _EgB+. ai^l7l= Eeg 41 94141(acid inhibitor)4.a ,*4. r
^cl
rfl+ dEql +Bol ^J4 4zlol +49 BeE n$g LA =
H +.r09 gHl4.J Bq
zll4}zllE zll+Ixllb +l4lg +
trI. +ll.Jol4a E4* ol 783 lE+zj9 d"_tol E6LA+ s+^l7l= +4IcI olg, *4I olg, =+.
+&+a olg # -5L6J6I
9419 +trI BHltr ^JrJ+. rEq +l"JE +g fl.Jol ¤4 gTlol+. E 4.4q1 xll4Fllel gt ctsol +gqq fl+.
ulEol4 =
Thgamet'r] Zantc" 7JZ rlleg a;go3'41= +l4I 94llloltrI.
^ll+ Ag
u}Qs{(Helicobacter pylori)=.li
=ulfl
g+71 914. ro-zozo9 ulaoJol ¤c +"J TlloJel rF olEg +l dEE fltl
^33
.r1l=91 ¤6Jg ae +j
= Er glErll, =r+. "le+
g "*e A+ zJs.-e 941o1 Solszl qlEql i & 9z{z]i 4%}d HolE +Eg + 91tr}.
ffi jolr-1+AHg aE++. fl& r+r|= fledF= F zltl +d g+E4l: 4.es
r
1.@ Amphojel@
Di-Gel@
A1(OH):
Mg(oH)2, CaCo3
ffir
Alka- trfrql^lof+ Mg(OH)2
'Seltter
Maalox@ ug(on)r, Al(oH)3
W Mylanta@
Rolaids@
Mg(oH)r, Al(oH)3
Mg(oH)2, caco3
!' r
tEl.el EJfl
,|+ ++9 P4(corrosion)olQ@al 4.11). +r] xl*ol4 F^J
gH]4"J 4}e+-+tg EI¤+
I sEql ^JCq: +4+ile, ++ sE9lr} Prlol ++El= A+E 9lEl. += a+=,
¤ol p4qE 14 rJol Palol #4 4+zlzl dqslq ++e_l ztuzl E6Ia+.
P4ol* qE +a.il^J -o4r} += EA ,JE HI+ql 96ll ++ol ++ e+6JE.g E+6I
aol+. ++ol +4g tril 4 ++ flzlE dzl-= ga oJolgg ^Jc6tr, +olg4 aq+
=
ot¤ ol8 a6J El6J+g 4C++. zl+E q{t}E +4 c.l,*e} +&s} olg "l tst}
=e
ol$ol {afS 4oll. egl + F"'*e}+}:4 ol3 "t +4}E} olgol A.Jg aolE, gel +
g Ag*eI *pI ol9ol A.Jg 4.o14.
flz[, ol8, +471trl "Jd6l-= trlEG dzl¤ gs$, :17{+ t]e+q*.+a 6J+. +
=
Eeql 96I dzl¤ 9;= aol tE[(oxidatio")o14. 4]44= +q= ol +Bq a H4l H]+
ol &^eI Hlg"ql aol tr+qflrl qlEql Eg aolq. Bg -.+g +71 +ql^J oz4 zld
Hlgod-[q ++,t]++g "J=+. ol E]+ql^l ++e.i]iql d4-= sqBl47, ++ olg4
&E[ ol99 olg a6J s['J+S ^Jd'J+. Ao] +4* 4Ce Eol *q^l e +
ol r+aq^J =4]6[=
olgg
44 &eE El*ol+. ae 4i4qq(dzl¤ $-ir.) Fe3* ^Jc+tr}.
e4 4iAE HI¤+ Hljl4 -fl {l$olzluJ, "JrJ4 ++ol+ "Jar-l E;-+g +71 +ql
oll+ uulell Hlso++. r.A 4.12: *9ol 9= 4a4E ,J+ ++ EHol Hl*q^l
^lE ^J
ffi o
c
'.t-f
,-')
ii:EI
-u- r.
Btqg
loe
,\H .{s
H
t[Esl 4 el--Er=oll^i E4 fl^le]ta1a5 grloJTl?
(a) tr^+ gr+rlts(AlN)(b) Eu(HNo3)
152 43 +8o-4oll^lsl tjJS
qH 4.8
7f /i!El+,Jt6t7l
4ta,: EAq^] E= gzlE 4IEl+9 Be Eeq d6te} (e)09 &0143 -2oltrt. &El+el oJg -2(So4z- olgg
ga} d6Dol+. trI4^] x+a(-z):-2ol+. ol +41tr+
eolot'*4. s.ql ¤E¤ 4Ie++ ,ic +zlg tr7t.
^1.¤-6H rl ol ol9 * s9 te6= +60l+I AEg Lllfl+.
E0l
(a) ul#44 aq+¤ ql, fdE +lE 4i++= ,*E4. Hzs +sl ol qlEe g^9 tq4rl sI*gE ++q q+ +-Bg
trq ol qlEq^l E aaH, +E tlEl+: -zoll,rl +0
+4+ +Colstr &r14E QIg oololot {}4. sel &s+ =4.
iE x4.l. alH, z(+t)+x:0o14. 61-4,{ SE -2E + I H?lE,*=+.
el+= 7*L+. > s[= qlfl 1
ag-e q^J94. &El+E aJ.$ sololo! +4. sE &pl+ > lr= qlr{I2
E x4 rlg, x+2(_1)=sol+. ar+4es sg 4Iq+: q-gE #e gag ,t}EI tlEll: F*qlzt?
+z{o} 64. =zI
(a) PzOs G) NaH (c) CrzOz2- (d) SnBra (e) BaOz
(d) rE+ "JrJr.l ++eE, i+6JEql^] 6Jt +1e.1 &EI+¤
olE HIgg +eq ul olgol gAE tI+= E6lq il+EEE itE El8(displacement
reaction)olrP {Q.
94 zlzl ++e t4
zl+l HI+g "Js4^J gn+ +^ 7l4lE
^JC*+.
qE
=q
E}:
ql+ ++e g4I+ HI¤-6iq ge+ zl4lE.ucoJ4(=a a.13).
"tf_ql+4 i^
Mg(s) + zHCl(aq) --------> MsClz@fi + H2(g)
tt11+1 -1
4Is++ 0 +2 -1 0 14.24)
n|:zujlf,g 4!014u soll,q +2e. H+tr}. &E++ +7ly ?lzltl dzl-= gr +Ie+q= ag
+ElUtrI. &E H* olgg +lql^J oee +Iqlzlzla:FJ4. ol ol99 dzl¤ Eq +lgg
4= ag +4u+. cr- olee EI* d+ql^J -rg &E++= +zl6}Eq, aaz 4}slE
qzl ?+r, *|flE' 9zl 9*E ag +4u+. dxlle cr- olgg +4,t ol$eg, "Jx[ ol8
HI*^lq^l= 4qgq.
Mg(s) + ZH+(aq) u**(aq) + Hz(c) l4.2sl
zlzl gE ++"4q1^J -
{Icl+l + riq. ql= 5q ?4 ts(r")9 Ni(No),(aq)
++e 94
4.4 llttrl-Efl EJS 153
?
.ti'
{
H+(aq)=
r/IlTLE
aflE
oi-g\
Ms(s)E ttEtE
(d^t= "Jg)
q
l-n h.I L20 lF-20
) F
9^g
,e o
!ut
o
o ,O,
e ,oo H2 oo o
.rO o ., OU
o oo
o
C1
,^fl l9
qH 4.e
F {]rEFffl EJtel HJ¤4{ t 7l I
g+Eltsol ueoJel+4 lrl.HJ8g n|], EE "l= Erl.HJS^.14 gnl olE u3^.|= 4 le.
Br-E *ct ols-olps, gxi ol9 HI+4g rl+r+ ,J4. o) olge +l-gqa, +4 olge &p+g+.
2Al(s) + 6H+(aq) 2 Al3n(aq) + 3H2(g) (c) EE HI¤¤4,'JtEol Eql g +E ,Jd6llaol+.
- oql^l +3o e (d) *41+4ql^J +4 oleE {ifl-fg so1ci.
+9 g+ul-E' ++g &El+z| +7I6FrE +
(e) *9 ¤Hol 6[+ olt]o14.
s]9b EEol4. u*E +lql^] eog {s}o}zl trIEql +g
gEI. >H=qF{2
> HE fflr{ 1
(a) trtrql+r+ *ti
age(tDE HI+q 46J +B "*+ +
olg4 +& +4E HI*q 4'J trl¤- ¤H + *e ae?
zt Hl*^lrl $z]. ols- HI+4g;r.rle. (b) ol Hl+ql^l +
(a) oI¤3 +r+qn. +4 ol8e ¤¤94. Eol 4}plqn. +Eol +|gqE7I?
E=|'EE
^1"J
qH ++ol +Iql Eql 4}sl¤ a"Jzl, otrlH +E ++E gql e-l6ll +IE|¤ aqlzlE q=
6J i glgzl? olfl e+g elqr-4"tr +dg g"J olq+ ¤?zloe+ +s6i+.
'iltr-"J
q=Eq 4 q.ze4l E6IE, e4I qA +Ee e-a-+olFtr, A& qe +Eg E *zl9l
*aJ 9o14. ++ol trllts q7l zlzl e+6JEol BCg+. 4
^lt}6l+ ag,BB6Izl q4+ ?* +aEol +^lg + 9i+.
E+ &I+rl gq+E, ++41 zlzll ffio1 r'1}^lslg
zJzl rJe ++e 4ls+6r= as_zl E+ rts+. ql= EH zne c*+ ++qq e-ldll &sl
!zl"J, AgE:zBzl ?*4.:flge zneAsE+q drll dzl¤gq{flq. !zn*As
H+ drtl tlslgtrl.
-,l.
E- ugl UB
4E(lithium) Li(s)+Li*(aq)+e-
gE-fA(potassium) K(s)-K*(aq)+e
HIE(barium) Ba(s)-Baz*1aq)+2e-
*f(calcium) Cals) Caz'laq) t 2e
iE(sodium) -
Na(s) +Na+(44) +e
u[:uJlf,(magnesium) Mg(s) }|ilg2 laq) + 2e
ojfuli.(aluminum) Al(s)-- Al3+(aq)+3e
ulzft-] z(manganese) Mn(s)
olS(zinc) -Mnz'(aq)+2e-
Zn(s)-Zn2n(aq)+2e-
?E-$(chromium) Cr(s) $
¤(rron,
-Cr3*(aq)+3e
Fe(s)-Fez'(aq)+2e-
El
e.l
-Q.
?9E(cobalt) Co(s) Co2t (aq) + 2e ol
Ni(s) -
AI
ul?(nickel) Ni2'(aq) + 2s
f4(tin) -
Sn(s)-Sn2*(aq)+2e
5
7l
B(lead) Pb(s)-Pb2"(aq)+2e'
']..1:, Itr.tlrrig. n IIr.ir '2llL,t,7 lt'
74(copper) Cu(s) C!2t(aq) + Ze
9(silver)
-
Ag(s)-Ag*(aq)+e
fg(mercury) Hg(/) Hgz" (aq) + 2e-
E4*(platinum) -
Pt(s)-Ptz*(aq)+2e
fGold) Au(s)+Au3*(a4)+3e-
4.4 I Lftrl-eJg HJB 155
ts} $-olCol A^61= +^lql q+ L+g6J ++el Es(E 4.5)E EEE rlE(activity
series)olep EI+. ql= Es9 9lql 9lb ++('J+4 ++4 "J+4 tr++)e ,]]+
d4l &elqq. q19
=q
uuleztlEI¤-6Iol r# 9C ?4(active metat)ol
^Jd.Jr+.
zljl 6Jrl. ++EE ol4+ql +l^lEI *4(e-rr+ dol fli)$,]]+ .JA5Ij1, d4l
^lgE
s+*+g "J5zl *=+. Fd+ tr49 "JE trll
^I-SEIE
++E=g *e Hi*C ql+ql fl+
41 6JrI.
4(noble metal) ol
P
(a) 3+ 01fl 4401 flts Nict2 +¤io4g E7l.6lE HJ30l gqgzl?
=q ^l:drJql
(b) zn(Nos)z(aa)0ll Nicl2(aq)= E7l6lE Hj30l "Jol'Jzt?
.:sj
.*
,*s
,*.*
Cu(s)E tla|gJ
As*(ag)=
(Erl.= g3)
EJE=J
ry---*
(d^l-= ?J9
{
?l NOe- Cu2*
Ag* Nos-
Htgg
!oe lH,\is
oo=
gEE +^trr+ +lq flE ++E"J 4lr+ HI+4q HzE ^Jt5J4. qE EH r.li
^Jgql^l
E HCI(aq;el Hlso 6tq ur5 ^JCd4.
Ni(s) + ZHCl(aq) -+ NiClz(ad + HzG) 14.291
ol4 9l= g^59 H*q el6ll tlslslzl 9*zl 4lE9l CuE
BEoE
^Jgq^J +iBEl
HCI(aq)p] HI+6Izl ?*=El. SolEzlls:1H 1.llzlH +;.1= e&4 HlgodJ4. rBlq ol
HI¤+ s* olggl 9t &Elzt otq+. 4{ql, ++ol ¤& olsoll 9611 cu2*-E &+qr,
a4E ol&+ e4(Nor(s))= ^JC'J+.
Cu(s) + 4HNO3(a4) .+ Cu(NoE)z@il + zHzo(t) + 2No2(5) [4.30]
ol H}¤:ql^1ts +471&+B trll No3-(e49 &q4r* +s)zlNoz(dael {ffi2} ++)
E ¤lggE+. *se 2Otlql^l olElal EEile-l Hl¤¤ ¤qE 4.o14.
qFil 4.10
{]cf-Sfl tt8ot oJqLl'.:.xl rJ{6Pl
E+{ + 7l7l E:4, + gql pech i&94 #4 tvtgE ia, e HI+4e El^.q=4 A+.
f=ol ^lE eI*B x.Jzi= E= E4lol+. Mg(s) + Fez+ (aq) M82*(aq) + re(s)
4tq s 4.sql^l #49 fln BEIfl H}¤¤(rurg)ol &Elg ¤ olg H}+^lql^l -
oJaI -H.= Ete+ aol, ol HI+q^l MgE &
qE'=.+oJ HI+E(Fe2*) +lql flsH HI¤+ "Jqt+. HI* s+qr., F"'*E +I+!¤+.
ol "Jq+E FeCIzg Fe2* ol39 FeE *]fl¤ 4o1L, rvrgE
etr .Jxt olg *+^lg d6}e+ e"*9 +dq^l +Bg "*+
Mg2+ ol$9-E 4IplStrI.
al gq= eql ++6I+.
Eol sql^1 MsTlFe-E-+9191 91",+ ei*ol 99t4. ol
> .H.= qF{ 1
gE AelB "JqI4t olgE d6I
HI-3.q^l ^JcB E+E|4g
4* + q- ++ol 7l* dAl4l+q=7t?
7lq6ilot +4. E}fLII++ E+{}E +ql^l o}^} Mf*s (a) ? (b) EE (c) ts (d) iE (e) "JF"IE
=
xlla|-I., gpl olgg cl-o14. ol q}¤.q^l =
^Jcg El-rLll+g > E6qH2
3 ugctroll, +B *= HI*!g q-q=r+ 44.
+Sql e4+ ++ + Pb(No3)2ql 96I &+q= ae?
Mg(s) + FeCl2@q) MgCl2(a4) + Fe(s)
Zn, Cu, Fe
-
FeClzel MgClrE E.+ Eql e += zj{allpola, olg9l B
E "*ol 54zlE ?+g a.lq. ?Eol xl-+ *olE 4zl 69 e ElqLH}+ql^l .Jg4zl EI+ql, rfl
HISEE 5Ag oI
AIi+ +'-q +E Er+ 94, +B6lzl t*i tI*Er ^J4g ae'J4lol ¤+6J EI4xlzI gzl ?l.J a +lql 9l+= a
+ 9l+. *Cz[ olf(4l-Hzl)4 dzl olf(4]p]-++$e B =
I9oltJ4.
=o
!_ +33 Ef
+-Ftr:
+"_IE +ul(L)
L+.:rl
1.009 +E(1.00 M)g +q l4El.ll 1.00 mol9 +eg g.EI*+. ral 4.1s= 1.00 M
cuso+ 89 o.zso LE trJE= %lHg trq +EE +bE= (o.zso mol cuSo+)/
=+.
(0. zso r +E) : 1. 00 Mol 4. 89 (solution)9 *"1E.'soln'9 6J4.
^l-s"
t
5# I
I
,tT
t.i
t t
EtlT
EAI +eE z$iQz.+ e)e} s+4^l(Na2Soa), +EE +q fllsl
^l
t.tr* ol+6iq E.tsE= +.J+. +aE r"d+E
(tzs mr)E +4, +.-qq EEoEE foli -$xllolr|. E+E EI+r., +.-qE PulE mrq1.<] Ls El-E+.
158 48 +Eqqt^1g BJS
E0l
NaSor9 E+= 5a+g ol+6}q +++ Na2Soael ¤+ : (23.4gxa2sofl(#ffi) : o.rur morNa2soa
+ olgE ¤: LoEb ql^I "i ^lls r+aql^l ,l]+ +s6t+. olg a6J sltl
^JEqlql^.t +._4
Eg +gg Ell +E u. olgg ,lJ-4 L"EE p+*Eq s+qr-^lql 96I aag+. ql= 1.0 M
Na* ol9 1.0 MrI Cl- olg 1.0 Mol+. u|t}z}zltr =q
Na2SOa 1.0 M +Eql=
NaCl 8o-!3
Na* olg 2.0 M+ SOr2- olc- 1.0 Mol gl+. ddle +e4E EoEE +.lg "J=. trll
^l-*+
clqlE(r.o M NazSoa) .E'= +"-4ql e,+E ol$(Na+ 2.0 M7+ SOn2- l.0M)s-+ +4tr}.
q1414.12
F olgE +tsE 4||hat7l
r4r ql+gel gEe+ g4r*(46.0 g/mol)S g+6}q zl'J6J ++l H+eE E+E 4l&
6J + 9l+.
ql+set E+ : (0 0s02) (rf*) (Y)(ffi) : 0.858 mor
ru qEl 4.13
.,M +8s¤
^l86lc{ taq
fB+ 4ltl-6t"71
fllq E.]=.E9 aq(^l a.rr)= ol+6lq +eE E+= +6I aE ol BE 371, *+1, +E +zlE E+ 4B6I+.
a, ¤:eq Ee"*g "l+6iq E+= rg+-E +4I*+. > E=q|fl1
Na'z:9tg+ E rzo.oLql "JEqoI3.7s s* +olB, +sqq^-l oJEqot
MNa2soa:
LO-a 9 L"Ei guttzl?
Eol +qd E-r-"Ee++.19 +slE ole"o|{ NazSoa9 Ef (a) 1.84x r0-3 M 0) 3.78 xr}-2 M (c) 0.0313M
s6lE!
=I
dqjdq^l .Jtr-4ee ^l-s6l= +"+g qqle 4l'J t}4eq(stock soln)olap +)e +"J
6|4+ azll6J+. # trJ #g Eo E9 +Eg 5fl(dilution).ol+= r+4, + E¤ Ezlal{ I
g + glE|.
d+ +e4se *g +Eg trJE= %IHg .=}"[Ez]. 1.00 M CuSoa q.lg q^J6]q 0.100 M
cuSo+ 250.0 mL(+ 0.2s00 L)= "JE+a TlAq H^| Tl9dlo} E ede +"-qql +rllE
zlg ql, +eel E++ tr+Sol #zlS4E 1,o14.
#6171 A +eg E+ : #-J + +eel g+ fq,sz)
#g +.lE Pvl(zso.o mL)eI r-oE(0.100 mol/L)E trF oJTl trllEq CuSo+9 g+= 4l
4Ig + 91tr1.
Be +"lqt^J cuSoael g+ : (0.2s00 r+e,(qgiHq)
: 0.0250 mol CuSOa
olxll 0.02s0 mol Cuso+E gzl ?lall gs6J tlal +"lE +tlE 4l&.J + 9l+.
A 0.50 M KBr
lJ
)
i
6tlff
E4 4l6J +.lg *61= 4o1 $ealr|. {6J +._q(3.0 M)el fiE 5e +Eq^l H2so4 +eE E+E Zl&E i glr, ol
SbEe+ B3 +"lE +sle+ E+E(0.10 M +E 450 mL)zl .Jq +49 .+16171 fltll g-e-6J Tl+ +"_q9 +q= AltI¤L
+qA+. #e +"lg "J= uI gs"J {.J +"_qE +qE Zl trI. += %rH "e= 4.339 ole"6|{ Hte +t}+, AzVl
^l
,ilolf fizllolu|. B-Hg HlrElBzI.
q¤ ,JHol= 3.0 M H2so4 ls mL= aal +qE E.EB ++.-q H mLzI gs+7t?
^l-&6}q
450mLzlqE+#6lH 96l=0.10M+Eg eg+ 9l+. mL
(a) 1.75 (b) 8.7s mL (c) 48.6 mL
,CE Bg EJ57l 9l6fl^l= zig (d) s7.1 mL (e) 28.570 mL
"Jel #g +"]g "Jg 41d
+qol gsd}E_tr +"J +r'l= 4"J6}4. > E* qlrJl2
+sl 4e EoE9 F 89ol 49 ql 4+ bE= 44}g A+ (a) 0.0500 mol pb2+E E*q+ 2.s0 M e& B(rr) +.+
71 9la, +++ +,l]= Ezlalq #e +s4g +E trl]= g +ul= g"toJzt? (b) 0.10 M +E 250 mL= "JEeJH
^l M KzCrzo, *93 H mlz| gg+7l? (c) 10.0 M
4.339 g+61-q kEE A4I6J + 91tr1. 5.0
NaOH -tr9 10.0 mLE 250 mLTl qE+5618 tE= g
> !a= ql{I1
El"J7I?
t.75x1o-2 M +trg *9 soo.o mrE ElE4tr l.0o M
A Etrg]
xtzt
=d
II
A Ol E^lal
/rl
==d
^f3
A EEg]
B EEg s-EtEt B
ll
E:9
f:ol oli
zt+
Htq,\lol
^tE
B EES s-BtEl
QOHOI qtE
o-t ao!
B= E-Ef-d
=+ + BE E-'JEi QOHOI HEI
o-i T&l
ArH 4.'17 +EE Ael'eEE7t galT.!ts4 +9 B Etr9 HJ8oll - E:gE +:qEJE4 E^llEol alE A Edel
eaJg ll+ee - el¤E= ill.alB= s-cf-sf E.-4sl B= +tr|= Z86f7lLL
s-EtEf Eo-4sl
B Eqg +q= grofll10l Eeqg EEE= --E_?+El
EEE E-Ef-d =3^! B= E-Ef-d Ea4el +trlt-l=soE=
E +^{ aErr= q+ A Etrol EaJE E8-srrl =6-Lrtl. ^l+e
qFJl 4.1s
6.sl- EJtqFl e%t +41 ol+Ef7 |
0.100 M HNO3 ts{ 25.0 mLE Sddl eiq^lTlalE ca(oH)z H r.Jol "J9-d71.?
(a) 13.8m9 O) l9.5mg (c) 23.smg NaoHts H rg.J7l? (b) pb(No3)2(aq)0.100 mol4 9d
(d) 32.1mg (e) 39.0 mg al EI86l-q pbclz(s) ad+g EIEEJE, 0.s00 M HCt(aq)
> E*qEfl2 3 H 4rlz} gs6J7|?
(a) 0.1s0M H2so4 *9 zo.o mLE +ElalE Ell g.s6.J
a{a{
-rO
slelzl+ +Eql^J 5A +eE f]6ll^l olEl "Jzlll bEq ,tloJ -$ol(*=
bE= 44i;l7l
tsq(standardsolution))9 ol+4q 4E(titration)g ql+. ulzl :-"Eel +E +ql *= +
er+ sddl Hlso g + glE+ ++.J oJE s+ a._qg !z1o11o; qlq. s+Et}EzleE +g
aJ o3g- xldg 44s.1 =.lEfE(equivalentpoint)olep aJ4.
^l-sof,
zlag +e} HI¤., ed HI*, &e}-+|+l q]*ql ol+grl. ral 4.189.sf NaoH go_4
4,lzl EoE9 HCI +o_4 ,JE dB4e +p+ 4dg ¤E+ 1o14. HCI +o-qE tE= A
c6}elE, a4l, .Ja+ Pul(qzldE HCl 8sq 20.0 mL)E B=+. +getr,
P %IgE &-gzl rt^tel(indicator)S ?ztd4. ,t}-¤zl =4^rql
zl^lEg 44g rl] 'J=*dql E
BalsEzlE 7l-Hg + glb gEoltrI.- ql= EllEsg;ll.Jol+a "J3l1l gE:4I^d
=E
+Eql^J= f{olzluJ Ezld ¤:991^lE ts+4o1+. gEt ¤.._4ol ¤+4 o-+ EE ullztzl
NaoH tr= +.lol dz}9fl4H, HClr+ NaoH ,Je-l 6sI Hl+ol ¤*¤¤ ul4u4. ?zI
9E Nuon +.+E +{= Cq6}rll <4i;l7l +l6lq tfl(burette)g ^F*alq .*= +"-49
a5 +El
otq
-o
Arg 4.18 NaoH EE to-4oe ttd tE= 4861.= rtd trll=q=elloJ3 8'-4011^l= +^40|n, ETld Eo-4oll^.]=
E¤^qolq. ^l-g7l ^l^lqtoJ ^Jd
.zl^lEel 4eol Hd.= zldg aq6l +"Jdol4r1+rl. +"Jd.l **d +ilolE +%r-6J 7l^lslg cq6J aol4. +I-
¤71 4Cg tz.:39lrJ !'+ ^J^il6l +EEl.
164 43 +3o_401t^19 U3
Bzlt4. ol4l dz}¤ g= ggg +Ele+ tEe+q f=J 4.1eE Esq^lxlH "lzl g._49
bE= acg + 91trI.
"JgE ESOIIEgEJ
E= tEel +Et EITI E'+E 5E(EiE.E)
E4 -QOHOI
nlTl -QoHOl
s-uE rLg
'\lo
=O!
+tr|^lE
qH 4.16
tJTl 4t¤ olSEJ t.4q 5E erc I
Arf UtrE H7l7l +l-d 894 'Jgetr, A^E =J= tl-3, EE $!eE 4aJ-oE ,J^l E4-Z gZl 1e
NaoH Eo-4oll #e +
^PJ
?ltf. 0lttll NaOH E;EE -EE 3-6 M0ln, tr714o+ Eo-49 EiE= A,\l6tl0l -dtl. E4oll^l 0.500 M H2SO4 Eo-4 45.7 mL=
El6lts rll NaoH Eo-q 20.0 mL7[^+Elflrt. 0l NaoH Eelel-EE= EEloJTl-?
=
6ll'J
E4 NaoH *9 zo.o mls| ${al
H}+6J srsor9 Bv.l de :aH 4.leq +Aloil tr14 H2so4E g+E 4l^16}zl +lEl
(as.z mr)4 E+E(0.s00 M)71 +ol\a-, NaoH +E9 E .r.l HzSon9 +iile+ E-bE=
"l+++. +geE, HI+ql^J
bEE A1416|= E4lol+. rF*9 NaosE E+E Ahlolzl 91611 ol -J4 +B "*+ HI
+4g ^l-&6Jc|. ulzlrJeE, NaoH9 +Eel E-+¤. 0l+61
4 ttaoH9 g-5EE Al&.J+.
: 6s.7ml+en( L*1,,,)(0's0omolHzsoa\
1
Eot HzSO+9 E+= ol +.+q+qelE*'Ee]#ol+ HzSO4E E+ 3 -'\tooomr-$fl/\ L¤-q )
: 2.28 x 10-2 mol H2SOa
>s*qH1 >E=qF{2
0.016s M Ba(oH)2 89 rr+.s mLE 6461-b ull HCI *o-{ 0.144 M H2SO4 +eq 35.0 mLE +F+61-= rJl NaOH *q4
27.3mL*
^l-*6}s.+8,
HCI +EE :-"Ei $ulolzp 48.0mLE
^l-S6t9+tr,
NaoH9 EtE= goloJz}?
@) 0.0aaa M O) 0.0813 M (c) 0.163 M
(d) 0.32s M (e) 3.3s M
4.6 | Ea4e.l ot-staJ=+ trl-+ E4 165
qHl 4.17
4tg olt6J *aE.J Et
+EE 6 cl- 0l8e] SP Rs* olEe.E 4d6tq + 9ttt. 4¤g ttH
"JolLl= eE U- qe-7f e+.
=d-g
Ae*Gq) + Cl-(aq) AgCl(s)
0l 4dsl z+, E0lEl HEIB g + ?lrt.
-'
="JEP ^l^lqtel ^48
(a) 6 +0t flts cl- 0l8E 4d-g nl|, 0.100 htt As* 20.2 m?f g.e.6lrfE, 6 +0f ?l= cr-E raJt= gotoJTt?
^l-8 goPJ7l? ^l.E.
(b) EaJol 10.0 solalE, Cl-g HqEEe
^|eel
6tlt +. zJeql^l rl-s¤ Ae*9 5+= al&6}71 fl6l] eg*9 *
E4 eg* 899 P4(20.2 ml)cl E-l-oE(0.100 M), r4r. ,le+ E.r-.E= ol+6J+.cl-g rg+_r+q ^lE 4g cr
cl-e| Ag+9 EJ+g Elol H}+^lol +qa+. a4s e.l E+¤ 44i;l7l96ll +¤
^lE + "*+ H!¤-^lg ol+,QItrI.
9 ct-q c+E +6Ij1, rq+ cl-E e* EB+g +6J+. (b)
^lE +
cl olgE Ee¤-g 41416|71 f-ldl
^lEql^.]
cl-
z{leJ (a) a-4 4.tzql,r.l q'4 a}^JsE E^lg r+Cg 4 :a++o.17 x ro-2 g)e} ^lEE ag
?* ro.o gg ul:zaJ4.
^l-s"6J
E0l nse Ef : eo
^'+er(roffiXqH#{)
(a) 4aoll^l ^l-&g Ac*g E+E ul4I6J+ : Z.OZ x 10 3 mol Ag*
+B "*+ HI*^]gtr+El I mol Ag+ : 1 mot Cl-"Jg .J cr-E rH+ : e.o2x ro3morAg',(##X##)
+ 9l+. ol 44 clE ¤ieelg ol+6IE -- 7.17 x l0-2 g Cl
ETJ qEI
-4.8[ 7[L{
o tl'llE
?Jti ee16 70.5 ms= 0.050 M 4N 3 Ee{ 15.0 mloll ts7ldl*t]Ll EdEol 8dElfltl..
(b) HJSoll^l -dZl HJ-P 01t- 7,l.A7l? (c) ddEl= dEE9 0l=4 +=aJg reJo+ Zld6l^le.
^l-E.
,JBslE^l-U8^l=
(a) 0l
^ ^le.
6fltr
(a) "JtI EE|#4 44I3(egNoJS s-; olg A.J EI.JE 49 rrrorolq. e4I33 Ag*4 No:-E Eql6lE-s E+
ol+. .JtI s4+e- K*e[ pO43- o]$$ Ea]o[EE p+q] uI49 esNo:ol4. F Hl¤¤g E+ ,Jd4aolE e HI
166 4al +Ea4olt^19 EJ8
s.oj g 6s Eq
+t"4sl "JHJ4?] dE(^lEat4.1tr) Ee
,ileg +'J +Eg ¤ g a.J ol6J¤g +eE ,Jd4aol+. olg
olg_s_E 6ll7l6}Ere
o4(aqueous solution)olz|-L oJ+. tJ E*6}=
Bg "Jg +'-l CE ^J EaE *otls= +C +,ll "lgg tLs ++, +
Ezl-= 7I4l
ol goll(solvent)oln, += dts3 tE(sotute)o14. $4t[(solvation)-e z6'rj 4"14. Ex] s[.JEg Ed6]eE 9l
++"lql olgoE E+g qE E.eg E6ilg(electrotyte)olE-f.r1 a zj{all{E 9l^lEJ, ql++ol Hld6ileol4. Ed"laol +"lql
t4. ol8"l ol{ ag -s.6J6l-= Eeg ulf6illB(nonelectrolyte) ,rJ ol$alalB
^ls Hlq HI6JS
714717 9l= HI+ EI+EE
^I
ol+a 6J+. +.-4ql E+ ol90-e d6l]eg ,JEdlfl +"Iq +._qq^l aHI*r+ qrJ¤¤ +Elr]lj1, Et¤t Ba(chemical
=xll6}=
(strong electrolyte)ol{i fl+. g+++
"lgo-e., 'J+¤+ + equilibrium)ol?+= PIE +Bg +ElU+.
zls Eeg EdAE(weak electrolyte)ol+r. oJ+. ol
AI U3{4.2tr) flE uJts(precipitation reactionP flffiprecipitate)
=z]]6L=
ol+= E+^J tdEg nJE= H}+oltrl. +6llE zlag {lffiz} +gg ++6E-+.
"lg a E, ++lElE ar6Jr+. 4}q+.}^}
6J El6.JEol Eql +:^lE AA6]-E ql E+3 EaE Eel tltH!fl H.!3(oxidation-reduction(redox) reaction)o l $r|.
=rI(6J
E(solubility)E 'JC=JE +,lql + "JolEl). "Jolgr+ golgol {4 z}zl a+e EilB ozoll E6l
4}r+ ++?+ g, ++
r+ ^JqE +4+= ad El+ni eg HI+g E* H.t3(exchange ^}c}E+.
r+ &q 4le1-+g HI¤¤ ilg ElB(displacement reaction)olall ;J
reaction) E: tlE EEI f!8(metathesis reaction)olzp aJr|. +. olBl6J z.l+I HI*E 6J^* gA(H+ EE ++)e+ g
^JdEg
+g Eeol +a! 6ql^l 4++ olg E=.Ezle +z16l=zl olq. rEl"J Hl¤¤ Hli6,lq ;-+g &o]9zl +lg +^lE ul]g
E L+48 'I sI+ HI+!g ¤ + 9ltf. EE HI+g$..Jt$el $ el + 9l+. *4¤ &p]qzl +ie +^lE ull$el $$$ il5srtE
d slql^lg ^l^so 5J trllE HI+!g Eri u.!8+l(molecular equation) (activityseries)olzE q+ +E e+g f olellE ++
"Jr+. ^lg
ol4j1 6J+. E?! olg u.lfiAl(complete ionic equation)$ Cts ol ole(EE H*)ql 9611^Ipl¤ + 91tr1.
goe E+ +g ,Jd6lleg +Elutrl. Ert 0|e u.!i+l(net ionic Eo+sl EiE(4.str) +"-qq 5E(concentration)E +"-4 6q +.I
equation)oll.rl= Hl*g ¤:6fq H4zl ?*: olg(+At olt, 9l= +eq .JeE +Elu+. +"-! +eE tEE +4.11= "JHI
spectator ion)g
^Jefql4. 4'J %IH 6 6l+= gtsEol+. 899 " r*s.(molarity)E +'-l 4
+l-E7let HJ3(4.3tr) 4Ir+ gzl: +s6J dalldol4. tt qB +AE g+olEl. ol bE t9lE +.19 +qe+ +4E g+
=Et
(acid)$ o"t{x} fzflol+. ++"-qq &9 z}a].H H*(aq)$ }E ^Iolq ^JE
+^I'J + glAl "JE+. +aol olxllolE +eE "JEE
7l +7F;Jr.+. Ezl(base)E oj{z} pzf olrf. #.-4ql g7l= 7}6} ol+6}q A=*, +q, E rJel H+3 F6l] Eg"EE al&I4. "Jel
E oH (a41$ $Ez| f;zfaJE|. ,Jd6He"J &4 EzlE 44,5A 4l +r-" E +Ee +eg da*g Eot "JBlll +Ee E6lrl+ q Tl
(strong acid)4'z#7 l(strong base) 4l ++. Ed6ll e "J tFl g 7l r-"EE +ol(s9)3 *fl(dilution)o145 !+Cg Eql g
"J.JeJ41
$ $r{!(weakacid)4 Hzl(weakbase)4-z 6JE+. &r+ Bzl SeqS +"-qql dzlal* +,ll(EE 4A)b +"1 6 +eel 5+ H+
=+.
4 0E +pI Hl+ol 'Jqtq. &4 ++ +41+E ^IolE =El,.l3 Sol 889 tEE A^^lrJ4(M11ujx yd+:Mssx Vse).
(neutralization reaction)3 Er+ elGalt)g
"J=tI. 6el El+g A Eeqg E[*UEat Et+ E^1(4.6E) qE(titration)3 bs.E E.e4
CCg +E 9l+. +sl¤+ t}"l + +rHE oJg aC6IrxI6J trll gr 9l= +._q(E=te{(standard
r+e. 7l,ll7l- H}*alE H,s(s)= I,J
ts4F+ 4I9 Hl¤+ co,(g)E "J=+. solution))¤ ulzl t.Eel +.-qr+ HI*^lzlE 4Col4. 4Aql
=trf.
tiEF-EJfl HJ3(4.49 tlEl(oxidation)=
EAol dzl-E SE 4ol HI¤.Eol +qL*E4etr E"J6J olg ae.q} zl{$ trJgg
^J
r, Eeol dzl-= g= aol+. 4sl$(oxidation
ElEl(reduction)3 (equivalence point)ol ap't14. zl,tl"J¤'J*d4 Z I "Jil6l+
number)t ++ HI+ E"Jql dzl= +461q 5E.J +zlg 4Aq 6"Jdg oJral. oJ trll
^F* ^l=8-oJtrl.
;I9 9zl9l g$g aolq. gaTi tpl!{ to1;r|?71-61= El
. goJEol & E= ezlq_lzl, r4a Ad6llA, Eddle, Eld6l . +sqq +ule+ +eq E+E g+6tq E*.E= Alt6JE|(4.s
a + qL lelxlqql*4(+.r¤. a.:¤). A. +H g+g4l: 4.6r-4.22
+¤ g++:41:4.31-4.38 . fl6}= +Eel +Eg
"JEzl
glal EaJ9 z||"JS olalloJr|(a.s
. &-Bzl +*, ad HI*, 4IEI-¤fl Hl*E ¤). +d ¤#E4: 4.73-4.78
^JCgE+El ++
E ++= ql+6J+(4. 2_4.4¤). . 4aq Arle+ +lrlE olrNof,c|(a.6¤).
+H {+ +^{l: 4.3e-4.44,4.s3-4.s8 +H g6 +.^ll: 4.s3- 4.e0
z O Hl'e-/.1-i
orr- d o
o=-=t E4
-8-zlol
d o* [a.rr] E.bE= p]Eq^l ,l-tr- .JH]zl.J +9lE ^l-sg4
+e!el +q(L)
. Md+x V11t1:Mggx Vg' 14.331 1l+ +Eql +"lE a7I6Iq Ee +"-qg EIE trI, d{} +E4
Eg +"-qE +r="Eel +q + ^ll
,}]E <iol +qdqB +Rl^l
4+= AI4IB + 9lE+.
168 43 +Eo-4oil^lo-l HJ=
"J+ +41
!o=
L++L EIL 7llL1
'ltE (a) Cl- (b) No3- (c)NHa+ (d) s2- (e) Soa2-
4.1 q¤ + E+E Li2so4 .s"19 zlar g +Elu:aBg? (++ 4J 4ts"1 Eolal ,tll zll9 Bql ++ +EJ ^lE7t Eq fl+. 4
F+^l 7l eJ-r. g Ezl-E=e 444x1 g9t+.) t4. I ¤l 4E Hqb oLS, B, Eq+ol Eq ql4. ollg iltsldpl f.l
o o aI 7I^l +"1, + r u dt}^E, r,vr ¤t
I M e,$ qaol
b oo
o o oo
^ll
9l+. 4 ++ E"Jg 9oll^'l= qB4 ol +"qg
^l
DI
^lB6t7l
o +6llot 6l+71? [4.4e]
o do
.s
{$ uftz}zl5l,
od
4.8 +3rl HISol oJCzl¤ s6J6l+ &+-+}?l
+$ql^l dzlzl I Bz,ll +q+=zl$ d$dl^le.
(a) (b) (c) lqs4. +.+41
.E
4.e +6ll' HI¤+ qtr a"Fg H]goJz17 [a.+¤l
4.2 TIzlE += EA Ax, Ay, Azg ++.19 El-8.r+ gg
^ll ^ll H2O(I)+Hz@) +YzO2@)
zll$ 19 o e +44fltr1. 4 Eeg rld4g, Ed4e, El
(a) t-Bzl HI*
d.il?e f E6l^le-. [4.]¤]
(b) ++6llHl*
to o o AX AY
c
AZ
o
&sl-*fl HI*
(c)
(o ad HI*
cs (a)
a c
(b) (c)
(a)
"J.-I
ol +eqol Nacl(aq)4E, g+ olgE bEb 9"t
oJTl?
(a) (b) ^l
(c)
^l
oh
4.r4 trI*- ¤Eol +.Jzl Zll"Jzl$ {{;}]l, : ol]?E ¤Bo} (b) KoHe+ cu(NoJz
(c) Na2Se+ CdSO4
^19.
(a) ullts9(cu:ou)o1 Eql +sE dzlzl 5lq}4. q.g+alol g6JqE +.-!ql qH olgol Slz|!
(b) ol^]lEt}(cH3cooH)ol Eq +eH Edqleoljl &^d (a) E4I e4;.rt +& trIrql+
OIET.
-a25O) et B4 +p+ EE
olgd n4E Eq +oI ol-ge-E 6llEElq ,Jd6llaol (c) .J4I *E.tsr} g+ ++
F*3
Eg ol ttql^l EllS.+. ol 44ql ql+ 7f+*g dBe? 4.26 L+* 4 A+ql^J "Jq+E ++ql 4t +B "*+ oJal ols
-+.rs(a) E3 zffi {}.!etr. ol$rJ liil$ ¤ +.J+. Hi+4g .r,.,'.le. Hl+ql^l .JxI ol34 +a# .lgg +E
(b) E +^lE +^e+ t^ fl^l+ +84 ee 6}dqq flq 6I^19.
ol+ql + +,ll+g+. (a) Cr2(SOa)3(a4) + (NHa)2COz@q)
(c) E tszfoll.H +ie+ 4IiE A'Jg olgC nillql 9611 fl (b) Ba(No3)2(aq) + K2So4@q) -
(c) Fe(NO3)2(aq) + KOH(aq) +-
#qd+.
al
4.16 ++qq^l +olgg E +xl-el 4I^+ +^ ?zl6 qL a 4.27 "l^lel g +"-q usr, HzSoa, NaoH *99E
^lE= E3
4\ tlTlo1=4alb7}?
^lel6lq E46IHE}. ^'ll a+
Efql^l ddEol ^JtElfl
+J, g+ql q* Eeg 44 E.J trll, +E +ql +451= olgE 4. r*, pb2+, Ba2+9 "Jolg + qL aol ulxl $o-!oll +af,
g ¤^l6}^le. 49 9lB.4EzI?
ol$ a.J pl.JE
^lE +._qg #3
(a) FeClz O) HNO3 (c) (NH4)2SO4 (d) Ca(OH)2 4.28 ulxlel eg(Nor),
4.r8 E+ql q+ E49=44 +g ql, +"1+q +rld+ olgE Pb(NO3)r, BaClz 89 o-tr
^Jel6[q
EE]4qq. ^'ll a+ s
g ¤^16}^le. Fglrl ?dEol ^JcqHrI. Br-, co:2-, No:- 6 ql a
ol ulzl Sg *ol*"Jz|?
(a)MgI2 0) K2CO3 (c) HCIOa (d)NaCHTCOO
4.22 El-g 4 slqlEol +Ezl, Hzl ?*izlE ql+61^le. 4.32 q+ + ¤zldol 7l+ ?tal +Eg?
(a) Agt
=iql
(b)Na2CO3 (c) (d)AI(OHL (e)Zn(CH3CooL (a) 0.6MNH3 O) 0.1s0MKOH (c) 0.100Msa(OH)z
BaClz
4.34 ffi {$ol *.Jxl 41.Jzl$ {z$ap, r olrq¤, ¤B6l- *+B "++ E^t HI+^lr+
ga} ol9 Hls"49'rA^le.
(u) (a)9 ++q +ge+q 7I^l u|:t-Jlf, E.e + apl¤
^ls. ^ll
(a) NH:ollE OH- olgol $.zl"J: ++"lg Ezlol4. El= + 7|^le+ q$ril +E6J + 9lbz}?
(b) HFg'JtlolLl. 4.44 Kro= 5q +.'ll tlp] ol9ol E tsz}e+ Hls"6}q +4IsI
(c) Adoll¤oJ H2So4E f*991= son' olgB+ HSo4- olgg
^Jct+.
olgol q *+. (a) ol +*ql 4* EzI ++4r+ 9rI ol3 Hl¤rlg ,A^le.
'p* 4 EAol 41oJzl, Ezltzl, ¤.Jzl, olllg ot+aE o)tlr} grl9 aE= +4618, ol H}+ql^l ol- o1go1
olBzlE ++q]^ls. ++.lq^.1 .E-+E^l-84tr e7l"J7l?
-+:s Eer+ d+ olge-tr =xll6f=
Ea, e^IeI olgg sEt ¤ (c) ol HI+q^l q! A{tl?
t}g
=xll6l=
qlE Ed-e. +4Lll^le-. (d) ol HI'&q^J f?# olg* 9g aqlz}?
=^l]6l+
(a) HF (b) ot^llE+olEg(curctt)(c) NaCloa (d) sa(oHL
tlEl_Efl HJ3{4.4E)
4.36 olzl +gel ++qg 4E"l^ +olE dE6Iq &d.Jg "J 4.4s +g ¤¤e +q,l7l, 4a"J7l?
?l+. ol +"13 eg bE9 Nacl +"lBE| sf-J dECg (a) ol¤ Ee"l &+qH dzl-E ?i4.
+E+4flE}. ol Eeg r+* + ol:= {ojz12 0) qB olgol&F+qH &++rl67I+EI.
KOH, NH3, HNO3, KCIO2, H3PO3, CH3COCH3(ot^'il9
4.46 trL.S ¤Hg ar.Jzt, AA"J7I?
4* 4 +g.+g Eq^l Hld6le, Ed"lle, ,Jd6llaE + (a) tr}= tl^ S.ol 'Jqg + 9l+.
(b) 4I+= +g flol "Jqg + 9l+.
-+tz+61^le-.
(a)H2So3 O)CrHsOH(ql+s=) (c) NH:
r4.g r+4 eg +7lgsq go e E^l¤ BE 6 @) tl*
KClo3
drl &+q= g^= s+61= gE3 q!
(d) (e) Cu(NoJz
a.J7I? o) q
4.38 'l+ 4 E].+Eg Eql^l Hld6le, Ed"1l3, zj{a}l{E $ -aa7L aol 7l* +el7lg} q= ¤9.JzI?
+61^19_.
(a) LiClOa G) HC1O (c) CH:CHzCHTOH(sE+sJ
(d) HCIO3 (e) CuSO+ (0 CI2H22O1r(¤¤l-) A
D
qg- E^I HI+4g Sa6}jr, +Eg *+n, 449 gal ol
g H]+^lg xi.le. B C
-a3e(a) HBr(aq) + Ca(OH)2@Q +
(b) Cu(oH)z(s) + Hclo4(aq)
(c) Al(OH)3(s) + HNO3(4{) +-
4.48 49 45eq s*¤ +E 4IE1-+= Aadt^le.
4.40 q* rf ++ Hl+el +B "*+ Bzt HI+^14 oJzl ol9 tl* (a) ¤tt} ut+(saSo, (b) oI+4}(HrsoJ (c) *pI
rdllg. (Srs) (d) +El +A(HrS)
^EEE
^ls
(a) ot^]lE4} ++Ee +&+ EIE ++Eql el"ll +p+9E1. (e) *3 g+ E4l 4.47q fl= +TlgEql^l qL +Eql +l
(b) r.i]l +tslreE(Ir)g ole4F+ Hls"el+. il6l+zl?
(c)?tI ++'-ln} "JEqoI f I9ol +9" +q. (0 +el - &fl49 E+ 714 + 9lb g^= 9l +7lgE
'*. EI+E +B "*+ E^l Hl+4r+ gx1 olg Hlso4g 4 I
qL +qq 9]il6ldE7f?
j1, 44ql^l dCB zl8lE +4ql^ls. geq^J zl4+ g^E &al+= e46l^le.
-+.ar(a) -nall ++ TIEE* +& ++sqrl Hlg" +q. '++ 4
(a) Soz 6 S (b) Coclr f c (c) KMnoa 6 Mn
(b) i14l +& ElrLJl+g +g^4I ++a44 Hls"*+. -++g(d) HBrO 6 Br (e) PF3 + P (0 KzOz 6 O
4.42 tsl ol9"l Szl{olzl q+ql, E+.$ffi-e- 4F} + Hi+ 4.s0 Ll+ ?+ pl.Jgql^l zllal flael 4lq+¤ aa6l^le_.
ttrl. (a) LiCoOz ? Co (b) NaAlHa 6 Al
(a) rl-* eI*9 "Jal olg HI+^lg;^^le. (c) cH:oH(q1tsgJ+ c (d) caN 6 N
+ 2HClOa@q) ------ pe(CtO+)z@d + H2O(/)
FeO(s) (e) HCIOz 6 Cl (0 BaCrOa 6 Cr
(u) (a)9 Hl*4g +3+q Nio(s)e* 44i ++.-lE Hl+ql qn- Elg"ql^l gE fl+-z}4IF+El:z, gH flnz; ¤lflgiz|?
46J.J4I olg HI+4g *.r.le. (a) Nz(s) + 3Hz(s) + 2NH3(s)
et Elrql+, +Ip}"trql+, ++l+ "lrql+g EF g^l -asr(b) 3Fe(No3)z@d + zAl(s)
Lz]loll, 4Ic +"-4r+ HI*++. - 3Fe(s) + 2AI(NO3)3(aq)
-++:(a) ol :ull$ 44 g4InI +9"^lag'll .Jq+= HI+q q] (c) Cl2@fl + ZNal(aq) Iz@q) + 2Nacl(aq)
-
171
=* =r1l
(d) PbS(s) + 4H2O2@q) PbSoa(s) + 4H2O(l) vl+71?
- 7IE+9 q C++ 9lilE 4617l
4.s2 Elg + qL aol &Et-+g e}*.Jzf? ol a+ q- g^7I
(c) $EoE +1611
^lgoll^l
qtr dllg +fl6uot 6l+71?
+gq=^lE s^l6}^le-. olqH ad HI+"Jzl,
^I+Eln,
+p+ H]+"J^l ¤ s^l 6l-^l e-.
4.s8 q+ H}+(cl¤sb 6J *6}slg E^l)g Eled g^EE g
(a) Pe(s) + 10HClO(a4) + 6H2O(/) .+ E"E
^l¤9 ACB
ql
^F*EtrI.
4H3Poa@Q + 10HCl(a4) h2@Q + 2Nal(aq) .+ 2NaBr(aq) + l2@q)
(b) Br2(D + 2K(s) 2KBr(s) Cl2@fi + 2 NaBr(a4) + 2NaCl(aq) + Bt2@q)
- 3Oz(8)
(c) CH3CH2oH(/) + 3H2o(l) + 2CO2G) (a) 4E ggd golg4 4lg ql ,I+ ?Ia+ gtrd g^=
(d) ZnCl2@fi + 2NaOH(a4) - Zn(OH)z(s) + ol:1o3217
- 2NaCl(aq) (b)94 gie+ ofoleQpl EEI+$ 4g u]| H}+"1 'Jqg
4.s3 trl-g EI-S{ ql6J +B *+ +xI HI+!+ $af ol8 ql$al q+6}^ls.
^lE
_q- rl o
.rA (c) EeuJ g4el gs+ ?]Eg 4lg Ell EJ+ol 9"lBzl9 {l
= -..t+.
(a) EJTIq=e+ Bg +& qalrl9.
o) =.-sE-r+ 'r-E"J+ +44I EEel-EE(4.5tr)
(c) i44 B&
4.se (a) *99 r-oEE C¤"JzL a7l'\AAoJ7l?
^ll7l
(d) "J+El t.!+ +,tl(HCooH) (b) 0,s0 mol HCl4 0.s0 M Hclel ilolS +l'J7l?
4.s4 E]^g HI+ql ql+ tB *+ +zI +*44 "JaI
ol3 $+4
4.60 es.o 99 ¤E}(crzllzzorr)g EE]6I= 1.000 LE f 8 "l'l llcl
gA I a
(a) ol +eqel EtsEb guI.JzL?
(a) ul4r-l ¤&
(b)(a)9 r=oEE Hls-tr 916ll^l} H EElsl +9 a
o) er+ Ee +& zf6llot 6l-=zp
=ol7l
(c) u|:u116'4,r E"Js+ +A&
a^or t"l 150 mL *9oll o.rzs mol ZnclzE s*61= +qq g
(d) ot4l E4I(cH3cooH)
"I¤rl r-oEE altl6t^ls.
gEs. 4.s)g ol+6}q +-g Hl*e.l ilB "*+ ++
^lg(E (b)4.s0 M 4& *o-{ :s.o mloll fzllalg o}C^}sl g+=
Hi¤-^lg r^^le. "JE HI*ol g"l4zl gl:sE A+61 NRol
-ess+n }^ls. 9ul"JzI?
(c) 0,350 mol #61-= Ell gg+
NaoHE 6.00 M NaoH
(a) ?4I +?](D +s{ql a ++g '+=+. +"lE +ulb gr.lrlEle g"ltzl?
(b) +slEtrql+ +eqql oI¤ ++g'+=Et.
4.62 (a) Na2Croa t2.sg¤ Eql+q C$al zso mLE +qg "J
(c)i4 ++q trE"J5I +^&ol dz}94. EgtrlH +slel ¤!o Eb g"I"Jzl zlt6}^le_.
ol
(d) g+ qAGD ++o-qq^l f4 zl4lzt#qe=q.
(b) 0.112 M KBr *9 150 mL 5 rrr9 g+= gEtqlTp
(e) *tI igE0D 8991 'JFults *+g H*4. (c) 0.1s0 mol HClg Bts rll Bs.J 6.1M HCI +"lE +El
4.s6 gFE 4.s)g ol+6iq q-g Hi+e-] +B *+ Elirt
b gE;]Ele 9"1?lzl?
^]g(s
HI¤-^lg r Hl+ol 9"l4zl ?*sE A+61 NRol
r+n
^le. "JE 4.63 C"J Bz}el + Et"J +slE ¤+Ag s.0 Lol+. iE olg9
^A^lg.
(a) ¤41+EODql qa ++g BE+.
¤t +E7f 0.13s Mol+B, ¤"qq sqlg iE olgE eeJ
(e) d,t} g +Eql^l ii zlAlzl #ole=4. c/J.il o. rre M9 4E ol$ fu.Ez[ 9zl 9]all,rlE qL aE
E gE].^$$ d+lqlot{+7I?
++ TIEES Cd2* olgg g El-g ++ol ol+q
^JC6J+.
a+. ars g+ oJng(CH3CHzOH) *E(blood alcohol concentration,
-+sz(0 ol¤ ++ 4?+g cdcl, ++Eql BrB TIEE| ;f+ol BAC)= ¤o{ 100 mLE} oJa99 r++ol+. El+ q;l +
a4 EEq 4=¤EI. ql^.] 6+el B4
"Jag 7l+ilE BACTI 0.08 ol^Jol+.
.Jige.l tE: q
(ii)7lEE ++ 449= Ni(NoJz(aq)91 grB qa ++ol BACTI0.08o1+H, ¤eqq
=46l-b
M
.Jzt?
44 sBql 4egEi.
(a) *89 ¤B6I= oJal ol¤ Hls"^]9.. 4.66 C.J Bzlel + B"q +qq ¤+e s.0 Lol+. E+¤ trt{
^ls.
(b) TIEEE gEE aa4Tlql q- gaTt zl* zl
^lgg + ¤+ oJ=.g *E(BAC)7I 0.100148, E"-qql +4161'=
172 46r +Eqoll^]el EJ8
.Jigq 4eJ.$ $ulolzfr g oI+ ,J+ EJ.'SxllolEI. ol t'j^]zjl '* ts^lb ITI]E +
^]l+
qaz ol n cz|(o.ao M ql+g ++"q) 1.00 LE "JE?JH qleg oJ4. t.ox 1082fl$ 4l+3 qolTl glalrl s.ox loi ME 6J
(cH3cH,oH) H g9 E"ll 4qoi o15z|f O) qltsgq "J +qg TVla- 2s.00 mlg 6}^Jzjl +"lg ,JE= %IH
^Jrll
ia(o.7se g/mL)E ol+6l.q H E7f 1.00 LE EJE= q g.s- g
^J¤.I^le-.
* ql+gE +qE 4l&6}^le. n77 4z+ol4r..Jqd +++ ol^llE&e zs"Cql^l rgEzl
4.68 9{217,\ 6J Aqlb 1p4mg4 o}r.7u4}(E}ol4"J c, 1.0a9 g/mloltrl. 2s'Cq^l B.i& zo.oo mLE 250.0 mL
c6H8o6)ol .J+qq fl+. sfllal+^ oJ aE +-1471n6.6 +._qoI qE+5-6.J oi^llE4}+.-qE E.r-"E= I"l.JzI?
mlaln ts 41. {zl9l {}..,?9 u}ol4"J cel gbETt Alt}6} 4.78 4tE. ^l+, +8"-q, g+^q *Eql
=q^'llE(c3Hsor)¤
'*H+16I4 ^l=SE+. ls"cql^J EJETI r.26s6
^ls. =ul^ll+
+og <^l +g + eEl-# ole-E LoEzl tlz] 4+? g/mloJ ++d eq^il.l+. ls'cql^l 50.000 mL9
= g Eql +q =q^llE
0.20 M KCI, 0. 15 M K2CrOa,0.080 M K3PO4 2s0.00 mL +Eg slEflg trll, +'i
g E]-"EE Al4l6}^ls. =q^ilE
(b) q4- 6 +r14. olgE E+7I ag?EJ
=
0.15 M K2CrOa 30.0 mL, 0.080 M K3POa 25.0 mL el El:qeJEa[ at+
E"_4 E^1 (4.6tr)
4.72 El-* 4 gil +"-qq ¤461^b olg9 E"Ei go}.Jzl-? (P asr t"r o.o87s M NaoH *9 50.00 mLE +c+61+ rjl $goJ
q= q'J+ 9l+a rlC+trt.) o.Lt5 M HClo4 +ole.l +ul} gEltTl?
(a)0.170 M NaoH *.-4 +z.o mlc+ 0.400 M NaoH (b) 2.s7 g9 tutg(ou)rE +EI6l-= q ge+ o. 128 M HClg
*o-4
37.6 mL PiilE 9rI.JzL?
(b)0.100 M Nazsor 89 +e.o mlel 0.1s0 M KCI +E (c) 785 mg KCI(Agcl Brd) E-E cr- olgg a
^lEql^l
25.0 mL 4^lvl7l ?loll zs.s mlel egNo, +Eol gs6fElE,
(c) KCl 3.60 g9 0.2s0 M CaCb *9 75.0 mlgl Hg +.-q AgNo3 +'le-l SbEE guloJz}?
0.lls M NaoH 89 42.5 mLE ¤:p+61-= ql 3.4s mlel 4.88 O.2OO M HNO3 +o-l s5.0 mloll ls.o gel Sr(OU)zE Hfl4.
^l .Jol+E EJs"g +B *A +q Hlgo4g;u19.
a7f gs-6IElE, 1.00+lE(0.e4 L)el ¤46l+ ot^ll (a)
^l3ql
=,rI9 El 1"dol|712 G) +._qql HoI glE 4 olgg :-"E| gulolzp
(c) ol ga3 s99 4lc"Jzt, Ezlc.Jzf?
as5 u1z1g "Ja4 ++ +41+E 4.36 gg roo.o mlq Eql
^ltr.
ol
+g+. +"_4ql ,t}_Bzl zl^lo+g B-r. 2.s0 M HCt(aq) 3;51^l +&+ ElrLll+ ^lE 0.s8es g¤ o.2oso M
?+g
*9e_+ 444fl4. r7.0 mL9 g4I +Eg Bflul,-], B HCI 100.0 mloll +fi+. 4'*E 4Ig 6cl^l7l7l +.16ll
r6}dq Eg.6fH¤+ LI44E al^lEE H6ls4.
-asro.r02o+o-q
M NaoH 1e.85 mlz| $9a|fl4. + HCI +sq
^qol ^l-E.
(a) B4 +41+Eg 93"+g $"Itzt? 4 Hlg" d+ +gEL EeE +aq= +&+ Elrql+g ef+
(b) "J'/JE ++ olgg Li+, Na+, K*, Rb*, cs* 6 qL a EE¤g Zl4I6I^le_.
{71? 4.e0 444 r.z+s g9 E4la}q t.o3s M HCI +ol 30.00 ml9l
4.86 ulzlel 2fr ++ +,ll+E ^ltr. 8.6s g9 as.o mL9 Egl 5 +.J4. r+*q +lg +s}^l7l= Ell 1.010 M NaoH 11.56
g+. ol gg.ll &_gzl zl^lEg Bn 2.s0 M HCt(aq) * ^lE +
mLZl Ps6}trl. HCI +o-qq HI*61= +gql EAE
o-q-e-e
446194. s0.s mL9 ¤,tI S-ol$ $flclul. zlrl +Aq= +rI a+q g=t Elegg Al&6f^le_.
+rl.J+ E4l
4.et +s=+sfl+ ++b(uFJe 4se4 4*zl* +r+E¤ /d 4.s3 Ni2*, Ag*, Sr2*, Mn2* + "J+ E.= d+E eqld+ +.1
416l-71 flsJ gEol+. +q-b gdei CIF3E Hlgo e-tr uF6 ol 9l+. HCI +Eg dzlrl,l adEol rJC9fl4. 4ezl
,I ^JdElq c1r7t +cg.tr. +g+. ed+g 4la6J + H2so4 +o]g Szlr}flrlul 4E a
.e.
(a) u4 CIF37I uF6eI Clre H++q= Hlq" el tB *+ E^l dEol 4dslfl4. ol dd59 Aezle.4l7le} s NaoH
Bl-q-,\l-q
u o 1e ,lA rl o
-"1+.
*99 dzlal$.clt-l ?dEol ^J^Jq4 g9t+. 4 edgql
o) olag tli i+ EI*.J7I? ¤^116l+ olgg +EoJ7l? 9le.l uJl zlxl olg + g?11 +q
(c) ol49 &s+-+lg tiS"JzI? ql flflH oleg q! 4oJ7l?
4.e4 -s. 4.lql sE + olgt
^Idg cd(No3)2 *94
4.e2 trl-¤. Nazs9 Hl¤¤ +4U A.l+. ol$(croa2 )$$rJ4! o1
=EE4I
(a) ?dE9F9.qlzP 8(czor'-)91 ql+ +6llE= 4^f6l+ %lH¤ dqql trzl.
O) +"-qqb q¤ olgol tsot 9lEzI? r-oE7l0.01Mql Lll TIzlE Eql ¤ +b ¤ a, s, c, D= +
4aJ.Jal-olg HI*4g r,rle.
(c) ol HI+ql gr+ aq.
(d) olag &e+-+lg HI*oJ7l? -9-xl -e.oHol
o-
-e.oH oa o--l
.^H
-
A Na2CrOa L al-,^I
B (NHr2c2o4 +4
EAI]
C AgNO3 l-
D CaCl2 +^q
O Natalielme/Shutterstock
174 43 +E.-4oil^.19 BJ3
dEEE #g!EE 3rI 4.98 AH +4e+ +4eJ rxll 89o14. ole+ ae ++ +.-qe
I A+B adE H*, u*4 *"-4 i]+ol4 +84. AFg +e.l zlal+ +4 zliUtrtrI rJ6Ir
2 A+C H-o
flL-
,(1.l ilEU=z-lg ,/.l,(l
O O
++6IE|. At¤ +Eol4 El Eilb CEel Hglr} +zilttrl.
J L+^4 adg ^JC
(a) 100.0 Cel a# e*Hls 90.0 o/o9 +qel10.0 %o9 ?
ol+q4 914. qH;-+ol +Etioln, qE ++
4 B+C ¤^4 aa5 ^Jd ^loe
ol*aqlz}?
5 B+D ¤^! edE ^Jd
6)aEE "Js= z.s s/cm3tr- 7IA6}J, (a)el llolrl$ z|
6 C+D e^q adE ^Jc all +Eq 5L" EE 4l,t}6t^le.
(a) 4 dQl"ll,H .Jq+= HI*q 4+ oJal-ols- Hl*4g,^ (c) ol aFql^l?49 e+ xlTlel + 9l= E!¤¤ 4l^16r
^ls. I, r olf¤ ¤H6I^le.
G)4.¤eiq^l adEol BCS+B, olE i"Jzl qoJ6t^le. 4.99 1.00 M KBr ,(lE 35.0 ml9l0.600 M KBr 60.0 mLE
^lE
A.es 4]&xllb E=9 $s+6}a ?ol+ g+ll.J ilEql E¤.ol g 4b+. r + +r]7}
+.-qg s0.0 mlz[ $ rl]zizl z[$a[{
+. +lt}el ltslct(adal ffi
zll{lzllel E}¤-ql q+ +B *= +B^lrJ+. 31¤! +"lql^J H_e.EJ+ geE ad^l7lE Ell
H
(b) ol$ flaz} &+qn, q¤ g^
4 &c+-+g HI+q^l^IEl-+Ig -.azc--r,
zt ++gq=zl +EI4^ls. no' H
I
@ffi
4. ¤fxllE olE ol*g Na*E ul-84.
(a) ls00 LE 4+71 0.020 M cu'*el 0.0040 M Mg2*E .s.
(c) ol 4aql^] 'J=*eql Eg6l= rJl o.roz u Ag* *o_4 E^)o14. 4le zlEq^l +=q: *zlE o.otos M HClg s
25.0mLzl^-E.qflEIE, "l s+xllq flb El4}gel ¤ 6J6l-b +"lql F4^14 Ee6lH+. NH3el Hclel HI+4e
=J EqEgg
gtrIoJTI? ++r+ aq.
4.il4 trl+ql^l gE+ql EE'¤ Hl&gql EI6J zl??z0oa NH3(aq) + HCI(aq) .+ NHnCI(aq)
^ll-tr-g
H t99l ^lldg qld +E+ HBql g"il eCqS.E Hl, + *zlE ro.o L/min9 +Etr 10.08 E.J 4l +849 s.rl^l
+q Eg ula selol 10 ppbE H^l *++. El47t Eltl ,J +,l}g 446}9tr1. tlE 4CqE 0.0588 M NaoH 13.1
9(aso+3-)9 BqlE 7|A+r., zl+(r0 mlzf 4s-9{'J*e ql Eg6tf,r}.
=xll6Jqr. ^l]-e+
ppb)ql "*= ¤--E+ 1.00 Lql ¤4d+ NaEAsor9 e+9 + (a) 4i*991 se¤ NH3el s+E 4l4}6}^le.
6I^lj-. (b) +71 +ql fl'J NH:9 ppmfE al&6}^le(dE aa
ql^J +zlel "JsE r.zo glr"lJ. +zlE ¤+ EA"*g
*u:{ffii$}*,0,
o -a rE I 29.0 g/mololtrl).
4.1rs ¤tsJ A+E zlg+ +a q *zl * NH3e.l +^ll (c) ol q^L= +^ll= 9l= aoJTI?
t6J;lE so ^J4l =.fat-r.
ppm(+ +71 + E"J +zl'J "Jsqo} Bzf9 izl s0ol?+=
\
\
N5
/ al
I /
-.rt
Sr-*fl
I I
t
I
tt
II
5.1 > +Et oflLlrletctr 9lHzlE sx} f=
ql^J6ld¤ 9zl¤9 44214 ^Jq 4
+sE+q +tr oJq+= Elfl¤ qlLl
^19
B4.J plq qlqzl4E ag E+
6Jrf. El+Er+ Zl4n 6lq,
^JdEg
r EE _E= 1¤ +91+r aE*-g.
-+a] ple} HI*+ ¤Sg qlqzl EEIE
¤B+4.
glELSt 5.2 > gq-4 fit194 gqq 4rBzlg E++
t*I -I 6Iq, "l= qlq^l=
^35gz1q +E9
?+eq, B^l ,* B4ql^J tI= Bql
^l
tr d+q4+ E: 4le} +f]
olE6J i 9lg gol4n ^Flql^l
Zl
^l+E+.
zl zl4 qq4E qg q{zle}-rt 6J
?ll7l- ol-= E= -dEe otrq-d EEri= qtqrter flrrqq fl+.
+. .ll+ qlLl^lE +Ell t}+tr^j, r {}
qqxl fro1= Ett| 4'E=J + fl= g'J olLlal SBE + fi,tt. g +^l 4lE ¤zll ^JEllq E+6I= *
^lel7[ =IHg
oflLl^lel saJE E^ll=, + oilLlrlq
=fl,
a+t, EHl|, alEl, E^1, 3x11,
==
I ol{, {eo}} ++6f+.
4loll^19 t}|El.oll+4+4 9lq'.
^qEq 5.3 > SlgEl SBul4i16l= ^JEll
6J+= trI
.Jq
Eq. olaol ++ql ol+E.Ja
6lql^l ZlTf E4+ g= gqlq^lel "J
4.J qlqzl= 7llel6[E "Jtdgq^] ^t+q= qlLJzlE 4+Ee g flgq Hs+E +CdJ f 9lzl ull$
ol+.
Elq HISql^J eqd+. flg+e-l g^, 4tr9 ol+oJ dzl9 ^JtI,
d¤z|^ql EoJ 7tA t*, dzl 7l+A ¤.4olE dzl9 rl--8-g s 5.4 > UBS!=JEI +q4lslg+BJs"r++¤E
+ slql El+ol 9lulxl ^Jdql q¤rll ol+q=zl= trq +: qlol dBq HE|= dCEEE flBqql^l
HI¤¤59 qlBqE U a"Jg "JAIE
4. :_4* olag txl rl49l Er+6Ir|. Elq HI+e rJH^llE zlts E}. ol #g E}gql^l HI*Eq
ali ollulzl$ ^ll+.Jr+. 4.J "llrJzl= ol+4q %l6JCg + olql AHleJloJ+. ^E¤
^.lEg
q6l-r ol$ $oll,<l zt+rl. ol rlCq^l 4Eg ".+qldql^l ^JCg
ql.J qlqzlel "J+E Ezl¤9 slql aqlql zlt*+. .J¤, Hg
5.5 > E4FJts p++I}Aql^l gel Hsl¤+
aa}= ql "l+qi dB 7l¤9 6ILI.J
4Eg H9 +q^1r3 trll, E.J'J:+eL 9l'Jzl"llr.] :5o1 +zloli1, g4=tBg j1A6J+.
algg +z16lr., E= += 4ill 7l* +q6l+ uJl $g.oJ qLlzl 5.6 > Hess E=l +qd H]+ql ql+ qlgq
E=El. E+= +A¤ Hl¤¤q flgq Hsl¤
=ol zl¤61 ol+6}q 4&"J + 9l+g ++
tlql^J= 9l'lzlc+ qqzlel Hslql ql6J B+tr ^lzI6J+. .J^J .Jr+. r 4l^lg 916ll Hess H49 4*
ql+61 "*g i Eol olluJzl9 g6}.9 *=trt= 4,S"J olrl4
^Jgg 6Jr+.
c}trlg olflalzl +l6ll^J= e+o+ HI*ql +Hiq= qlLJzl HsI
^llElltr
-= 016l]6l]0} rlzl rll$olri. 5.7 > 8¤ tlgtrl slql +*9 elBq tre+ql
46J E=Ag qBfl C6IEzl, ri]r
trIE HI+EE $lBEl Esl¤ 4l&6f=
Ell r aE¤. qB4l ol+6}Ezl= EE
oJ+.
179
qlLJzle} qlqzlel H++q ql6J ¤+= EelEl(thermodynamics, r4^q th6rme-('¤'),
dy'namis('fl')ol4r *r+. ol Eot9 ¤+=4Ig eE 7VJ+ +zl zl+ql^l g, .J, tsE
a9 +Zl= gd^l7171 9l6}q ^l4IEl*.r-t. ol tlql^l= g4 +dg s+E Hls.4 9lHxl H
s+ +41= ¤q-e-Lzl-.J+. gEq+9 ol4al ++g ElilEt(thermochemistry)olap
^lolel
gEq}el +7|zl.J +Ee letlql^l EEEJ 4o14.
'JtI.
t*
(a)
r/Y
*d4
J
"' r r,,
,'f
,..;-. ffi,
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Z
,v
(b) o rteHrwonK/shutterstock
.i
.
a*g S+l I-m/C'?: EE(coulomb) 4l*B ¤(ioule) x ulrl(meter)E 9ol;J4. A6J¤ I-m/c'zg ++lE +?]6l+ Sg d
4t9l I.m/C'el Aol d os s^l6lZ+, d.l ^J+g l m/C2g-tr E^lq7lE 6Jr+.
180
5.1 I ql-+ OllLl^lql '5E 181
'Je +E d6t
(EJ'J)
E"l>0 a
Qt Qz
E"t<0
Qr
I a Qz
o
iltl] +E I6t
(ee)
rl Is= E4 71e,1. L1 rl z Eal 7.lal, rl 4rg
olai
Ji,
r-.1
"t
xlq E
Lel
= olai
u-! r-l L\-L -q401\
-r =^l-q
tr
E r -rl Lel
-L
A:18 5.2 EETl trlEl¤ ollLl^l tdlE E F "J^l7l g8-zr Tlal= +^16lr ?lE ttll, E6l7l a= +-a0l
E E"rB "Je-l 'J= 7f^lq, BJIH PEoIE A9'JE ?+Etl oJ^EOl E4q tl gal 'SGIE0ll q+ 5d7l
trlEl¤ ollLl^l= EE ool 7wllTlLL
rB eEi+ql 0 |8E¤ tso l- +ol Erlo lll EltlE :1 0 |eEg 7 VW)^l*7 l, 0 lLl E g0l
^1tr
rlfl=7t?
Eet=0
ob oc
Co Co
olSEol^lE
7t77tgE,.Jg
oc oc
Eet<0
trlEJl¤ 0llLl^l
c o Co
ol3=ol^le
ddlt -k-q
tr1EJl¤ 0llLl^l
ArB 5.3 8d7l trlE!tr 01111^lel 013 018= )1121e)FJql 4af 8871 trlEl¤ 0llLl^l=
,Jee) =-cr. ^l0lE
)l/,l El!
67l'-dt(-J 8el 018=9 ZalTf +urtt|B 8!71 trlEl¤ ollLl^l= 00ll -E=6111 EJtl'.
A^lltrl-ct=0ll^1 018=01 gELl )WI9JA + ?=71= -"-l l^lE ilgol 4l^l -dzlTlEtl.
^|e ^folel
aJ
+Eiu Ele+ aol, irlHl¤ qlLl^l= +71^1714^l Na*el cr- ^lol9 "lg aE}g +
s.3ql
+614+ #94ot"J il4. .lBzll 6f7l f.ldJ ql,Jzl= +E +g ++r-ql frq. H
olg =flql^l
44e E?-lg ol¤.=ol zl7lol f;talq a6Jg Bd6IE+ 6r= E4ag qHl¤ ql
qzl= *+q, q+^J 9lulzlE %l=++. ole},Jg ¤^Jol gglEg ,lE 94= ¤Ealzl
6J+.
El* ¤Bol ¤dg 4E {lHxlz} *=qr, E}4 at}ol gqA ql: qlLJzlT}
^IL¤+.
.JA6leI gd6}7t sElqzl ?*3 E(Hzo)4 qlel"J(cHJ4 ,J3 tsztC Eaql qBrll
ole+ E.J.J fl4z} 4$.gizlE 7!.6llg + glg 4o14. zJs*4 s*9lrl tsll+4l q= Er
el,Jol, +zt+E fl4-==9++ aElsE asJqq ?14. Adzl EIEI¤ qlLJzlE fl
^lE 6J
+ce 'J Eq4zl"J, ++ a6JE zlzlzl El= E* EA^J 4dzl4ol4. olg AEIE
a+e+ qeol, ++ e.Jg #71 94^l= qlHzlzi *?9q"tql 4q ++ a6Jol ecE
oll .tlrlzlzl r}=g+.
5.2 I oJo-{6jzjll'Jzl
glulzl= zllrzJo'jlr.l d6J ¤elg ElHl¤ glulzlE EB6tol y+g q=
¤E glrlzlp] trI"J"J
=oFE ++++. qlulzlzl6J Bqq^.] +E ¤EIeq d*tol ft}q= r+ag B *ql^J *
g gs= S.+. Etsol= ,Je +Eql BqE4E +q ElHl¤ olluJzlz| 35 q1u1z1-+ d*l
94. dflzt^= t4e+ qI+^14 d.Jg zlg6}H slel9lHzlL gE d+gt}. olel eg
F a+ eF(*4zl ^Jt|6J + 9l= += E= aE)ql^l qlq4= 6J Bqq^l += Bqs
ag¤ += 9le+, .llHxl= +aq4+ 4gg + s+= ol ++g E= 4qlql^] TltL
+.CoJ aq 4+tr'^l Eq+ {[ElEl(first lawof thermodynamics) o + "JrJ4 9l+. ol Bzl
5.2 gq+ 183
^lllE^l
g d%+4qE 4+6171 flal-ol ffi5 *4zl +dg r*= 6J4g 4lE Lt+j1 4lel qlqzl
cq6}zl 4qg gez} 9l+. +gql^l ol+loJ zll'Jg B+6Jrl.
= deJq ?lsl H2el 02 ErfT[
4lsl ++l Egalq H2o= SdEltlE.
daJq ?lsl Ex14; Ets A
9l'Jzl H+= E46J rllE 9lulzl Halzt.Jq+= 4+ +46171 +16ll ++E zllaJ=lr
?l7l? detq +el EaJe H
Eq6l ae-lg qB ++ql :aag "*= 9s-21 ql4. ololl E+= 9ldl dqg ++g xt
ts a?l7t?
(system)r-p. 6}], -L el9 EE += ++g F9I(surroundings)e[-L +t]. de¤q^l s]
q HI*ql +Hlq= q1u1zl flffi g+g ,I Hlp--84 ^JcEe 4l= ol+i1, e]8 *zle+ gtr^l E= trl^Eoll
gB^j
86tlTl
z|e Eol
r ElAq E= ae ++lE rJ+g+. )l71Ll
ollLi^17f
/l= ulg + ?lrt.
Al= g-l 9l4LI Eq 9lZ+ E= jlBqq flg + 91trI. gfl4l(open system)| Eeq
qlLlzlTI ++le+,L+tg + 9l= al"l+. +E flg #= E"l *zJ *4 s= r.Fg gflrjl oltr EillE llB
ol+. gol +Eq^l 4le Eqe__n., E+ +7)71qq ++ls ,.1=g+. Eolezlq-1l=
rrl-J + flrl.
=
gs+o,Iql^l 7l* eAl g+g + il= 4l= Efl4l(closed system)o]q, ol 4= ++le+ ql
LJzl= i{}6J f 9lzl"J, EAe i+}g + fltt. ql= 5q tl4$ol t}+g dflrl{l 5{
9l= +^ 7l4l(Hre+ &r zlill(o,)el EJEg ^J46ll sz[(zal 5.4). +ie+ &i= 4lol
r, dflqe+ rl^E-g EEI6Iq r elg (+4= EElo E= ag +9lol+. ol zl;ll$ol ..i'r
ol 4l= ++le+ "J4 ge_l BqlE 9lHzlE jr'SdJ + 9l+. : Hzk)et oz(g)
+ H= 4lol+. E4& 4
nB4l(isolated system)i ++le+ 9lLJzlpi E^llE .E-F j1¤+6J a.r.H 5.4
q= Br 9l= +g trgHol j1B4lql ?l*q. rrl+ rlrl= A+ 49 4olB, qzl^] ol =-d4l
Ll|+ qlLlT,l
ztel
zlel ollLl^l+t3 il6 .\tEU
aTldfEl]ql^] n|= Ez*
ArElle Olall+3 -d6J
E3^4 6l+lE-" E^l:'J
L11
-
0tl Eu,
zlsl
Eatl
L1
a7lsE|]
^l
e zle] oilLl^l El=e
:E7l8El]oll^l As
SElle 9+g -BFEI
E*le
4lsl +E^4 A|AEE E^lEf
A= sEll
l. +zl
2. t+l
3. +s
(r)4 (z)= -J4l Hq}el a7l= +4qq, (:)3 Ep]9 %16&9 L+4U+. Ea+>Ea,t9 4l
AE= olE Zloll, 4lzl ?ge+q qlqzlE E+g 7l4vJLl. EA+<Ez,t4 trll AE= *q
AIE +Aql^J Ei1 9l+= 19 "Jolot .J+. rzl+ 419 9lHzl ZzlY qH A+ql+ +
Ms(s)cl clr(g) eBEe.l L}|F.
ollHrlTl- MgClz(s)ol Lt|+ 0ll 919 9lHzl +^= ++6[q, r
H]qlEE 9lHzl Hp]z].Jqtsg 7lqts gsTt gl4. ol
L1^lEq g
rll, Ej8 4EI 9lHzl HslE fEJ s.sql .qE6l*.+.
=qr
* =eg
+El H]+ql^J A14 z=zl ^Jql= HI¤+3 *6tr1, 4+ tlEll= ^JC+g F++. qlE 5
MgCle(s) Mg(s) +Cl2Gr)
q
E LiElLl1.b ollLlxl -Es.¤-1 'l-* E}*ql^l
el,'.ls. ZHz@) +oz(S) + ),Hzo(/)
a7l ^Jql= 2Hz@) +o2k)o11, 4l+ tlEI= 2 H2o(l)ol+. qB gEql^J +ie+ *Lzl
Hz(s), oz(s)
*)l El*6I"1Eg 4Cg trll, Zl= qlqxlE ++lE gJqElil+. zllzl-ollu]zl$ SBzl *llE9l
gluJzl* **E(azl tl-Ell)el .I+ qlqzlE+ +sq, ol r+aE
^JCE(31+ tr-El])E 4P
8Etl
LH
AE<0
AE= +sl <iol4. olel Aol f.H s.6E qll'lzl Es.(energy diagram)E Hz$ Oz $EJEE
qt
Ll
4+ qlLJzlz} Elf,-ql^l Sdg Hzo9 4+ qlq^lH+ rElL 49 u-q +r 9l+.
^l
e El= AF=- oJ g oJa|.
ttzlllrl
8EH HzO(/) x{s.r¤9lrl E El'e+ aol" zl= qlqzl= + 7l4,JH"J g E= gE ¤qlE ++le} r.+}g
ollLlll
+ gl+. ¤ol 4l"ll Tt6llzl4Lt 4lql^.1 zllaEg.ErAi, E= oJol zlql 6J6llzlz+ 4ql 96ll
Ez,7l EaEHLI
BJS =.+qe
Zloil^l iflE-qeal, 4lE ']]+ qlllzl a7l= H{+. EIE .ll+ "llHzlE 419 "llHzl zl4$ -$
=
BI=EJ. =
Efal^l AE <0 q 4lz+qr1 ^J4++8, oJ+r+ #',9 g E.= .JE ¤EItr "JE + il+. q+e 4lE qlq
AE), .J=e 419 9lulzlE a^^la+(*9 al').
A rH 5.6 2 Hz@) + ozb) ^)= +7!^)vlqeJE
2 HzOO HJSoll rH-d oll olqoJ oFlqq= ol+6IE gqql xllrBzlg,ll+ f3.+ 4se'IEIB + gl+. + al
-Llxl trs ,l slqlzl E= Eq4.J E+= +q.J Ell +Elq= 4P 9lHzl EEI{AE)= 4lql 716t4+
5.2 I gqqf lllE4l 185
1171.+fle+El 50 Jsl gE '0l*'oe gr, ++l0ll 85 Jel Eg 'glE' atflqr. Sr-l6t| H^[
ol al8oll rll-d aEg ?Eet37lb gnt?l7l?
$&o
d
zl= Lll+olEl
=rel
+
w>0
q>0
Ll]+ o 4q w<0
0llLl^l
q<0
d
llol ql=El= ollLl^l 4loil^l ?l=ElE ollLjrl
AE>0 AE<O
a.lg 5.7 E"l "Joil r|]El ?E +ef Al0il olE.E E (q)rl'zl0ll =dal|t] "J(wE _EF "Jel ,Jolq. zl0ll Ltl+
0llll^l='ql=6l= aoil 6H-J-sltl. EJqe, zloll^l +?lE 0lE-sr cal lPl +9l0ll g-sf g3 F 7l^l -"+ zl
++El Ll]+ ollLl^lE'oJ='o lrl.
9"1 4l{l 46t{7]4 gol 4lq 46fl9 q= 4E q+ qlLjzl4 67t+4. tr}{^l ¤ol ?
flql^l 4ls olErJ oll qi "Jq {tg ,*YL+.41q gg 7}6l.= ae qqzl 414}q ql+6}=
4+ ?Jeq, 419 "lluJzlE e7}*+(re s.7). trI&7lzltr, ++]"il e.l6l] 4q 9ol 4al]4
ull wE
"J9 atg ,*+L+. Hlq.e, AlTl ++le gg gXl Elrll+ 4lql 9611 +9lql "J"l +B
9E qo+ wE 99 4k& r*4lElq, +^l "5ll^l 4lel 'll+ "llHxlzl. *ottl4. ol! olluJzl
oJ=olq qlulzl +elol ¤qE= 4o14.
"llulzl 4la}.ll 9lE
q, w, LE1l qoJ +E +Eol E 5.1q An-lqq fl4. ¤olE "Jol= 4ls +"J¤ "llHzlE
oJE +nE r*=+.
qHl s.1
.J!+ qlLJll
"JB Lfl+ tslet +{1rl
reJ ¤alqetq.\Eol ar+E g^l oJoil
5.40il^l^-laJ, ?l= TlillAb)et B(s)7l.HJ8dlq n^11 gdE c(s)E gdelrl.. A(e)+
=q
B(r)- c(s). ol U8oll^l Zl= 1150JE g= +9l0tl utlgtzrt. Tlill=ol HJ36ll^1riil= E¤-g q, trAEe ol.ali+ee t^.I?]rl-.
g¤pl rt|7l"J6l,01l^1 Tlillel +tr171-#4d[E^1 +9]= zloil rt|6.t| 480 Jel gE +:"J-drl.. zlel Lt|+ 0ilL1^l Eel"= gEtoJTl?
Hzb)el oz@)tl u36tq Hzo(/)E 8¤-g E0l ++lE ,J=EJrl-. H20(/)o1l^l Hzb)el.
rrflts
oz@)tl SdEl= qHJ- 8?-laH erf. 2 H2C/0 ------- 2 Hz@)+ Ozb). ol HJ- gg?17t, Eg
?l7l? (-dE:ral 5.6 er'5)
tTEH
TJ+
gHizles alE ,]l+ 9lHzl 19 aq.J a}g g %}Be s.zl"J E= +qd .JdE aa6}ql
5.2 I Eq+ 197
^llrg^l
.Jqol e.J¤
^l C6Hd
6}+el {}g ,*E-rl. 4S 9lHzl.ll ¤6&9
"lil= adglE gEel
r|. EoJ qlHzlE rzl CeolE e 4lE q+ qlLlzlE 4lql fl= EAq +'Jql ul4ld4 ,,
(1 3+J).
2s"c9 E s0 g9 6I+9 41tr 4E+ a+E ^J46ll ts-zl(f.EJ s.e). o1 4lE roo'cel E
Zl = NHaSCN + E0l+9lE+El Aie 6aq, Hllef
Ba(OH)2.BH20 +9]87lel3E= LtIalZq.
fi .)
)
+
,4=l
LI
r4 a
\
4
g
f, rH
< 5.8 HJ34 "JE U
=E
3 F 7l^lqlE=ql^ zl= BJ8
E4 g¤Ee 8etqq, uEoil
(b) 2K + 2H2O ------+ ZKOH + H2 +91= 87lel ?Te.l LlGl^l E
HLOq ELg-
UO E
L
Znl Elrl-
t-t.
=E ^vt
9l¤¤ "J + 91tr1. rdlL} adzlg a7l tr-qlel al== tr4z} ol f zlzl a+q E"J6I.+H,
E7l ^J4 +iolo + LE:q +r.yE F zlzl fi.izl zJolo} *4. ar= 419 3l+ tlEI
=zle+
ql"J q=6}q, azl tqoil^l 4+ tqe. a q q+ +4 AEql= E=614 ?+=+= a
I zl9aI4.
5.3 I t!=Jrl
+4 ++lql^.] .Jq+= ElqI4 .844 EslE, ql= 4E gql^Jg ,JEld, s+ql
dEdg =E
?+g Hl4ql^JE EI+ Eog Ee4eE zl+E ql
^l Eg +ts, "Jqlqzl "Je+
5.3 lEl=tr| 189
{(enthalpy, rel^q enthalpein, 'Irl-Er.6t7ll i});}r dl+ gqq} o}9 ol4e} $+tr ¤ +
el+.
7)e_ Htr s^lq= E!=Jtrl= 4lE .ll+ "ilHzl"ll "Jq(p)4 +rl(D9 +g q+ aeE c
9s+.
H:E+PV [5.5]
Lil+ qlqzl Aol Pe+ y= E trI ^Jq qliol+. ,r|4^J olEg 419 ¤zll tr.4ql"J E=
Ee+
41 4lql Eg+ A-sql= el=6l.zl g=+. "]lHzl, "Jq, +q= E+ ^}q 6J+ol7l trllE
ql $Evl q^l ^Jq Bfol4.
oJ
"Jaj-+tr|
aBnlE +ecg q e ol6l]6IElE s.4-tr+El 'lgg rJzla|4. AE= 4lql 4zl4A4
^l
Alql^J xllZg E qS"J olq4, Alql Edl +4q4+ 4ql qqld "J wE Ef,iaf,Q. z|1t
"J+4otr., 4zl"Jql r.=g 3tlq}4 E= Ezl4 E3tlql E6]t gq+=
oJE ao+= + 6J
ztzl.Jql, rae +q HEIE $zlE ?)4\^1L oJol4. ql= 5q om A+4 g,t} +EE
qI¤¤ Ezt.
^J46]]
2H+(aq)-Zn2*(aq) + Hzk)
Zn(s) + [s.6]
I
o19 =7|.=
:Lo{rtE olnlst
ilr
ute"tL 7.1-9.
e=
= -t"to
I
r
tr|^E
Hz zlxllet
rl|Tl=el87l
Zn(s)
HCt(aq) Zn(s)
.o[n[E d4l q"J +E] 4aql^] 4zl.J9 zllH9l B.ll tsllflg aol4. alro,].114 olE z[^]16l EE4al g+. qrl^l= +
tllTlTl al+ sEql aq .JCEI g-qg 7l6}n 9lEl= aC gtr ¤El.
^l
190 53 Etrl-+
E9l, wts *9 <tol4(*9 PExoJ9 pxoJ9 av= g+E wE "JELI). HlBql zlz)lzl
.J+E]E, ay= gE A(+rl Ai)ol ¤4. olrll wE oJ9 {tgg rl s.z-e+q .J + 9l:
,"llHzl,
EJl, ol= ++lql Esll 4lql
"Jol 4"llag g"laJ4. elgq, p_y g,"llrl "Jq_+
q gq +6Iq z|,!lal E9a[dzl"J, dxfl _,?Htr aetr gC Eq+q^J "Jq+= 4dql
4+q* ae ^l s.z+ol4.
4 s.z* ^l-*6}q Ee gE +9Ee.JqE +9("J+4etr atm)il +rlel ++l("JEl4
s_tr L)= *,* 4o14. "Jg # El a=oJ ++l.J ¤(oule)e. s¤6t71 +16ll^'l= ++4I Zl+
I L-atm: 101.3 Ig gE|.
^l-s.6lE
EJ rl80l TlgEl= 5oJ r Zl9 +nl7f Edl^l rri8 "Jaj-+tr| g= dl= ,i!71?
-er=tlE,
qHl s.2
P-v"J 4ltBPl
trl^Eol 84r'EldeJqql^1 qE E.E.= Etl?7 9ltl. 0l daltlelETl+tr|= 0.250 L0ln, .16 +tr|= 0.980 L0ltt. DJg trl^Eol
1.35 atmol "J8-d "J+ 8Efle "Jd6l. ttE, golel g(Jtr)= -il 4&n (1 L-atm : 101.3 J)
6tlH
E4 +qd a7l +Ele+ 3l+ +ulE+el avg 4^IC + 9l
4. 'J4(p)s +q4 ilq 9(w)9 44}g + 9l+. olEI. ¤-el +E= 7lAl7I S+6lE^l +flql .Jg'J a+ "J
t1t4 w: -pAyE ol+6lH +qd cBe+E1 4l7l +q+ il6Jtrl.
flgq qlsl
olxil dBvlgl +*EgE EoITIzt. Hslz} .Jd .Jq6}ql^l "JqB ql 9lBq Hs*(aa)=
5.3 I ?lgtrl 191
+gg +=+.
AH: LE+pLV: (qp+w)-w: q, t5.91
q9l tlE oI4 Azl p= r+aol .Ja "Jq6}q^l .JqBg 7lqvJL+. III4^I ol (a) EE HJB
^l
e El+g +ElU+.
{Bq trq+ "JC 'Jq6}q^l E4+ g= g qr*r}q.
AH<O
qE 14 7l+6[4+ ¤A] Alt]g + 9l= Lolr, +ule+ y*e E44 E6J .
d ,f.^t
3rlqzl {ffiol "Jc "Jq6}ql,rJ .Jol4zl qlEq, qlBq= ql+EE Hi+ql^J Iso =E=
,I+ qlqzlB4 rj -?$* Elfol4. q+q ql++E HI*q^l pLv zolol $zl
qlEql aHe+ AEg zlol= 4tr1.
d
AHz| o3'9 il"J ql(= qpTl o*9 <ig4l= +9lql^l gg E=ql(E s.r),
tril)
ol: r 4Col gg'Jg 9olEI4. LHzl gE *olB 4l= gg ++lE HJ=6i= (b) "Jg Ela
Ell, ol= r 4aol tse"Jg 9"1*4. t4 s.zg eq Hl+= 4l+61tr, "Ja $
AH= "Jg oJal6gl.rj XE
q6lE ¤:g r+ce qulzlE 4lql gE B4e ql+61+ 4o14, gg r+4e g s.= 4loil^l E-e: gE s
01tr}.
el ¤qE qlqzlE .J=61+ aol+ezJ 5.12).
a rB gE 48
A
5.'t2 "J
=E> 0)e xlql g
(a)=E rlE(aH
HJ30l
"JolH
q il7lgl^l.r. 9l+. 0lnll AHel +E= +1?]71? ql=-.Jrl. (b) rlE
=al-^=oll^l =al4=.7f = < 0)P Alql^] Eg"JB
(H ullLJtl.
p+olql^-l= F zlzl +Be-l "J, + 4714 "Jr+ Tlill *+q E 'JqE Aq P:FIAY F:PxAE 4^l + + 914. j4^E
t zl4l4 +.E +Cg r*:+. {zlrl* "Jq-+q .J
.Jql eBq Edl rJzlE tq HE](av)= EI^EE +E4rl El^
E= p-y "Jolr-Ia ol-L Sz}.ll adg "+++. zl+i} fl1] Eol *zl"J 4r-lE*-.J<iol+. LV:AxAft. s.10ql ol
^l
E dfltrJql^l "J+61+ zlxlli ul:.Eql p_y "Jg e6}q, q"J6lH +gr} e+.
ol oJol a+ tstfl= EflrL gfl qI+ *zlollr.] s+6lb 7l - sErTr
illi 4zlll p-v 99 B'J+. ol "Je d*4 9"191^l ol+ _i::i=PxAxa,h
aE +q6J 4ol s.zlr}, zl9 "llHzl Hi+= +e6J ull= z 4(erJ 7l4D7l +flql "Jg ol-Szl ull$il .r .Jg +E il
aol rq+6}= olr-lf tl=z.l E= "Jg +46Ho] 6J+. ol+.
+E4ol a"lq *-zlol5 ul^E¤. zl-rl ¤flrl 4ql 5q : -PLV
w [5.11]
fl= qH TlxllE pz(:lEJ 5.13). olellaoE 6J6J 6J
"J4E rl s.rr¤
^84611 qlE +4 7l+6.J oJol p-yoJ Sol4a
q^Eql zI+++. zlxlloll ulzli "J4 p= B+l Hzl'J
F7l
rl s.+91 4.Jtr + gla, : ar+= q-sr+ a+.
Elol4. p:FlA. q^Ee e"*ol $,sq, iil^Eq ++61-=
LE:qayt:q-PLV
+.J6J "Jqg zl+ qlTlql 96J Qlzlololzp zlz$a].{, rllzl [5.12]
AH:H^Jtc-HoJ¤¤ [S.tS]
+ Hl*ql +El9= qlgr4 Hp-lE Ert ElEls!(enthalpy of reaction) E= H}Sg(heat of
reaction) o1 4tr 6liJ-, 7ru AH.*ol 4l fr|('rxn'3'JHI4 g.tr.'reaction'$ Ezttr
^l-S+
+).
AH,*g +^l= 49 qql= +fl HI¤¤ H^l6llot qI+. q= Eq 'JA6J ${ollr.l 2 mol
4 Hr(Otl ¤^6lq 2 mol9 H2o(s)= tCg oll, ol 4l= 4s3.6 klg Eg uJ='J4. oll
e q-gr+ aol sol¤ + 9l'I.
ZHzG) + oz(g) + ), Hzo(S) AH : -483.6 kJ [s.16]
+= ag g"l*4. q= 5q ga'J .Jqq^J cHa 1 motol Elg ull sso klE gol
g^Jt+.
zHzo(t) AH: -890kJ [s.17]
CHa(s) + 2o2@) ------ Coz(s) +
CH+ I moln* 02 2 molol HI*6Iq ¤aa1g seg klE ¤¤ 4zl ql+ql, CH+ 2 mol4
02 4 molol q}+6lq ¤A6tE + tsl]oJ 17s0 kllrJ=ig ¤.1 tsrJEi4. slo| E}*alol
;a o a zr{z(g) + oz(g) +.
o
c
J
J
o
O2
+ Hzo
o 3
&6
c
1
t! AH<O
("JE)
H2 trl
ZE6t Hlgoe
H2@) + O2@) Hzo(s)E 8d 2H2O(g)
COzk) + 2H2O(t)
Eg fldg-H AHel =zli ,Jzl"J Psz| *4zl g+(f=J 5.15).
3. H.!tE ?!!E!tr1
E!il= c.!=Er+ t$8=E gEloil el=t]El. s.l7e-l ^J^dEo1 urOll;21 o1
^l
r-14 Hzo(g)qH, AH..,= -8e0 klol olqB} -s02 kloJ 4o14. H2o(s)E elBvlzt
a rH 5.15 qHJ$oil rH-d AH
qEJ- E6l^lu, ?lEJtrl
7 lE7 [ H2o(l)E qlBqtr+ r7l EIE{ +fle 4e gol dB¤ 1o14. olag g + 9=
Hslg =71: E6f^lgr=rf.
LH2:
t zlxl %IBg ^JdEol ilgql= olill Eolfl+r 7[d6[= 1o14. "l ._4i]l Ee._4al
- LHl
+7)s H+199.t 6}l, H2o(,) 2 molol Hzo(r) 2 mol.E E+lqE HIS3 s8 klg S
+61-= gB HI8.l4.
zHzo(t) + 2H2o(g) AHkJ : +88 [s.19]
uI4^] eElE H}*^lq^l= HI¤¤r+ : +r
^JdEq ^JEI= E^l6i= ag +s6i+.
qE +E* $,e8, gHlzletr HI¤¤4 ^JdEg E trI +.J'J gsoJ 2s'c
^)^171
ql 9l+r TtdtEl.
qH s.4
,J*E3l {¤Ee-l "Jg AHel t+1!rl
DllElloJ 7lill4.50 gE "Jd galel Zl0ll^1 EA^le q, gDlel g0l g=El=71'? (^l 5.17e1^tE= 0lEdl'al.)
6HB
E4 +s= gplEl- +*49 ol¤.o}9 +CEJ.J9 4lrll.J zl rE ^l s.rz* E}4*E4.J ¤l+.Jzl¤.J4 ;3ull, r mot
4= EIgg uI ^Jzli gg 4l&61+ 4o14. 4 s.rz{l r}e. qI
9 cHni -aso ktol+. olag 0l¤-619 csn9 E+E
B, .JA+ "Jqql^J qlEl.J zl4l 1 molg 4*E aso ktol 4l qlq49 kJ-tr Hl¤ + 9l+. rfl+ Hzl r-B +919 cH4=
q^1 ,&=B+. g+E tsh+qo} 4q q-99 4ag 444.
il6ii=;5 *
E0l rE+ A.I7:
cH4E Ekl)
H+l +41= trl-gri e+ (+qd) CH4el
=+ -890 + (Elrlel)
kIlmol
9lE9 rs.o
- qE qlgq
¤^rl? {r}i $u}olzi!
B¤ Zl4l6l^1e..
e9
(a) -r2.1kl O) -181kI k) -a22 kl (d) -sss kl (e) -1700 kl
5.5 I gzlaJE 195
{Ee^"tqugtrl
+?]: q#+6ql Eq gfl + +g +
9.H qBZl gzl .Ja 9lq. + +qol zl+
+e-E zl+d}{ HEol Bq^l4l g+. qE
ol Boe, Bq4= aal ,J"1, gqq}4e
s zl¤E gq+q:il 6l+ n+49. zlg4 rl
+
{(spontaneous process)ola}tr e}4. zl*4
rlce +E 9la !g +E fl=ql, ol
eotc
nq-=
r+Col gq+= +E= gEqI9 zluflE B
to{ Bdo
t-q
zl ?+=+. H
a
e=
AH<O
gEqzlsE #4a144 z[
c ry
i
3rlql n+Cg
"Jf
g4'J +E 9lq. rq+ 4g4ol+= aol
o}+fl ,Jd flol HI*ol "Jq+ ^JC+g EI
ag gul6l.zl= ?*=+. rH a+E
=+= trlltr= qL cE9 qulzlE ztall
9lzl"J,
o '*o
+qot Hl+"I ^lzlg+. Ht9lz} "Jd tq a.r.E 5.'16 "Jg uJ8rt otl? gg4?](aH7f 0-E+ eU Afe)trlE BJB8 EE
^l"Jd
gq'J+. H[+l= tr]El¤ 0llLl^17f .*E Eal LHal7l'E= Elgl= "J^l
z)$ ]Ezl zl-$!e-e #l qle ^FJ!oe
rirl,J0l, olzl-Lf EJ-P EJ30l 7H^lElll 6f7l^lEo+
^lz16lB : Pl6[q gEPJsl ollL]^l= 7l--J =Je
7l:- 4+ aol, ++ Hle.r 7ga q1u1x1 719lrl. ralq 0lal-d u-== -stH u30l '*3 trlEl¤ qlll^l= += 8a=
7l Ti6l]zlH z[g{ee. +]¤¤ fz} ?l 0l -ddElE= x["J4o+ HJ30l T]ilErL ^lAtElE
"JH
r+(rH 5.16). H}*ql^l Agq Hsl+ HI+
ol z[$!olzl, oluzl= "J5[= + 7]zl s^loJ sol+. ql= HI'I 44.J Eol q= d9 o "c ol6lE gEql^.i ztg4olEf.
Eol Hzk)$ o,(d9 g^=,|]+ gg HI+oltrI. + tlgql^J= ggol +j1 E¤ _zo.cg BE"agl .JeE
=
Hz(s) + Lor@) Hzo(g) LH: -242kJ fl+= ag "J+. F nl-aol ^]E Hlqlola 4zl"J, Ll= zrJ
+i Tlxlle+ &a z1i1u- t}*ol 994E aol A^lEol gl ql^l 5z}tsC"ll + alg4.J HI80l+. 4llettq^l * q qd6}4 HI
ol +*Ael +r'ls 6J4l + 9l+. ral+ 6JB Hl+ol 89 44q *++ 1,o14. Eol g*-sE E6I=
=z]]B
qlLlzlTt gg BqlE 4l(H}¤¤)ql^l 791e mle4l
44 zJol, eI qE n+Ce qE +Eql^l xl.${ola, E}= e
^l+qH Eql^l= r+zl grgzl=.Jrll g aol+.
dBB4. trt4^l 4l= ++ls gg dgEleeal elg4= g
Al gq(ale+ ++lE dijl qlLlTl 6elg H6Izl g:j1 qlLlzl
Hl+q= "l+4 +tq} e4501 9lzl"J, tlB'l He+ql +
tr¤g+= gqql 4lrB!9 zl9aI4. 95 zl$¤o}"J ++. "JHl4ss fl$vl Eslz} qlql=
= tI¤.9 zlgtql^l QlBq H+"Jol ,trJ .I^Jg olulq, zl olaol q}¤.el =
Ell +¤ eoJoe. zI+6J+.
^Igcg ea6l=
lazl 100 kl ol^J) +-el (tg ,*n 9l= HI;.
t qdel AE otq+. qE EH ggol += 4Ce sg HI g44C =(ql+
zlgc.J 4a3=ol gl:r., L,Hzl 7 "Jel <lg +n gl= HI$
*olxl"J. E9 olbd(o.c) "lt9 gEql^1g ol r+cg zI
g40l+. e qHl+q^l"J zlg.cg r*= a6]"1 91trt.
+¤ g+ +41: s.47,s.4s
H2O(s) HzO(/) AH : +6.01kJ
-
E+eA+ql^l +qd nlql rlCr+ +EE flBtl EpIg +Eel 17lZ oI= aol 4+ +
3-6t+= ag .Jril ¤ 4o14. ++ eq^l g + 9l* HIe+ Aol, AH= ¤Eqs 4d +d
614+ 4E q}*==e+q gElrl qlgi'l He+{teE+q 4l&6}q 90tE +E 9lrl.
5.5 I "J4le#J
AH <tg .Ja6J glqql^l EI+q 5HlE]= gq+¤ +461= dEg F6Iol e4e + 9l
4. de4eE.. g6=.0l trJE= gE Ep+el aTlz +d6IE gEEE a71= gotB f
qlr-}. ol"ll gs+g +C6l+ ,JBg Ez{l$H(calorimetry)olap 6}i1, g6.Eg +46}=
196 53 gat-+
(a) crl*-el E 2so s(rt|al --J ,A)= 22'C(!e)ql^l lel B=E(98'C)77[rl 7lE:g trt| "Je-d ge grP.!71? (b) E9 got
oJTl? =EEaJ8
=01
(a) E9 gE Hpl+ +q=4 eEi. Ar: - 22"C :
98.C 76"C : 76K
al s.zrg ol+6}q qE *eI4. cl:CrxmxL,T
: (4.181 I g-K)(zso g)(7 6K) : 7.e x ro4 J
>ltEqH1 >H=qF{2
++= "JE= #+(ll+).J +E], e, *3 44 o.rss, (a) 3SHI6ol qloJg +qql^l gE zltlq ol+g+.
lle-Kq Hlgg '*:+. ol +ql^J gzlelol
0.233, o.rze s0.0 kg oJ^lol 3E7l- 12.0"c tl-
"9
trll ¤.+6J gEJS
6zl.J.ll tr++ Hlgg _6E $g+%ig _"Jrl. al&61^le_(oJ4E Hlge 0.82 )/g-K4r 714614).
HlrJql *= a6Je q-e= + qL aoJTl? (b) ol g-4ql^] 4s0 ktg gol %I=g trL ol .J49 9s
(a) 3zl, +71(b) $zl, zlL (c) z.}4, *zl @) $L, *L {!}i $u}alz}!
E{ HCIr}NaoH ¤6J*99 4}-Bzl H}8e +-94 a+. 4tr g^Jg gg 4 s.22= ol+6rq 44lE + 9l+. HI
-5r=
HCL(aq) +NaOH(4q) .+ HzO(I) +NaCl(aq) HClg E+= ol EeE E.r-"EeI PEIE ol*
8q^1
8.4E +zI6J s-E, HCIiI NaoH9 E+, +._491 "JEe+ Hl ^.E-g
EI^] 4l4I6J + 9l+. rela o1 oJe-s+El Hcle-l E & Sd
gg ol qI+ r+4q^l g^J.J Hclel 5B gg 4l q= gg aag + 9l+.
^l^+6}q,
=vl
+aqq dill +rl7l100 mlolEE ¤*3 (100 mL)(1.0 g/mr; : 166*
gE H+= LT : - 21.O'C :
27.5"C 6.s'C : 6.5 K
0.100 M AgNO3 50.0 mlel 0.100 HCI 50.0 mLE I sap, ol Hlg" el AHE k|/mor AgNo3g +fle 4lc6l-^le.
s +7lE iHeq. ^lEe+ d+61+ 7l= Edq d+E E6Ial 6}tr ¤^ Hl*ol ^lzlgrt. +- ^|e
xl6[.4 /\l
d.JtrI.
g"6tal9 sE+71+azteE+el ¤lgg al&6l.71 +l"ll^J= gr6}4lE + ¤*%i(a"r)
I .Jotot t4. ol {Ie g*g ga gIE E^^l7la ol4l9 9s H+= +C6Iq
={HJA¤)
^lE= E
9otB + 9l+. qlE Str Fg*alql^J Aq6[rll H]a4](c6HscooH) t gS ¤allzlE E
26.38 klg ¤ol B$*4. Hla& 1.000 gol g"+alql^J gig q +.sst'cq gE tfol
a.LH 5.lg EE.JZI
++gqa 6|zI. oltrll g=*ZlE g+=+g C,1-26.38kll4.8s7"C:5.43r kll.colr1. gg
g*AlE e+"+g"JH, +=HI*q^l ^8C¤gE EEI¤+C6Jp, ol4"e*q HI*ql
g^J+ E(q.J9 4l&6J + 9l+.
^l
AT
4,*. : -C.u1 X [5.23]
Eg=J4lg HIge "J4 +rl eaql^l 6J6llzlE_8, gel HsI= flgqg Hsl(aa)_u_+
4P 9lHzl9 Hs-l(aa)p+ q "Jil*+(al s.r:). rqq 4++9 ++ql^l aEeI aHq iI
olE ol]* 4+. q= q4l s.7E 4+ AE9I AHE ilol= * t kl/molE, 0.1o/o ol6rel
zlol+r-ql =q
4zl *E4. AE-E+q AHE 4h}ts f ?lzl"J, ol+rll 43 u-4q1 *dg zlg
"J
gs= s.r}.
qHl s.7
t"JBt4lE olt+J q*.9 +{
o-4illEfl EEoJ ell=61'0lcaffl(methylhydrazine, CH6N2)= g41l7lE N2G), CO2k), H2O(l)71g8sJtl".
2CH6N2(D + 502(g) + tNz(g) + 2COzG) + 6H20(0
gE EEHXloll^1 84^179 rtt| EaJZl"l 8E7|.25.00'Coll^] 39.50'C_=
4l=Jap1=110.' 4.00 846[ rl. r|.= ¤-d0ll^1 EaJAlsl
EEaJol 7.794 kJfCE 1 mor CH6N29 E40ll EH--J U3E3 gEl-oJ7l-?
=EElflqE,
Etl3 El tr+= 4l&61+ ExlloltrI.
E{ gE H3I}e} gr+4le_] + g++g oJr gll. EoJ gi rlq flzl ^ltr. 4.00 g9 ¤dqlrl +=g gg Zl+IaE, ol
6J +¤¤E
"Jg
oJn fl4. ol4 ¤ig H]+gel g'J flB gg 5'Jq olse. E++^l4oF ".J4.
200 53 EEt-*
E0l
ullBotolE{Tl 4.00 col g4¤ q, 9*419 gE H
^lE
44.
E+= trl-e--4 47: (39.50'C - 25.00'C) : 14.50'C
A79 c.a *9 olSai{ HI+gg 4l&B + il4(rl s.z:). 4rn-- -Ccat x AT = -(7.794k11'e)(14.50'U) : -113.0kJ
ol 7Ig CH6N2E E* HI+ge HI+E ¤+. / -113.0 kI \ . / 46.l sc+*l$\
(4r0se-,.i,r/ (fmffi )-- -1'3o x l0rkJ/molcH6N2
Atr +91= xllqlE a46lir,, ol +¤+ gg *+o1,tr (-) (a) 0.660kl/"C (b) 6.42klfc (c) 1a.5 kll'C
+Eol+. $$ =zl= ;J44olr}. (d) 2L.2kIl"C (e) 32.7 kIfC
> H¤ ql41 > !r= qrll 2
cq6l 1.000 g9 {at}ol +g=t4ql^l gdg ql 26.38 q-E4I(HC3H5O3)
^l.e
0.s86s s9 ¤+Elol 4.812 kll'C
ktg gol g^J9H4. "J"J {la& 0.550 gol g*4lE g .J g*4lql^l 4}ie+ HI+^]44. gETt 23.t0.coll^]
E= 22.0t "goll tl 2a.27 "Cvl7l *+ A+8, ol g%ial E 24.es"ca t4"61*,+. +EAIE (a) reE}, (b) EB SA
^l
g+*e 9"toJzl? gg zl.t}6}^le-.
fltg a¤
5.6 I Hess Hzl olL altrlUSol -ea x.J fllBrl Eitoil 6llB6l=7t?
qtr HI+g elBrl Esl(aH) <ig El= HI¤¤E AH 6|o1 9lE *-+4q CHIC) + zoz@)
4l4i'J + 91trI. q+^l E= HI*9 aI{ Ag g=J4lE +Ag ge= $,EI.
qlgq= tlq EL+olsE, qtr plE r+a4 +¤g AH= E6[= Ee
e.l .J4 HI¤¤el a7l tr-qe+
^JCE$ al+ ^JE{$ CAql"J E=EI+. -802 kI
olag {B e}*ol 6J +altr q}gol gol4E, g+ +41tr "Jol+Ezlql -8e0 kI
rJ$S.ol. qEl +alel 4 HI+el elBrl Es}el ,*g.J +al r+ael e1g t]
EI
El
Coz(g) + 2 H2o(g)
vl He+el rJolot +tI= 19 9"1s4. ql$ Eilqlfl cH+(s) 711))71
=q 88 kI
¤A6Iq cor(g)e} Hzo(r)g tC6l+ 19:a 5.21E g+ql s^16t EI
Coz(g) + 2HzO(t)
el rJol oJ +41tr "Jq+= asE gl7, t4 s.zrq e-E+
^J46J +E
ql s^l'{} utc+ ?ol q-q-q ae + +4lE 99t4r
^J4g +E 9lr}. a.LH 5.21 DllEll?.l 1 mol9 fl4011 tH-d tl=tr|
trE -Lf 3Zl UB! ?l=Jtrl Esl= + Lf/le gGILI
^J¤6l.r, uro(g)zl 34
(r) cH+(g)E ¤Aop cozk)4 Hro(g)E (z)
ts EJSsl?Jflfl gapol -d4 a+.
4q H,o(/)= ed6l+ 1,o14. d 4aq slBul trq+ olElq} F +41 -890kJ : -B02kJ + (-88 kJ)
I flBYl Hs+E 6JolEl.
+6J + ?l+.
qH
F Hess
5.8
E{B oltntq AH 4ltl'6Pl
C7l COzE g4-g rl|q HJB gl=Jtrl= -393.5 kJ/mololl, COT! CO2e EA--J tttlel t!=JtrlE -283.0 kJ/mololrl
(1) C(s) + Oz@) COz@) AH: -393.5 kJ
dtEl HessH4g ^FS6JtrI. Ezl +s.6J HI¤¤n+ (3) 2No(s) + oz(c) Nzon(s) HI+ql qlfl {girl Hq¤
E+E zl:4. ^lql^-l
(r) !4 (z) rl9 E+E q+l^l + ++ 4B= ols-" - +6t^le.
o|{
^JCEE
q6l] ?9 (:) qE+ "J=q=q. E^lq SlBqE Nzoa(g) + 2No2(g) Arr = +57.9kJ
^lg ql6fl^lE ^lol
.-+ 2Noz(8)
Hclql 44i= uJaN.! fll.ll$ + 9l+. 2No(s) + oz@) AH = -113.1kJ
601 (1) 49 ol+6teJE cGl= HI*E 4"11, cotgl
^lr}
(2) (d 2.7 kl (b) -5s.2 k| (c) -8s.s kJ (d) -171.0 kl (e) +ss.2 kf
E o1-.<3*e-1 ^JCE qq +olE+ 6iq, +s elgg (s) > !il.= ql4 2
^lxl
H El]g6Jtri. (r) 43 HI¤¤ol c(s)olug r r4lE ol +^= +s4 +ololE=E + Bqtr +¤r+
so oJ
f 914. +e HI+e ^JCEol co(d4=^lgaql +961- +ololEEE ¤l: elgrlE 471 -tgt.s
=rle4.
k|/mol, -3es.4
4. trt+^l (z) al$ co(s)E iJCSe Fld$ 9gzl9l+. + k|/mololQ.
¤¤ +ldg 41 aaE +E= Hlql+= 49 zl9o}4. + ^l C(+g) + oz@) ------ Cozk) AH : -3e3.5 kJ
g +E H}+^lol E + 9lE+ 4¤.4'Jol Hllg*+.
C(rlolo|-e-r; + ozk) ------ Cozk) AH : -395.4kJ
C(s) + or(s) Cozk) AH : -393.s kJ
- Egol +olotEEq H+E trI AHE 4l4}6}^le.
coz(g) .----- co(s) + lor(s) -lH: 283.okJ
c(s) +lork) -+ co(s) AH : -110.s kJ c(+¤) c(clololg=) LH: ?
-
qH 5.e
7t|E !g ,Jts Hess H*lB olttlq AH 4ltraPl
^ll
2 C(s) + Hz@) CzHzG) 8J30il rH-d aH= rl.= g.E= 0lE6lq +6t^le.
- CzHzG) + ZOr@) lCOz(g) + H2o(/) L^H: -1299.6kJ
C(s) + Oz@) - COzG) AH : -393.5 kJ
tIl
ae ElEt^l anl(kllmol) erl ElEt^l AH/(ktlmor)
o[,r-llp fl(acetylene) CzHz@) 226.7 g+ +^(hydrogen chloride) HCl(s) -92.30
ojeulof(ammonia) NH3k) -46.t9 e+ f-i(hydrogen fl uoride) HF(c) *268.60
=+9-fl
Hldl(benzene) crHe(l) 49.0 of ol 984 fi.(hydrogen iodide) HI(c) 25.9
cotg) *127.0
'J&el BiGarobon monoxide) -110.5 Hs] SGilver chloride) AgclG)
4ololEE (diamond) c(s) I .88 +tl+^ iE(sodium bicarbonate) NaHCO:(s) -947.7
ollHloJ(ethane) CzHok) -84.68 EI4l AEGodium carbonate) Na2CO3(s) -1130.9
ollB9(ethanol) c2HsoH(/) Ec+ chloride) NaCl(s) -410.9
ollHHl(ethylene) ^EGodium
czHrk) sz..to ¤*(sucrose) C12H22O11(s) -2221
lf?^(glucose) C6H12O6(s) -1273 E(water) HzO(/) -285.8
Egqlp} f4.(hydogen bromide) HBr(g) -36.23 ffizl(water vapor) Hzo(8) -241.8
4}^ ?l^q 7l=g o2olzl, ou| orz[ o]q+. ell+d]E oz= zgs K, E= qlzl.Jql^j &i
9 .JC6J ¤4olzl qlEol4. :zc{ u}{z}zltr e^ 949 7l=9. +¤olzl, r}olo}-e-c71
otq+. ell+ 6IE +¤ol 2e8 K, 4zl*"llrl q ?Ic*(q *g qlLl^l) E4olzl ull+ol4.
"Ja.J +AE ¤4= Hr(g)o14. qaI^J ol49 ^l s.2sql^l
ole+ aol -E= aaql^l 7I+
eE o3(er)ts dzl 'Jdo+ trJE + ?t= 7lE4?t EEHoltl. oe(e)9 AHrE HJE^I
A ^tae]
ootalas+?t=7t?
I
^J¤
ql=JtrlE ol+EJ $t ?!=Jtr19 4lt
Hess Bzlrl, s s.34 ++ cql 9b aa; l}g E= HI¤¤r+ ^JCEE AHi 4X
g ot= qtr Hl*E -*.+ elg{ EEI¤ Z1&g +^l-S6lq
9l+. ql= s= eaql^l EeEtl.J
E ¤4= ^84"I B^|.
=q
caHe(g) + 5O2(g) + JCOz(s) + 4H2O(/)
+q= ^Jl
TIzl Cd HI¤¤ EI6Iq ol HI*!g + + 9l+.
JC(s) + aHz@)
csHs(s) Lry: -LHf[CsHe(s)] ls.26l
-
3 C(s) + 3 oz(s) + J Coz(S) LHz -- 3LHf" [Cozk)] ls.27l
aHzG) + 2oz@) + QHzo(,) Lru: 4LHi [Hro(/)] [s.28]
csHs(g) + 5 oz(it) + I coz(s) + 4Hzo(l) AH?*: aEl+ LHz+ aH3 15.29)
(olle= qzl"lld .J a4 rJol, Hls"4 r=9 LH 4k qlg
^IolE +zl= +46171+l6}q
i'l HElql o|4 dzl-E s^l6l+ 4ol ]9-sB ollz| ?14.)
Hess Hzlg
^l-S6Iq
4 s.zoq q* E= UBq H+= 4 s.ze-s.289 flBEl Ep+E
*etr ¤ + 9l¤¤ 7lq6l.+. E s.3E alg ^l-s" 6Iq arc* {tg 4EC + 9l+.
AH,L:LHt+LHz+LH3
: -AI{r'[CrHs(s)] + 3AI{p'[Coz(8)] + 4AHf [Hro(l)]
: -(-103.8skJ) + 3(-3e3.skJ) + 4(-28s.8kJ): -222okJ [s.30]
206 53 Eat-+
s!
EI
E
trl 3CO2Q)+aH2(8)+ZOzG)
AH;.= -z2zokl
o 4H2OAd
AHs = -1143 kI
J ) + 4 H2O(/)
AH .Ig
oo=
f.H 5.23E qlBq E.E= ol 4l&el +c e4E +Ell-llil glEl. o+41= e= tr-Ellql^l
t]*Eol +C g^E ts6l]q= 4dol4. A+4eI O+41: ,+44 g^E+El rJdEol
^JCq= r+Aolq. "l !+aql^l flgEl E+= tr}ft a zlz) %LEql Ell"ll^J= s.+¤9l,rl
u}|* zld$ EIE+.
O Epll .1s.ze? c,Hak)9 ^Jd HI+E Hlqlol+. An+4sE ol Eoli EI¤-E elBq H
il+ EtrqoJ ^Jc El*el tnl <k4 +4 +E"J -Aa1"[c:Hak)]oltrt.
@ Coz gtl s.zz* CozG) 3 mol9 rJ^"r tI*.14. qlgq= r7l ^ojeolE-e ol E4l
^l
E flgul E+= 3 AH/[cor(s)]ol+.
o Hzo g¤ H2o 4 molg d^J6l+ rl s.zs9 qlBq Hq+ 4 LHiLH2o(/)lolQ. o1 q1
¤* u,o14ol ^JC¤+= 19 $,tlop. fl=ql, H2o(s)71olE Hro(Dql ql.J AHi
{tol ^FSg+= dql +el6l+.
olEl'* E^iq^l +¤ *+ Hi$^lel e+El"*E {+: 4 g^9 g+= 44d4r ztd
+trI. trl+^J 4 s.zg\ AH?*:-2220 kl #gC3Hs I motr4oz 5 molol ql*a}¤ coz
3
^jCg= {l$tl Hsl¤ +e}Ut}.
molrl H2o 4 molol
flql^l ¤E.J ailH, "lule} HlgoE d^d HI*Ee +6l]g+ 9l+. ol HI+g E= $g
'l Hq+ ^JC59 E= ^JC tlBrlg qlq^J q]¤¤9 s= SC SIB'IE 6Jg U 4.o14.
Alli,n:>llAHf(^J^JE) ->rzAai(HI8E) [s.:t]
zlc r(sigma)=tJg $ula|_/, n4 m? H]*9 slq=JE 4l+ol+. ll s.:r9 aal .Jg
3rlq} q}+^lql^J CEo}d}(forward direction)oE +4U+. + gi
^8CEE 4C H}+ola,
7l-Hlg"olq ol 6.19 4 s.zz zl s.zs4 El+6I+. zl s.er9 E
^JcEg EIE= 4o14. "l
,ll 6}0l +4.1t= ag s.26^)4 Hi¤¤q q+ qH}8oltrI. nl+^l 2nL,Hi
^l ^Jc HI*g
AE 'Jql 94 $aE +=r+.
5.7 I 8d ?l=q 207
s.tt
F 4lz1l
8t tlgtrls+E1 ,Jt qlBq ahfBPl I
(a) fl!t!(C6H60)1 motol E46lG Cozb)el H2o(/)='J== U39 E= Elgtrl EEI'= Zllt6l'^le.
(b) E+tr11?] 1.00 sa[Eltlt.oo sol EA-'J tttlSdElts HlE6l'^19.
=zJE
6fl.J
E4 (a) C6H6(/)7I taap cozk)q Hzo(r)E dc6l+ HI zllfl (a) Ezl coHo9 Eaql g.i +B "*= Hlq"4g +4.
8ol +qA+. ol HISE s= SIB'I Epi(arr)= 4l4l6lloF ++ c+ -tr s.3ql^J LHi 1l:= *j1, ^l s.3lg ^l=s"6lq HI
t4. o) c6H6 1.00 s9 Sn r+Cr+ c:Hs 1.00 s9 Se 4 8E {Bq EEI¤ Zl&'*tr}. (b) c6H6E E¤"*g ol+d-q
aql^l B^J6J gE oJ13 Hlr6llot 6l=ql, ol ¤r= *g E g'J $gtl Epl¤ rts'J elBj4 E+E HI+q olel
Hl*6}r]l csHe9 Ee*rI9lql^l ah}¤ EJ flgq =q.Hq¤
Eql^l oltrl +l+61fl+(^l s.2ee+ s.30 +a).
^F$.6Iq
r EAg rts'J flBr{ Hsl¤ 4l&+4.
Evl
(a) 9^ HI¤+ HI¤¤eq oz@)71+AE+= ag.J
a 9l+. tr|+^J C6H6(l) I mol9 ¤i HI+E +¤
Hlg"49 +El. C6H6(r) +tor($ 6COz@) + 3H2o(/)
-
al s.:r+ -E s.3el zlEE
^I+619
tI*9
g + 9l+. 4 HI¤¤g
4l^}6J
^r4-
rtn+ EAE All"nn : [6AHf(COz) + 3Ar{1"(Hzo)J - [A,EI1'(CoH6) +fa,rypr11
^Hi
EI4*E 4l+= *6J+= ag zlE6t+. += tl : [6(-3e3.skJ) + 3(-2Bs.8kJ)] - t(4e.0U) + f(oU)l
46}ql^l zlev .JA;J ¤qq gi= LHi:o, + : (-236t - 8s7.4 - 49.0) kJ
AH/[or(s)] :ool 4= {r z1 qa14. : -3267kJ
qHl 5.12
Ut q!=JillE ol86H {^"d tlHul4ll-EPl
HJ3 CaCOa(s) ------ Cao(s) + COr(g)9 E= E!=J4 Etrl'= 178.1 kJolrf. E 5.38 CaCOg(s)9 E= 8d tlgtrl= 1l
^|.e-6lq
tt6l^19.
6tlS
E+l AH/[cacoa(s)] r}g +81+ ETllol+ llq ol HI*E s= flgiil E+= r{l E+.
AIf- : AHp'[CaoJ + LHilCo2) - AII1'[CaCosJ
208 s3 Eat-*
Eot s s.3rl ++ ctr+q grJ{ <i+ Arr?." itg 4.J 178.1kJ: -635.5kJ - 393.skJ - AHflCaCo3l
6Iq
Atr olEl Eg B+ ¤ol, E+i rJ+4 ag.JCt a,11E ,,3 (d) 2AI{1"[SOr] : Affim - zAHf"[SOz]
H o
o
---------)
cl-ct a6J qlBqzl ol EI¤:el $*4 zsz ktlmol4 a+. aq+ qlBq= "llrJzlz}
a6Je_l
++]tr+q cl-ct a.Jg #= ql ++qqo}6t7l trllEq oJiol4. a6J qlBq= Ez[ D
9l .Jrzt 6I= e6Jg ,{^J ++U+. ql= Eq D(cl-cD: cl, a6Jql qt.J aq+ qlBul
olr, D(H-Br)e. usr aEtE aql {Eulol4.
*+. aq+ $Bq= HI¤: slBule+ aEl. 6l-zl"J c_H a6J4 pol Qola[-r. +soJ a6Jg
4flz} Ezlql^l"J olq6.J A6Jql rll6ll^J= ¤+ A'J $lgyl= ql=
=46J+. ^l*8-e+.
q ,lEll.J Ezlzi 4C ztzl +^d g4E E"llEl= +s=4 eg r+Ael flE4 Ho1;.-, =
Aq+q ql.J ¤+ a6J "llH zlE 4 96]-= ql 6J + 9l+.
^l-s."
s.8 gl=rl 209
=-J
-------->
u*#
o
qlqlqlql^'l c-H= Fo* ABJo.E ol+q4 ?lo ',-tr, ol HI*E $lBqE c-n
Hl zl]9
a*g #= ql gs6J flgrlg ql EHol+. q+^J l}lqlqlql^J ¤# c-H a6J qlBrl=
,o(c-s) : Geao I s) kl/mol : 41s kJ/mololr|.
+qa flzl s9 aq+ a.J elgrl= flzItl.g EoJoJ 4"lzl tsz}9l E='J+. rq+
tszlzJ9 HsI= gHI4sE 4rt. "J.J Be 4.JEql^J c-H a.J flEqE aEl*+E ¤
+ eq+ qlgrl= 413 kflmolol 91, olag El+ d cH4 6ll4ql^-l 4lt}llH als kllmolgl
=d'JEl.
a.B {gq= ++ aEtg #= ql gg-+ ollr{zlo1u+ 6}* o}E <tg r*=+. H}qls,
+ ,llE ,l4l ,tElls-l gztr+ *^l ^Iolq
aBg "JE q= qHxlzt BI=¤LI. at} s
Eqz} =E
^4
A6Jol q z}614.
=++
ge g^ tlql 4e ¤+ a.J qlgq= ++urt. rJ+ol, ,J6J alqr-a6Jg r*=
E 5.4=
E4+ +qL A6Jg '*= E IB+ slEzl H+= "Jea 7lb^dol 44. olH ¤ +Hlql^J
HIg az-lfl. gi tig ulltrlle tr|6 eqiql E6ll^l ¤alq 9l+. q= Eq &a gx1q1,t1
&i gi= o-o +.J A6Jol olq+ o:o 016 e*ql 96ll^J gAqq 9l+.
o:o(s) zo(s) AH: 49s kJ
-
C4) o
o
-------->
,JEJ
?lEJtrlsl rJt ?!=JtrI
qlgq= d-ql 6I+olEE, B+ a6J qlBi4= ol+6}q #qzl4+
^llEzl ¤cg a6Jol
9l: EI* qlgq= +Ag + 914. olBloJ 4Ae HI+ql +qq= EE =oF9 aHiq ql
6ll^J EEtrJEE, +qd HISol EE(endothermic, AH>0) +3 B¤(exothermic, AH<O)
oJzlql +6]]^J urfe.zl q=g + 9lE+'Jr+.
HI* elg'18 ql+d|= EJI gs* aqe Hess Ezlg 4d4eE 4+61= 4.14. #q
zl= AElg .J^J +g Hl+olr, ^JCq= AoJg'Jtlgg **ol4E ol+qlq.
El+^l H]¤+ + +Ale ol+q{+= ag tr-t}e + glrt.
^tdg
l.^}CEql=
=^]]6l-zl
*= HI*EE AEJ$ #E rll g.qe 6+e qlqxl= a"*6J4.
4lE flBq: #qd a6JE A.J SlB'lE 5J"J+ 67Id+.
2. Ei¤¤q 9+= ^JCEq AoJol ¤^d¤+. ol +41= ¤^Jg A6Jq 9lHzlE
=xll6}zl
%L=6Ir 419 flg{= *+E|.
HI+ flE l(aH.J= #qa A'Jel A6J SlBi4E 5Je_tr+q ¤Cg A* SIB'lel Bg
u a-s-tr ql+g+.
AH.-:>(sqA a$e-l aEI qlptl)->(¤Cg A6Jel A6J Slg"l) ls.tz)
+ -"-G*.*O*O
AH 1
0 LHz 0
o
C
1
?1 'b
EI
tU tr
T
,}
o
CI
+
v
-i f
AH.- .,."--0
I l_
afg 5.24 fll=tr|= 0l86u aH*" Gl+6|.7] EE ?]Btrl= DllElloJ:ziE^el uJffo+ c+sp
Dll=rl gel+4=
=:d -dd6l= Lll "J-g-Lf AHonE ql=dl= Lll 4 g
=-Ef
+ ?ltl.
qFjl s.13
BaJ
oJgrlr+EJ HJ-3 oJlgq qE6Pl
HH
2
tl
H-q-q-Hk) + z O:o(g) ---------> {O:C:O(8) + 6 H-O-H(S)
tt
HH
^d6l-=
Ell 9lH zlE,J=++. #tr olEl+ ql+3 E+ AqEl gEl+4oJ zlEs+q Zl&
¤ aloJ -28s6 klr+ Hljil6J + ilsq, ¤ oJrl6tr 9l+.
212 53 geltrt
s.e l^l+4tE
gg g^J^l7lzl 9ldlrJ q++E Hls" g ¤^ HI80l+. qts Ee lrtsg g^E
^l-sq=
EI ,J¤q= {uJxlE EeE P!-eil(tuelvalue)olep.J+. qtr ¤-zlol4 sEE EE {t
e g*4lE +ag + 9ltrL
Al-S_
-1 trl
+fl +ql gs'* q++9 9lulzl} +++94 4%Iql^J +e+. HBe qtsEl= ++EI
Ee tlql^J
=+7^(c6HrzoJE
E6lgtrl.
=+74=
i 8 colq, e"lql +oI 9l=
=+
?4= d¤-olzlrcJ+. e.lql Ed ^llE_+ +Hlqq, q+l +alE ozel HI86t
=+n^=
q Ar+zls.? cozk), Hzo(l), qHzlE
^JC++.
C6H12O6(s) + 602@) + $COz(S) + 6HzO(l) AII': -2803kJ
*+3rl+g B6u= uulEz{ {$qsE g^Jq= qLl^lE +^lt qlq 4lqlE ++g + 9l
4. :44 oJxll= ,lt+ i'*el ++cl¤"J zl1t6}q, ++3rl¤9 ¤+ gE ak9- rz u11s
(4 kcat/g)o14. Se alg ¤A EISql e.l6l1^.1
^JCq=
gg 4444"J, ++4 os S-e
ae "J+E Ed*+.
A zl%r-g
+l HJSel ?lBtrl= Tlue-tr E q, raJ.J
=+?^sl
EE ,J= gDl,oJTl?
E 5.5 El 7t^t
{Eel +t ^JE4
oJE rJ
E5.sq .JHlzl.J
^l+q 4+ ¤e <lol zl¤99 9l+. Etlg ^l*9 szlql= ¤+4 l4i9-_83
ss Eg ql #:q= 4Hzl9 olsEl "Iq+ +++8, zl%I, tEeel .Jg +El-uEt(f=J @,
s.25).
gstr ,ll+, 11o1, 7$ gt' ag s_rq E=4q tI'J6l +
6h= qlqzlel "Jg
F
tzllT} il
s+. E rvJErg ill6q ql4q 6l+B r00 klol q^lle-l 7lbg +71^l7l= Ell 4lA+ g
M
qH
F 4^d o a
5.14
^{#e.l
"Jg
,J qB6Pl
(a) 1AE 28 g(1 oz)z|. gxl?? 12o mL(1/2A)= s-g-dtl'. 0lag EEtr 8 s, EJ#il= 26 g, \lHJ 2
^lzlg ^.l,,\l'= ^lalE(cereal)
,JE gzlTl
sg r1l8--Jrt. 0lajpl EEel EE E.E. lA|Eq I.-ErEl= ollLlxl s= +¤61'^le. (b) EE i1l6el
q ^l.E6|q ^lE01l ^[aJe
6[ZLt43g -g qt 100 Cat/miE ,\l8-dtl. 3 miE =J=J ttH "J9-d E-B 2J0ll 6}|'J6|E ,\l4gP H alE?]7|.?
=
T[l'J E^ll= g%Ir+ EtoJ ++4I ?l4¤ zll+*+. (a)ql q+
^Iolel
E4 (a) 949 9e ntg +q4, +++8, zlH}g SE <i Bg ^l^Iel g"* & +& t4-= 4l=" 6J4.
el E"Bol+. o) qTlqld= ¤E #9 xll""alE *4 Eol
olg =a6J
E zlt}6l+, 99 Exll9l "ll'J++. (a)
ollLl^l olF
^Hd d-r-
(e.e%) ,\lo
-T
(36.3%) ¤e.z19d ts1a13 t'J +i= co2-tr B6lr +A= H2o.tr tr6lr1l qq, + rI
(8.6%) C EF +el ^JC flBE ilg ,*=E+. trI+^'l ¤E +E E4e+ +^el E+g
=
1l El ol ¤e <tg 44L+. qE 5q s s.6q^l qa+r+ +459 cE "t ¤e
(1,6%) =++
{lg HliuI Hzr. 4eg +A .Jelol rl 5zl qlEq ¤-E fiol 24.
20t3Eq "l+q^l= 1.02 x l0r7 kf$ ollulzlzl ol {lg l.J'J ,ll.J
e.3 x 10s kl9 glHzlE 4El6J ase, 4 4.Jq
^Hlq*.+.
qlq4 gs?+E o* tooullzl
gE+. f=J s.zog
^l+
"lel6J "ilHzl9 =gg +E}u 4,o14.
d1)lL(29.7'/")
^ll4le-l
fs.ilHzlfl.J ^l+, 4f, d¤z}^= il4 ElE(fossiltueD4-z "Jq4
A rg 5.26 El=oll^l 4Hl6lE 9l+. EI4 fl5|= 5¤E E6l]ql 96il +E"J Eql ¤a ¤Cqg.a, dzIE rSol
oilL1rlfl. 2o1sLloll El+3 ^1Erl
=
1 .02 x 1017 kJg ollLlIl= 4El ¤c6J aE+ gd q m[-=.zll Ttgol 91tr].
^HlE]r.
6lfirl. al$lzl"r(naturalsas)t: +AeI +Aq E+6JE.J zlill flffi4tr +^.rqq il4. d¤ztl
+CEol 4lql oJ(cur)olr, deJq qlql "J(crHJ, EtrqloJ(c:sJ, fHl"J(cnH,o)S .s
=
EI+LI. qlrll s.tt.ll s.eqloJ9 ¤e {lol +eq*.4. dgzl^E 4++ 4tsol gA¤ trll
-E_+ co2E. Hlt+ += +4IE-g 4Al H]]=tItrL 4fi(petroleo-)= ful zlzl dBe=. 7
Cg ._441.14. ol 46J89 ql++e +F++iolr, 4"lzlE +s +, Ai, 4l4E EB6i
: +71 slaJEol4. 4EJ(coal)g Ezlelol +s++iE galap ?li li11e,t1 *, tl,
=
x. 5.6 ol 7t^t oJHJ
EE_el tE ,Jnl {E
qajg flA CE(EaJ %)
C H o EE 'dkl/s)
+^l](i++) 50 6 44 18
#SB(Pennsylvania) 82 1 2 31
fr SB(Pennsylvania) 77 5 7 32
-E-EL 100 0 0 34
flf(Texas) 85 t2 0 45
6l }jIF o 85 15 0 48
r-l a TT
A97I^ 70 23 0 49
-l-I 0 100 0 142
(o.a.z")g sq+6J+.
qlqzl +s-el ++e _ns.g_tr 4"J il'Jzl= olsoB + 9l= 7l+3 gd^l7l= a
"14
ql E=g aol+. 4"J
"llHzlE 7l* = 9lHzlgol4. "Je g "* r t 19 q1o3= qlulzlz| ull
a$ xllgulqE zlsgl EB-J+. trl+ +E E4g o.r,z.gl sE;IE B+ ql.J qlqzlTl
flzll ul{ol dill qlqzlql 6ll$9+. rEl+ 4.J "llHzl +de d+q=(.Je H
^l-ooa}E
4ql Es+tr}) ^lrJr+ 71+ =aql qr+ H6}!_-+. qEl+ oJolri. 4"J glHzl9 Er+4.J
ol¤+ 4t}4 tsull Bzl"ll gEl gl+. olag 6lla6l= ¤zll4 BHq-e olgqE ae EHI
¤¤ F6l] ge %1-¤B + 9l= sg slE 4Ag 0l+61+ t]JBol4.
HI+E 6J q= q*4 A+.
cH+(c) +H2O(g) +$ -----+ CO(8) +3H2(s)
'J*^de
qlTl IIAE ]lqlqzl Ezl-= ^Jt6}q, qlTl co2
zll$a[-r., ¤e-+ 7l+'q}
^l-.&ol
¤q +71 qlEql zl+ +laql glqd ,l]+ +s6l+.
= ql.J qlqzl= zld4eE ce[)a]-r.6]E *d }'zl¤ ol
^|&6t= *Eol 4"J dzlGolar
++ zldzl.J d+ ^J&.J 4o14.
r+4 q H tq} oleloJ izlE nge ++Es +71611
*4. zl¤4 Tltr= 4oJ d4 rl'-Jel .ll+Cr+ -d,gCg =z'll zl]Ca|fleq, Ezl¤ d1l4
sE *+q 7ti1 9l+. dxllE 4"J qlqzl9 tr14= ql"Jr]H q]+ Er-rL
SEr qEl
F -4.A1 TllL{
o tl _ ll o
Nobelol 186680i1 tfolLlr|.0lE= +16|.q tt^ Ee|.S ae, LpIEE=al^ilalol ECaCSollll +-E4ee E
qta^]e= E+ r5)g Eg q8E ^114617l ^ft6l'flt[.
"_401 +l-d qE ilee Eolrl.8E 25"c,17lg0ll^J Ee[0lL[01Etr=al^]laJ0l E4
^lBErl=
7lr1l, 0ltq Ela 7l^11, E, {J4' 7lr]ltr E6t|E ntl t!=r.l EalE -1541.4 kJlmololrf.
(a) EalolLlolE-tr=el^lle!0lE6llE|= EE 6l-+ HJS4= 19. lr
(b) Ealolt-lolE-e=al^llaJg E= gdE= zltJ6t^le.
(c) EdEE ilE6[7] +l-.J EalolLlolE-"=al^]laJelx.= EaJg 0.60 mgolrf. 0l ,tlEE'Jz[4oe Eill L]|oll,\l tttrtElol(+'J6txl
Lrrlu)E4 7li1l, 0lttrlE]4 7li1l. E0l gdg 10ltl. 0ltttl ggEl= gaJe grl'?l7l'?
=
(O EatolLlolEe=4{lalP HE 3"C0ll^1 0lal-d EHet Etrel E^t^.lo.E+El, SdE|E E^l!E= 0|E e-Et ElgE= ql
=Ett.
dB6l^le.
=6|.q
(e) EalolLplEe=al^1laJol r.+E-e z+ 8 1.0il^l gt4= trtr.l6t7l 9l6H +gEe ^hEEfl= nli, ollLlrl EEt|eI qal 71.^l EEtoll
rt|6tl ¤E6l^le.
^Ii=
A gzl-E zfliE 9iol4. s=.+ o,ql q6J Al+ tl2 Nr(g)q or(g)9 LHi 4k+ 4Eql el4q 6olr|. Hro(/)e}
^lE
E ol+6}q &i9 +¤g "*=+. co2k)el LHi <12 s s.3 qe ++ cql +4.119+.
zC3HsN3Oe(/) 3Nz(8) +OCOzkr) +5H2O(/) +LOr(s) -616s.6 kJ: r2(-393.s kJ) + 10(-28s.8 kJ) - 4AIrr'[C3HsN3oe(/)]
-
A+7I qE+ E= Al+ql 2= #6J+. AIIl'[C3HsN:Oe(l) ] : -353.6 kJ/mot
4C3HsN3Oe(I) .+ 6NzG) + l2coz6) + 10H2O(l) + Ozk) (c) I mol C3H5N3oe(l)7t +4qfl9 ql, ql$:tl= ls4l.4 kl
(+g6l+ gEql^l ge Tlzll t4ol4. ol!$ zl;ll .$rJ$ g tsfl+. f4oe. C3H5N3Oe(l) 0.60 mgg g+-E H++6l]
E !ut= s+eE +Bqol ^J44.) oF +trI.
(b) rloleg-E^Jlflel E.= E4ol+olE+
^Jc SlBq= (0.60 x ro-3 g c3H5N3o,,(ffiX-ffiffi-,)
trI.g 86il HI$^lql^J trI= EAE s=
^JC SB
=el^J1flg
E Hl*gg eg + 9l+. : 4.1 x 10-3 k1 : 4.1y
^l-+6|q
4C3HsN3Oe(/) -+ 6Nzk) + tzcoz16) + 10HzO(/) + Oz@) (d) ezlolrlolE-E=El^1lfl3 EzI sHlEolzl ql+ql ^J*
ol Eql qI+E flBtl H43 11-rt41.4 kl): -616s.6 klol olaloll,r"l +=EI. qE= glzl"J, olgc 843 481-e aiil
218 51} Eil-sf
olq, +g +ag ?14 44,E Eeolq(2.6¤, 2J4), E .llHzl} lill ${E $zlol
^l .Je EaE Hi+E 4o14.
a^il
tI EzFl9l trisE, ol EAg +^d gi=.ol r.f ulfrfol E H+qH^J gE qlq4E d+]g+. qlE 5H E
=
E-tr $z[ e+6JEg 4_e_e ++94. B94zl totse4l r1E, :49 ge+q qlqzl AolTI +
(e) e=|olrJolee;-4,r1gql 9lHzlE slEl slHl¤ 5. qlqzltr d+g aolq. ulgz} 9e gE+rJq 44, ¤+
^ltlg qlqzl= flql¤ Hlfl=
ol
"ilHxl"l4. Eeol +g4eE ++-J
ql. *g ii,iHl¤ ql "ilulxltr d¤|9tr1. A44ss, ^l+
HzlE zltl ol&p+ +4, E, a^ Tlill= ^J^d+4. ol slql E BqzlH^J St 9lHzl= 714 aolq. ulflz| zlfoll $
d++ r+4ql^l= qlqzlTl gel BqlE %I¤qj1, ol zlil HI
qag ql, ¤+ qlq^l= gqLJzl_e. dgqn, ++l-E gg
¤. ^JCES,l]+ r1g.J 4o14. olel ae,l]+ gqlqzl +e6l.r]l ¤+.
=
7l++,8 olf,ap, ol zlilli++lq 46Iq S+g6t-l1, +
soj "i es tq
Etqt O{lL1rl(,(lE, 5.1E) E9Et(thermodynamics)$ qlulzle} : (r-v worDg +eql+. olqe ol+E, qlq^lql qlt ^lle+ tr-
E+ql +'J S+o]tr|. ol +q^.1 plq} t].* E.J ollulzl, 5 EI glElrl(enthalpy, n)= A9g + 914. a:r+pv. oJ
=ee "J+.J
61gg H+91 gffi(thermochemistry)olrf. q-+ul oJEJ EH-6|= 4ql^l elBEl HsxAH)= "Jc+.Jq6lql
EillE F z|-zl sr|l-a qqzl= ,*:+. (1) e= ollLlrl(kinetic 4lql q6ll ?4+ Se 94 ?J4. tu:sp(ol4 Axl p= oJA
^-l
energy)b gill¤ +4"J o-e. "J+ qlq^lol-,r.. (z) 4elfl ottqrt "J "Jqg 9olaJ4.) Eg
r+cql^Jb aH>oolr, gg rlcq^J
(potentialenersy)! qE ExllTI +E E,.llel
^Jrl4 +lil $Eql E AH<001trl.
,*+ qlq^loltrl. oldzl t4q il: gE 6oJ d^l+ .szl.Jq E +q 4dq^] tlB ?llEttt(enthalpy of reaction)E ddE9 elB
oJ ¤+.llrJzlp]
"JdzlE 4,42lfi "Jqql^l ,.jzlE 9HI¤ 9lH Elql^l',J¤¤q SIBqE W <l"J AH.- : H(SCE)-H(HI¤¤)
zlE r*=El. oltrt. ++ {BEl= E+s_r+ ee rJ+6J +ag qE+. (1) E}+ qI
plsl
"llHzlE
g4
+=q^J= 4*B Cdzl4 tE zl+_e_E+ BEIE HI*6l.= HI¤¤q "Jql Hlq++. (z) t}*ol EI4tr 11636I
rlzl"JeI4. Elql e*g #E ql= qlHzlz} Hls^l *=!gqot 6l H aag Pazl ulgq-. (:) tI* tB'l= HI*E]+ dCEg E4
I, ol= qfl¤ qlq^lel ?zle o1q14. Hlqltr p+ol a*"1 B 4 tr-qlq q+6Jr+.
dg EI= Elfl¤ qlq^l7I A^6}tr__E 9lHzlzl-ILI=¤LL g4aJH(s.str) 4le+ +9 ,Jq] dBg g=*e gzl*H
Eq-4 8l1EEi(5.2tr) gqCt ceg ++g trll xr(system) (calorimetry)9 Fql ¤e49tr +A6JE}. EBr{l(calorimeter)i
E^J EAE +C=*g Ag+q. ol 4l +el sE Eee ++{ ql r+aq +ElEl= gE HEI= +a+4. g=*41E gE E!l=
(surroundings)ol+. Btl4l= +9le+ qlq^l= L$$ f glzluJ, I K gE ^J+ql g.sql gr*'J EEEoeat capacity)9l 9¤++.
Eeg f,+I6J + fl+. 419 rtt+ 4u1rl(internal energy)|- +C d #Ed t mol9 E*EIS EEltEl(molar heat capacity)ole] alJ.,
Bel E= &F "llulxlcl ElHl¤ qlqzlE oJ"l+. 41E 4+ qqzl Ed t g9 g+=*g Hl$(specific heat)olrla +q. Eg ,l+
4le+ +91 ol.f,a;| ollrlzl Eil+q Hg + 9l+. ulp$ zlzl{, f4¤ +.ra I/g-xo1tr}. ${ol gf{ E(q)P Bl¤ =
= ^plql
Eel¤l rll1E*I(first law of thermodynamic)9l tr}sE, 4lel t}l+ (CJ, e*, gE H!+= E6J ,,lolE+. a q: C"xmx LTo]|t+.
qlq4el HEI(AE)= 4lE "Je-e E= 419 +se dg6f= g(q) g4l=*Hg .Ja $qq^l !E6J ull. dgq= ge Hi+ qtBq
+, 4ql E4 r.:4lql^l fl6il21: 9(rry)9 6J. 4 ar: q+wa14. E+= 4d4e_s 4 + 9l+. "JA +q gzjl=*Ee SEsz{t(bomb
q4 wE qlq^l olEg *6J¤ s.^l6IE zlEE 'z*=t1. gol +9 calorimeter)4l 6l+ "JC +ElE +7lql^J +a'J+. "Jc +ul
a{afoll,<-l oltL6J gg aEe+ eq. aHE 4}¤6t71 g16ll^l aE t}
EE(endothermic) 4t9 A\71+flEflq gg ¤+4= aolq-. o tl 716I z\ olrl
a!oa I a-l .
El'fl(exothermic) :tlC$ 9ol 419lrl +91tr %l¤¤El. qlBq= tlql Er+olse, AH= 49 azl tr
Hess E=l(5.6tr)
4+ qjq^l(E)=- gtll tl+(state function)olr|. qtr tlEll E++9 EIeI3l+ trI4^J 6J 449 $Bq Hs+=.J
^JEilql"J 9¤+4.
{te 49 ^}Ell E: eaq"J 9=4q, r ^JEllql EB6l+ d-^-ll6J 84tr gq+E, g+ +41tr .Jq+E qA+. Hess EEI(Hess's
q¤ 4CrI ++afq. E(q)4.J(rry)9 <I+ AlTl rEE tI4E E
law)oll.rl5 oJ Hl+ol S+ EAls .Jqg ql. r HI+g AH= r
slrlzlE %IEql Ee6IE_8. tr4 .JfzI olqE}.
=A6J +419 tBq HslE E}4 er+. qel^.i "Jn 9lE aH {lql 4d'Iol
fll=JEl(s.3tr, 5.4tr) .Jc6J Sqql^-l 7l^ll7l ^8.\dI,47)+ iHlq: ts+ +41tr r r+Ag 7l+dfE, "lrl.J rl-Col= "l r+Aq 4qI
s+q! Hl+ol dq¤ ql. ,llE +99 .Jqql 4dll^l g+ ?El g aHE 4ll}g+ 1l+.
6e BJ8^l 219
EJt ,"lal ot
:g
BE A+-d +01 qajEe El=E + ?,totoi --Jtrt
.slE A6Jg
^JC6lrlLl #=
ql +Elq= u]d¤ 4H219 HsI .gslq Hl*^lg ol+6}q 'JC 'Jq(AH)ql^lE HI+ql dgg
zl¤Ql4(s.lA. +¤ ¤# {l4l: s.r7,s.l8 gqlqzlel rl*91 Tzl+ E4E .Jg +H^la4(s.4¤).
=i
. gq+ql^l zle+ +9lE ++dJ+(s.2¤). +d g+ {lxfl: s.as-s.ae
+H EG 94: s.zt,s.zz . gE +gr+ e+4 g+e} E= Hlg(g4l+H)g Eo6'J g ol.Fg
.g+ "Je+El ql+ qlq^lE 4l4}6li1 ol T}EE P-aE Ezlt 2141ojc|(s.s¤). +¤ g+ {41: s.so, s.s2-s.s4
4$.z4.). +fl SG ql4: s.2s-s.28 .Hess E4g ol+6fq HI*el glBe HE+E zl&6Jtrt(s.e?).
. *ql 6J+E zllt-J$ {$ap 9lE E4(s.29. +d B+ q4l: s.63-s.66
zO!-o HI-e-
u o -rl
. w=Fxd [s. r] 'Jg il4 4?-le+ tsAaEq.
. E"l:,(QrQ2/d ls.z) Cdzl4 ulEl¤.lltlxl
. AE:Ez)+-Ezzt [s. a] ql+ qlqzls.l H5+
. LE:q+w 4* gE gaAE+(equl4llHzl)
[s.+] "ilHzl9 Hq¤ 94
. H:E+PV [s. s] qlBirl Cq
. w: -PLV ls.zl gd 'Jqq4 ,14 B+q 94^l + g
. AFI:AE+PLV:qp [s.s] gC "Jqq^l qlBvl H+
'Q:C"xmxAT [s.zr] Elg, a*, gE Hslqlel+61+ g BEI
. Q*: -C"aXAT ls.zz) HIgq g*Al,rlol9lr.S¤ ¤
220 53 gel-+
(^JC9-:zAal (HI*E)
. Alfi*n:lnAHi [s.rt1 HI*el s.+ qlBi'l H+
. AH,*=x(#q{ aQ}$ eB elBirl)->(B^Jg Aq}el A'J qlBq) EJ+.I ql6t E+ eB
^Jq EaITl +HE
ls.zz) Tlali
elBul E'J+e^J E qI+ Slgul
oJ+ +41
tse.-e.E= TllE ,At{,\19
s.l 4?+ 4t;12.0x l0-5 C, eE& 1.0 kgg 7*-r. I.o cm9 zl4oll
gq4 fl-e-q old6l= ts F zll9 fz| u|$ol $.= Eqql
ndqq *4. ts.t¤l
44114 ul¤l¤ qluJzlb gul-.Jz|?
(a) ol 419
L|]
(b) ol +E¤ +Eq^l +ot +4H tlE zl7lflzlfl=7l, ol
qt
qH gqalAETP Ll
(c) f .r.1o;e1 zle-lz| f;Jrlle Eql q4 4 +E 9oI9 4.r ^l
ql olerll qEzl? E !o=
s.2 trl-g.
^Illg +tsl ++ol ul-*zlzlE eer. gl: E.+g + s.4 trl^g4 :agE g{l l.tzlE'L zlz;4lE +E}4a ileq, +g
4g 4o1r{. ts.rdJ s= qE 4Aq 9lq^JE H!+E +4liljr 9l+. +gsq
(a) ffiol g+aql "14 qfl¤ 9l.lzl* azlrlzil ¤El. El ?olb qe} rry9 t44.J ^llzlE +4U+.ls.zgl
fl¤ qlLlzlTl $r]6tzl 9loll ollulxl$.rf$ola !l| (a) olg r+Aol +g r}4.J7t?
"trJ*
7l? (b) "J.J +rll+4H qe r+Col AE<OoJ 4C.JzI?
(b) f+9 4e ^J4.JtrIH, f+ol 94zl-* 4"ll 46J q9 (c) 419 4P 91Hzl9 441="zlzl "Jq+= 4aol 9lElH
+c.E q+6J + 9l=7P qL 48"J7p
(c) #+3 zlzl$ q a71 +ldl^l 'Jg a|-1, llizlr olffi
(d)
¤B6f^le_.
++ol rzql;]9 +tg
e7l +l"ll 6J "JE a
"Jg f+ol
q
$,, q
^}+"1
ol L 7LO
lla::/ I !
(, (ii) (iii)
n
SEIIB P
LE, fl
C h.l
kl
I aEn
L|1
..--------------
T
oil
-r.0 L
Ll
AE,
^l
E SEIID
AEu
s.ro "Jt oJqol +^lqE+ aoJ¤ zlzl ql+ql^l N2el 02
^lol
SEtlA
9 zl4l^J HI¤¤ dB^144. [s.ad, s.z¤]
(a) ol HI+E +B +ql +*^lg oJoJzl, *oJzl,
^a, w7l
s.7 zld4 gs= "J+g ,l Esrr q9lAg I f 914. ts.zdl oqlzl= ql+61-^le_.
(a) EseI +7lE 4l4n ,IAB q, +rlE "J+EI oll9 ,9 (b) ++ cE zlE= ^l-so6lq, ddE t molol Bd¤ 419
+E: q+4 9Ezi? 1s5 f;|.rle.
(b) olullE q9 pa.b +g,ol q=zl? PP
(c) (a)el (b)q Bql=4d-q, Bsq +7lE'J+B rI a;gl
x
s.8 +g rB4
+E= AAg f 9lEzi? "J"J E7l+6ItrlE aEel +E
E qBrll ql+g+ 9lEzI? r olfrE+t"J7P
zlol $zltf Eol BzJ Eql BA 9l+n
^J44
r r !o
tr^}. [s.2¤, s.3e]
o !N
--------------->
1
gflq rBq^l +q r+A"l .JCaJ gse| .Jqql^l
T
s.e trl-g sl
ef X
ol+qA+. [s.z¤. s.:¤] trl
(a) ol HElql^l rryt: oJ9E Hp+61+zl, g-e--e HElal+zI? Z
(b) "J.J EE 4C"l4E, ol4t
HEt I "Jqg dflcl 4
{+sl 4q1 46lq .I+ qLJzlTI G.7l6J /-oJ7[ ,J46J (i) (ii)
1oJTl? E aE= oJq_lzt, goJzf?
5.12 ElqlE Aql^l BEq H;]-E rJ4a1l ez}.
A.-----B
+ ElqlE es+ sql qi6}q AH/> 6o14. [s.z¤J
(a):H s.23r+ +^i+ BEIE. HI+ql EI+ flEq EsE r
el^ls.
222 53 gtrl+
,J4ol 1.0 nm sI+ 6rI-J+H. slHI¤ qLlxlel HEI PzI olU ag +iol{n 6l+7I?
^19
gEI+ qyTl? (c) F 9zl,rlol$ zlelz| 1.0 nm ?716J s.22 gEo+ g+ql^.i $$ulz| rHa,lH dzJ zl7"ll
a3 9l
= +.19 dag ++6tn 9i+. +aqe +l+q^.1
=q
7l+E E
Ell+ Ezlg El¤l¤ qlq4= +7lii]E7L olul{ z$als-z}f
=
qzlq, oI4+_s_E nI4+rJ4. zlA 4+E +Eel oJg
s.l4
'l4e Eq4g"IoJzI?
flE + dz} ^lol9 cdzl
(a) 62 pmel r]Hl ^l
¤ qlLlzlE jouleB91E (b) + d^f ^Iole-l z4 Ar+ ru6}r| .JCat{.
ol 1.0 nm rrJ=r +7I6J+8, slHl¤ qlq4E $ali $ulol @) zla 4+E +.lg gfl4loJ7L Efl4l.Jzf, i1B4l.J7I?
(b) "JE .J+e+ #7t E6lrll s+H, ol al= qq+ a.+
zl? k\ F flx|,r.po1e1 7lel7} 1.0 nm f;zlal Ell F "JzlE
9¤l¤ 9lHxli ¤!7f6}:7t. olqH ,Ja6I=7I? I4l7l E)AY7|?
cg r*E gsl- olg(cr-)o| 0.50 nm9 44-e Eq4 9lq. 4ql 9.ll^] ++qfln. 4zlE rsz Iel "Jg +dql +
q4flq.
+ olg9 ,J4g +6JqlE +71^lvl4E, $ulel olol $e zlpr.lflc-{,
(b) 100.0 g9 EllzI zs'cgl,rJ so"c744 rzz
i,J7l?
19 gg g+6}flr+(+, +qel +irl.= oJAa|Eln zlA
s.t8 3.2x l0-1e Cel d6l-= ,*E "frql+ olg(1,rgr+)g -3.2 ,*4).
x 10-re cg. ,*= &sI olg(or-)ol o.rs nmg zl4e Eol
s.27 aH+ Aol ul^E4 {zl alelz} Eil dilrJ9l z\tlltl zs
4 gltr|. F olge.l ,J4g ++qltr +7|^l7lqE, 9"I9 I q 9l+. oltrl dzl qElql d+E ¤,611^1 100 l9 9lulzlE
ol gsqlzl?
716Ig,trI.
'l-g-a+ql 'H.fl^-l T1dld flg El6la, "Jol do1dEzlE
¤E6i^le.
-rrs (a) 4^} flE zlgEq gfl a+
(b) zldTl Esql *7lE.J+,* a+
2C(s) + zHz@) - CzHq(g) AH: +52.3kJ .1r=,c3H6o) I motg- $d ¤4618 l7e0 klg BI6.J.+.
- al4}6f^le_.
qlp{lr+ F, H}-&el AHE C3H6O(I) + 4Oz@) + JCO2(g) + 3HrO(/)
-s.zs AII': -1790kJ
CzH{$ + 6F2@) 2CFa@) + 4HF(s)
-
ol
^I-E"el
++ cq 9lE or9, cozk), Hzo(/)9 s= ^J^J
s.66 +q4l q¤. zlEtr+q glgqE B4l
^Jd tgqE 4l&6f
oI^]EE E=
Nz(g) + Oz(g) 2NO(g) AII: +180.7kJ
^F8-6Iq
- ^ls.
226 53 gtrtqf
--------+ Br
I
+ Cl-H
-C-CI
H3C-CH2-O-CH2-CH3 I
Br
I
Br
c4Hroo(/) I molol $d s46IE cor(8)e+ Hro(l)e. H6I
a- If :-2723.7 klo14. (b)
(a) CaH16O(l) l mol S49 +B Hi+^lg ;A^19.
(b) ol gx]lg AEe+ s s.39 alE.= 4.l9lB 9l
^l-s"619
el9 aa;= zl4l6}^le. +2 O:O --------+ O-C-O + 2 H-O-H
qEg(c2HsoH)g 7l¤fll+ eqlqq f,xll zffizf gee H
E <Ig 9EIoJzI? olql q calzt zll*9EzP "JsE o.zo B/mL o14. qlegE "JsE o.zs B/mro1q-.
(a) PB cE CtrE ol+6}q, 1.0 Lel 7l+fl4 1.0 tE ql
s.lr =qe^(C6Hr2o6)q Eigg -2812 kllmololtrl.
^F+
dJ
+gol ¤i6J 4l rJzlb qlqzl= HIjr6I^le-.
4l! s.zt oz(rzo g)oll uflE^z| 16.0 I EElqq 9148,
(b) EssE "Jse| ¤agol q+g 857o, zl¤fl l5%o= EB
ol ;.ploll.! EelE-^.717lq6h= zJs4 zlqs.b gol-oJz}?
q+ aol?+i1 TIC6IHS 41, r.o LE E8s7I g^g Ell
,+7l.oJ+ +41
qlqEg miE Elq4 HlsoeE f $=]a=i,Jtrq el6ll ++q4 flbql, ol ,JsE g
s.ee zl-Fi}
^Irq^l Ba ltulg
ol
.J6I ol
"J+'J4. +4 EI¤+g 4lE ^J4g Ell, HI¤-el 4el flg + E}l geEl4 ¤tr}. ol ¤4^rEe sq
l,/9 PsE F9.alz[?
=4^r7}
6lzl e¤ zl4zl99 ¤z}^r +9e g fl4n 7I
=Eol
s.100 a?t gEq .J+Elb ag BEr .Jql -+^I. +ql. r ,Jg 46ll tr^l-. uJez} ¤flg u)l tlAltl Tl-+ + *ql^l+El Sb
Eleqq gE4 9li1.I+Ee gq 9i+. 7l-6lld oJe ,Jg *"e #47|ll gtrl-.
irlg6}q gEAl .J 4o14. ol 99 {HzlE qq^j +*= (a) tl4ltl s+61+ tLoJ gol 4dlzl=z}?
s.loe EllqloJg td
+q^l Ell+E +^= -E6.J6l+ .tll zfzl r|$
s.r03 EoE + ++4r+lj+g trIg_r+ eg Hlgo_s-E "J5q4lq.
CaZ+(aq) + 2HCO3 @q) .+ CaCOs(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(/)
^JCE. + rg+(q]+ aS.Jzlg +¤), co(c), co2k)E
"JE +
glEt.
1 atm, 298 Kollr'l CaCO: I molol ^d^Jg+E, HI¤-q^l 2.47
^JcEl= ^ll Tfzl {dEq
(a) ,tlqlql zl^ile}4}+tr +B "*
ktel P-v "Jg tl44q co, Tlillq 9EL *8401 ^Jzl.r, + HJ+^lg 449 4+ H,o(l)g +c
^"^ls. ^JcEtr
+^lql 38.es klE gg ++le+q E+5J+. ol*l+ H]¤-ql z|{a}.rle.
^l
aHe+ aEg ag gEf"JTt?
(b) (a) E}*ql.<l 449 e+ qlgi'l5 a45l^le-.
s.r04 r.3 s.loql fl: 4lE .H.i1 ,S46I ts^t. 6J A+E 6lqE (c)4Id9 ++ol +e6J ql e^=
sd.61+ Eilql"JE s^
F6I d+7I 6E e_-+,!q. EtE A+= 4+7l7l4E"oJgea] xlull{olz}r
^JCE + 9l cor@z1
44{1tl Sd6l %I{EE|. + A+ .JA+ "Jqq^J .Jqf s.llo +Ag + fl= qlgrl H+= Hess B49 ol++q 4&.J
+. *4 HEIE Aq. 44^171f}d6l +dE tlqq^l $d + 91trI. trl+g qlqloJol qlg{l_g-E H+El= t}gol4.
6l HJdol 9fl4. :44 6t zlzl A+= gg gol 4r. +
zCHa@) CzHq(g +HzG)
E a++ qlE gol +trI. ol + a+ etBqg H+E ag El-gel - "l +¤.9 aH.= 4lt}6}^le.
gp}+ c!_E ol+6}q
7t? r+zl qgrll SlBq= tlq El+e ^J46J
"JE ?++8, CH4@) + 2oz@) Cozk) +2620(l) Ar1" : -890.3kJ
+ 9l:7I? "JE r++E += aqd}fl'J ar+ ulid.tf,g CzHq(il + Hz(8) _-
- CzHo(g) LHo : -136.3 U
trll tlgtl Hplc| q9 +ZlE qB4 g6J + ?l:ii? zHz@) + Oz@) 2HzO(l) AIi' : -s71.6 kJ
s.los 7Ig+ 4oJ 9lulrl= tsE+ ¤451q 914. g ¤:+^llE zI 2C2H6@) +7 OzG)+ - 4 CO2k)+6 HrO(/) AH" : -3120.8kJ
+6lE+ z|$el {1t{e4 qE¤ ^F.*+tr}. 4 qEq + s.lll trl+ zfsql 7I^l +4ld ?l= flE- -H-L, ol{ {ol
z]l= t.s kgol4. EEq Elgg 0.8s I/g-KolEl. g 1.7x 103 ^ll
tfl +trl$ 9lrjzlzl7l1t tg^l Zltld}^le.
cal+ +ag + g+=*g r*rll ".lErJE. zt+g LllA-rlE ^I
+6l]ot 6l+ qEe H 49171?
229
=u =* =rll
20'c0fl .l gE E4 t!=Jtrl
(a) ol Ed 44q qlql co,(g)el H2o(/)trE s4 EtBq
d=
JE (g/t'n') = (kllmot) E 4l4}6}^le. (b) olE 4 +!lEE ge *(krldg 4l&al
+ol trsql ql.J(c2HsNo2(, ) 1.052 -1368
.rle. (c) 4 +cI+^$ ¤=*q 4E +4ei EES$ AC6I
ql+g(crHsoH(l)) 0.789 .rle.. (d) (b)s+ G)9 B-g Hlr*_qtrxl s{faql^] +a
-1367
Ell B610l E4d(CH6N2(/)) 0.874 4**4 ¤e {I ^}olE *ZlE 4l.Joll 5-^le.
s.llsE+417I200lboJ ,<f$ol a|.foll 20sl4l 4s ft9 zl4"J :+
s.il2 EE}+doJ o}^'llB{l(czHJ4 Hldl(ceHJe dB^lol a+.
E 4l+g eTle 6}9tr]., ol$ ollulzl 4!J7l rE^l7lllE
{dq'%}6}a- +E:l+^ol+. ol +ql^.1 6J zl= +a4 o-tr rltoll :rQlil g4ol=
,ll+.J46IE}.
zas calel izle Bols. ++alel
(a) PE cel ZI-EE ole"6|{ 3 c2lj2,f.) ---- coHo(t)9 E.
HsIrI fl4r 4l&619+. rq TICg *3 l.Jxl ¤BoI
qlBE H5+= al4}6}^ls. ^lg.
=
(b) 3 mol9 ol^llB¤lk)r+ I mol9 ddl(/) 6ql^J QIBulz[ s.rr6 qolg EE4q xll*ulE* E 1.0 kwE 9lHzlE ++++
q=ae? (1.0 kw/m2, I watt :1 r/s). 4Eg xll+"lelB l,tlzJoll 0.20
5EF
oJ+
+41
s.llsgE 20'c(ql+ ,Jgql^'t 4zl ¤! Nz EzI9 B+ +qg s.120 CH4k)q +g +zl+ ¤i + H2o(l)E ^JCEJ+.
l0s0 mPholr{. (a) ol l]-$ol"Jq+= E.J ^J{lqb "ilHulfi)b $"ItzI?
(a) ¤t! +E= q m/soJz}? (b) "JEI4.J x.d rlgg 8 kevg glulxlE zI+14. xd *fl
(b) ol +EE s4ol= N, EuI9 e+ qlLlzl= H l"JzI? 9 "lluJxlq CH4k)g ¤4 qlq^lE Eli6t^ls.
(c) ol +EE *-zlolb Nz ¤^l I mol9 + gF glHzlb I E;l+l^l^l ?*e
s.r2r El.sq +Bol t}+-+g Hl¤¤ ++.lql^l
rrloJTl?
^Jzh]ltrzl.
s.tte E+4]7I s2.0 ks"J 984 4.lEJ d+7I ¤*+.e-EPq ro Ag*@q) + Li(s) Ag(s) + Li+(aq)
m oI4E 4olB¤ aI*4. 4oloJ dfzl +lgE 4rd+q Fe(s) + Na+(aq) - Fez*(aq) + Na(s)
4olB.* E EE4zl 10.8 mol4. K(s) + H2O(/) - KoH(aQ) + Hr(S)
(a) 4olB dizl HgE aladr+ E. sHr+g ulHl¤ qlq (a) 4 Hl*9 t¤s "*+^le.
-
zl iiol=?
o) +q c5 ol+6}q 4 +*q ArfE 4lt}6}^le.
O) E sEql^J EE ElHl¤ qlLJzlTI .&E qlqzlE EIflq (c) 99 A,r1 tlee E q, qtr El¤.1 gq+zl_s_E oJa6J7I?
H, 4olB d+7I EE Eqa EIg +EE P m/soJz}? (d) gEoE ol+dfq q¤ HI*ol "Jq+=zl ql+6}
(c) +olEJ d+71 EE Eqa q + .Jol 9l=7I? ¤B6l
^]gg ol
Al9.:,:u, (4.4i'l). ar+b (c)9 ¤4el oJil6l+71?
^ls.
230 53 gat-+
s.r22 q-gg zJ¤zl NaoH(a4)z| S{ol-3 &-++ H}*olq. Hzo(g) a.a7 sa+ 3ll klg gg
^JC"JtrI.
HNO3(aq) + NaOH(aq) ..---- NaNOs(aq) + H2O(l) (a) ¤aB +q+49 a*g gE}fl7l?
HCI(aq) + NaoH(aq) NaCl(aq) + Hzo(/) G) $rlfael dE4e Ft.JzI?
NHa+(a4) +NaOH(a4) .+
- NH3(a4)+Na+(44) + HzO(l) (c) Ea:l+ael dil^l +91'J A.H'Zlg 4l&6}^1e..
(a) 5¤ cE ol+6lq 4 EI*e.l Arf= 4l^l6f^le. (d) ol +E++^= ++ cql ++¤ a 6 a}4.Jzl ¤86il B
(b) trtl=ol, e&rl g4le a&olE|. olq6J
^114.3¤ql^l ^lg.
+Eq ++= 9l+ "JaI olg Hls.49 r ^ls. s.r26 ulqloJ(cH, ezl+ aA z.vql qqLI ?l= 716l +z= 7l
(c) zi¤. + Hl8el arf (t¤. Eljr6}^le-. qE4 aE .llg
Aci. ol ollEl.J Eztz} S+4q E^lql EE c-H A*ol
A ol u zlr)
-1- )^7=/ t:
+6J61 '+ttq= 7ru4 439 ^J44 -ez|
(d)
^ll
H4 H}+^lql^l NHa+(aq)i &48 zt*rJ4. alf CHn(s) -+ C(s) + 4H(g)
<iql NH4+z| a^loJzl, E&"Jzl .gB6}^le. (a) ol 4c9 cH4k)el E=
^Jc flBq= +44E
ol Hl+
=rl6lq
s.123 1.00 M cuson 50.0 mle| 2.oo M KoH s0.0 mL F *9ol e-l qHI¤:!+ 6J4l Hlir.dl -H_^le.
gl+. ol F +.lol .Ja+.Jq g?*zlq4 g'*Elflg ql a (s) 4 a+ql^l qlBqE HE+= 4l&61^le. qts HI*ol q
dg Bc6lj1eEE zr.s "solv'l27.7 "cE. tI+qI+. +g HI+"J71? AIf liel il-olY gtrfoJTl?
(a)Eil d9l cusonE +E "Jq fli cu9 d=JG)g EoI (c) cHak) 3.4s go1 F2@) 1.22 g4 Hls.al-q CF4k)s+ HF(g)
"J7Y?
s ^JC++n 7IC6IZI. ol HI*el 6JZl HI+Ee +Eql
(b) ol EI¤-gaaEol +9..JxlE ql+611tr^le. zP .JC .Jqql^l .Jq*g
ol Hl*ol ql
"JqE ^JCgg
(c) F *9ol sqlg A+ql "JqLI= $A olg HI+44 "J g"IoJzI?
4 olg EI+{g 44 4".<ls-. s.127 7l+ Etol gq= t)et)zl49 E+E +-t4e 4.2yo7l oJa-
(d) ge*41 ol¤-6lq ei+ EJ+E EI*g aHE +6I
^lEE gJola- D-oz B I l0 Calg se}+4(t Cal : 1000 cal : l kcal).
g g:+= +^l6J+n 7Ia6I+. +.19 + gagE oJ6J car9 UIE¤-S ql+6}71 +ldl^l trl-g+ ?g
^le(g*alel
*9E roo.o mlolr +Eg gql +q +.-lE g+ "JE egg ^J46I trz}.
+++ gr+ aED. (a) ollE9(czuroH)n|.tl^e+ Hls"6Iq ol&+ e^e+ Et3
=
5.124 AgNOr(aq)e] NaCl(s) ad HI¤+ trls-+ gEI. "JEE HI*q +B Elq EI¤-^lg 4^le.
^IolE
AgNO3(a4) + NaCl(aq) + NaNOs(a4) + AgCl(s) G) +q cel ^J^J flBq= ol+6}q ol HI+ql ql6} AH=
(a)P9 cE ol+6lq ol HI+E gai ol8 HI*4E ArrE 4l1}6f^ls.
alt6l^lc_. (c) dzll P44 +.zwl ql+goln r EJETI0.78e g/mLB
(b).Jz+olg Hl+^l+ ulaa|fl$ ql d4 +^l Hl+^lE u\.12-oz E+qlse}g qlEgg d=}3 ¤"}.Jz}?
AH'<lg q$rll q=4 ¤E6f^le. (d) (a)9 HI+ql ql+gE ql^le+q Eqzl= rJEal+ g
(c) *9 c, (a) d4, 6) A4E ol+6H AgNog(aq)9 AIi' uloJzI?
atg aaail-H.^ls. (e) ll0 cal6 H uld=zl qlEge+El 4eizt?
s.r2s qE tsEl+^:: or(s) +ql^l $d ¤iqq co2@) 21.83 g,
233
6.1 I gsl trl¤Js
# flzt9 dz} +aql +'J zl^lE EI+E9 EAol %I=614+ ++6|= qg E^J6|
q Eq{+. f4o-*. d7i +a= olalla}elE +d Hql +6l.q oJo}o}.J+. +
rl 89tr g + 9l= H, ? zlrl*C(usible light)3 ErtzlEJlt!(electromagnetic
alg 6.1 EE trl"E E +lsl Bl]slt^] radiation) el 6J ++olrt. {z}zl $.r}rjg +ag Edl qlLJ zlE g+6}E-s +^}
"ll
"J= trl-E¤:ddzrrl. trlEq !f+e]
=rf r{zl (radiant energy) apS- "JEl/i 9l+.
+^14?] Esl: Hl]e+El tr1501 E0l^1
)l= 7^= Lzl/l 6H=tl 7I^]%IC ole_lqlE dz}Tl +^Ide q4 *#zl9ltrl. +qe= E6I +Eg +HI
O ver0nicka/Shutterstock 6l+ +qs!+, Hte +Fql^J +sE 4el +^[(g), xd Eo 4 zJo] {4 qE eEI
el +^tde
^JE
,I+ +E aafl r{olzl+, olSe +Fag r*r 9l+.
Tl5+ts 4.J olE E=
^tLt=
=84.J
E= ="+9 {z}zl g.<}rjg Tl+ql^] H9 *5.Gpeed of light)oJ 2.ss}xt08 m/s
sd-d trle] +0lrl.
s +4.J+. E= ¤EIE dzlTl +^Idg +g E"6l¤ *4olE ir+-"r+ Eli'J
4A g r*=+. E flq q il: u]lz| $zlolfl+ Eql E"JolE'Je ql Eql dgq==C ql
El+
qzlel 44tr $el ffiol o1 qlqzl= E9 tl6t 3E"eE +4+
^Ja+(rg 6.1).
rI.
EE q*' +E(ra 6.2)3 ?zlCg eolirll, oli n|$(peak)el E(trough)el u.
Elg
=
a].g 6.2 Eq tr183 ?]E-Li oJol +44oJ zf,ls_tr_ HI+ES g"ld4. al+6I^l olgzlE
tr1.5 F F zllg trl+(E=
7l]e.l r|.+(!E= z4E "J-drl. =)
=) ^lolel
^IolE
?J4+= trft[(wavelensth)ol4l ++.
"JC+ dg Fr+61-= +r]E zllf EE
izl(cycle)E taq vl$9 tt=+(frequency)4I 6J4.
^lte--+ Al{!J $FE +E
rH 6.3q1^J ¤B+ Eg ir+.rE"4 uftlzlzlE, dz}Tl +^idql 4El a#e+ qt}
:aJ (a)9 trtE0ll tflEt n[80] 2.0 m 9 zlCB + 9l+. dz}Tl +^idg E= EI*l 5Cg +^lCr+ +dg flzlzla\ zlzl
ola, {15471 1.5 x 108 cycles/sol tl ^llzlel +7)4"J {E qEq +4+tr}.
E, rH (b)oll^j trlEsl tr18"1TIE Eq v+* +E= r+¤E g.Jql q+ +e+. ql= rf equ eql 96ll ^Jc
+b 7+rJ gDl"glTl? g E+.5+ ]trE ol+6lq ¤-zlolE trEql 96l] =E
q*l!-tr}utsls+. HlEql, E.E
^Jcg
trt8I {z}zl g.r}.ge E+ ag +E.E ¤'zlol4, ol gEE Hg 4sol4. ar}4eE
d47l +^PJE "It}!+ tlE+= zldzle ¤+c9 7l4tr+. yl^Jol zJ ull 4aB.J
(a) c+ dg E"r}6lt q.5'el q+= q 4e_!.s, ll#= 4}tr1. HIEIE "5t8, 41
$f9 t+f,$ ffi u|g ,Jq 442[ S.]"] ++(5|-e y]^]). ol4q] {z}zl g.<}rj =
I d*+e+ ul^J zJ9 *ulql +Zl= q-q_r+ Ae ^lee ++,J + 9l+.
i iy: c [o.t]
{zlr.'l r(lamda)i 4z}, z(nu)t A#, c= Pel +E= +E}U+.
(b) dz[7] +^]d9 a"Fz] 4sE eI tr]= CAg ,*y7l?: z]o15 u]arol 4e.zl rll
+q +4++. lB 6.4= dztTl spectrum)olrl.I. q+ql,
qel 4"+9 ^EEH(electromagnetic
a.LEJ 6.3 ErlTl +1t.5 Eofl^el dzlzl +^Idg +1tol +7161+ +^ls ts]]g6l9trl. u}1lel Hglz} 4
r4Erf aol, d^l7l +^l.cE trl6fe.-e +61 'J+E aql +E-6[+. ,J"]dE ir+tle flz]49 zlE4 Hli'* H]Eql, +qe
+88+. S= tr|8(r)"J+¤ dE u+el Eltlg
= trl
#(u)E 4tsrf. (b)e.l trl[tp (a)E
++tI!-+ Ll ,J + gt+. E 400-700 nm (+ x to-7 -7 x 10-7 -)g 4
89 EJol-e, (b)sl Tl$f! (a)9 tl flq 4'J6I= 7I^l%IdE {z}zl ;-u;efl + +61 z}9 "JY Eol+= aql +E-6}
E+e.lF HHolt.l-. +. ++s E^l6l7l gql dq6l-= 'Jol +9= E 6.1ile +^ldE ++ql E=6J+.
Tl5+= Ellez(Hertz, Hz)4E +91= 7Flq, a'* {lF 9+= E6J+. llE
+ ++l= ,J+61 ,Ha'JE q+ +gltr LlElrlljr, s-r Eb /seE .Ezlojrl. qE Eq +
qldE}9 rllE4"J 1l#"J 6e8 megahertz(MHz)g d# 698 MHz, 6e8,000,000 Hz,
698,000,000 r-' E.= 69s,000,000/s4r ¤ + 914.
234
6.1 gsltrlEd 235
:i ofole.tr.qel tri89 7f^lgdE trf8H+ #=7l. rJl? F trlEe-l tr18 ilol= 10el H xllE
oJ)l?
a d Url,,
10-11 10-e to-7 10-5 10-3 10-1 101 103
A.LH 6.4 dxtzl rn:lea* nl83 0l|+ 5J= AnlN+E otl+ Z afqgtrpll 3^1?,ltl.
^ElEaJE
8tlH
ut lol q a ultlg zl-zll gl4(F trt+
^tolg z4ol
(a)
q 'J+). A v++e trl ztg 4l+= 44t4(,:c/x). q1
qe}^l ul lol q 4e. 41¤+E zlzlt_, * zzy q dE
+= r*=+. = (b) dx}Tl 0.+)4rl 4qde 7\^l*dEq a
+tl¤. ^EtrH(:B
r*=4. trl+^J "Jql $E
y| rol 49dol g+.
*Based on B.A. Averill and P. Eldredge, Chemistry: Principles, Patterns, and Applications 1e, O 2007 Pearson Education, Inc.
236 68 3^lE 8^l+r
qFjl 6.2
uftt c_E
sq llE+ 4lt6l.' I
7l.tr5 E"loll AE g=El= .L.al "isl tr|.83 58e nmoltl. 0l +^|.'!e.l t]E+= g0l?17[?
^I'EEIE =7l50ll^l
Tl{U > H= qFlll
E4 +^i.^JE q+(r)ol +q4r, fag 4l#(r)= zl& ++ ^ll 714 1l+g ^J4dl trzt.
6l+ E4lol+. (i) qtr dzlTl +^PJ.ll 46Iq r|+r+ 4lE+9 +e "Ja
6t4.
4le +tI4 alt+ 6.1s +4U+. rel c
^Iol9 +AlE ^l (ii) +"JgE uffiol a.oAolH, {ff: l.0x l0r8 uzol4.
E Ag ,oll 4oll Eq {tg +tr + 9iEl(HE +E
^F&6I-r.,
c= +E tzl,tJl ztfle +Elt+H E.oox 108 m/solr|).
(iii) zls.ldg +qg Elol=+rlel +qB4 34.
+lE Tlrl Tl+(sJql Ell6}q "*= ae 9= xoJz}?
Eol 4lF+ql ql6|q 6.12 v:c/,r-+ u14,3r1. cc+ r <t ^ll
^l (a) E {} rl]E 1l+"Jol *+.
g .+g u]l. + itg eol +917} 4= dg +E6}+. 4+E
(b) 4l+ (il4 (iilzI*4.
*r"14 (nanometer)E ule'l(meter).B ¤I4iEI7l +16l] H¤I
oJz|= rel{ u|+E ++l= Sqdq.
(c) d¤ (i)r+ (iiilol *tr}
^l-&'*trt. (d) A+ (rilel (iiilol *+.
c / 3.OO x 108 trIls\ / 1 pm \ (e) .r,ll zlzl tl¤ e; gu1.
v -i-\ -
I
sag
lt
nnri /\ ro-, -/
I
+^ldE gEeI olEE ^ll7l "l jlr+ ,J9 +41= ol6ll6l.eJ-7. ol e^Jg ¤+6tfle'+,
=
r ^lzlel EEIqL H4e olqt'Atr-g ¤Eg + flfl+. G
reooLJqlq +gE E4qlzl Max Planck(r8s8-1e47)7t, qlqzlE qtr 44 azl$ z)
B¤+4ql 'Bq4 (chunks)' ¤qltrEJ g4ql^l EJ=q4+ g+g+E rllB+ 7t¤g E
=
"J6Iq EzilE 6I]a6I9+. planck= dzl.Tl +^ldss EJ=q4+ g+g + 9lb ollulzl
I 4i+g tfi[(quantum, '"JC+ .J'g *,*)4]1 BHt]. lb
I
*"J oJz]g "llHzl(DE I
+^Idg rl5+q 1}+E +'J an+ ,JL+a 6Iq, +*.4 eol
^lloJ6IH+.
E: hv 16.21
{, 4 *z}ts qE A#ql Planck tr-+E +6J oJr} ?9 9lulxlE 7l4o| oJ+I +E6}
fl+.
*zi9 ollvlzl:2:7, [0.t]
trI4^l +^I qlLJ4 4i{= "}z}s}qq 9lq.
4¤+ aaql^J ;.+ sHq +561+ *zlE: olluJzlg ++ L}]el dzl9l dgg + 9l
+. qLJzlE "JA=*e ++.Jql^l dzl-pol a6J6[n 9l= {qg ++6}7lql g_s+ o}e
tr^J, "JEl+(work function)4.1. .J+. ++ql +EoJ *zlzl.JEI+tr+ q zlg {HzlE
7V)q, 4^l7l ++ sHq^l H44 4zlzl +l* ++.J qlqzlE z*zl *4J4. %Igq
^ll
zls rtzltlzl= aol ++es+El dxl-E %l=6I= aeL ololzlzl s=+. Eq9.= H
I rlffi Es+^l7l= atrJol dzr EJ=E a+= 7t4g+. qE
^Jl7l(Etzl)E
++l
^lrJ
E?I EHql +E6l= BxI9 +e+ S+qq 9g g, 4 *zI9 qqrlq+ ¤*9zl ?*E
r+. Einsteing *d a4g ¤HEl"e*l tsztLJ9l r.rJ Ei]qtlg E9t+.
"Jzlzl *q.Jxl
q+ fl6ll^l +"J +tL +^Idg ^Jd6l+ "Jflg rJ4oil ezl
01611617l
cll.J
E/q +qd I :58e nmE 7*E gzlel of uJz,l(E)= 41416l+ rls 4 0.r9 rl-.*olE EI+g dFfe +48 f 914(,:
E4lolEl. cl^).4 o.a9l 9oll qqAE 4l^}g+ olr+(E:hv).
Eol 4l+?(z)= +qd +z}g-s+q qzI 6.2q1^lel +ol +
e+ el4. z: (3.00 x 108m/s)/(589 x 1O-eE0:5.09 x 16trt-t
Planck t}+(h) l}g 4E q]+.Jol+ 49 oJ+E Eq
+1.*.21
tL+ sql +qzlq, olg olgaiS EE d4l ahl.J+ 9l+. 6: (6.626 x 1O-34J-t)(5.09 x 1014s;*) : 3.37 x 10-1eJ
+el +^t glulzlg *zl '* 7l|171 337 x lo-re l-e. +qTl+ > s= qlr{l2
E, olE $z|el mole* qlHzlts trIg-+ e+. X54g r*=48, ol +^]
(a) ellolzJz[ 4.6e x lora s-'e1
(6.02x to23 ffilmol)(3.37 x 10-1t11941: 2.o3xlosJ/mol CE *zl i;J 1171r*= qLlzlE golqlzl? (b) ellolzlzl.
ol +^l-dE s.0 x l0'72H9 *zl¤ s{}6J+8, dz{ glHxl
>H.+qm1 gutqlTl? (c) ellolzlE zl $:zl1.3 x l0-2 Iql .ll'JF6}
El-g + slrlol lt] $x| r mol9 qlq4E gHlqr]l +4 = qlq4E,J=6JtrIH, 4 g^ql^l= H zilg
+zt7t *
u ^le {¤ 4"Jzt? =
e4tszt?
(a)E:
f olr: rv,t etl:* (d)E: ,,f r"l ,: *^+
6.3 I C ^E=grf Bohr -?-d 239
E^l7l +49+.
qg ule" -H-4E *zl9 6=ie-E ¤H6.J Einsteinel ol# lJd aqe+ += Flg ++5
t
g ¤¤g + 9l^lEI, zlzl tz]91 +qqzl gq. qe ul*"Jzl, olqB oJxle +cg
1"J71? flxllzlzl olTl6.J tzllE 6]la47l +l* + 6J 7l^l rJBg Eol* ^JqlilH _u.olb
a9 Eol¤ol= Aolq. + qe n+ ae cer+ .Jzlcl ae ceg E^lql ,*YLla
"4
olEl+ qE n+*-Ez| oli{E E^llE E+q} C4ol4= ag.Jrll B 4o14.
+rtTtlq g¤g'tot
A gga.tr trtE,t e=¤ tl E ¤E-d+r d,Jol'ts7t, olLtE grtet t1 egg
i ts25E4?
1=el
< rB 6.9 ^r4EgE gd 7|
!+aJ H_{^qB ";¤01 Eal=E
4at
=x !--d 5r[-g tttl, E+4?_l TtllzJ r'.tr]r
't
Lllt(Ne) + (H)
Ne
ol
^lq^l
l= ul^Joll, RHE Rydberg ^Jf (nydberg constant, t.096776x
r07 m
1)o14, ^EEerJ9
rr4 rzE *9 A+E, n27l n1E\ trl <Ig z*=+. E?+g AEE ,J++
ol qg4 ¤Bg f ?lEzI? ol ErqlE 6ilBg e= = ql 30H ol^JE
^lg a ^lrJol AH+.
Bohr -EE
ral 6.68 Er-rE g *|], t^ Brlol rH-d Bohr EEE orE Eog^r e^[E-Err.
A ZlEalee dBoll L17Wla.d,+d=71?
I =
dxlTl n = 3 8r[l0l,\1 n = 2 .SEllE dol
+a eJafe.l qlLlzl -$El|
g ttll Tt^lBdol "J=EtlE, n=2 EEll
9l"ll +g.J,rll zlzl 7l4o e BohrE l1d4"J AE %IA44 d6rE tI oll^1 n = 1 8elle. 8ol-cf rll= 4eldnl
s 4r-+q ql+rdzloJ 49 =g:.Iq,
olo-"a|{, +i
gziql fl= dz}g 4 -.1+g +lE 6 q! aol "J=Elr^{=7f?
^fsld
q 4'J6l+ gluJzlE zl4l6tg+. AhI¤ qlLlzl= trtg=r+ ae 0
==4_q-E ^lql _1 hcRn 5
Eql Eq4l+. 1.6 4
_1 hcR,,
J
, ro ,'l)(1)
n
"'\n'/ : 1-r.ra
r: (hcafi(l) 9
oi
-.1+g 4 +llE= Els lkg=- zlzlq, r +llEel elxl+g n <k"1==zig+
^lE " I^[
+ +7[.J+. tr]+^J a H4 q+ +llE(qq z[^J d=oJ +]lE)= n:1ola, ffi L
:.1+
E ?llE(qql + H4lE +{E)= n:29 +llE #ol g+. +^ gz} 1
=d6J
9 dzl-b qrlal -"1+g +JEqlE +4g + 9leq, zl 0.s:4 6l+9 +uEql 9l otl
Ll
=
Eql oilLlzlTl 6z[aJ4. 41+g eq^J+El +ie ¤42]H^l HsE E alH 6.'12 Bohr -EECIl tqE i4 Bxl'
oli go]ee Hl+g + ^[+4e]
gl+. r}44z[ tri +ol se]a+E_(,, <].1 4df E) gl elollLlrl=9.1 trl¤E= I^l-7[ AtE cj
011L1^l .sEHoil^l tfE ollLl^l gElle I0l
Hzl= rJ *olt14. ?l* *? 9lHxl rJ4 (n:r, ^lqq ,J Eq Al+r+ +^I6t 6l: ,i= LlElLJt[. E/.lE AEH= n = 1o]l
+)E gzlE ul=JsrllGroundstate)4tr,*4. dzl¤ol q ollr{zl {trll(r:2 n = 67lxle1, qlq^l(E)71 0ol Elts
E= :a ol^Dql qg rll, flzlE G Srll(excited state)ql=fl4j1 trJ6J+. fg a^'l- m ltrflolrf.
242 68 ?^lel d^l-+^
A e,r=Jer oilLr^r =9r7f 'fo1t!r1E, Ertts E{'il er6fl e-d, orLrg E:d EaJE "JEz1? !E
+ts urEe
i =:PJnt.,Jl¤Dt?
4zlzl qql^J sd6l Er.lg tr-EIE +i gzlE 7l= t4 E= 0g qLJzl t44r. *+.
BohrE Hrll 7r4ql^1, d4+ 6l+9 + ?llE ^Iol9 qlqxl ilolq 4qq oJil6}=
^ll
+^I qlLlzlE *zl-B ¤+6[a+ BJ=q]sqrl + "ilHzl c.4ql! +E qlLlzl t]4e 'E
q+(ump)'g + glqr 7146I*,+. 4zltl H+ t+ 9lHzl tr4(ts-trt n,*)e EE6I7]
=
+16ll^l= "llH xlE ¤+6llot qlEl. q o e , .3.zlzl *e qlLl zl ^JEl] (trtrI ** n 41-e Eg
^lH
+^l "llHzlz} 1ll=$trt.
4zlzl +oJzl+ r,9} ollHzl EiE *E a7l t[4ql^] +oJ4+
n¤i qlHzl EE r*+ al+ tl-EIE Eo+:"l* A+= riz-|olx1. o1
e+ ae dolgl!9 9lHxl HEI= q-gr+ g+
n=2a.dot5tts ,8?el, n=40il& n = 3or
n =3oilAj I ^l
6.sE
^l-.&6|q
016t= e+ e olg )Sol q )J 489 Hol HJ=Elts7l'? g 'J + 9i+.
6 aE: Er- Ei: e2.8, rO-,rll(4 - ni1r) t6.61
0
\'?i /
n:4
n:3 m9 YEoll 4aJ 9ulE Fq"JzI? nll niilrl ql aE= oJel
o =E
8Efl
=
{lol4. + olag 4^l7l +g +lltrE 94ztE {olzl $$oll ol
(g
n:2 ni : 2oll,(l
ilq "*4. HlqlE nsTl ni[fr 49 trI= +E ,Jg 7}zl4, oltrll
dzl^b *e qqzl i]EE ¤qzlll g+.
O
N
O
-100 ft: 189 dol,
OJ=
AE < BII
+lql^J ¤B'J utq zJol, 6l+9 .J tlqlql^J += tr-4e d
O,
X
K
5
n,:10h1
016l+ ull| $zlz| E+g 1o14. *xl9 oflujzl(E+a)E + /J.
6
q: 2Pel Eol, Ell 4lr{zl i}ol(AE)e} rJ.l.} +4. arzt "J9 <}olE d
AE> O, Elxl g4 ^Iolsl
-200 ztTr tg qlqzlE E.+*ql uI4 *ztzt e+9"lot atQ, arzl
n:l
-218 Ht.f SEll *9 <IolH 4zlzl *e qlLJzl
=fls
EqzlE^l *zlz\ oJ=
af.H 6.13 E+sl.g=oll r|]-"|ollL1^l SEtlsl EEI
gE|. F 7l^l 4+ E+ g.z}9
"lluJzl= + tr-q
rlolel ojlrJzl
T}ole+ oJzl6llot 6J+. {5+ yE.Jt oj=lolEE
"JxI9 "llrJ
zf (ftv)E 6J^J
"J+qot 6J+. trI4^l aEE +s= *zlzl g+q
flEzt E= %L=81fr.=71-= +41ilril g+.
A.e>O(n6> n1): E"S^y:hv:AE= *zlzl ++q= A+ 'Z*=
Ln<o(nr<nJ:r*+:hv: -AE= zlitlzlzl *+q= A+ b1l
olqoJ +71^l tlsJg 6.13oll -g.E6[B+. +4 ga]E Bohr jr¤e a ezl 6.79 uJ
=aJ ^l
+6I= d5+-= r*= H"Jol flxl9l 9ol1 ++qz+ %l=94= aEg olEq B+.
=Ag
1-471n,:3oll.rl w:rE ol+61+ dol.ll 'll6}q 919 zllHol qBZl 489izl-E.Jof
EzI.
^l
6.60E+q 44t4.
El-gr+ zJ"l
::+G +)
: -.(h -
*), *.n,4 4*
trl?+^J Eg+4"J $rNalf 49 "lluJxl d4¤ol "J^l+g
qlEql ^EEHd=ol =+l ^lolq^l
Eo+g 617l 4zJ4r.J + 914.
I
F\_l qFl 6.4
/,1 +a fl1Hl^'lq {zl tol
t4 fl^lel Bohr -EE0l^1, d^l= ZltJol 7|-5-d aEEJ U^l=el +lEoll ?tt. +lE U^Ee olafl raJ4 er, HJ^l=el
oli z1z1
=-dElol =
0.s3.2.12, +.20, a.+o Aolrl.
(a) ilqt $xl7f n;4 nF3,2.1el He ollt-l^l E0l7l oJolLJtlE, qE E0l7f 7EI 5r'P trEiel BxlE 8d61.=71?
=9l0ll^l =fle
(b) olal-d rJ^le] qlq^Eltrt8P Eoplq, flx[z; .rn:1=arql^1 ol! gqq flx,l=7f?
(c) 9E4 reJP 449 ?xPl n=4 SEtloll,\l ,\lAtElol SEtlei t4 fl^lel HJ=EJ
"Jel +¤-d ?J=)lol2Jate=
=E
L[EIL.! aolq. trt^lE{ EZlej nt Eolts +901 E=Elfl=7|?
^lEoll^l ^1171=
n:4
n:3 at
n:2 =
EI
B_l
el
e )l
^11
n: 1
u+S(nm)
2U 68 fl^tg d^l+^
Btl'J
E{ +r $z}el n=4 t}qlql^J + +41 +e t49 *e 4. rl 0.09 ^l-S6Iq l}zle+q ,J=9 9lHzl$ Al4i6ta,
^ll
qlLlzltrE dzl ol$9 EEI6I= 4oJ* d"le| *H¤ E:hv. c: zr ol+6lq 9lHzl= +zJe_-E H+.J + 9l
"llui ^19
zl "t +tlg "Jolql= Aol+. 4. 9lHzlq EI6r-e HlElql6[z] trllEql, 7]t[ tg qlLJ4E
xE +q{ A+*e dz}g a7l t}4e+ 4+ /6tEliE +E}U ttzlzl zlzt 5}g tltlg 7l4Al9- 4o14.
E0l
(a) E:hv=hcl,t $4lal9l 9oll *xI9 ularS qlHxlc+ ¤ ql 44 Ai++. {z}i n,:4 tr-{ql^l nr:loJ ^JqlE d
*99 :lzl trIEq, 7l* *e ulet9 *zl^b 7I+ k+ ol6}q {+Eq qq4= $L, 3o1q1,q +rztE ztat k3
9lHzlE 7l4L| dz} +ilEE qq4 e+l= lol zjla] "llHzlgi
7I+ se ir}+g %l¤++.
(b) 4 0.09 $eoop. ni:4, nr: lg qlE4q +ru}9 "llH LE: -2.18, ro-"1(| - i): -2.04 x 10-18;
4ltI6J+.
^l=
Es4: -AE: 2.04 x 10-18J
Atr rB 6.12q1 E6IE, r:aoll^] n:1tr9 dolE zleoql EtrHql^l *e^q dql 4dJ n, 7}e q+ + q! 4{zl?
,r{ z}zl$ dol # 7l* qlq4 ag 714 + il¤¤ q"J6} (a) : (b) a (c) s (d) 6 (e) 7
=
9+. >E=qlfl2
>r=qldl trI-+ 449 dz} dolql^l AEE +se+, qlLlTlTI %I=q
:H 0.lrE q+Eq +E{ +^ a4l 4? ni g+q=zlg {r}ull.rle.
>2 nf:2 +fla dol9E^EtrBel ol 1 =4,
(a)n:39lr] n:1 n:zoll^ln:4
aql 'ltt+. (b)
=gqld
h
mv
[6.8]
qH
F
6.s
EEEI
5.97x106 m/sel4a;oe trlol= E^l.e.ltrl8P gEl"9l7f? (E!, d^lel traJS s.t1x10-31 kgolrt).
dflB
E^{ dr}el 4%i(rz)4 +E(r)z} +qe ql dz}9 ae Broglie 4|q gzlol= oJzlel +tlg al 0.aql 96l] E. + 9l+. tr|4
ulat(,t)¤ 4l&61-= +xll ol +. ,\= 9r glE lz, m, v3 4oJ6[q g+. :flrl] olql
^j =E
*9lql +g"l]ot e+.
E0l
PlancktI+ <tg ol+'++. h:6.626 x t0 3a
I-s
+q-r} ag Bg E=+. h
mv
(6.626 x ro-34;-r; r xg-m27*1
(9.11 x ro-31tg)1s.lz x106wt1s1 lJ )
: 1.22 x 10-10m : O.l22nm : t.ZZA
+el ol Atg rH 6.+9 4zlz\ +^ld +tlr+ Hlf,6tE, ol +lE zlzl gAlE de Broglie s|*ol Sg aql^'l A +^l
^ll
$zlzl zly El+g xd +tlr+ ql+ egg .J + 9l+. -q +g6l^ls.
> .H.E qE{ 1
(a)i<iii< ii (b) ii< iii <i (c)iii<ii< i
ql6}q (d) i< ii< iii (e) iii< i < ii
4S ¤-4olb ^jl
Edq ^84611
trzl.
(il so.o m/sel ${ o e ¤-zlol= +s.s 94 Eg+ > .H.= qH 2
(iil :.sox los m/s9 +qss +zlol= dzt 505 pm$ de Broglie q*g r*= +^dz}g +E= 21416I
(iii) z.a x 102 m/s9 49 oE S4olE +Czl ¤*3 ol 4el flEzl "J+ sql '+4+ 9ltrI).
^le(+czrg
246 6zJ g^19 E^t+^
I 5d Edulzl. ^Jzlzll gq. rBlLf ^l 6.8q1^l 44q*ol. gs+ ?9 u_E a7l9 Eille+
+4lg ultle q++ Sot dE ++g + Sal g+. .J¤, ql4l 6.sql^J E f glFol, dzt
I? e%Iol ,il+zl7l qEql ol4oJ¤t}ol "Jq+zl g:r1++ HflE H.g4zl ?+ril gtrl.
=De BroglieTl-:29 olEg
tsE6.J ,l +tr +ql dzlg ffi^Jol dE4etr +Eqflq. x
a
fi col ¤c* E"rl6IE dzrTl +^Idg irlErl ge 5c.J sl¤ P9zl4cgtrI. ol ¤^Jg
xd cl¤(X-ray diffraction)ol+-l1 6Jr+. 4^l7l a¤g F46Jql ulrt ol4 +^t6lrll sl¤
\- }, T g+. trr4^l *zlol= dz}9 q# xd q +E BEilel -u-E dzfTl +^tdql^le} Eg+
-II-
a.l.H trtEoe^lsl E
6.14 ++el $fCg ++U+.
3^r[ q4:ds] gd B|]
EJA
^l
E= ,*= reHllel +rlTl^l fl dzl 9¤83 f4l gdqq *+. q= dz| d"l?"lld d,'lel q+ +¤g g^I
!13(TEtt/, transmission elec- a7l4 ¤tlg E= ql =q
ol ¤"143 4+61 HISE qr.ilo}q EE Btr.g ts+
I ^Fs¤+. z$21 =
tron micrograph) ,\lIl. HJP 6r: ql +so.J zlzlolQ(aa' 6.1a). ¤o143 7l^l"3,dg ^l-*g rI("Jq ¤ol?9 4
aJ^I= nlE't(mountain)'EP
EJ^ g^1.= LlElL.lrl. +, I000HH)-H-+ +4{ rJ 7 :,ooo,os6ullz}zl ql^J E^ll= +.Ig + 9l:Ell, olag dz[g
ultol z|^l"jdE +t}tr+ ga+rll Szl ullEol4.
0[?0ll^] FfE gs mile/h AEol uul= 8E E^l7lE -dtl. Ellolts 0F+8e EE4E g
e.Jnl? u*:=_:rrE ra= El¤-g + glEzn
Eqft¤ flal
EeE ,+*lC gae H zlzl ^l]e,a +trlee +4lE 4l7l6t9+. el= a^tT! eg
qlqs= +g ^J46ll B^t. rd ol+6[E qE =q
^lAql +9 +]il, +E *6],
Eq Eqqlg
eE +qg ql+61 cq6}zl 4l^IB + 9lEl. '+-Fcg +E4= dzlql q6I^JE qeol 4l
4Ig + 9)*t4? r+*e +Aes sl4 4214, :ll+9 +lil} dq6||l E{gzl *6J+. r
kH flEE qE 5d+ +rJql 4^l7l qqql +lil6t=71¤ Aqo}{ Adq-= 19 EzLbaI4
a ql^Jg + 9l+.
!
+"Jel E4otz} werner Heisenberg(r1al 6.15)= E,.lle-l ol6^dol +q4l +rJql E^llE
+lilel SE+ E+= 9"tt dq6.}rll .J f ll:zlq +e4.J .J4l= A'JEtr zll"J6t9
4. r aJZl= gzi+ olB+ 4? zzlq(subatomic) ++. dzle+ zJol 43 E4g a
I. =
+g trilEI6,S6lltl+. Heisenberg g?]E EllBtl flal(uncertaintyprinciple)41d4. ol
94= sz}9 dzlql ¤.e" g ull, dz}9 cq+ +F.*4 +rJql^Jel aq.J 9zl= F^lql
oI= ae Ee4sE Ezl-L";I4* 49 *6J+.
A rH 6.15 Werner Heisenberg
(1901 -1976) Heisenberg! HeisenbergE +q}4ee +lzlel Bqac(u;4 +E%iE Eqcc(a(zv))g planck
^J
Niels Bohrollrll,rl EI/.l+ rf8= +E EEL6I+ "Js.tr. ¤Szlfl+.
7l^l= EoJ EqEd B
"E-dsz,l;q; 1gg
al= eJddlfiLl. tx.t(ml >
f bsl
EP r= 7lg 5= Lfoloil tr
= ,J+oJ 4l+IeE E+dd gqq 5g
"JoJ Ar+E ¤H6J + 9l+. dzl.E e.1r x l0-3r
ga= Ee d
^faJoltf.
kg9 d*9 zlzlt- * s x ro6 m/s9 ¤# +q-g.e +i gz} .llql^l +4.J+. +Ee-l l%o
ql 4'J E$Ctol glll(ol ?*(o.ot) (s x to6 -/s) : s x 104 m/s9 ESCrj), ol{u.!ol
$Ee&(A(zv):mL,v)9 EqdCq q]6J +s_6J eoJol4r 7lC6ll -E.zI. 6.eE
^l ^l-.&6I
I dz}9 9lzlql Ell+ EqACg 4l4I6J + 9l+.
Lr_ h _1 o.ozoxto-34l-s
):r*1oem
-^ - 4rmLv \+"'19.tr x 10-31kg)(5 x tOaml)) '
6.5 I g^lqq4 B^leHl= 247
"lrlal +C.g E
ullul4 9"tzJ9 EqCCe trfH g qlLl^lel *zlzl 6J9 9,lsl4. *4zl 4 A
^l=Sqqot
oltrI. +. zlz[. Ei
tHle+ zJol
¤Ed *4 =zl]617l
.Jt^J¤]q^l glHzlE zl!|) *zI7I d4ql +qa ql q Y+e 95"*ol
d6t= =7lel Ea{ql^l qg 4toJ tr-Hlg+E +Cql 4* dgqq. olTlol {z}g ¤¤¤ ql+tr + S= E}^lo.e H
E+ACS ¤q ag aE6I9g aol4. ¤allE + pl^l7l4l gq. A^I9 9l^l= dq4zll
=+= =Callzf ^lE6lE
Cql^]el BqACe 4617l qalg AEs z+41 g + 9ltrli1 dxlE g+*ql glq^l tr-*6J Eqa/3o1 z.llzlrlzil g+.
zl4* f 9l+. rel+ E4AC 94= +CE AqEq d =
++AE dzl flzlE +aq+ q+l= 6J+ -r. fl^l$ eq6}
xllE 6J4l7I 9lq= ag "JtL+. olBl.J,*al: tlHl= qg zl .J + s.4 "JEts aolq.
zl + "JE + 9l=7Hl ql+ zllEol olule] ealal xl¤E e olHql= a +t}e.l !o+zl-=
^l-+6t= a+= ^J46l]
trzt.
d4.J 1o14. ol ,*Zl= -H_5 eTlE Ezll= trl-E *l= ¤{ ol=E r*4+ *3 qluJzlE z*zl ullEql +C6l+ E$ dzl
4 os dq +,s_61xl ?*xl"J, dzl_e+ eol o|fl2|(subatomic) el g+"+g .bql 9= AEq H+= Etr $.9 Ellzl"J +lzl
oJzl= fltB a+qlts eltrl= tlq4str 'J a+4zl "JeJe a"l+. olaol Sqcc
= al+oJ^lH+.
a+ol4E +4 7l+s =
grl9 ga"l+. + dzlel gilel +E* s+= t^l.ll "J
EalE +46171 +16l]^-l=
E4E aEslot 6Jtri. S{ql^l +d¤¤ ^l-s6}q 44* I rzl 6l+ aqE Eq4.tiol ¤zllrJQ-i 4.o14, olE+ E
++g += ag ^J46l] BzI. +dFql^l i+g Hol n+t +ACe q¤ +C¤ 3l^ ++ olalE 69 + fl+. 6I+=
ql^l HI^Iqq bql *¤ tr4 g+. .J =zl9 *zI q q¤6}rll 941 qE q= 6l+: E 4q6H4E aol+.
=qg.tr
zI ole+ ,JZ zz\4 E^{ql +P^1tr EillE 9{+ ¤+* dzlE +lile+ +E%ig cq6l .Jtrt= ae ¤Eils Ezl-b
ql glq^l qB de4"J aEE EqlE rlzlxl $!r-|. :el 6|zl"J. ++tlql^l q¤ xldql 4¤ql ql6]]^J= EJ
=7l]61+ qlq
+ 9e]. +^l6trll qol HI^Iqq 9E ?=zl +oE B + 9itrI. zllo.s¤9lrlE flzl9 o]E +lzlql^l
=q7t=
%LEee dztE +l^lE 4q44 ;folufllz[ 6Jtr]rl tr-tL6H zl= ,*= a4-= ga4= +Eg ^ll^16l-= gzlE =a+
t.Bg
^
^I+g +^Idg +tlB+= 4le H9l {olr}.
tsz}. E^llE.g +lzl= zflal
el cq.Es^-l "JoI'J + 9l+. E+4^l dzlel c+6J f-lzle+ +¤ ¤+ E4l: 6.sl, 6.52, 6.e6, 6.eZ
++%h3 .Jj1 4+E a-e +a-g ;J4. "143 k
^l-sullot
s
6.s I %Fl o-{qlul sJrl sHlH
1926LJql gxeelof E4q]zt Erwin dz]9 u[Fc4 "Jz[
Schrcidinger(1887-rSOr)::
Cg l+4 E.eoJ Schrtidinger irl* %lC l(Schr<;dinger wave equation)olzlL 'JEl{ ^l
I zll.Ja}fl4. rg E+: ¤zli "or4 9$(quantum mechanic) s= ffi $$(wave
248 68 3^19 d^l+^
DI
OItr] Dfi
,/(r-4^q psi)-e. {Q{rl. E}* *f : z}ill= zld4e E?-lqzi 9"lE $.zl"J, v}.El E}
+9 ,ll=-(l/l)3 dzlzl6l+9 glHzl tt4"ll 9lg "lt dzrel glilql qEl AtrE zll+*+.
+4 gzlql 9lq^] 6l+E qlHxlEg Bohr n$$ ^l-s6[q ql+g aE4 e+. rB]L]
Bohr l-Soll.rl= dz]-5ol q ++lE qH 5A.J *zl=¤ ,*= g¤ +llEql zt
oJzl qqzi EBq^l dxlE +lil=:l+al ,J+6I7ll ¤EB + fl+.=^ll6J+r.
cE}trt. EiHql,
Eqcc g4q qsH, dxt9 sF*9 q+61 c+61ril .J+r B a+ql dzl9 9lxl
q q+q E^lql "J + 9l= cH= ,I+ B+d6ilr1+. tr14^J flzl-q +9lq 4 Azlql ql
* cq+ +lil= E^l6h= 49 zl4g + srll 94. tzl E4l4.J zl^14 ,Eg 4u.leE
"J+6ll"taJr[. :e]ue 1d.471qL+rJql +rJq qH gqql
t+61-= 4o14. a+ +rJg .J4+ Aql^l q-5'6J+9 4lt-(,/)e r f.lrlql^l dxl-E ts
=4ggg(probabitity)S
ag + fl= qE¤. +ElUtrI. olq,* ol+s l9 *}t "JE(probabilitydensity) E= Ert
"JE(electron density) +-a 6J+.
6.5 I g^l q-.,rrlfl^l eHl= 249
+1?l7l?
=88
E0ll
I I
^l.0lel ^l0l= drl "J-E7l7El
rBoll,\l ts
a +Ea oi! *gl7l-?
flzI 4 q+l ¤Eql^l dzl-= gaB +Eg +4rH: %IE +g 6tLl-= fH 6.nql +EI E"JE, rh2ZI,
Heq, ol :floll.! dg "JEE d4-= tsa.J q¤g 'IEIB+. d9 "Jszl +e gqe -0l gqql^i =
F3
Elr4 ,1,, *ql trI+^l d4-= gaB ffio1 kg ¤9ol ¤4. ol4 ?3 +.<1 drt gz 4=
= "llB.Jtrl.
ql flzl* {z} fe=e-tr E=lr }q] flx}fleE ol+qd aes la^}¤+. z
=rl6}q
sHlEJal-tal+
+4' g^Iql 4qt sctrrodinger *4119 ailE gulEJ(orbital)ol=p 6l+ 6J eoJE tl* +
+E 4l+6}q, 4 sElBe EoF+ oilulzlE r*rl g+. q= EH +^ gzig 7I v
+ *e qlLJ4g _sHlBg re =C4e6.l7ql +48 4r+ eol + Eolg 714q, -2.18x r0-r8
l9 ollulzl= r*=tr}. 9ul$(orbitar, dzl-='dz1 79.' EoJe-e, rfl q¤ +qtr -E I6t x
b oJzI qo+zi EB)e flE(orbit, EE ++lE 4Col 5 uilE Er-lzlt +llEe+ rJol, dzl.
zI *4ol= ag rfl Bohr -EB)4 EoJ6Izl 9++= aq +E6I4. gziql^l dz}9 *F
'fg E"JE, 4? {t2'J,
e cqq aaE f szl trllEql(Heisenberg Eqac ge]), .JzI qElzl E¤3 +JEq zi ol gEoll,'.J "J3
Ext gz +E
*9xl S=trt.
Bohr E8oll.!= fllEE ¤E6I7l +16[q 6[+e] oJz]+ r3 Efla]B+. +S, o]^] qq] a.fB 6.17 d^[ "JE Es
zl E¤ql^J= -qHlgg ¤B617l +16|q 7l-71 oJzl+ n, t, m& olel* ol a+El EBg Htq aE|le]
^ll ^l*8-6k"Ell, ^ll
+4 ?^l-oil^l t^tE ga-g
zl-zl o3.2143 iqzl
"e Schr<idinger %la4g E ql z}ts^Hzl +9-= ?4o14. q=gl ,/29 E,(f-ertf. 4trzl
r.+ot4+(n)* r, z, 3, ... Eo4zJol oJ9 C+Ag 714.+ 9.1.4. nol 6z|$4q-so1 oll^l flEP g^l-o!0lrf.
g3 rl 4^]tL, dztE o4se+El trl gr-l gqa *ql y*ol qE4 84. n <14 ?zl
* d4¤ol rJ +g qlLlzlE r*=+* 4.o14, IrI4^] qql g5}rll a6Jqq fl+g e.l
Elqlq. +^q 4* sohr E¤ql^Je+ ?ol .llHxlE E,: - (z.tsx to-" I) Oln'\o\
trI.
2. + Hxll olzl+oJ 4FJ
Btr]f (angular momentum quantum number, l)Y 4 n 4k
ql qt4q oql^l(n-r)4219 A+{lg 714 + ?14. ol oJzh= -qHlBE Eolg A
A.Jq. t sHlB{l^l I {tg .JH}4 oB s, p, d, f.4 Ez}.+ s^lqq, ole=9
t r"Io) 44 =4+
o, t,2,3ql di'J*+.
r<l 0 I 2 3
^l-&q=
E4 s p d f
rPl ?fr]#(magnetic quantum number, -)* OS E*6iol -/ql^] /
3.
ol olzl+= ^Iol9 4+
<19 zld + glr}. 6.6¤q^J ¤B6l+ Ete+ eol, +rJql^l sHlgel ull
6J (orientatio") I ¤ H 6J4.
n 4k9_ E= "Jel Aitl g f
?lzl Ell+ql +A gzlql^l: +++ 7H+E eHlBol 9l+
aql ;qrle|. qE +q4l ++q1 +^ grtg dzl^b ol eulp$ 6E 6tLtEEJ ¤E
= r
94, olol 4^l7l e_Elgg z}^l++n "J++. ts"t 9iE sHlge +4 g^IE 5a r
g tqql q6tq d+qq glxl sE4r. a4. $e_eE +tr. zlg <t9 ,9 r*= sHlBql
adg "*+q ¤Bg 4.o14.
.ol Ez}e=g 44 sharp, principal, diffirse, tundamentatel +qql^J +46J aolq, oJxI qolol i4q7l dq
¤4= ¤B617l +l6lq
^EEH9
^F*qfl+.
250 6TJ 3^lsl !^l+^
c-4c olE4 olzl olEq e_lall olzl$ r+EI4 ^J49 eE ilel g5Elg A+61 'J + S*g q'J6I= Heisenberg9
e r+qlg Et+q + tg B"J otq+ +?_1 +9E ^Jl^Jg q Eqe^"r gr_lE B:g eqI4.J eEEg *qll, dx]l.E ql
BAI ol6l]dl]o}6l+7[q q]4q ga* HEI¤ z]4S4. t4 E6l *g 4!ol tes8Egl HeisenbergT[ "gEqr+ a
C olErl "JzI olE oldq "Jg6J E4qL
olE+ ts44 os $(Physics and Philosophy)"o14= 4ql =++
+4+ 9t4.
ACE4(deterministic).J aq.=., gzllE +4 ad(9lzl. 4 oJzI olE aTlql xll.Jg zlzJ +B+
E, Eillql ulz).i fl)ol +qzlE El4 q! 6I+=
^14
olEg ^Ir de +
^lrJql^jE
Eill I SchrridingerTl- ill4lEl6l-fle-4 ¤xll
E +lzle+ ¤+e 4q6}ril eAB+= aol+. Newton H4 "schrridinger9l lolol (Schnidinger cat) "Ep "JeJ{ aol+.
gtr+El Maxwellel dzlzlqr ol$ql ol=-L- ol olgg qC ol dee * 4= +a47lql +^l 417[']+E -.1+g ++
I g+, B^iillg +]E "f qel Ele+ ee EE.l4 ¤dlg c 6J+E 7te + fl=rlE EEg
^llrlq}+. += "Je, S4zI
+zletr ¤86}fl+. r
dz{e zl= s=6f4 *6JtrtE, +9 ^}qlql ql6J qtr a
t4C olE4 oJzf ol# E+ ++E AAE4"J +eql olelr ofi 4ol ?l4llz}? ole+ eg q¤ql^1, 7t^JE aoJ
ql+ EdolfleH, dzlol ol olE$$ zll$tJ $qtzlg,tlo1 ol7[ gql¤ /J.zl +q fleq, ol *z]ql= aoJolqlal
^l^[
ql^la^lE
^J*.J cEq
q+dg "Jsa+. olqaJ^l]E+ *el +4}+1tr Bs6I= tlilTl geJ gl+. oJxI olEel
olgy$/lpali rll z[zl H_$4oJ *H
$o[,]fol ^l-S,t],* .J+ =¤.
ql4ql Ele.H, trzl= ¤l a"Jol= +ag EllTtzl r.oJ
g i+l '^tr de(thought experiment)'ol+a E?-l= %IB olTl-got 914+ +94+ 6]+ +dg ryJ"l ,J+qqoi ++.
g +d 4019.4. ol .rp dqlg +q4l olE .Jql^l q¤g schrodinger= ol q¤g olzl olEg .J+ 6H4ql
olEq g + 9l= 7t^JE
'I
olE 4q14 oI qI Edg zl{a}zl fla}{ zllzlaf9e+. qllql ol E¤g
^l+Zleol+. "JzI
olqq= 916]] ole+ ag ¤eq 6I+= Schr<idingerel ].oJolg +Hrl9o1"il 4aI9 zl+zloln
^lC6t7l ^l-S¤ ^I.a ^J
ol¤q H,+. 20r2LJql LB E?]qtlg g%IlE
A+q EE61] Ezt. ^8* EEg
olzl
"lE+ Eillg EleCE4 ^l+ql rll4q tL'JEl EE Serge Harochep]
"lt9 David Winelandollzll +qqfl=tll,
g ol¤q H4. ol +ql^l= "lBl+ + Tlzl ? Eql q6}q $ .lae tI4E +q6I= ++ 4ti' s."l ".rztq EzlE oJzl
#6ll s+. a4ltr qe "Jz[e] ae ceg, ¤-zlolb E,ll= 7lg6J oJ$ql $aJ 4ols.4. olzloll.! :$
^Jql= +a6l=
ag ceg r*=+= 44 zJol, qr+ E^ilql 4,t s. g qH ag "JHI4.J 4lel 'l."3,o1 t4(cat state)'4.11+e
"FEr+
^l-7['J +*61]4]+= 4o14.
drl-71qqql glEzl-E csal ++6t9eq, ol ^JEllqlE ""rx[q "J47] + 7v\ q
=71-=
"J7 ?l+= aq Hl4q, $zl {z}z} qe zldql flg +E E .Jzl- tlqlq^J f,z.loll fxNof,rf. c"Je ++Alvl ae q
ql ql4^l"J ololzl6J+ 9t+= Aq¤ 7t4_s= Eiilql 4+ ¤olzl"J, *4= afl "J4 A+El+ qq A_,/d +
^l4lE
E^I= qBl Hql^l El]+ 4++= ^J4"J +E il+. qlE a6}7l 96J El.^l ^Jql= air.6l 6I= 41e.9 %IH9l fi! o
20 2s 0 1
1 2p I 0, J 4
30 3s 0 I
1 3p I 0, -1 3
2 3d 2. r,0, -r, -2 5 9
40 4s 0 1
1 4p l. 0, -1 3
2 4d ) t, 0, -1, -2 5
3 4f 3, 2, t, 0, -t, -2, -3 7 l6
6J Aol+. ^l
n 6.2E ern6f^l
(a) ?Jr, Lll Unl| Utr n =49 +Etr 7H+E G|*al,tlg. (b) 4 +AtrE E^l6f^19. (c) 4 F'4trotl flts eu1gol
+E H )lloJ)l?
252 63 3^lsl E^l+^
s i4E +oJal+(,?)olr, E4+ 4¤+eJ o}7l+(l)el {t (a) 0,1,2,3 (b) -3, -2, -1,0, l, 2,3 (c) t,2,3
g ++U+. 4 l:oolH s, /:1olE P, t:2o],4 d, t:30]' (d) -3, -2 (e) t,2, 3, 4
tr/ol'I. > E6qlfl2
+s eulBS lzl7l gl+(,:ooJ ull= s4
zlzlel zp."rJ
6J
l= l"J +Aag qg4l s^l6l+71-? O) ol +/d
(a) n= 5eI
*A 1I¤ 7}zlq, oolEt). 4p e-HlBql=:zHzl 914(l: rE eq sElg +L-? (c) ol$ 9ul$ 7J44 mt*g E l6l-^ls_.
+4 3^te.l 4s eHlgel g&,Jar qE B+E LlElt! refliIE ,84-g nl|, Elcll E+alts E 7l{E qlg-g + ?1ts7t? ral-r. ntq
ts 7tlE ql8g+ 91ts71-?
=
-4o_e+E1E 7 ltsido I
=rllg
TEttsezal-05A
-"jee+ElE
=rll7l550l
7EJ+e71a1-3A
0El
-40P+Ele.l 7ltsdol
)w E? =Ill
- 7A
71e,l
E}
=
E Elrl
1s g
=
AfH 6.19 1s, 2s,3s 9.ul=Je.l HJ,(| HJ-d qE -Bt+ 0l raJg ="1-oe+Elsl 7'lal01l tH-d B#-a,t1, E^17[ gAE a-fE¤ LfElL|lr ?1q'. +g
rl#(n) ilol qal -"]eE+El E^l-71 gaE dq EfE¤ TlIl zal(7l.8+e E+alE rl gGlTltL
=71--Bf0ll
qI, ol4ol r4 E4l= ot.l4. trr+ rl d^d4"J r+ql^l zltt 6s-oJ sHlgg E4g
r$el = EoJolr+. ol+l+
tlEilz]ql zzls} E r.E E¤B o-e A +4++.
=Cg
qB gssl,J^l *6J EB EF+
"JzI
pl+ql 4eE, +r
gz} 4E dztE +14= aq.J g +.J+<lol zI"It!4. r+l+ arl*#.ll ggoJ^I*.Jq
^lB+= $E9
z}]uJS ol+flq .s¤6flot +trI. +Eql ql6J E.J+ql^l= qql^l gqa++ ++rl7l. dd rl Azly 4.
4BE Schrddinser %lC^loE+El Eq4= tl.5: g.+(4,)ql eE+ glrl(:B o.ts).
E6Jqq 914. g^.1 fl#6}fl'J a4 ?Jol, qE trJE E= d
zl. ulraln 6l+ ol r+*.,*+9 xll*(,r)e
"JqE 4dql^] trr2lq(r)l2g B^1.B:d qE -Br+
dxlT[ q¤g +4{+. s sHlgg 7E 44olzl u]] e^1, r9 qE +qt.] ',1 l,!Ol2=
=xI]6J e+
E9l s s_u1gE ,I5l;34E e4 qetr+Elg 44 ."il 4eI
trl-.J aolEl.
gHIEJ
P
l:1oJ sHlBgp sHlB"Jg 7lq6[+. p +Aeq= 44 -1, 0, le] mr oJzl+ql ^J+
^ll
6l-= zll$ eulg-ol ¤xllt4. 2p e_tslBg dzl "Js +E=:H 6.23(a)gl gl4. ol :H
^ll
q^l E + gl= Hle+ aol, az} "JE= s sulBilH +E qla EoJos $_+a121 g:=r}
r ql4l, azl "JE= qE "J+q d+qi1, q ++l= ElqE E4g+. olel+ sHlgg +
6.6 eul=e-lr-d 255
4 p 9ul'J3 4E gEzl 001 Elb EE?] otrl BE(nodal plane)t Tltlrt. olallE gHIEJ
zzzz
yx
x v x
I x v
P, Px Pv
(a) (b)
arE 6.23 p gHl=J (a) 2p eulEJ9 t^l "JE Es, (b) Tllslp 9Hl= EdE. 9Hl=sl ofaH ts^f=
gHlEJol LfElEr[. ^ll
="J =E
A
l*=
I sp,ll3pr9 F gHlgoll^1 ^1-tr Ae ilE
sx143+q?171.?
LlElLHts $x1a5 +EoJ7l? rE rt='JE LlEl
d _e.HlEJal f eHlg
,9 aol 3 ol^J.J oll= a 9ElB0:2)g r*=rf. ol4l zr olz|1;. -2, -1, 0, 1, 2el s7ll
9 ,,i"1 7lb6l7l ql+ql 3d.4dEq d sHlgg zJzl stll4 gCd 44+.9e
=zl]+4.
4= a sElgr- fg 6.24i.1H
^JE
EIE EoF+ tsl]6}g ,*=tr}. d eulgg1 441+'47lle1Z
Etsl g^I+l' Eolol4= aql +el6t4. 4 eElBg gzlzletr ¤Eql +q 9lq. xy, xz,
yz -4441+oJ d*y, d,,, dy, -sHlBg zJ e.atl + EH6F"J+. ds-y ealgs- xy -4H
^tolE
ql 9]il6tzltrJ, -r. e.H= xe|ffi$q ul$al uptgX4. d* sHlgg += ql ,Ie+{]+ trt
dxy 9HlBg 2xl-floe LtEl'g trfi sE Ee.zl00l Elts Dtrl= tr+ 9-7ll7l ?,1=71?
z z z
>"---
v v v
x x x
z z
x x
di_y, d12
¤d q +4-dlq, ol Aq^l= ++zl *4tr1. rfl+ trl-¤. ¤ql^l izl$e "J ++ql ilE
9zI9 d^I +6= ilqolelB/sHlE.¤. "JoI"t .+4.
gxt sHlBg +e+ E.Jql ++ xl^lg *etr += qq 7I^l 4e+ +zI +=E elqg
olollalzl 96ll +s-6I+. lfltrB aA 6.20,6.23, 6.24q1+ElU 444 s, p, d sElg E
o#9 zlq6}= aol f+6r+.
^l
,Jal a"J3t p6uli uflef flal
+ 7f^l ,\E 3E ur
mt7*glt4g {tg r*=+. =48 tri+^J 6J sElgq * zl] oltl- dzl-= BeElH, pauli ul]4 fl -BfP^E Srl#(rn")9 7|=-uf
=
EE "J+6I71 9lol] rr, <tol +E A4¤ Cqdio} 6Jq. rrl6J atg + zlzl$olug, t -q 7[Il ,Joll 6H.J-dtl. E^laJ. 1f7l
8= g8^l7l= e", eJ
Elge slqs + zlE dzl-= *,J + glr, fEig HI4 +4. olel'* z]'{}g +el il= 7|.T]=E9
I^l7f HJrHe]
^¤ololot
flz}"ll 9l= dzl-= oJ.xlf.E.E^l+ + glE+ 6lir., dzl-=-zl^J e*ol ga6l+ +rJ sq E^[Erl "Je e+
g +d6}?ll +q. rag E+ gig +7lgsE +eE ol;Noli rll+,*r+. ^El=,*=
0lrl.
"]]Bg
-dzl-b oJ4el l']¤lE + 7l'q ceg L+ 7l^la- llE+. tr14^l d6t= 7lzlr. 4s ¤Eo 6l= +¤ s.JE d4 rB9 94
6l EJ6il dzlTt d+e. + ?lE zITltE F 7I4 *.'J¤ 01616l= Ell E*.ol q= +4"J +o14.
258 68 ?^tE E^t+^
6{aTlalzPl+B odt
1/+\
+¤ s+E4l:6.100
,f
N
c4 El 6H
AE cl+
oll NS
Ll
^l tt
(r) (-,
l N
t
^1718
il
SN
Y
+
S
\
G. a
t\
\
\--
E{aH
oo l
g8 /&,.
(a) elF rfzlB fiS (b) ej+
^t7t8
LaA6.27 -"j 0l&7f^|e, 6]sl 4E IE-sf +3
^El d^le] ^rlr[
g8/.l7l?, F THsl ,J=,*tsrL (a) el+ gl= ttll
^I.718=
0ll= + ee qlLlrl= 7l'T]tL (b) el+ ^l7l5r0l ggdl- -:I''
E el+ ^EldEHTI a3 EJ-Btg '\E sEil= EJLH .J-dq^1.71801
,^.8 afEllErl
.J3 0llLlrl= 7l{]+. r 0llLl^l^f(AE)= lxfzl r.E=ael alllg
^l,7l8frl
a.r.B 6.28 MRr gd g8= 0lt6|q E3 oJrJsl clal
4 Eqoll 6ll'J-Lftl. 0ll r|l-d BdP ^l7l3E
Ll, 7lE, gfE 44g Eq @MriMan/shuttersrock
=+.
6.8 E^lHll^l 259
1s%
ol+l+ 3oF9 E^lHg eulg ss(srbitaldiagram)41 .Jtt. 4 sulBg qlr. tlzlE
+4.llr, 4 dzlE HI+ sl¤e-e +4Ur+. g+eE oJeL Elgs(1)= "J+9 o},r
i(*,: +1)= +4lllr, oI4E aJ* rl¤E(|, )= g+el oJzl.+( *, :.g ^g
-i)Z ++U
+. trI4^l olEl+ :t_4 6.26E zlzl* %16&9 ol-ooaJ dzl4g E¤Hg ql+61 s46I+.
ol i zlzJ$ +4 +^Jsq %I6Jql q?+'^g-E(spin-up)'$',.-{-r}-$(spin-
^JEH=
^E
down)'og +4gtrt.
EI'I B|.J dzl-=ol ag eElgql *eE 4zlflr|(paired)4L "J6J+(1t). gdzt
^99
(unpaired electron)E: Hlql \11-6Jq dzlc+ 4Az) 9+g Azlolq, qE g^I6 ts s-ul
lS
E9 dz} F zl]E 4+xl9r, zs eHlB9 d4+ gdzlol4.
Hund 3zl
olzll fla9 {z} ullzlzi +7lgsq^J q¤41 H6l+^l gElHzl..
H 1
1s1
1s
He 1l : 1.s2
1s
g$el dz} F 4= a H4l AAg Sd6l ifl+trI. olaloJ {x} ullzl},]|+ .J46}q, ,g
Eol ElqI4 Hlgdg ++LIl= *421Yl4.
260 63 g^19 d^[ +^
Li 3 1l 1 7s22sl
Be 4 1t 1t ls22s2
B 5 1l 1t 1 ls2zs2zpt
C 6 1t 1t 1 1 ls2zsz2p2
N 7 1t 1l I 1 1 ls22s22p3
Ne l0 1t 1L lL 1t lt ls22s2zp6
Na ll 1t 1t 1l lt 1t 1
ls22s22p63sl
EtE +Tlgsql^l quE +¤.ql 9lil6t= 4E q 4 zv\ g^E {z} ullzli E 6.3q1 9l+.
Hrll gi 4Eq d4¤gqtrE, +J4+7l2oJ ^Jl H4l dzlE +*^l+711?l ilg
^Jl
+ dzlql Hldl qLlzlTl a7)l +7l6la-, e49 B+ 4?-lE rTll 6ztaJ4. olag 4E+
Aeq 4zlzl i]|+lzl7l ^]+6JEI= ag +El$trl. +7lgs= BE "J i flFol, ?-lfi$
+TlgEq ^l]Eg +719 rl40l4. ?-lEe "Je4 ++(r+)E a Hal flaol4.
qlgErtE 4E +gq gA= ullHEol4, r dzt El]xl= 1s22s2olr+(E a.:). flz[ fls
soJ +^E {z} uflil} rszzszzpto1q. +d Hall d4-= zs eHlBol u.f ill$lflzl ClEql
2p e-HlBql illgltltrL 7H9 2p e_Hlgg 9lHzlzI -E+ esEs. 4Hzp stslBg e+
^ll
oflr gx1z19xl tlE4.
EJA +^= {e.* ^}+ql zlEE}t}. qd Hxl dxl-b 2p e-ElBql tsqo} +t}E ag g
+ 9t+. 4Ee d4+ olul {z} 6J 471iHgltl 2p eul$E E"lz}ot Bz}z olqE Bot
9l= + ,llE +E e-HlgE $olzlo| rJzlz
Hund #zl(Hund's rule)$ +q¤ 9-HIE$ AxlEol 4qrt ag /.gog flg q
zP* *e
quJxlE 4dEl+ ag
"J++.
ol49 dzl¤ol 7l+.d + gdzlE gleEJ:a oJq= 9olol4, ae +eaql 9l= gdzl
5e ee ^g "Jzh= 7la4= 4g g"lel4. ol46J,JBss ul]gg dzl-= ¤q
(parallel spin)olap ++. rqIr e 7l* *3 9lHzl= ,*= +i flx}el 2p 4zl F ^g zllE
ag r*=r}. olp* zJol slElH azF=g s.6.37.1H rt= 2p e-ElBg d+6l]ot
^gg ^lE
oJ+. HIE+ t4 Et gzl+ + ,ll9 r*=+.
=idzl-=
EI^, tlA, E=+gE! u[4[z[x]tr, H]E] tr-qlel eA= Hund *zloll E6]E Tl]el zp 4zlzl
^ll
7ll9 42 zp sHlB¤- A++q. ola* 4E 4zlzl rL+ ae ,*: +.J.J ,J
Hol4. 4}^e+ g+efle 44 +211e4 szl dxl-=.^ll ,ll9 2p e_Hlgq^gg
^ll ^ll
al+lot aJq. olB7ll
alB zp sHlBql 4d dzl¤ol gtr]l Elq, olag qzJl a.zollr.l E + glg 4014.
Hund #49 d4¤ol stslgg a+6IE
^1tr
Hlg6J+=
^Idql z4= E+. ^ls +E
d4s=e 7P" 6J 6J B ,14= +zl6[q]r. 6]E_-tr dz[-dz] E]gol 44e+g+.
^J-tr
6.8 I E^lHl1^l 261
qFJl 6.7
sHlB' tr nst tz,l Hllll
[Ne]9 zlgE ullgg rozl] {z} ullzl, l rszzs2zp6E ++U+. {z} ullzl$ fNe]zslz]g z1
+6tts flz}9 4e.14 dxl9l +dg i*= aql E-g¤ 4e]4 dztE +E g^E sI
=+. 1
E4 ,lfql ¤6}.9 J
=trI.
*ql^J 4E:9 {z} ullzlg +E}d aq +e HJH9E EE dzl. tsHzlE ++E + 91tr}. Li
gig +e+¤ {z} ulil(condensed electron configuration)q^l= *g flz} HE= ?*+ 7l lHel2sl
11
* tltl* ElgC 7li]9 {zl- u}lzlg ::}.o} zla.9l gEE ^l-&6}q +4U+. el= Eq ?.1
Na
[Ne]3s1
498 ol oJ+ 4aql 9I= AzlE 64fl$ flrt(core electron)4l '*trL tslgd zliIE q IKr]5s1
55
d+ dz} HI?ql ^]]+lzlq, flrlzl Er(valence electron)ql 6l= alel4 {x}(outer-shell Cs
tol ++
HlgC(189 7l4l ?l^oJ ol=+(1s22s22p63s23p\e AEq^J +719 Eql fl+.
^1416l+
+7lgE 6 Ar 4*9 gi= fl4 Ha lroJ ee16.1K)ol+. E.= Elq4 Ca_s s_o}, E
El-+e e$6l "JrJ;.] ++ glolEl. it+Ael Ceql +.J dqizl so1, gffi fl
^I¤-e.
4zlzl s -qul99 4+61+ aol 5B$,a, 3d sHIBql ill+lzlzl ?++g "J +
31e14
^E
?14. ¤zl9lrJ qlqzl +^l= +s eulBol 3dilr+ q *El(re 6.zs). 44rl E++E
=+l
+EE dzt ts;|zl= trls=4 rJ+.
K: IAr]4st
as eulBg Sd6l il]+ E|¤-(ol a++ zJ¤: flzl."llrl g^J.Jtrl) 3d sElBg 4g+(ol
ulBol ill+lTltrI. + Tl,.l dol fli9 +EB dzl. El]TleI sHlB Es s^lBg ++r+
*L+.
4s 3d
t
aJEl.Js_rl
+TlBEsl -"g= Eqe -=t tttl, 6s 9'ul=nl5d 9.HIEJ 6 q! A0l Erl iflq^E7l'?
EElt-+
+7lgE9 qd, H4l ?zly [x.]6r,9 {z} ullzl$ z;3 ,rllf,(cs)4 txelalg dzl. tsl]il=
z1-- uls(Ba)oE afzluJ +TlgEql #qa 5 Eol gln, r ol+.el gi(s7-70
^l+oJ+.
H)E sg.l +7J o}4ql 9l= a"il +q6r4. olag 4/e-tslgol Eq7l7l *ol+.
^1416l=
4/s-HlBql* 3q^J -3zlxl 6l+q= mr*77lall6llB6l+ +trlg 77l]e-l e-Hlgol 9l+.
trI4^J 4/e-ElBg E+ 4+EJE 147HE 4zlzl gs6}4. 4/e-ulgg iH+= 147H g^E
E= EIEE flA(rare earth elemenO+r .J+. zl+a +
a-lElLJ= flA(lanthanide element)
zlg$E qtlg ,1617l +16ll +4H+ gd$g +E g^5 Eql EEs ts}]il6J4. *4uJ
+ g^E d{.$ E+ Hl*6tr, zf$4ql Er4l ¤xl|.J4. +ElH+ fl^Eg dzllE s*5
.J ts46lzl *61*.9+.
6.e I t^l HH^le| +7lEs 263
sulBE qlqzl= fll$ zl$zl Eil+ql +4'J+E dz| Hlizl= sd A^lE E+oJ
4fe+ sd
q. qE Eq +4H(ra), .tllE(ce), g+^leqE(Pr) gaE {z[ uflr]].]4e] e+.
[xe]6s25dt lxelos2sdt+1t 1xe1os2+1:J
aJEFJ sal^llgtrlE
^1lE
LaE rzllel sd ga4¤ tlzlu tr, rEq clqt4 ce qlEql 4lxll dol g^ 4lgE
^lzl
sE^l oleE(v) olEllql f-r1, ce= +4H+s.l
^lzlql
++. rq+ rEq p+qt4 cd trl]
E9l LaE +4H+E z"i¤. gte ,J+qI+. olBl'* HJEeE Ejlgg +4'J+el g^Ee
4E qlE s.l 9q]4t,JHstr 4/s-Hlgg iHg+.
+4'J+ q+q dlxll dol g^ 4lgg gd6l sd sHlgg il+j1, 6p s-HlBg il]+l +
zlq 4E(Rn)q^l g+rl, 4E+ 7l* +4& Hlgc Tlill g^ol+.
+7lgsE trIzlE at)Y zs julBg ill+E^l .(l$a|.$ull, olag EEIE= fa
(actinide element)efi1 i;la, 7l* * geJtl ?]i= *etb(u, Sz] Ha e2)r+ g+trE
(pu, flzI HE 0a)o1r., s/eHlgg iHeE|. qqts+ gi= %L^rd giolil, rEE q+
Ee z}¤Alql^l gaqzl ?+=+.
(flztzD dzl. HllTleI +Hol gl+. ql= 5q E o.a4 ?ol z4 fl^53 tf rs2el 4q4 )-4.
++ 34
1 1"s 1s
a- 2p
2
rln I -a
J 3s 3p
4 4s 3A 4p
r fc4 =4
5 5s 4d 5p
6 6s 4f 5d 6p
7 7s sf 6d 7p
arg 6.30 +7|EEE qal gq E^P[ eHl=CIl +7lEl= +^]= fl+ 910il^l g+0il^l s-_o.E ?]ts*.
^l+6lq
264 68 3^l-sl E^I. +I
rH 6.30q1^J efllzla! og
a4{ +qg Eole+g s6J6}= l0zl +9 +qolr. ol5
g gzIT| d sHlBg 4++ giEolrl..
?zlsE9 +rJoHql *rJ4"+ eqTl l44lE ++7171il4. ol gase zwf 7
q ffi(fblock metal)olzlL ++. /+qe +rJg ¤ol7l fl4 q++9 +TlgEql^l +71
¤s ot49l 971.J+.
rI 1 18
tr
2
J
4
5 )
6
7
1
tr 2 T
2
H lan,\l
J A;
Tlill -"ic
4 Se
5
'u
6
7
I
I
4 4zltl g.q-6}r., ol= 4p4E zl¤d4. trI4^J se$ {zi Hl]iIE ltr)+s2tdt0+pnol4. ol
dz} tsIzl= +i4+71?zlal* +^1tr Arltdt0+s2qpa-+ z16qz1E' a3r1.
{z} ulf zl$ +oJ6}71 +lul] [A'] edE 4x1 rszfle] 4s, 3d, 4p +44E {z}el zllf$ rJ
t4. ol dz} 4f9 6J(1s+2+ l0+4 : 34)g seE gzl Hn 34e+ oJil6llo} il+.
\l qFll 6.8
/Z ,J +E {xl uilil
1 7+ gEEl g^el g^[7[ d^l Ht|^lol +1?]71?
=¤g
6ll'J uftlzlzlE, + {rll 6Jstl gioJ gAq +"+¤ {z} uflil
E4zt 4lq Hxl ?zl&sq1,t1 ;3e4lel fl18 qt* 4-9, qq=r+ 44.
zl+ F flrs-l {zl ullzl$:aJ + g} .JH}4"J + =
^tolel Cl: [Ne]3f3ps
^I^dg
+ol¤ + 9l+. + zlzl {e.+Q gE{lE flz}z} {1} tsllzl qCe
olelql
Eot ele4i+E a E4l g^= ¤+sfloltrI(F, sz} Ha ns2nps*i ag g + gl4. ¤zl"1l,r'l r3 5FefloJ 4.+9
s). pqlrl 4¤4 g4zlH ElgC Tlxl qdol [se]4E 4g 2+q o}^4ts.J A+E 6vl7l9 ftg r*=+.
*g + 114. He9 49 Szl Hgql 6ll'J6I= +l^= gzl- > .H.6 qFtl
Hs 3ql EIE(Lilol+. elEe + d4l fzl9 s *991 ?lil
1
qEl 6.e
ffi +71ttr¤ ol{.i! flzf uflil
(a)fzlE.E'oll,\lg Plil0ll=715[q, grl-flE 83oJ ul.r+=g +qtB dxfu1r6 u119.
(b) Hl^+E ol )lloJ7 l?
=d^l-= =
rtlS
(a) Hzl ulgC zl^ll edg +=+. gz} Ha 83$ ull.+e gzl Hn 7rE +l^= d +qE H4l 6ql +lzl{I+.
^ll
+Tlgsql +lil^144. a- ir- 71^t zlz|$ ul$rJ zl d +qE a Hal 6e 3dq o[c]a[E-e.. + H4ll ¤? qa,
= *oI 4¤4 94ztH gzt HE s+9 zll|(xe)oll E H4ll sdql ql'J6J+. trl+^l d *gg zl44 flzt
^ll=
gaJtrI. tr|4^l Elg.c zlzll 4d3 [x"1o14.
^ll =e
BE zrglrl 80e-tr ol+6[E sd +44qlroz]l$ z$z]z[
+71^l7JLl. xe9 rl-s gz} Hsql gx} Hn ss9 csE flzl Hsssoll.! 81-tr olF6|q p +qg ap *44
6+7le) s 7991 flilEltrl. ol +7le+ 7q$ uleje-e * 9l dzlzl tzfl 21191111-1, +qE +oJ4++ s *99 f
o}^l+e+ a4= ag 7lq6I4). Bi4zl oltr6l4 :zH9
4tl 444 d^l-= ts]]ilal +eae osol4. s +qg 4+
4 zzIg {z}z} zllfl{l'1101). 4zlzl ^]j?1414(op3). zlfrtlzt! 4Ag +ql+$, +
s *99 zlq gzt Hs. s7-e. ol5l6tH izl$+ oplg
qt¤ dzt u]lzli [xe]6s'47'nsd'06p3o14. olE +444
/+qql +lil++./+qE A H4l ¤*sf +Baql 6ll'J +"t^l+71+7I6tE +^.lE aB6hq s¤Ei +E gl+
ali, ol *gg 444 1444 4471iHgltl4(4/'). (lxel+yt 4 s dto e s2 a p3) .
266 63 fl^lel E^l+^
4
-d Hlgd
5 Xe zlill -"jC
6 Bi
7
4fc14 -
(b) +E¤ dzl EHTI= ¤qtrE ep *44"J ++4etr iH9] > sr* qld 1
4 gltrl. ol +eag sBlE tr+++ L+E+48 ++n+ aq. tulgd z\\l) sszadt0sp'9 dzt uflzlg zlzli gA= +g
6 *q.JzI?
1 1 1
(a) Cd (b) Te (c) Sm (d) Hg (e) C-E-zt +-=-6Iq oJ
+
cHo
Hund 7zl9l ul4, :zl]9 op dzlE ^ll ,lE 6p eHlBg E E
el rl?7i g6ie,
^[dol
7lg e0f6lk.g^b [Hlg¤ 7l^11]6s24f145#E Exi HflxlE lb.qr -dq. ol flab +g?l7l?
1A
1
8A
18
1
H 2
1s1 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A He
2 13 L4 15 1.6 17 1s2
-"-4C
J 4 5 6 8 9
Li Be B C N o F
lHel '2s1 2s2 2t'2p' 2t'2p' 2s\p3 2s22p4 2t'2pu
11 12 8B 13 1.4 15 17 18
Na Mg 38 48 58 68 7B 8 9 10 1B 2B AI Si P S CI Ar
lNel 3s1 3sz 34567 11 12 zs23p1 3s2ip2 3s2gp3 3s23p4 3s23ps zs23p6
19 20 21. 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 3/. JJ 34 35 36
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
4s\d1 4s4d7 4s2zdlo 4s23d1o 4s23d1o 4s23d1o 4s23d1o 4s23d1o 4s23dlo
lA.l 4s1 4s2 4s4d2 4s2zd3 4s13ds 4s23ds 4s23d6 4s23d8 4s13d1o
4p' +p' 4t3 4pa 4ps 4pu
J/ 38 39 40 41. 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
tKrl 5s1 5s' 5s2M1 5s24d2 5s24d3 5s14d5 5s24d.5 5s14d7 5s14d8 5s14d1o ss24d1o 5s24d1o 5s?4dro ss24d1a 5s24d1o 5s24d1o ss24dto
5p' 5p' 5p3 5p6
55 56 71 72 /3 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta w Re Os Ir Pt Au He TI Pb Bi Po At Rn
lxel 6s1 6sz 6s24f14 6s24ft4 6s'4f'n 6s24f1a 6s24714 6s247,1a 6s24f1a 6s14714 6s14f1a (rs2474 6s24f1a 6s24f1a 6s24f14 6s24f14 0,1*f'^" gli{.':,
s;1 sa2 sa3 saa 5d\ 5dh sd7 5d' 5d10 slo 5d|%pt 5dt66p2 5dtt6p1 5d\%p4
87 88 103 1.04 105 106 r07 108 109 110 111 L12 113 t't4 115 716 117 118
Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Bh Hs Mt Ds Cn Nh FI Mc Lv Ts Qg.
tRnl 7s1 7sz 7s25fta zszsfla 7s25114 ,i#,^ 7s25y1a zs2sfla 7s2511a 7s25f1a ,rtF,,
.;e
7s25f14 7sz\f1a 7s2sf14 7s25f1a 7s25fra 7s25fta
6d1 tu12 od3 oia 6d> oi! od7 aag ou 6d10 6d1d7p1 6d1d7p2 6d107p3 6d1n7p4 6d1t7p5 6d1d706
57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
EIEt'J+ La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
6s25d1 6s241 6s2473 6s2474 6s2475 6s2476 6s2477 6s24f7 6s241e 6s241to 6s24711 6s24712 6s24713 6s24714
lxel 5ilt si'
89 90 91. 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102
e+Elts+ Ac Th Pa U No Pu Am Cm BK Cf Es Fm Md No
7s2d1 7s26d2 7s25f2 2s2573 zs26fa 7szsf6 7t'V' zs2sf7 7s257e 7s2s710 7s25711 zs2s712 zs2sf13 7s25y1a
tRnl 6d1 6dt odl odl
f4 x-^
EE= Ble+
O-
Ni. pd, pt= -E+ ee +orrr. ral 6.3ror^r or ?^=, E^r-H,,^r= s*?.r-ers-+ur, or +
H0ll^l ndel + 1)s eHlEJol 0llLl^l= oltr rJzlTl9lq.n
(n + ?l=71-?
I =ExlE
8GJ qHI
ENUH
119=
z]z] 19.9o/oe1 80.1%oltl. (a) F Tlrl EPI flA=
fl^l flE soJ EA= + 7l^1591 fl^+ '0Bl[
^l.E01l =rt|clzl
=^H-dt[.
olEzl Ll=71? 10Bzl.11Bsl d^l-HH^l= o]E-Ell rl-=71.? b) fl^tel erlg E^l.utl^l EE'= ral^19. olu aol fl^1.71-E
118
^l.P
(c)Ei q 1se[2s E^l=01 rfE 6-9.-d 0l+ Tlxl= (d) EA E4= uJ8olG BF3 7l^]l= trJ=tf.
^loJ7l? ^'tl ^l4dlll9. =+9aJ4
rillE^e[=+gal 7l^11 EJ8e.l EE "J='J84E ^ 119. (e) BFgG)"| AHr'g -1135.6 kJ/mololE[. E ei=+galol U30ll^1
EC fl!=tr| Eal.= Z1116l-^19. (0 10sr.e[11er.0]1.^j FE traJ H-qEE3 ,J?)l? +e+8, r ol+= +%.oJ7l?
268 SB| 3^lel 8^[+4
(b) SCg e-HlgE dzl HHxl= Els-r+ AEl. (e) AIf :2(-ll3s.6)-[o+o]: --2271.2 klola, H]¤+ ,J
q+ gg q}*o14.
1t lt 1 (0 al :.ro(:.:¤)9lrl 'J i gl=ol, qH Eeg 7C fla
1s 2s 2p $e] A+ EEgg clql^l=Jq "+4 g4{+. + Eg g
glxleu+oluiEgl(,0s: to.ot294 amu, 11B:
4gzl
flzlz| {zlg 4E+ aag dz}olr}. rs2 dzt
zs2e} zpt ^$
11.00931amu), 10BF39| "BFrE plg}4=Jg +e+. 44
E [He]44 s¤q= qd dz]s +qi¤ dz] tsl]7l= +
3.loql^l +^I= E6[zl gJ:zlrrJ +E7[ E+zlgtr
44H Lselzs2zpr o1 4as grf. ^'l ^l
(c) lse}2s eElES E+ +eol+. rq+ +s'J.{l z}zl zf
{r.t 4E9s B+TlEl.
=+9flg
eE "i es Eq
"!ol El8al IIE+(^1E, 6.1E) g^IE drl 7=(electronic tl-. ol E¤9 +i fl^l qlqzl=
#Sri#(principal quantum
structure)t qlq^le} g^fE dal El]il¤-¤B6J+. ql+Eg qr+ number)4t n,,191 93dll. n4k9..J9 ti(t,2, 3, ...)olo|
E,Jel ^Js +¤¤ +A4q Ee g^I9 dzl +eE "J + 9lEl. o1_r., rg ,+ ,,*+
^ls +E 5d+
qlqzl E,ql 6]l'J*El. gz} ql
7f^l+dr+ 94 zlzl +^I qlq^lrln "JBjd trtzt +ri,U Llzl= nol 67t6J++ 6zLaJ4. ,l* *! qlq^l= n:r4 4*
(electromagnetic radiation)$ c:2.998x t08 m/s9 qq +EE oln, olag +f gzl9 upJ fEll(ground state)4r 6JEI. E rl
tl+g F6ll olE"6J4. dz}Tl +^I.tJg sISilH +7l4oE H6I E " ?,IZ gz}9 # dEfi(excited state)91 61lBBJtr]. d^l-=ol +g
d7l4 ctsa} zlzl4 cE¤ ,*=+. +^L qlq^lel irl.tL 5^J qLl^l dr-ele 4Bjg ql qg HJ=-JLI. *
= "llHzl t4"llrl *g
g uJfJ(wavelengrh, n)rl tlE#(frequency, u)-E ¤HaJ + gln, 3 9lHzl ^JEUql^l +g qlLJxl *4e dzl¤ol # ql Hg g+
i,u: c9 +AlrI 9l+. tL+. ,J+ E= ¤-++ q9 dE++ hv Ttol g^lE + Tlzl -d+
grlitE ollLlxlel Brt(6.2tr) PlanckE olrlal $zllzf gZ+ g tL4 ,JE qlLlzl il-e+ eg "I qg %r-=6I4Ll ¤+6JEI.
g + 9l= 4^E +^I9luJxlb +^IdE 41F+e+ E:hvg sAl EEelEl.Ei8(0.aE) De Broglie= dxl-s+?9 g4o1 ffi$ zJ$
7f glEln all.J6l-flE1. o1q+ :z,la$g qlLlzlE Btr](quantum) CeS +r}Ur+n 8loJ6f9+. EEiil(matterwave)9 ,Hg ¤E
+.7 6J4. *+ h¤ Planck S(Planckconstant)4tr 6|-L, /,: 4 oe d^l sl¤g +e4q +8619+. EiI= r Ez]E ee
6.626x to-34 1-solu1. (momentum), a \: hlmv4l 9l=61= 54 i+1rg ,*=tl.
"J,++qj1, olag qE
oJ^I olEql^l 9lHzlE -"1¤: Zt"J zL¤ Heisenberg9 EEltl¤ Elzl (uncertainty principle)$ +E 6J d^I
+ glrl= 19 9"1{14. EinsteinS ++ EEql^l qoe dzl-E e,l u+*
^JaE
gde oJzte.l gile} ¤+=6tg E^lql ga6l+ a
qlq Lil: EJd Eat(photoelectric effect)9 ¤¤ql "Jzl olEg elsE ts¤a_sg zllaJaJrlr al4"J+.
^l-S
6l-9+. r= qol ufil tfil(photon)4L .J^t qlq^l +tstr +C
g^t q-47t 9Hl=J(6.5tr) +i flzlE "J^l- qq} esoll.! {z}el
g ailH zlE"+E}7 4 "J^IE E:huq qlLJzl= 3
H}6k}
^ll"J6fgEl. Zl# q= #(wave tunction)4E +CI4 6J+E ¤E6Ii1, rr-l
4 E^l0tr E7l6Jrt. 4 6l+ E+¤ Ct+= aq6l4l .Jzlt1 qlq^l
+4 flxtotl^lsl Bohr -E'E(6.3$) +^l-dg ¤B :lltleE E4I6I dx}gzlE e+4r]l + H-2. s_alq +49 q
=,*zl"J, =Ag
s +nl=El(spectrum)g ^Jc++. ^uleflol EE rltg g6J6f A.J Aql q¤, f ffi density, ,1,')a
"JE(probability 4
H e!+ r4EgJ(continuous spectrum)olz|-tr 6Jr+. qB 5+6J ,l- ={g
484. trt=JE(electrondensity) eE= *+E E= dql^l dz}
a-EJ I '^EEHg fl +a:l=aJ(line spectrum)olz|:z oJ Ed9 4sol4.
=4l6lE,
trf. EE +i: g^fql^l ,J¤'J +^idg d
^JC+E+. +^ g^IE -"1+ r++ ++= eHt=J(orbital)ol3ln 6J+. 6J sHl
BohrE d ^EEH$
¤g6f: +i fl^}g EBg zlloJd}H Be ^-ll TIzl oJzI+ ilql dl'J6I= a+el +alE 46Jq_E ¤H+
^EEBS
*+ 5a 269
6F4
iH Z{Pl
o-l 0t 8E E+El +oil qajEe q¤¤ g + ?lolot Ettrt
. 4zlzl +^IdE ultlol +qAg ql dE+E al4I6IA+, 415 . *4"l= Eale] r}1lg 7{}4(0.a¤).
fzl-i{d$ ql sltl¤ 4l.tI6JEl(6.rp). +¤ s+E4l:6.47- 6.so
+H g++41:6.re- 6.2r . dzlel ag olgzl .JzI9 9lzl4 +Fp6}g 7l+6J trll E+cc
, 44zl +^Idel ++E ++4 "llulxl"ll qr+ +g gr.lq Edl jr C+dol 9ul{f xlltg E=71-= ¤Hd4(e.+
^EEHql^l
tlEI(6. 1e). +H g+ E4l : 6.rs-6.r8 ¤). +¤ g+ E4: 6.st,s.s2
.*utE rlE++ ul+q el"Iq ollulxlE 4l4i6lr. r *aql ql . grx65 _sHlgg ,ll+ "t a"+e+ ¤+an, sElB -EoJe_l ifol
6l ¤B¤I+(6.24. +¤ ¤+S4l: 6.2s,6.26,6.2e,6.31 q qldl galq}r|(e.sd). +E g+ +-41: 6.ss, 6.s7,6.61,6.62
. flzt 4 dzlE oJ^I+g t4l4 flzt9 d +fl^lq . g^t eHlgE o}^l-oJ6J qE Q}+= 6114ajr[(0.e¤).
^EEHS
¤BaJ4(0.rd). +H S+ +.41 : 6.36, 6.41, 6.42, 6.44 +B ¤+ ¤.41: 6.s3, s.s4,6.66
270 63 fl^tE E^t+^
.4dz} flxl.$ eulp$ qq^le+ +^ fl^l-E sHlgE qlq^l7f sHlBql q Bal !l+lzlk^lE ¤H+trI(6.8¤).
qB7ll. E eI +E^l ¤BeL4(6.7¤). +¤ g+ E4l: 6.67,6.68 +¤ g+E4:6.11,6.6e
.4dzl- +lzl9 sHlgq q6J qq^l EEg f.el-a, pauli .+7lgEE ol+6}q +EE d^l ullxl$ zltrofa. g^Iq fl=
=91
ull4 galel Hund #49 ol+6lq fl^lel ulEI tr-Elql^l d^t7| gd^tq ,ll+E ea6J+(6.ea). +H g+ #^\: 6.7s-6.78
-=.o HFe-Al
OJJ- E o -i
')w:c [e.t] u[*eg^J9 H: l,:v]t(m), u:41#G-'), ,:Hgl +E
Q.ssaxlo8 m/s)
'E--hv La.zl E^t(rJ^l)q^19 H: s:*zI9
qlq40), h:planck tf
(e.ezezx to-34 l-s), u: Tlt+G-t)
. s: (-hcR11)f+)
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: Gz.r8 x ro-,'ll(4)
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[0.s] +4 gz]E 6l+¤ {}qlql^]9 .ll.lzl: h:planck tf, ':H
el +E, Rs :Rydberg *i!.ogazzax 107 m-1), n: t, 2, 3,
... eJg A+)
' )t: hlmv [0.e] oJz]$ ir]FC: r:ir]^], h:Planck *i, *:g4q A*
v:549 *s.(m/s)
(tg),
'J+ +41
.=o+ l{= TllLl
6.1 20"C. a4t *7lql^19 s43 ra: m/sol-r., elrJ9 +lz|
,JzlE i llE ztzJ *g +uls.l a{f5 44 zo Hzol4.
t6.1¤l
(a) ol ++9 irfttg 4l&6}^1s..
(b) +le+ Ag irl+s z|{ {xizlu}el +u}+b gE}oJ7}?
(c) ol5 q¤ +BEdzlzlul9l+61+zp (a) (b)
6.2 gHl4ql +%I 7l7lq^15 t5iz} 2450 MHzoJ dz} 6.4 g9 gE= E+ +e+. Eol HB ql 4ee j13ql^l HJ¤
'la+
zlvlzf *=¤4. rB 6.48 +aq.q q-g eEq B'6f^le-. qb qel 5tq1 E"ll +4f4. Efg+ zlzl psq u3'94
^ll
[6.1e] (i) L+^q EE E+q= 4"J, (ii) n++4 Etr E
^l-d"l+.
(a) oldzfTlvlgl
"++g 4l&6}^le_. +q= sr]gzl?]E r.la, (iii) +e4g q= E + s?-le^f
(b) +,3; 717lq 9oI
^JC¤ dzlzlulE +oJ_s_E +eg + 4E 4ezl+^
ol L 7LO gEzi +7161-= +^J4E Eg +g6f^le.
)i-t:/ l: (a)
^ll
(c) *d!xl *=+H, ol {x}zlu}el $zli z}.tl$rj9 *u} (b) (a)9 Bg dqdJ,ll q-$q^l qH gflql
=7]dI9=7I?
B+ trl E*g qlqxl= 7*Y71, EJ 4e qq4$ z*Yzl? EqAd gEl, r*d Er+, +ill +^l-, d -'-olefl [6.2¤1
(d) ol d¤+q dzlTlE¤ Bl=6lE +* 7l7lY +i9l7p
(t)e-95,'-q, (iil z$zlqloJzl, (iii) d7l*gqlolE
6.3 +¤. rHg azvl dxlTlul¤ ?* 4ee "tEl,+fl+.
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q
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6.5 4H"l gl%Lgql el"ll qaElE +zlzl c^Jol LiElutrl. t6.3¤l olElt dol + q¤ lol z|.<l${$ tt}=ol B^J6l+7}? EJ
(a) fxlzllsl
"J+ql^l Ele+otr a++ +^l7H
qq +tlg E r++E q¤ l.Jzl?
rt7ft;litl. *t:i;lY7p (b) $zlzflel Hla+otr a++ q 6.8 6J 7ll9 d^l¤ 7l^lr.9l* zlt9 gzlfl 4lzl9i4. oI4 :
9 1lt+E +716],E-71. +^61+7p Hq +q\i dz}"il 4aJ r+.Ei EI+: x:091^.1 x:2rvl^loll
.r.J r/(x) :sin(x)o1r|. [0. s¤1
(a) r=o*E x:2vttlzllltJ dzl-= BA6J q¤ I'JE ,1"@)¤
f.El^19.
o) qL x9 {lEqlrl dxl-E ga6J ffiol z}1t;iz}r
(c) $zlzl x:zoll^l dzlzt SdB ffi$ $ufolzl? irlt +
foil! r=la3 ^ldg +Eol4n aiEzl?
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5 A
6 eq. rflql ol + 6i+EJol e4 g^l-9 Blq {}4.= +4r]
E gHie d^l- Ellilol+. qL aol gHlE dz} ullxlolz|?
pauli u1]4 fl491 gull9E d^l Ellil= q- aqlTl? qL
-218 n:1,
(iii) d^I EllilTI Hund fzlgl g]u11q5z|! l0.s3J
(b) 4 dolql qldl ,J=qE rutzlel ollulul$ 4lt}6l^le-. ETIUll^IA lt 1l 1t
(c) 4 dol9l .l"i ,J=q: irltlg 4l&61^le-. 1
"Jz}e] 1s 2s zp
272 6¤| 3^lel !^l+^
dxlH|]^l B lt lt 1 1 1
6.18 +g dz}Tl +^I.del +B# ulA-ol +716I= +^.ls Llg
6I^19.
1s2: 2p
(a) gE gd-+ glql q6lq gdq= rJ"Id
BL^|d
d^f (b) e3.1 tvtHzgl ?lb ru 4qsg A+
EH^l C
1t lt 11 1
(c) 6s0 kHzoll 9lE au +qsE d+
1s 2s 2p
(d) iE e-e.+qE g^Jq= rL+ H
TleEo
8^l H|]il D (e) 4l4}zl s.^l$r+ ae g+ 4oleEq EA H
1t 1t 1 1 I
1s 2s 2p 61, (") El*ol ^ll+9 qiq4ql uzltl ro pmE 7*b +^IdE
6.12 Elg grEol +Tlgsql^J qqql +lil6f=zl B:61-^ls
Tl5+E gu}.Jzl?
(b) s.s0x l0r4 s-rg 4l#E r*= +^Idg EIA-g gEloJTp
[o.s¤]
(a) flzfz| dzf9 dzl- ullil7l,1s2,?p5oJ gi
(c) *9 (a)e+ (b) Ezllql^lel +^ldg be-e E + ?lE7P
(b) A'll ,l|9 p gdzl¤ A= fl^
(d) {z}zlu}5 50. 0 ps F.J.ll 9"}"J=.9 7l r]= 11461+7}?
(c) gxlz| {x}z} +s2ap'oJ g} 6.20 (a) ++ol 0.86 nm"J 4rld9 Tl# guloJzl? (b) 6.4
(d) d +q fl^ x 10rt s4!¤+E
'e.l
r+E (c) $
+^rdE 4^J* g"t"Jzl?
E E4lql fl: +^Idg
(a)e+ (b) xd A¤7lq 94^l A^l
9=zt? (d) {x}zlu}y 0.38 ps Fq}ql g'}el 4?.lE {86}
Y7l?
,Jgql^l qlolxl soJEl= 650 nmg qg g^d-Jr+.
^l-SqE
ol+^l-dE tlt+Y EoloJzI? a4 6.4= ola"al.{ ol ++
-o:rql E+¤ 49 ql+6l.^le.
6.22 a*4^lz ol+6}q +^I qqzlE {zl ollr;lxle d+6}E a
ol zp'"olr|. d++ Egol F"6IEta ztCal ql, 4Edr| zI
Ed qL aol *af t 4q 47lloilulzl= EJ tr*ol ^JtI6l
='
Y7l?
gelEt&l(6.1E)
gxt6[E ollLlxlet Br(6.2tr)
6.13 (a) Hel EltL, 6) HE {#, (c) qg {s.91 4oJ zl$ st 6.23 qflolg 7171 r-!)e de-e gx1-;19+8. dt}4+
E+]E +TOJ7P q qq r qilolE =:7161+
,lY qB4
9iz}?
6.ra (a) +^l qqzlE ultlr+ d++ ^plqlE qB +Alri 9l: (il qfl"lE 7lb dqi Safzl fj$ {olr}.
7l? $) qlTle.l tL¤=q *b s=g 210-z3o nm ule} Hfl9 (iil
"lflol9 7l: Zl+dl^l ^lB aolEl.
HqlqzlE g+'J+. ol EI+E +^tdg dz|71 r.EEHg (iii) olgolE 7lE tl {q rEE4 z}B aolq.
q! ++ql oilt+9}z}? (,v)
"lflol9 7l:6J Hql6ulE4 zlB a"l+.
6.ts rl-g 4 tl¤"il 46Iq 'ql'E='olqe's s7l6l^ls. 6.24 Einstein9 l9OsLJ tld Er+ql ql.J ¤+ E+3 Planck9 oJ
(a) z|,rlgt.$s- d^I7l +^HJg ¤4o14. 7I¤g alae.;-g'al 68-aJ ¤4o14. planck$ zl./jg
^f
(b) zfe]dg 7|^l+dtrE+ a qttg ?*Yr+. Einsteinol zl,tle.l olE"J *d arg ¤Bg q q
^'l¤6}n,
(c) xdg ufolrEu]-H4 rJ uule.z.ll t4+E+. +41 olzl7I¤g
^l-8-6I9E^l =E6I^le.
(d) dzlzl +^fd4 ¤.ul= ee +E.e d.J++. ('rs (^) 4#7l2.e4xtot4 s-roJ dz}Tl +^IdE qlqzl
"J4
6.15 El-s d¤+ q! aolEH=zl aa6tn, raE¤.nil^le-. E 4l&6}^le.
(a) 4rld9 4lt+= EI^Jol 671'Jql rI4?zld4. (b) +^Jol 413 nmoJ +^ldel qlLl^l= Al&6f^le-.
*^l
(b) dzlzl +^Ldg irltlr+ +zlsol d+ +q^J g46J + l.J +^|cE irla-g gEfoJTp
(c) *zI qlLJalTl 6.06x l0-re
E= 7}dtrl.
6.26 (a) qlol^J soJqql^l BL¤E +^q H9 ul^J* s:znmol4.
(c) 49d* 7l^l*-,UBq q
+e dt'+E r*E+. ol HE Tj¤+= g"loJz}?
(d) quEql^lE g*, d4ql.J^l 489 9lulzl. e]414 c (b) S-^I6J ZIE qlLlzl= go}glzi?
zlg E+ d^l7l +^HJg ¤4o14. (c) 4lolzJ sqlq= Ee .JE {z}z} {xloll Ed H}q t}Ell
6r rlg {z}zl $,<}.rjel ao$59 ir}a-ol +7}6}E +^Js qg
'IEq qol *=gE|. dzl¤
ql^J E= tqls dolqTl
6I^19.. g Hlq qE:oIrJ rll s:z nm9
^J4e 4^l "*zI9 BqlE
zle]d, +4*, 4^4%I, 4qsu| xd, ^Ield r+*E qlq^l= SE+. ol qlolzl Eeg Hlq t}4e+ E
=*
3rl 273
E ^J=ll ^tolE
qlqzl +49 gEloJTt? 0) ol q9 q-Alg Alt6.l^ls.
6r? (c) z|.t1r34 gqg qg ol+6}q rfolel$ ++ee+El d
(")e]-zg-ol 3.3pmglr*^l-e+, +a-ol 0.1s4nmt*xlE qlLl
zlE EII6}jr Al&61^le_. BL¤^lrJ 7lbc"l ?l=71?
^l-=
(b) rg 6.4E +361q, 4 sltr-ol +6J d^f7l EEHE (d) rfoleft:o1 233 nm9 q¤. ++*48, %IeB dz}g 5l
gqg E+oJ6l^le-.
ql ¤¤ ollulxlE 9"1-"JzI?
6.28 AM ?+qeb 1010 kHzoll^l *+g+. ESI FM **¤ ss.: Bohr eE, EEEt(6.3tr, 6.4tr)
MHzql^l *+g+. + 4qs,J+ql e-l6ll EJ=q= *zI9l 6.3s +A $zls-l {z}zf m: r .r}r}lol.r-1 r=3 t4E EHg Ell +
ul zl g ullaf{ Al4}6}^le. g^I:'S+61+7I?.'++'d+71?
^
6.2e 32s nm +rJ +=9 uv qg q+= arl 4++. 6.36 +ge] 5-1tol '$ olzl, '7lll'.J^lg EF6l^19-
(a) ol rllLel $zl. ollulxli golq,lzl-? (a) n--3 tL4"J +4 flzl+ szl F zll9 +a irltql^l"J q
(b) ol r.+zls-lgqlLl^lE 9ol"Jz\? g *='J + 9t+.
(c) ol +^l-dol I!l=g trll 1.00 -t "J9l *zli= (b) n=2 tEll?_l +^ 9zl* r:1 tlql"J ullBq *g qq^l
=46lb r*=EI.
9olq-lzf?
(d) ol uv *^lE q+ql 9l= El+4 a'Jg #q vl =
(c) %rxlz| uJ=+ qlqzl= g*ql +flE F tqlq qlLlzl
^l*E
+ ^-llEql +tLg +q AZI EHgtrI. 325 nm9 +rldol il.lel a+.
'l+ql 9lE +q eEtg #g + gluJxlb
9l= ¤+ olluJzl$ xll 67 ;-a Sz1glrl +g. d^I dolzt .JgB rll glHzlzt EJ¤q=
*rJqE, r +cL e$59 Et "l$zll l}zl z|. gfslizfz
kllmol Et9ls +^l-4 e-tr 4l^l6l^ls. @) n--a414 n:2a
6.30 +^ldo ++El +g qlq^l= 3rlq a.Jg #g + 9l+. cl, tlzl-$o] 2.12 AoJ sElBql^] HI^lE"l a.ao AoJ eul9
(b)
q^l g^-gi a.Jg #= ql gs6J 4^ qlq^l= 242ktl E dol¤ ql
molol4. ol A.Jg #g + 9lE 44 qq^lE 7i1l +^Id (c) dz}t-J /171H* olgql trj6ll4^l m:: 44q1 gl9 4
I ir}1}e ts"]-oJzl? ol q4-g d^l-71 +^f-dE qL ++ql 6.38 +^ flz}qlrl rl-* tzl dolzf .J"lB 41 9lHzlzl %I=EIE
qlBq=71? 71, ++5iY71?
(iiil,?f :3oEE dolE ¤q_s_-+ * 6.sl El+ E^llql^l Heisenberg E+C¤ g4E ol+61-q 9zlE
HJ¤94. ^trlEHg ^fe.ld Eqadg al4}6}^le-.
^l7f
(iv) nr:3oE9 doli rr:2oJ trIe+ aq4zl eg irl.* (a) +o.ot m/s9 t+C¤ 7l^1jt- 1.40 m/s9 44 e-e. *zl
o e *ulz| BI=g+ olE t.so mgel e.zl
(b) Balmer 4ltsql^l ry:3, 4, sg ql gq^l= zl¤-^ll ZIE (b) (s.0010.01)xr04 m/sE szlolb %FczI("Jc4q a=J
de-l ul+s 4l&6fii. rH 6.tlel B-= r-EEHql^J r e 4 s^l .J+ql 7lE {}+sql xll^lqq il+.)
,J= dE¤ +t6f^ls. 6.52 (a) (:.oo+o.ot)x los m/s9 4s.e gz1o15 d^1, O) eg
6.42 Lyman 4lgq +4 g^IE EE 9lulxl 6
%I= dg nt:r9 4s.e .$4o1' +^Jzlql ql+ +lxlel E+{dg Z1416l
E^l oJ+ 7le t+sql xil^lq
9l= sEt+trt. ^le(+d^IE d*3 4
(a) Lyrnan Zlgel %l= dol ++q= gqg dz|Tl /-EIE q9lEl).
Hql^l q! ++ql dlrJqbTt? (c) (a)4 6)E utg ufe.retr, "1tr 4ol dzf E= +^Jztg
(b) Lyman Zlgql^l \:2,3,4'J EI ?q^l= a d4 d 9lzlE BEI Cq6lrll .J i 9lEzt?
^ll
4E r}+g 4l.t}6}^le_.
srl q+4 flrl eHl=J(6.5tr, 6.6tr)
+^ g^le1 %L¤ d +ql irl1ol +^ldol glEl.
e3.07 nmoJ 6.s3 trIgE +tlol '+'9lzl, '4zl'.Jzl z
+^Ide dzlTl -\EEHE qB gqq qlBq=7|?
(a) ol
E EI6l^19.
-6'a3(b) ol +^Id4 +¤E qlq^l 691(,)9 4r)1k+ 4+Atg
(a) q7l^l 44t zp 9EIEE F
AA6i^le-. r.tr *.¤ql^1, 2p 9-HIBE d
6.44 +i g^l+ l0e4 nm uI*9 Hgg+'J+ 9t+. zli E¤q HIA EEqIEJ +
(a) $zlzl.trlEHE qL gEq^J ol ++¤ +g + 9lE .Juil^l g{q,lE+
7l? (b) 5+E "JE [,/(r)]'9 q-g.tr.+El
(b) olg4gSfl¤ ,19 ir)*a+ 4+rtg eA6l^le. dzl-= BaB
=Aql4Elq^l
6.4s trF_q_4 ?ol 49¤ +4 g^l-E ollulzl {ol5 ¤+9= qel ++3'Jq
=E+.
d+fz} shoJ aql^l alqlql ael +e-e +g6}^ls. 6.s4 rBg 2s eHlB9l qle %r-^t B-6J e+E EL+¤ ++u aolq.
r:391^.1 n:6, n:a414 n:e, n:2414 n:3, n--r9rl4
n:2
6.46 ++4'Jol 4EB +^ gz}9 qlHzl d"l= ++q= H9
ul^Jol zllt 5}g aql^l 7l* 4 ael +se +g6f^le-. 9l
+71? pr 9.HlB+ ds-r, tulqq '%I6J4'5"'39 u1:lo| (c) n:5, l:3, ru:2 (d) n:a,l:0, w:0
^ls(+
qg grrjee E*+rJt qL gqql^-l d^l "J 6?3 (^) 'flxlzl-dxf+ +9.oJ7I?
E7l d6qq flEzP). O)'qC+ dzl'*+'l.JzI?
(c) 2s eul$$ 3s sHlBql^l Eqql^l d^PfzlE B+ rlqql (c) eulg E-E oJq 449 +zl= +Eg qEl6l=7|?
48ll^J Eljil EE6I^le_. (d) g-ulg E_s.ql^J HI+ E+gs7l +4ql= .Jg +E"J7I?
(d) +^ sulBE¤ qlHzlz} +7161+ +^]ql
gzlql^J trl-g-
+gsE EJ"J$ +Eg 444bzl-?
E +g6}^ls(7lr+.Ja+ ag a H4lE 6}^ls-). 6.74 L+* 4 g^ql ql4 Htq t'-qlql^lel gxPr d^1, 4C+ d
4f,6s,3d, ts,2p gdzlE +E LlElLli^le-.
^L
6.66 (a) rB 6.leE +r6}q, s eElB9l 9lE "t49 +e+ +"J (a) da (b) +4
E^ (c)
^I.+
Ael +Zl= +tqlrt? u1g5 ,l!l qd+ +elq dxl Ellil= rl-* flzI
(b) 2p,9ul$$ rs sulBgl^l {x} ujsz} ooJ E}q +¤ + ^l-&6I¤,
q .16I +.J¤ dx} ullzlp irr.l9-.
oJ6I^19_. -o-25(a) Cs (b) N (c) Se (d) Cd (e) U (0 Pb
(c) :B 6.1eq flE %r-^I %L6J +E.J+e+El gg + 9t= 6.76 t++ gzlql ql'6J +EB dat El]ile+ 449 g{x}s.l z}1ffi
atrE +fioJ7l? , ,(lg.
(d) +^ szlglrl El-g- i!HIBE¤ qlulzlz| +7i6I= +^lE
Llg6I^19.
(a) Mg (b) Ge (c) Br (d) v (e) Y (0 Lu
trl+ 44q 4^l Ellilql 6ilEJ6I* g4= AC6Iz. gd^rg
3s, 2s,2p, 5s, 4d
zllffiql9.
Eldxl fl^lel drt uHxl(6.7E-6.9E) -677(a) ts22s2 (b) ts22s2zp4 (c) [ar]+s1:d5 (d) [Kr]ss2+dt0sp4
6s? (") ne* olgglrl 2s*2pY rJg qlq^lE 7*i7l? O) "JE
276 68 g^tE E^t?4
6.78q¤. {z} uflzloll El'}61+ g^q +¤. aa6}a, 9dz}9 +^1tr d7.l7l-eHlBol il]+lzlzl ?*ltzl ullE"ll flzI
zllffi a.rle. =
q ql+ Hlq ^J4 {zf u}lzl$ 4e}4zl ?*=E+. 4 qql^l
(a) [Hl$C tl{l) nsznps + ¤21? q! aol 9u1l99bzl +4lil^ls.
(b) tulgd zl4ll ns2(n-t)* (a) 1s22s23sr (b) [xe]6s25d4 (c) [Ne]3s23ds
(c) [H]9{ zl4ll ns2(n - t)dtonpl 6.80 trlgg d^f tsllilE Eg tlEilE +4u+. 44ql 6iBF.lE
(d) tElgC tplll nsz(n - 2)f6 gAE a46lr.. HLq {r.qlE +"JB dz} ullile r.r1e.
czg ++e uI¤4 uil4 gelE 9lts1li{2]4 glHxlz} +7}6t (a) ts22s22p43st (b) [er]astld'o4p'5p' @) lKr)ss2t*spt
ql "J+ t4l
ggql
4* + 4e-l dzlzlul9l ^ul=89 7I^l gqq^J +ridol BI=qE gAE eC
Annnn
o.sr .]]6Iq B-6I^le. (a)
6I^19_.
T]
6.e2 rB 6.eql^le+ +^I+ dEeE, ql"J*el ,\ulefl$ lr.ts
6it-s-tr a=6IE "JqdEol +E6}rll +ElklEl. olfl d
^l
E
5 5g, le^ll7l a ol dl}g d+4_9-.tr. ¤+d +qiztg olE
oil g trl^l Fraunhofer{ol+l EB6}fl4. zgsoA4 ro,oooA
Ll
^tolel
ElloJ 44 zs,ooozHq dol +4l.Jrl.
^l
0
^EEHql^l
Fraunhofer{ol+ q"J 4zlgl lli zl;ll $z}oll Eql ql"J9
'g^l'x}ql^lel .Jc6J El+ol g+qq
ug ^Ja aol+.
T!# -------> (a) 4oJ 5C6.J El+g qg g+61+ r+Cg
^4EBql^J
¤B6l-^le.
[6.8e] +4 g^Pt n:191^l n:aa # rll El-g E-q-ql B:.I^le. (b) qL Fraunhofer{ol qtr fl^(ql= EE qlg)ql qlBq
(a) ol {ol$ 4l+ ai+= Fflq_lzl-?
6Jnz|al$, zlTtgl^l= qB ¤eg +q.il+ 6l
(b) {olzf ol-flolzlzl $laN 5611op 6l+ qg u}*9 9"} =^l 7l¤61-^ls.
oJTl?
=^l
(c)fa g^l-= EE{
fl6i ^l-$-E 6)ql^'lE HtrtrI
6l-71 6.e3 +A flztql 'H{L q+ oJ^}+ aE-ol 44 -.1+q=4
^J¤
dl-^le_. -ol+q^l ?+= olzl+ a6Jql ql6ll^lE +Eol +*
#e ++E qg ^Fc.6J A+ qBZl 4Ytl?
qflbxl¤ zl!a]-.rle.
(d) (b)e+ G)ql^-19 a+= e+ +4 6.8sql^l
't4B ss : 4,1 : l,ffir : 2,m, : -L
e+ qB4 *fl219 i "JEzI?
(a) n
(Ir) n : 4,1 : 3,mr: -3,*,: +L
6.90 (c) n : 3,1 : 2,t?tr: _1,m, : +;
^144 +^l,l$e 44 q= ulet9 zlrl+ril Hl¤¤,*+. (d) tn : 5,/ : 0,ffir: O,ffi, : O
rBq^lq d 4{r-e tzl d9 +ts6}zl +l6-J aolq. (e) n: 2,1 : z,mr: 1,m,: +L
(a) ol reql^J 4 =oF9 q Azlillql 46lq 4ql ++"-lql (c) (b)91.! ,ll.J+ +4lE cs* ol¤9 Elq ttql ql
^l-*6}q
4+ *zl qlLl al= 4l&61-^ls. qzl= ql+61-^ls.
(b) 6lE4g 4zl EzI9l Ee 4.JH9 4}+se AAE+. t6.esldz}6J 7H7I +4 47l* +ql^l 7l+qq 2.lsx 10-rs Je.l
ole+ ag H4l+ e.Lr-g
=l=e
g7a3 r+qzl +,EL
^l ¤E gluJzl= gH+. oltrll Eqzl: uI^Jg 9"l"J7l? (d
278 65l g^tet !^l+^
E: gz]ol= 5!19 e+ ollulxlE B : lmfolt-, ol4l ,,1 +¤ol gl= ol+b +E.J7I?
e E4E e=*olJ., uE 5419 +Eol+.) (b) 4s0 MHz9 Affi ,*b *^ld r.+z|$ gfe] olzlaf
6.e6 gqlHld ¤tlE"J Star rrekollrl olE +trql 'B rH 6.27q1^l AEE Ag Zl&6}^le.
^l-&61+ =
(c) a50 MHz9 olxfzf $:199, +i gzl-E dzl E= oJ
++dg.?+
4$(beam down)'3 Starship Enterprise
q ecel EH4 ee q= +liltr +rJ ol+g ol C^Ig Hslzl9ld=zt?
^Fs
/-g ^g
6IE ++ol+. ol '4Ele] 4l+zfE'Heisenberg -H-{71 [6.10r] "]zh(zJ] i tlzltl o]q+ ^'ll 7l^l *g 714 +
(compensator)'+= elil= ol5 Hq gr1ql
^I*61fl+. 914r. zl-aalB. olelt z|{ol izl$89 ag+E] Lll fl
olE cl+4'J zfluJol;<lrJ Heisenberg9 E+CC tlr-lE B\ +7lvl^14 gz} Hsql qB g6J-9 ulzliz|!
ul6}7l 9.l6lq olBl.J gEE,tf$al {olrll. *dq +7lgE= ^h&6}q +EB dal ullzl$.r,t;r. HlqI
"lrl+ 6.102 tqlql
4"J71? r olf¤ ¤B6I^le_. *E gdz}9 +=. AA6I^le.
^J ^l-s"g
l6.e7l 416.44q1 9l= "+A+ E+AC gzl"ql^J ¤BE qle, (a) Br (b) Ga (c) Hf (d) Sb (e) Bi (f) Sg
gqCdE Bee +C +A6Ijr^I q+ alq ,r+ S,ol 6,103 44zF=9 r26H g^= lICg + 9lfi 5ds+g + 9lg
^l
E +Col g7l+6}+= aolq. cs,e 44rj "Jccg 7txlr. 9lg 4ol+n ++6ll strI.
(a) ;tEl tiol olg^l 9zl-59 9lzlE +cg + s.= ol+ ol g4= +qIB dzl ullils r+4lll^lll.
L"
tEHr-oJ+ E_a1!
+tr}. _s=g g+6}q &4 Ezle+ 414 gz}tr *. 6.108 (a) flAEq {z} uflrlel +dq^J +¤. 4}cl¤-,==r+ 2.749
^Iqdg
E6llg4. olg a.J slql$el BCg ¤¤6}^ls. K2o, cao, Sc2o3,
os(g) .-----oz(s) +o(s) Tio2, v2os, cror 0) ol &!+E¤q ol$$ *^19. (c) 4
++ cE ^l-s"6}9 ol HI+ql ql+ qlB l HEI^= 41416l^l g E+q= ++ 4I+Eq td flEEl(kl mol-') 61o1 91i;-.
s. ol ^Iel.Sol %[e"l]= 9]t +E+ qqzl= z[z]n llQ tlElE KzO(s) CaO(s) TiOz(s) V2O5(s)
H, rle4E glal "Jzl9 3l.I +a-e g"|oJzl? LHi -363.2 -63s.1 -938.7 -lssO.6
qL +Eol olEI*ql ^trlEHE
dl$ElEzt? trl-ge.l
'JHI4"J Hl+q^l 4 A+ql 4+ qlB4 Hcl¤ 4l
6.107 sz} HA 72ol alsfi{hafnium)S Elqq^l "*g E+g g 416I^ls.
el"JgA4. s%l-^E plolzl c. urbainS lellLJql q.e.+ MnO.(s) +Hz@) .+zM(s) +mH2O(g)
(ss-zrB gd)+6JEEel g^l HE 7294 flzl ?+ 4+= fl.J +B *+ ++ HI*!g zl+61-= aol gs
^lE-E+q
+q6}9+a +tt6}Htrl. r44 Niels BohrE 6IEEol "J 1o14. -felr. +^l AIfE 4l&61^le.) (d) +q{
= qE+sB+E EnE (zirconium)4 EI4l cJ A ga ql 7la6lq Sczo:(s)9 LHi 4Ig +6}^le.
^l-E'
+g ^l
g aol+n 894. Copenhagenel Bohr9 d¤dq^J g+ 6.109 20417]| z7l 2sLJq= EeE C eql 4aJ 4qlzl¤9 "ldl"ll
;I3 o. Coster9} G. von Hevesy} l922Liql glE ql+ nlE +E7I +s_alq+.
^lea$
ol :.e911o1e1 xlep rlEql g^I Hn 72el g^l7f gl+E (a) #ul9 ., 9zl¤9 t}+ql flq^l Rutherford dEol q
19 dei4e.g +8619+(61-Ebg ol# copenhagen BZI Bohr9 +a' gz} ol$g ¤E6J f llflEzt?
Hafnia9 ratin olfioll^] 9|4). (b) dzlzl de}g zl{4E }. f. rhomson9 Ertz} dul9l
(a) dut ullrlEE olo-"a|{ Bohrel {{ro1 ^PJgg xlloJ6} zl+qb de Broglieel ,I¤4 qE $Hss .Jil6lE
^lg. 7I? Zl&E.Hol El-t'ol4E Thomson9 olE oldE xll
6lEtsE ol*oJ
^leiE:g +6119 4E ++r+ qlEol qH elule o114 oJil6l+zf ?
(b) 4+oll^l
9-211 Lzll zrcttq ffiogal ;.+e-s ^J,II"J + 9l+. g+4{
6.1 10 +?,]-bE ,LeL F9l fldE23sus}238uo14.
ol HI+{l rlt.J +B *+ ++ HI*^lg ll,rle. ol HI*
(a) ol F E9l g^e.l "JC^l+, d^l+, 6C^l+E Hli6I
e &+-+lg tl*.Jzt? ol EI+ol &sl-++l Hl+ol4
E. +Eol +I+lElr +E"l tlslq=7|? ^lg.
(b) ol 4el $E^l "J+ql ilE ?zl&sE ol$of{ sal-$
(c) n4l ol4}El
^l=?E(Zroz)?
E^9 ¤4lalql gi 7l (u) g^tel flz[ ul]il$ 4^ls.
^lle+*41 E]*6JE|. Hl+E ^JCES
zrctt* l:2E Hl (c) (b)ql^J BoJ {sorl rB 6.30q i4{ dz} E}lzl$ Hl
ge ^Jcq: co2e+ co 21i1014. ol EI*ql ql{} +¤ jr.6}^le. ol F d^l Hllilel iloldg qBrl ¤Bg +
plE Hl+4g }.,r19. ZrO27l a2l ,r.loJolJ., 10070
"*+ ol L
*=, zlo
t:
E +gol4i1 7}a6lr.. ss.a 99 Zro, x)ttl ^F*q*. (d) 238u= 234The
*r1^d B4zI gqtq. ol 4a E'J
g Eil CCg zrcta9 e"*g 4l^I6f^le. 238U gzlb
H z||9 olCz| dzt, 6Czl¤ 9zl4 SEzI?
(d) dzl dllilE MCl4eI Mo2
^l-eo4q ^l=?ErI6|Efi:ol (e) :H 6.3rql flE rhg dz} EllzlE ¤E6l^le.
E ¤C"Jg ¤B6I^le-.
I
--
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tl
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7.1 > +TlEEel 'Jd izl&eq gdql 9l
q gar+ +s+ +rJ# uH¤4.
+7 14¤¤
7.3 > flxlet oltol =71 ?lz;e+ olgE ^Jql
4ql =zlel olEel +71¤s.ql^JE g
+s qd6lE A6JCS ++6Jtr1.
ile+
^ll6zlql^J
¤ElE u}q zJol, olq* c¤e {z} ullzl$ H}+q= a 7.6 > B+, HIE+, E=+ ++E E44 C
44 sl+4 ^Jaol El++E ..JAnI 4
6J qlEql
"Jq+El. ee +ql fl= fl^= a*ql +q6l+ d4¤ eE+: ag Hl+trt. olfl ceE ztol
,*r 9l= flrlz] gulEJ(valence orbital)q eg i9 dxl¤ 7*jL 9) gzlE 7lE4 ca. +61 olgs+ ql
+. Ae +E g^se uli6J deg ,*= A6Jol 9lzl"J, olE g =
q^lE+El +EI++. +++
=++e
4i zlzluJel +E_6J cds ,*r glEl. re4 flat *a(c), + Hl++E 6rJ4?l deg qElB+.
(si), z1up.1ce), i4(sn), B(Pb)r+ +o) *e 4 ilrzl += 7.7 > 1+ B+rl 2+plo+4,
e+q eB 1+ ++
^lE
z*r
cag ,*+ 4E Hg aolq. +4= 94 zlzl tri= BEl]= :l 4 2+ ++E 844 CAq
Hl++.Jql, zllTlzl.Jeld E4 zlsql TltI ++.J ga + 6I atl4 4x*& Hlle+.
=
4oJ 4ololEEE :a z}¤rll a}4ol4. 14+9 zI8 oH+ql= ts g+ Hl=+el 3E +J:e+ t6, t7, tB
7.8 >
ol glEull, olag Hlirzl T ++ol+. Bq I .J44 ?izl + g^9 F+q4. E44 Cd9 izl
= =ce
zl+ql ¤o| 9l= !9 s= ^J$ill: +dE s6J+ zl a.Fg grleE+.
"J, +=l +olLl
tszlE ol+q4 9l+. +^e+ z]"l-tsg Ef rlolo[-e-9q zJg flz]
Hl]gg 611 9l-L dzl sleq A+Elql +s Hlu1o161.
^l=&q=
+4e 13 "c ol^Jel Ar@-+ri E= ¤4 +4)q^lE ++4 eg
deg r*jz 9lzl"J, r: "c ol6}(a-+4 E= sl4 +4)ql^l= +E4l
e 4L+++.
ol tlql^l= g^q {4 ztxl ceg ¤q:aJz} 6Jq. relr ol
el6J CeEg Hp+rt +7lgs9 +7le+ +ql q4 q$4l E6l+zl
E- oJo|$eE*l fllq E?-14, s+o.14 dag ololall q+6lr.z}
".J+.
< 14+ 7l.3rll 7Ei 7He flA?] E!4= rtg:.J EElie r 7[3r]l
=rfl6[=r11,
tr|'010[E-E= EE6tn e|-qteg 8tr nll=0ll 7l,8,JHlttE40l ElHtr[
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281
7.1 l+?ltE.E'Jt
g^q gae e4d+q dBqs+(fB 7.0. #(Au)4 ag gAEe flie.l
elql
^llE+
Bqe zl${lrJ A]¤Elr, olrl Pd,J dgl gd$ BqlE gA!fltrI. ole| Qla!otr
q1=ullg(rc)4 rJe HH fl^= %I^Id Eeolr, E"J46I+. +4= zotllzl zl¤9 *E
E g^E¤ "J4l q9q.
rJ^I^"i
g^Es dal sI6J+q B¤6171 clEql, zl¤4lqld g^ {-ql-E BdqzlE ?*
'il+89
rell^] +^ll7l 5'.J 44215* olE 949 +4]= "Jxl *at94. rs^llzl a e+q}g
=q.
tsdg-+ oJ6H F+6JEE+E] tr+ drll gA$$ EflB + glrll qflq. t Aal,.Jejd g
AE += raooH"ll :rzH, rsosH9l o:zl].g + Hl] ol^J ?71-6|S.+.
gAg fl^q +71 +7F}ql q+, 442l.53 g^q E+ 7l+.^J s g+6171
^lzl6}f,
11. taol{gl Bl^lo}e-l Dmitri Mendeleev(l4:+-tsoz)$ +'Jel Lothar ueyer(ts:o-tsss)
4 el Egt ++s= Sea1gq . F 4olzl-b grE
flzl.*ol +7161+ t o e ul] 96[
=
gg tril, Hl+¤l ploi4, E?-14 d¤Sol ?z14oe Hi+q= ag g9I+. r %l^lq rlq
4.E=* gzl. Hn= .Jzl *6lH+. fEl+ szltig .JHl4sE, gzl. Hs ?zl4 qEq
67t6}q, Mendeleeve| Meyer|-+g6t/l 4B+ +^Js flzl# ts]]go}flEl.
ulg Mendeleeve| Meyer= gi Ceq ?zlC.ll 44 Ee4ee eg AEq EB6t
*.xl"J. Mendeleevt B+ 4+4eE rE ^J4g gd^14 p+Eq ^fltrS ¤+= +4161
E49 Baq. MendereevE Hliql 5cg 7Id glEol ae +q E^lqqo} oJ+
=
r ^J46Iq +Tlgsql P zll9 Hl +Ag Ba +*+. ql= EE ,JE(ca)4 xluffi(Ge)
3 r B^lql} Bdlzl *9ttrt. MendeleevE Gael GeE 44 eka-aluminum('under'
aluminum)4 eka-silicon('under'silicon)ol4l all, ol$$ t{g r+4614 ql+ =zfle+
+el, 3, --3 arflzlxl gald E+flE uE, rll+.=ej rfE Eld +rt^l EalElxl ?J9trt. :1 0l+= ¤B-g + 9l=71?
=+9 =+P
H He
Li Be B C N o F Ne
Na Mg AI Si P S CI Ar
K Ca Sc Ti V Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru Rh Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta w Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg TI Pb Bi Po At Rn
Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cn Uut FI uuP Lv Uus Uuo
La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm BK Cf Es Fm Md No
282
7.2 +E -"-II6f 283
flzI."t 7) 72.59
trlE(g/cm3) 5.5 5.35
-
^T
ae sl4 6l Hu,(ll
---
&ol¤E El-- Xoz GeO2
E^l ?.f+'il 9l= +7lg*'il^i Arzl-K elollE, flxl traJol +^le ¤=61.fi=
A g+et+^17[ Hlfl qE *olE +o)=)l? =7161-=
rrH
7.2 I +E 64t6l.
{x} ullzl$uJ otqe} 4lel4 dzl-5ol 491 9"}"J* rJ6}7ll A.Jqq flEz}91 u}4 flxt
9 ^deg Hsl++. coulomb Bzlg + dd} ,J ^JE 4L+9 \lzlzl d6IE +Eel r7l,
r=i
^lol9 4Eqga}9=6J+= ag ¤H6ll fr{ ar-.-" (2.3¤). tr}+^J Ar}e+ q ^}ols.l .Jq
3 dz}9l "lzlE 4dat4, 44 dxl ^iolE ¤+ 4r]q E=6Jtri. "Jqe qa6}7i
aTlElql q?++7I6I_z,4zlzl qee+El g4 Eq4 +zl"J++ Ai+r+.
+:| gzlql^J 44 dz}9 eqg o16116}= 43, dzle+ oJCzlzI 7+7+ 6J zllolzl ull$oll
++61+. 4dz} flzt9lrJ9 tr-g-g +t+ql, 4zlzl olql qleg LA S"J olrl4 dzt
284 73 ?]-"e]47141 5S
+9 HlgqE y4El. dzl zJ9 El*qg 44 dz} qlqel "J+= ^J4l^14 dzt
m Eol sg trllB+ eqg 441 :=7lAl6J+. + 4dx} flz}qlrl 4 dxl-b +E d
zt9l 9ulld qel d6l-= zl44 99 $xI "J{ol ¤95rll g+.
Sd dzt9 q eq4 dzt9 tlBqe qBAl reJa[{op atEz}? zl-1i z3ga3
,JHe dzl rJel qlgqql el6ll^J qel .Jqol zJiB rll dxtzl yvl+ gat elq
g ^J1I6I H: aol+. +E^loE ztfld qd6|= BE alEat(effectivenuclear
Y (E!d+Ext) charge, Z"r)+it- 6Jtrt. d^I Hlgql q"I eE "Jqol ¤q=9.21 rllEql, +E q
3Eeqd6lelHt+ s^[q=d d6]= d4l qA6]E+']t] 44(Z"n<Z). qd6l-= 7]?-l= AEE 4H d[+
^aa1.z
+, -4C+ E^F= l+al E5?^t, B^l7l d (screening constant, S, SE "J+)E
trg^lalrl
Tl-8611 E^L se^PlEts ^l-&6}q AeJ4gE Celei + 9l+.
^lE g= rJ+al |Er,.toll sldH Htol Z*: Z - S 17'11
";sl
5 lsql sd eltl.
^lEEl qd+
flzlzl d^Iel 4*, zl* ztHg 491 zlzl¤ dzl"ll zloJ6]q, s *g
=
gzrs] Ed+ dzrel +eL H]*614(E"J+ flzlzt Aeql 9l= dzl¤/fl= ^lE AA zl
44 ?+eq, s {}ql ErJE ¤6&9 "+E qA4" +a).
=tr}.
+E qA6I ZlHg olflalzl 9lal9 o14.9 ,J+EE "J¤qa d+ql Hl+6ll E + 9ltt
(ae,l7.2). d+= gzlEnol+r z|{ap, +44-= flx}z} Az}ql Hl+6J ql, +Aq= qE
oJg ol 4^l7l yvl+ gal. qdalll ul-T?Et + glrl. gxlE += dz|, qd+ dzl-=
d+9 rJ+flzlfl *$2|9lr| EB6l+ qq olg¤.J+. ?J+471ag=qql, d*z} H Et
olzl$(zzl4zl0 q *g Hol s3¤ 4.o14. u|4lzlzlB ,J+471+49lzlH(s714^l
E) q zle o"iel Hol +AE lol4. ol;l+ Hlf+ +e qdolel a.Jg E96l= ql ES
ol g aol+.
gzlE Z"szl $ult4 qEzl tsllxl= 7]11q. qd
^J4oll EzI. 4Ee. [Ne]3slg d^]
^Ez:
6l+ 11aoltr, ts &zltl qd6F= Le q 107H9 ed+ 4^los22s22p9= a+q ,J
+?]i.lH z+e"oJ+. ,JE6J d3 %IHg.E, s= l0olr zs ]J,zlzl yvly sa 4dolE z.r
:11-10:11olQ(=H z.a). :zgr1 :s d4-ts er+ ql+ ed+ dxl¤gl Tlvl+ *q^l ts
dg ggol elzJ ilzl trll+ql, olel+ ^J+g qq +t6l-4 -. (o.o¤). E|4^l :s dzl*
++ EB"J S:10eE ^ll^lg atr+ q .Jqg vvlAl g+. 3s dz}9 441 Z"r
=
<13 z.s+ol+. +^l "J6IH, zs 4zlzl4o1l zlzlo1 9$ q5o1 ^EE
zfolzlTl ql$q 4 z.rel
s ilg u1fl4.
10ql^J s.sE
E6J +s qd6}ql q6J zl'dg 0.2¤glrJ 6s6J aflg ¤H6Jtrl. +a
=g6l9E
> r.H 7.3 +E E{E6l. 4E grlE!8
^E9
3s drlzl!7E ?E -"]Ial=
117119
oJdrl(l l +)= TfTlcf
+
"19 1i Io[e[ LH+s] 10_d
6loll "l=ej+.
flrtzf dxt(3s)
I
#
I
-dd+ E^t 1otllfi s2 2 t2 2 oa)
E E^t7l E^H10-)e+El
3^f=s!= TfaJ+.
7.2 ?.E +Edf 285
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i +-
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I
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t- -t-
I
I
L'lLl.
-t-
2J6,1711
i
I
l -l--
l i
.z_5 I
4*
l .2P
I \
,t l
l
0123456 78910
-4ee+qq za(A)
:18 7.4 1s, 2s, 2pol 'J^l'*g +E -Et+ol HIE
zI flx}9 4*, " <lol ?3 sulgg 9lHxli t zolol rtllz;]ql trl?+ ?zlxJ4. ql=
=E
rs22s22p29 {x} ullxl$ ,*=+A gzt= + e-Hlgol 7J2 n:z 44ql fl41 6l]E, 2p s
HIB(I:r)9 glHzlzt zs e-u1917:0)E+ rq(rH 6.2s). ole+ ag qlqzlej ilol= sHl
BE gl^l rJ.J r+5',EI+ql TloJ++eal 7.4). H4l.E, rs 4zlzl flz}49l e zltAl il.
"l zre+ 2p
,J^lq 1116ll^l HEg
';+ ++ a45^ ld-q F H4le, 2s sE E}fz[ "]
=+.
4l zlt4* *ql^J +e ++EE 7l7l= HlEql, zp $$ EI+= qql 714+ *ql^l ++?,1
g zlzlz) *=trI. olq+ a4e ola|{ zs da+ zp 4zl4 Lll+ sHlgq q6J 7}HtrJ+
94. "tt}ztzl ol+E, 4dz} gz}ql^J sulg qlulzl(rs < np < nd)9 .JH}
rJ {o}zlzll
4.J +^J= ¤H.J + 9ltrl-.
ulzluJe-E, flzlzl dzt9 z*9 46Jdg a^l6l] Ezt.
z.tr= r-lEg 1.3+ql^J iEq 2.s+vl^\ rtz$l:1, Eq-Aql rll"H^l= 3.s+vl7l +716}+
-*a E{6i
t4
flrt7t Erloll cfla-j Z"n
,l
r
(0.:s x o)+(0.85 x z) :3.so14=
(slater9 +4ql^-l
ag "J611
j146I= dz} zitl9 71=+=+ 7)
q= +^1,*+. Irl+^l s4 0zll9 n--z 4zl==
t2
nEl.J+). qq^l zeff: z-s:e -3.8 :s.2 + ol
t10
N
+. ++.J 4l&t s-z:7+-H-+ E+ ++.
#4
8
e. EE9 A++ %}Hg
^l-&4q
:B z.sollr-l
eg r{=E rslB?IEL ol %lHE
I
6 tr= HleI
g, + q ++ +g 4&ctr i2 Z*
4 Li ',Ig Sq
6l .ll^llg += SrlEI, z"A +714 HEI CE=
2 trq Slater$ !L'-Hg q d+.J HlHql, E
=+.
+ql fl= ,JBg *+ElqlE E+6[ir z,E +
0
24681012t4161820 trq trl+^l +471+461= ut, rl z.r9l
fl^tfla(z) =+.
?lE zlH t}f s= "ld+ drtE +e+ Hl*6}tr].
.r.H 7.5 2+7lsl3+71 fl^E +E -"jd6t9 EEI +TlEEoll^l 6J fl4011^] tf8
g E tttl 7|8 oJ+(1s)ol l^|(#g^q flEol Lzl= Z"tr9
n TIAB + iltr}.
'Jq,J
ZPJ?4 d)E 671-= "Jtr6lXl qa|.zJtf. 0la3 E^l=o1^lEEl^lLr7l=zlts
ttHEolr.f El
"]tr61
+¤ g+ E4l: 7.rs, 7.16, 7.31, 7.i2, 7.80,
el4 tr^lsl z"E v,l$6l7l ?lA q4 7l^l grEe] tl= LlElLllfltL 7.8L,7.110
=E= ^qo+
7.3 I fl^lel0l3o1 f7l 287
Eal flzl-= ++dJ + EoJs-+. ^J4++. :44 oJzI EqI4 E¤ql E6IH, dz[9 Ee
z[ ool gE flz]9 a4lE Hq4rll a6l-rl qH+" .- (o.s¤). :Hgls H6[r, {4 z}
zl to}9l rI4 flxI + A?lql Tlaal-q flxlel zzl$ 4d+.
zlill t49l 915 o|-e* flzl¤ ^J46ll !_z|. flzlfol 9E 4Aql^J +Ee+ ql fl
^le
4+'.}++ilB qHq. +5 grtE dzl. +Eol .,.Je zz)l eFEl f s,zl ul+ql qFle d
Brt
ol 99t4. rqe eEol "JqB ql q
aHTt =:cr
zl$ zlTlfl z1?.1= flxI tlzlE9 + Hllol )1tl u^r=(|a)
^Fle-l
+. ol +^l+g ulAs flxl glzlE(nonbonding atomic radius) E|-van der Waals tlzlE oli
(van der Waals radius)ol4.Z dJ+(rH 7.6). flrCIl ?l= o{c+ drtz
HJgal EllEoll Eqg ,l.le trl Tlzt
tszlglrJ gz} +el s+ql4 a.Jg olE ull, tsxl 49 .Jdql + flxI rJs oJqol 0l d=:d + 9.tr1.
^Iolql
418, erlql^1 olBlo} eqlg ¤H.J+. olqoJ rls oJHol F flzl_= Ela6J +E A rg7.6 Er|' Lt|el Hle:ct 3
=4+trI.
g trllH+ q 7YJ4l "J=4= ag "J^lg gszi 914. flzlEol sl4 A6Jg g trll, U^l=z[ e:ct flIt HJxl= Al
^l-+. ^l
0lsl+E
flxl4 ,J 44== gzt +zl# CEB + 9l+. rH 7.6q1^J 44 ae_ 44H+. .J
+zlql^l gzlel
=4rflr] uJxlE(bonding atomic radius)g az'J 44 dE rlz4 rJ4. .r.H
?!E
t.e* 46J flzt tlxl$(E= *+ qlzl$(covalent radius))ol HIA.J gz} HlzlE-H-4 rJ S
+g +Qt]li1 9lEl. EEe-l t?ol S.eE, flz}9 'a7l'Y 4,* flzl tlzl$¤ 9oloJ4.
gz|el HIA6J flxI *xl$¤ +A617l= ,l]*
"lBzl"J, 4qrx|==$ +zlql^J +4Elq 9l
qrJ 4r-1= +A6E ¤4 zlxl %LBg ¤+61fl+. 94 ztxl E^IE flxlzJ 44= +
=
aEIeEAl 4 fltg A6J gzt tlzlEg ecg + gl4. qE r, +zlql^l ololeH
el erJ 44y z.ae Lge_ +AEl$=ql, ol4e olole_E gzt9=olEaJ flxI HlzlEiol (2.66
L)lz:r.:: AoJg g"lt4.. u[!z]zlE, +] ?lz[g +i[g -a^]l r.E.+a.J +olo]EE
ql^J ol* +^q AzJ 44E r.s+Aol4, tr|4^l 4010l.$E9l^J ts^g e'* gz} +alE
13
L4 17
15
16
He
B
C N
S'q
x 0.84 o
o.ze
I 0.h 0.66 F
Ne
,70 L 1.60 r.b3
f ,1l,h Fs AI
0.57
0.58
132 lco irvi
Y
si
Zr 11.26 1.21 P HJ^l= 57t
Mo h.z+ Crr 1.11
.07
S
cl AI
1.:r 1.05
Ru
Rh Po I.?, lf,1 Ge
As
1.02
1.06
.20 Se
1.19 Br
QO
In 1.20 KI
Sn .20
sb 1.16
Te
Xe
1
u^t=(A)
Lael7.7 1-5#zloll rH-.J g^l.HJIl=el 3Er
=-Br
rflt H
0ll=J ol,JEJ
E.1"t 4lg *ll zll9 aElol +q4 !ia, fB 7.79 4* fl (methyl mercaptan)
zr +4Eg ol9."oJ + 914. 4 ¤El ?oli + grlel aql g .J aq+ zlole|ulfola 6}zl+ c+61 gil6}4= ?*=4.
,I HlzlEE qlol4n 7ta6J+.
4{} zJolE 414}B trI= ¤q} flz} *zlE¤ +E6}q ^FS6ll
Eol c-s aoJ aol:c9 aql gz| q}rlE of *4.
+sg ai+ sz} qlzl=
:0.76 A+ >E5qF{1
A:1.81 A
1.05
gi
TJol:o.764+o.ar
zltlg xe} yzl-$zl. xyzE ¤C6J trll, x flzl o}+oll
C-H A+ A:1.07A y gzlTl a6J,*+. gi tEilE xoll,<.] x-x9 dEI ?ol
S-u 4r3- aol:1.0s A+o.at A=1.36 A
2.04[o]1, fl4. ^]q yg y-y A6J ,JolE r.es Aol
#E dEe-E +Ag A6J ?olE c-s:t.az A, C-H: =
4. xY, E4ql^] x-Y A* zloli $ulolzP
r.ro A, S-H:r.33 Aol4(9EI4es +a gzlT} s{lg a (a) 0.8a A O) r.oz A 1c; r.ao A @) z.to A. (e) t.zz A
El zJol:, trl += gz}E¤- Es6.J pr3 gz} Hlzl=._e_-E > E*qF{2
=
+El ql+fl <inl il.lE +4u+). a4 7.7* ol++q, pBr:9 p-Br aq+ aole+ Ascrg9
=
+q AaJ flzl *4+g ^l*8-6}q altsJ aE+ ?olE dE4 As-cl AqI aol + qe 4,ol ul
=71¤.q+6}^le_.
q147.2
lf flzl ttzltE trtl4loJ {71 HlaEPl
+7|EEE daag, B, c, At, si g^l-= a7l7pE-l -d)=71-6lE +^lE HllE6l.119.
6tlt
E4rt 4lg fld ull ,1]9 ++ 7le7l +ala+. ol gi=.g 4= ql+6}71 +l6}q, *^l ¤E+ * zlzl 46}-9
^l-&g
+
+Tlgsql^lE tlql4e gie+ flzI +4=.9 tEil4.J + el4.
Eot Bel c= +71¤sql^l ae +7lq flr., c= BE e_E+
ql fl+. trI{^l gz} *zl$$ +zlgs g+ql^l e.={_e.E
a++ a^471 qlEq cel $zl;.o1 s9 H}4EB4 +g a
ol+l. ql+g + 9l+. cHIzlE<BHlzlE
Arn+si= +Tlgsql^'l a3 +7lql 9lr, sits Ar9 e-=4nll 9l+. Si Hlzl* < Ar HlxlE
7.7q14 dol #4 gi: +7lql^J g+ql^l s$a- e_E Aql > .H.6 flr{ 2
trhq +44qe. Ai6}zl *=+. glz| Be, c, K, ca= gzt HlzlEol +71d+ +^Js +g
6.I^le-.
Li+
0.90 I 'r:?ae
83+
0.41
\| 92*
1.26
F-
1,.L9
Li Be B o F
7.28 0.96 0.84 0.66 0.57
Na+
L.1.5
N,rg2-
0.ti6
Alr*,
0.68 o 92-
1.70
cl-
1..67
Na
1.66
Mg
7.4L
AI
1.21
S
1.05 I CI
1.02
^a
6+ Cal- Cla3' 5e' Br-
7.52 1.11 0.76 1.84 1.82
K Ca Ga Se Br
2.03 7.76 L.22 1.20 1.20
Rb
2.20
Rb+
1.66
Sr
t.95
gtola
s12+
1.32
irr3
0.9+
In
t.42
=.nta
r
i
Te
1.38
Te2-
2.07
o
I
1.39
qFll
F eJxfs.l
7.3
ol* tl:,lEsl ttrH4"J q7l HliaPl
r[3 Mg2*, Ca2*, Ca= HJxlEsl aTlTl rJL6l= +,(]e H|]g6f/.l9.
EExl z{lE(isoelectronic series)ol1} t"J6J dz}+= ,*= EE olg d+g "J++. el=
EE FdzI 4lgql 02-, F-, Na+, Ms2+, AP*ql^J 4 0199 107lle-l dzl.= r*=+. qtr
Ed4 4lgq a+, 4 olSS flzI Bszt ?zlalE +^'le +g'J + 9lsq, rq qq q
d6l-E ?ziEI4. dzlfE oJC6IE-+, olg qlzlE3 qd6l.zl +zlg++ ,Ja6l:il., dzt
5e q ,Ji;lAl qql
=flE|.
qlEal -+
=zl
gdrlsTll g8rleT]l Sdx[ ttzil B¤xltzzfi S¤xl trzfl
drl l07ll Erl l07ll Er[ lo7]l drf l07ll drl l07ll
\\ qH 7.4
Z tlzl 4PJqFie.l ol8 Hl.zlB
rl.3 018 K+, ct-, ca2*, s2-E aTvl rJLdlE +,\le LtEdl,\lg..
6[l'J
^lE +g6J Ag?
+.d l-= ol$ol l8zfl$ dzl-= ,*= Ed4 Alg"Jg ++ (a) Sr2* < Rb* < Br- < se2- <Te2-
6t4. olEldJ 4lgql^l ol$el azli qdoKgzl HE)216' (b) Br <Sl+ <se2- <Te2- <Rb*
7t'Jql q4 rJ^++. olgE gz} Hs= s 16, cl17, K le, (c) Rb+ <sr2* <se2- <Te2- <Br-
Ca 20014. tr|.4^] .lgEg 52- > CI- > K* > Ca2* +^1tr (d) Rb+ <Br- < sl* < se2- <Te2-
azlzl z${rJ. (e) Sr2* <Rb+ <Br- <Te2- < se2-
4laEql^l r]E oleg +3tl¤q ,JEg+. olqlqE EE ol +B+ ¤{ ++6}71 trIEq ?lE olg ql^ll$s iE olgg
gE zlg ztltl $fiol+. 4E ?t*E .tlgl¤ 4l4E oJql s+6}a ?14. *ge gaq ++ ol$oll zlaaf, 4zl zl#
lJ..J¤ E= 4E ol39l rlall. coa* olgg el+ qe= ¤i6]l E gdol zl+g aol4.
StlE dzigl 96llco3*-tr e+ggtri. +H {++xll:7.8e
4E ol9ol d+ Eetr EqTIr ++str .Joil rJzlts ol
s +aq H+= +d-6I+. qqol zr*6[= Il=
olEo4 Hl] e-
41461-= ql ge* qlqzlol+. ql= EH gz|el tz[ o1gol .lltlzlE E]-* H]*ql g
s6J qqzlolrl. ^E
Na(g) + Na+(g) + e- [7.2)
2i[ o1g4 {lt{z](second ionization energy, rJE + Hrll dzl-= 71146l+ Ell g-e.e} ql
!zlolr., olqzl= dzl¤9 zll4= 3^1, 471olgnl-qlqzloltrI. q+^J aE g4E rr=
trl+ Hlso 4 +dol gE .llulxlol4.
Na*(g) Na2*(g) + e- t7.31
-
+ilI ole-Ef qlLlzle.l HJE|.
4. olfl a.Jg AAI 016]]7l El=ql, dzlE xllzloJffi "Jd6tz} +7l6la- oJ'olge-trPel
dzl¤ qlqLIqE q Be glHzlz| gs-6[7] ul]Eol4.
7.4 | olg+ ollrl^l 293
0la|]ol+7lEEoll^j
^ll
7He.l B4= Llls rJoil rl.= LIEIL^ItrI. +7lEEolllle]
^qo+ql+61^le.
tr
Pl-l= 6[q. 2^t 0l8el ollLlrl7l. 7EI fl^=
=ZE =
atl?
E{3[ 4lei +7l¤.+ql^] g^el +lzl= "JH dzl tsl]zl= ql
+E + ?14. olgpl ql',lzl7t 7l* e ql= ed+ dzl¤ 4l
7lB trllol+. trI+^l 4e.l49l t zll9 d{-= r*b gA= +
d4o+^J4"J+914. AE Ef,ql^1, 4 gaql 4t zz1 olepl qlq^l IzE 4.tE
Eot *e*4 oe +4U LJIE +E 14 Si(Na)E flztzt d E +g=r+ a+.
4-= + rl] ,*=+. tr14^] olfl gig 2it ol$o| ollulzli
ca (r14s kllmol), s (22s2 kllmol), Na (4s62 kllmol)
qC+ dzlg xll4e+ +A¤+. s(+^!)e+ ca(+*4).ts 44 >s=qlfl1
U 4= gr=s F zll olt9 flziz| {zfgi ,*=+. E}+^l E_+EJE 3xI olgs+ qq4= q+ + qtr 44q 6ll'&6.I
(a) Br(g) _- Brn(8) + e- (b) Br+(g) .----- Br2*(g) + e- > .Ed* qF{ 2
(c) Br(g) Br2*(g) + 2e- (d) Br(g) .----- Br3*(g) + 3 e- Cael S 6 :zp o1951 ollHzlzl q Ag q= atzi?
(e) fr2-(g;- ------- Br3*(it) + e- =
N
!u
J
K
5
,V F
1681
6
65t B
C o ,10{
1314 olr
801
-&
/a? o
-Co
/60
s
'A 1000
1
2 Au
t9; 4;
8e(i s6
ot &4 h
869
_n
589 /,2 B; ^-
t(o
zos -tln
L- t ).12
(
13
oilqxi 14
57 15
t6
17
18
fH 7.10 flA9 1il olEEl0llL-lxl(kUmol)
7.4 ol8+ ollLl^l 295
^Iol9 1t1
ol ge+ E rJ 4^l7Jr+.
9l H zl
zJ* ?214l4 +zldg H.q+= 4* ,J^lt;l7l ElEzltI dr,ll ¤Eg+. qE EH r
2p
B z. rogl LI4U ule+ ,Jol, ullgE ([He]2rr)ql^l $r([ue]zs2zp1)e_ z;;4 olge+ ollulzl
1t 1 1
tla
z| zf,id4. : olf* BE Hxll gr[7[ dztE, Be9 4* H]q 9lH zp P?dg
^ll ^ll* a:18 7.11 E^ettl^oll^lE
7l trll+ol+. *ql^l +rlE tsre+ +ol, 2pY 2sHQ q ke {Hxl rJ4"ll 91tr}= 43 *zl 2p 9ulEJ rllt
6tEXrH 6.2s). e^[Hd2s22p\qlr] &]([He]2s2zp4)e. ?J++ olge+ qlLlzlzl 446[=
19 &a9 pn 4zl uflzloll.! 4I1l dzlE H}ts ullEol4(:e z.tt). Hund f49l q4 ei
4 p' 4-zl ul]ilg 4 dxl^E ^ll zlE zp 4zl= zJgl dzl-dzl HlBg 4aE 6l+ ^1tr r+
Ep .sulBgl gl+= A& zlE6t4 ,",",(0.s11).
ql4l
F 7.6
olg:i+ ollLlxlel +714 dqf
+7ltE= efa6[q, 1^l 0lgsl 0llL1^l7l.67l,6lE +^1LHE Ne, Na, p, Ar, K g^f= LlE6l,'.l9.
ol¤-el{:,f utl:,1
flzloilrl 4zlzl z{aqq o}olgg ¤cB rllb, z}z} +o}zl+(")* z*= sHlBe+E.l
=
+c 4l4g+. qE EH Li gz}(1s22s1).e.+El dz} oJ 7i7l ^lAa 4=
zr' 4zlzl xllrlg4.
Li(1s22s1) =+ Li+(1s2) + e-
296 73 g^sl+714 dE
Fe'*= BC6l7l gla}¤ dz} t z]]E H xll4a[4H, n:49 -ErS eul$ol u]q 91o ug,
3d e-Hlgql^J ull4g+.
Fez+([Ar]3d6) + re3{fAr]tds; + e-
dol #4 *olgg ¤dg ql, 3d dxl-E-4 ss 4^l7l Bzl xllzlgE 4o1 olt}afzll -H-oJ
xol4. 4+ 4^l EI]TI= + trI= 3d aql +s dzl-= Hzl *4. flz}g {z} uflzlfi + trll +
TlgEE aJ fl^-EPq += fl+E olEodlE r+49 ^J^J"ll -H_z|. o1 4Cq^1, dzl¤ s
HlBql tr16[7]+ oJd4-= qql q+serJ 949 aiilcg HE+^laq. olgs]g ql* q
rl$ o}^JzlE 4l4Elzl *zl oll+91 ol 4aol +ldgzlzl ?*=+. qlE cae| ri2+E
E+ 207Hel dzl-E 41 9l7l"J, Ti2* ol¤-9 ca flzlE4 rJ g:g =E
oJd4-E ?*jr- glr+(22
4 zo). olfl ^Idg F E+q}+ol trI= dzl. ulrl(ca([Ar]+s2)e] ri2+([erBa2))3 g "J+ 9.
ulp9 9lHzl Hs+^lA+.
=91= qH 4+la +AAB+ fH, d+E=g 7l* t z"I3 zl4 -sulB+
"JE +qd n rob"l
el Ezl glzg+. q=Eq i4 g4* ss d4-= szl d"ll sp &z]F= = g=trt.
Sn([Kr]5s24d'o sp') - sn2+([Kr]5s24 dlo1 + ze- = sn4+([Kr1+d1o1 + + e-
eCB rll} zlzJ *Z n 4Ig ?*a 9t= Hl sHlB
{tr $x}"ll 4^l7l dzlul9 *ol&9
ol+ +84 eE {+lA sBlgql dz}¤4. ql= 5H s=+sflql $zltl ?2199 F- olg
g Bdg q,2p +44"il Bot 9l=,* ,ll9 Hlriqq 4^l7l EqrJ+.
F(7s22s22ps) + e- - F-(7s22s22p6)
E Ia' ] "]lHlriL=r;-4 *n
qH 7.7
olgE tzl Htlil
(a) ca2+. (b) co3+, (c) S2-0ll rHEl E^i HH^IE l ,l.l9.
*HtrF
-ll kt 4qqot,*+. r ¤4 co3*9 dzt Hl],,lE +g=+ e+.
g*rl Xlel olgq 4tJ dz} ullzlg a| 5z1olr[. :el Co3+: [Ar]3d6
^Jl
zl $all.<l Hzl +c gzlE dzl Hl]il=.4 Etrl. f- ++ d (c) *(SzI HE ro)9 dzt Ellzl= [Ne]:s2:pao1u}. 2- olg
zl$ x]lzlalzl* Ezlal{ olgg "J=+. 7}zJ ke n ak+E g ¤C6I7l +l6lq + \l! $zlzl dz}!"lot ++. 3p
,*E s.u1g9El 4^l7l 7l* *e n <l9 r*E, ul
^ll4E+. sHlBql= F zl]9 447147lH + 9l= Hl c-u1go1 91
q il4+ ++4 o + iH+l1l sulp+rl dzl-E q6J+. trI. tr++^l s,-9 dz} El]il= trl-eEn} e+.
&CI1
52-: [Ne]3s23Po :
(a) ,Jf(fl2[ Ha zo)9 {z} ul]zli [er]as2o1r1. z+ olg¤ [Ar]
BC6lzl 9l+q + 7l]E 3lel4 dzITI zllTlElqot 6lq, 49 sPlp+q gi, q==:q cu'*4s'?-e+?g ols-Eg
: ¤4Ar.{f,{z} olgol gtr}. zlz] zltl$ ulgd zl4ls+ Eg.* i9 dzl-E r*=+= ag
Ca2+:
7lE6I+ ",=- (z.zH).
[Ar]
(b) ?gE(gz} Hs zz)9 dz} ullil= l*fqs2zd7ol4. z+ > H.¤ qF{ 1
olgg Ed6l-71 +l4q rll zl]9 {z}z} xllzlrlqot f,+. rc flx}9 Hlq ^JEllE {z} uflzli [r<r]ss2+dsol4. Tc3"
olgel dzl HHzl= q- 4"J71?
*gl^] ?l-"d u}q rJol, +s dzl-b 3d 4^lilc+ trxl xll
7.5 Tl^f TltrfE 297
[Ne]3s23ps INe]3s23p1
olgsl9lHzl <iol .JE Tlg r*=r}= ag qlqzl= flz}9l TI"lolEI a4-= zllT) g + gl
¤¤ g"lsi4. flz}9 E.= ol¤'El.ilHzl ag "*el <t"14. + a4-= 4146[7] g4^l=
.llHxlE ¤+4oI6Jq.
ql+Sel SzlE AzL= gq^l *olgg
^JCg + 9l+.
714
^JqlE flzt9l &zl= 4zl
6J trli g^J6l+ qlHzl Egl¤ ErtrlitE(electronaffinity)eln ++. qlLJzl HEIrI EzlaJ
dzl9l 4aJ 9zl9 .Jq g.= {E}E(affinity)E 44421 ollEol4. ql++e] flzl.E 4zlzl
4zl9- ql qlLlzlE EJ=++. ql= EE gi gzlql dz} * 4= aTIB'x +Hlq= qlq
zl Eelb -34e kllmololq, olTl^l g9 +s= HI*ol dq6l= FqI 9lrlxlzl rJ=Eg
+Elutrl. q?+^l clel {z} Tls}E= -34ekllmololt}.*
AxI a+E: cl(s) + e -+ cl (s) EA : -34e \|/mol [7.s]
INe]3s23ps INe]3s23p6
olge+ 9l'jzlq dzt +lsls ^tolE zlol= olallali ag +s6l.trt.
.olgql9lulzlE flzlz} dxl¤ gg rllE qlLJrl E+Elol+.
.dz} {sls= gzlT} d!-= Eg trll$ 9lHxl EpI*oI4.
14+ fl^sl lxl flslE7f 15+ AAg E^i tjtrl.
EzI¤ dzle+ flx[ ;.p1q1 q]flol f;z]$ffi gx]E dx] rl trHq q E a9'J?l 0tf;E +1?l7l'?
slE= q +E Atol I 1o14. Elgrd 7l^lle+ ?e P 7l^l fl.
=
Azl AE+E= "JE {lg ,*yLL olag *o189 4121,
1 18
-gs+ qlq44H +Bil 4ol olH9l +E6t?+. p +44¤ i]]g trll oJ Tl]el 4zlzl +-a_6J g.
Eal g^= 7l* z gg dz} aElE= 2144. dx} d zllE g9 gE4l flzl-E ulgc zl
ill9 dz} El]zl= r*='Jcql +olgg ^J^d+trI(^l z.s). :zel+ Hlg^J zlxll"ll &,.]¤ &tl
6rrlB rJ E3 H]]ZIB gs^Jol
^Ja+(^l 7.6). +e
q
^llE+.ll'Jzl Badq dzl-E
ql
uJzl9 P?491 dzl-E ullzla}= 43 9lHxl4otr E46IEE, dz} aslE= oJsl &ol
E4. se4 Mg9 dzl AclE 6}.E rJ+ ol+E "JE <Ig ,*YLl. dzl-= dzlalH 9lH
zl {Iol q Hlq 9l}p P44ql +ol7l qlEol4. =
=,
rs4 S4E9 dzl dpls 9rl *ulE4. ol gaEg ¤qlol il]glrl p a44g= r*71 ql
E9l EzI¤ dzl+ 44-4zl elg4ol rJ f, olul 4zltl d+g -sulBq +qot"J *
r+. q4^J olel+ g^Ee "JE dzl. a4E a(NE 4+)g ?*Aq, g+ql qld.J gzlE
H+ q 49 gq dzl alplra A(p, As, sbel A9g ,*:tr}. eg ol+E lzl olgE} qlLJ
xlel {o}rjol E¤+4.J9 z.adglrJ Hgt+.
421{0}ri +ql^J ot4E .llqa++ rTll H6}zl *=+(rH z.rz). qlE 5q Fe-l a
** 3zl9 4zlzl2p sHlBq Folr, ctE a ? = 3p e_HlBq, Br9 z*E 4p e-HlBql
44 +.Jtrt. tr14^J poll.<J rE ,J++ dxiq q ^Flg ¤+ Z4zldtl +716}ol dxl-q
,J "Jqg ,Ji+rl. rEILI Fql^l r_tr a+e 3lel4 d4-= ,*= sElBg dd q H4 rl
xi dz}-dz} zJ t}ts4ol ,Jig+. A44sE dz}-q +el qlqe_] +i= flzl-flzl z]
Hlgqsl z]4tr 11-4lgtrI.
7.6 r++,Hl;+,ftE+
flzI qlzl$, ol$s}9luJzl, dzl dE]s z}|HS z-] flzl9 C4ol4. r4+ u]$.tJ zlill$
4le]oJ q:
fle-E zltsql fluI tr4e ?+=+. giE dag trl+ +H4l ololla|
=416lzl
4H, +"J* flz|Sol 4= Cae-l ?zl4 A6Jg a^I6llot 6JEf.
gi= ++, Hl++, rZl ¤+g + 9l+(r.g 7.13) .:o.c., (z.s¤). ++4 Hl+
=++sE
0 |eEI 0llLl^le] +7 14 ea]E Hlir6l^19.
=+¤zl
1A 8A
=+d =7t 18
H
1
2.4 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A 2
2 13 1-4 15 16 17 He
3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
Li Be B C N o F Ne
-4. 11
Na
L2
Mg
3848586878
.i+5t,/ 8910
8B
18
11
2B
12
13
AI
1_4
Si
15
P
16
S
17
CI
18
Ar
"t9 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 ?7 28 29 30 31 3? 33 u 35 Jb
4 K Ca Sc Ti v Cr Mn Fe Co Ni Cu Zn Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
7l 3/ 38 39 40 41_ 42 43 +5 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54
Rb Sr Y Zr Nb Mo Tc Ru RT Pd Ag Cd In Sn Sb Te I Xe
55 56 77 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86
Cs Ba Lu Hf Ta w Re Os Ir Pt Au Hg TI Pb Bi Po At Rn
87 88 103 104 105 106 L07 108 109 110 111 772 113 774 115 7).6 1.17 118
Fr Ra Lr Rf Db Sg Bh Hs Mt Ds Rg Cp Nh FI Mc Lv Ts Og
f--l -x
L---l E= 57 58 59 60 6-L 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70
l--l Eo= La Ce Pr Nd Pm Sm Eu Gd Tb Dy Ho Er Tm Yb
L___l ^-o 89 90 9L 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 1.02
E ot=+ Ac Th Pa U Np Pu Am Cm BK Cf Es Fm Md No
A r't.JrtzHt^= cr "J Mset otdE *-*EE c¤-strt. otE F itsEott^1 Ht^= tE'+7t ea I
i
++4 e ol+q{ E}i}Ee olg ai} Eaol qts a6}ol 914. qlE Eq ql
El*4-o
++E ++ &El¤r+ aJedpi¤* ol$rJ rx]o]+. qI qtr, qa ++r+ 4hz1 HI86IE
300 78 g40t+714 dE
Ee^4el XIEE de -E+al Hl=+E +Elpttl. 0l doll el6ll Ll+ol^|ts 884 tlEl.SEll= 01tr18t7t?
1 17 18
H+ H
2 13 14 15 16
Li+ N3- d- F_
Hl
xln I f_a
Na+ M'8* Al3+ P3- s2- C1
¤l
,\l
ArB 7.15 fl^ol tl|E.4?] uE| 8Et| +^E "Jol lto+(+1)el-oo1 $aff(-l)= -"F LfEll.ltf
Nio
=Ed
arB 7.16 {tzl U8-dtl. Nio= L]^|trJ, E&HNod+ BJ36U H^4sl Ni(Noe)z Ea{ol EJrl.
=+ ^i+=e =0ll =^l
7.6 t=+, Ht=+, 301
==+
qBl 7.8
f-4-
E- ,\l-E[gol
f,-a- Alal
6E
(a)t161
^ilEP dAqE aiJl. o4i1l,Tlill= clE 8Efle GEa[,t lg.
=^t|grl
nlig ilE e[-qt fJ$^l$ u11e.
(b) tlEl'^rJEol E{Irl-BJ8--J
ulfr$
Hl++g r.ill, eqzll, zlt:)\E +7l]g + glEl. ul!=$$
*4ol s9-q, "JHI4SE EJe Ed= 7ltrny?
94 dzl9 dEcol +zl .F6.ItrI. Hl++g +Ede g+4sE ++B+ *rI
(4"J, Br-e +C¤ rlololf,EE qlq4sE 3s70 "cq^J +=E+). "JHI4"J aa I
6|q^J 77HE El++ol olflx| +zts olE ¤i 571^ly zl;ll(Hz, Nz, oz,
=z]l*+.
F2, ct),6J TtzlE o-{ill(Br), E}E t 7l7l3 +lgC r^ll(IJolr}. ul$.tJ zlrll$
zllelap., 4"lzl ulf,f$ +olo}s-Ei.lH ++6[a+:%]ilH +Eqg r.zllol+
(=alt.tz).
ulfr{$ ^}449e *E dx} Ai+E= z}a il71q+q, ++4 H}s"6}9 L a"A 7.17 elll /.lrt|oll ffi(brimstone)'
=
¤ 4 dzl-E gzzl rly 4*ol g+. ql= Eq EetrJ4 .J$oltsol HI*61H, oe sald gie Hl=+0lrl..
olg e+ sldJEql H-EEls+.J+olt¤ O wasanajai/Shutterstock
^JC6J+.
2Al(s) + 3Br2(/) --------,2AIBr3(s) [7.t2]
+++ d4¤ Bol¤9 ala p +4eg sd6l ill+n, ul$rj zlxlle_l dz} Hll
ul:zo{$
il= +=+. qE EE -rr--EEJ g4t dzl. * 4= eq +p *44g= gd6l 4eq.
Br( [Ar]4s23d10 +pt )+ e- + Br-( [Ar )4s23 dro 4p6)
t?t
COz(s)) -JoE -raJ^!e
^rf=ol= ttd a"-49=
e Ed|-tst]|,
L[EILJ+. E7l= EJ8 tr e+6[
+
ts Co2 7l^llo1l e-l6tl 871
^1713
e+El3+E E.JEoltl.
Er+ ol&s+ +^9 EI*(fH 7.18)g Etlfz} &dg +El.ll= 44, ElEol ErJE &c
g q= ol+= ¤E"ll 6Je 4+e+ 4+ql q+ql, ole+ eg ¤e.21 ga6t
=+. =z]]6lzl
E oltl3rl ++ .s.4IEl +g ^JcaJtrL "lqoJ EAe Eql +or ^il41 Ez-lql^J +g ++a e
gg.J 4|-rJul(acid rain)E "JE+. tF+ Aol tsl++ &al.Ee ¤zlc 89{l 5o}
'il++q
gr+ Eg
^8d,*+.
El++&q¤ + g7l + B+E
COz(S) + 2NaOH(a4) -+ NazCOt@d + H2O(/) [7.15]
E! trlgEql-=t^le-
ACI3(A= seel fl^)el -112.C01r|.. 0l E^t¤ E=?l^l, 0l8d
==E= =trol
q
azJE(sc)zl elg rl.E1l otL a01fl^Aoil 4-d-d7l?
| =eexe
qH
F 7.e
Hl*-+,urtBe] tr.*
:ax1l 0l{tq|.¤a]1ts{Seoz)ll"(a) E, (b) +tEl-ag ffio-{ol HJ8-g tt}|, 44011 t}|6|.q Ee "J= sl-E U34= /"\119.
6tl*
= ^l"goltrL)
Eqq 4*l +C ¤elHse)ol ul;4o14= aq +rE-6J+. (b) +.tlEIAEr+q HI¤+
^l
7.1sq ar+ El+6lEI.
q4^J E EE NaoHe| Ag grlel ul!-f {lffiol H}g"E SeO2(s) + 2NaOH(a4) + Na2SeO3@fl + H2O(l)
qlE EIEI qlA4g +EI. El++ &+Ee 41.,3o19+, E4 > leE qlfl 1
Hlqo 6tq 4h9 zls+ Hlgo 6tq gr+ Eg trl-S&+E Soz, Yzor, Mgo, clro, Nros +ql^l Eql^]
^Jc?'Ia, B ^8c6J+.
*01 .tlC 89ol q= ag q 7V1oJ7l?
(a) ol4IE* ¤qlt:r+ E9 +8e ol4}El +4e+ Ee-l Hlsorl (a) t (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) a (e) s
ul*a}4(al z.r:).
> EE qlrll2
SeO2(s) t H2O(l)
Er+ rill +&+ Hlg"6J trll +B "*+ slq qI
("JHI4s.e SeozE r.illoll, -H2SeO3(aq) ^roJ(ul)ol
corT} 7144=
^l-tle.
+ " lg ,^,rlg.
e-6[zl ?j:+. +s6J ae E E] ++C ulfr$ 4lffiolef
z,-r/\
llE-r
++4 Hl++E 6rJ teg r*=+. EJel ++cg r*n 9le+ LI"l
=++e =++e
zl= r*r flxl g*4. q= Eq +A= ++z]H solxluJ(:H 7.1e), {roro1 Sr. ealel z}l
7.7 l1= E+rl2+ B+el 3-BF 303
7 .7 I 1 4 *4zl
2+ fl+-, e; e'J
xlfi+llzl grlE aaH, ?J* +9 ga5g "JHI4"J +^tdg ,*+L+. rflql
,Je + qlql^JE d.Jol ¤4]t4. ol ¤ql^l= +rlgse+ dzi Ellzlql qoJ zl
49 ol*alol geq E4(alkali metal)4 ggal e;4(alkaline earth metal)9 p]
q-g go[tr-r.zt q]q. Lelw-s.
r-r' E e-l f_4_
1_a_.olrFFl
E -r
grJ?.] ++e +Eq+ -_4 _Li1o14pa z.zo). EE "JrJ4 ++g eH, ++
+q, * Edr.g, dzl dss.c+ Ae ++¤g ,*=+. 9*4(alkali)+= B
arB 7.20 rtE g,Jal otrj
4g'xll(ash)'E 9"lal* ol$qql^J +*+. a7l s+ol{-e=g .JrJ4 ++.J 7[^|E. e-e ^Ee rrE + ?]= trtr+=+rt+Egrl.
E4 Eq^AE *g sl6JH 4* xllg+rl Balo}flEt. oAndraicerar/shuterstock
87.4q^l tr= EteI zJol, 9zJ4 ++g gEe+ \i{o1 *eq, olq+ cee flz} H
Ez| f;zlslq qq ^J'J6l +!4se HHI+. ee +ql^J= ot4E .IEla++, flzI tlxl
E9 Gzl, rz| olgpl qlLJzlg ?a E"4 Ag .JH}4.J a6}.g _H-"J+. oJrJrl ++g z[r]
zI +e +71 4q^l 7I+ *g r, atg z*=41(:t- H 7.10), ol!. uI? s eulBq dzt= tlqi
4sE drll zll!¤ ?lzl rllE"l4. a44ee, .Jafl ++g {]* t}*tol +or dzr
f
oJ {= ¤r)l gj1 1+ Afl¤-r*= olgol grlo ,'(z.z$).
9E ^lq^l Me "Jelg .JA?-l ++g +4U+. .JrJ4 ++el +i!l¤(LiH, NaH F)oll
87.4 oJAat
;+st El 7t^t
dE
fl^ drt uflil +=E(.c) "JE(s/cm3) flrt B$l=.(A) rr(kJlmol)
EE|A Hl-aE fl|, +H|E A+e-l Eal-sl HJBdol q ¤g aolalr. 8r-t61=7t, Llg lola[.r. ¤,f61.=71?
=+7f
I )
Li Na K
Lail7.21 geal E7+,1=J6[1] HJ8-dtl.
=+g
,<l fAE
H-(#*a] ol$(hydride ion))-tr
=4++.
+i flzl7t d4 6J ,l]= Eq ^JCg
+4e+ olge, +Cg +4 tlzlql^l dzlE oJ 7l] gq ^JCg +i olg"J H*e+ +Egr+.
grJil ++e E4 4g6}rll HI+6Iq +a zli]e+ +&EI grJfl ++ +.-qg ^j{+trI.
2M(s) + zHzo(l) .--- 2MoH(aq) + H2@) [7.18]
olq+ HI¤+ ql+ E*e gg qt= ts¤ t}+ol4(:e 2.20. "*e a+, H,= dE+^l7l7l
ql +B.J 9.1 ts^J94, E*ol qlE= K7l E + HI86I= 44 ?ol +g:ol.7lE.
^dzl44
.J4. ol HI+g KtrEI olgglqlHzlz}A}e grJ4 ++.J RbE Ed Gg A+ qq 4g6ltrI.
7[+ goJ &d ol¤¤ 4}s+ olg(or-)o14. .Ja?-] ++4 &dg H]*se +4 tfqgg
qlt}6J + gl+. dzllE Li ++!+ &4E Hlso eE qEol
^JCg AeE ^Jcg+.
4li(s) + ozk) r"?3,9,^IEI [7.1e]
-
Lizo I,l 714 +6ilc ?4 tE+g-s- Eql +48 *ll O'-zI HzOel Hls"dlq +^Isl olgg
^Jdt4(4 z.ro).
HlEql, += "JA4 ++r+ 4}}el HI¤¤ trl +d-6I+. qE 5q 4Eol t}^e+ EI*
=:
6J ql, +^8CE.3 or2- olgg E*6.J 4&4{peroxide) ag'o1r-1.
2Na(s) + oz(g) t7.2ol
Ii,flr)
Ee16,, +ElE, !l+e- 4I4e+ +¤:6lq er- ol$(a${lE} ol$(superoxide ion)olr-p
6ILJ$ gaJ6J cl*Eg ^JCer+.
q= Eq .Er16.o q*4 zJol a4+IEl sq+{Kor)
g
^dc6J+.
K(s) + o,,r, -;ff#?.,* t7.2rl
4zll9 a+, ++r+ 4i^9 HI*e ++ &+59 ,,J57l trllEql 4 zlo4 7.218 EIS9
drll qltlg + 9l= 4ol otr-14.
HI+^l z.tB-72ti= 86il +E6l "J+ 9l=ol, gar-l ++eErl4l^ql 46Iq E]]+HI
*Col =_+. olal+ ol+ trll+q, "JA?.] ++3 trE E+ E= $+sl ag "lill +Ef+i
ql tr++El.
7.7 1 1+ 2+ eEF 305
=+4 =+9
L L
Li Na K
La7A7.22 ggal 0lgg +oil geE. trl.gel gE L.Irt
=+el =* =g,Ej
^1Ee =+ =
E+El^l gre flAoltl). 0l=lzltse,JBd= ¤E-=t + ?lE Csol fl^l-^1 dtr
^lrl'^lgH9l6lzl
P +??l7l-?
C^lE 3s 9HlEJollll
3p.?ulEJE Eqzll
6f: rll ollLl^l
^I'E:EJ
3p
3s
dr[7f 3p 9Hl=Joll4
3s9HlEJP Eol^lE,(l
.!ua o/\t= Hl=8trL
LZI/\H ?tTl"E o=uLl
LaeJ7.23 4E eJEoll^l Ll'g= EaJ^q '!e -r.0llLlrl 3p 9Hl=e.l X^l=o1 rl0llLlrl 3s 9Hl=
=+ql
-e'Jol Tl erl=o tl".
I O Dolce vita/shutterstock
306 73 Erol+/l^t dtr
ql4l 7.10
seq *+E $8
B+ri (a) orG), (b) Hro(/), (c) H2k)71. EJ8:EI ntl, ,l 3+0ll rH--J EE a[-qt uJSLlE urlg.
^ll+
8tlU > -H.= qlfl 1
E^1 P filEl
^ll+g $aq ++ol=e
.q6,e1 44¤ cs .JrJ?-l ++ Mr+ 4}} ,lalE HI+Cql ql6J trl*- ^ll
-E%L
"Jazl #+ olgS ql+Eq slEl q}¤:ql^] q6Jol Es r g"l A+lB'J 4.9t(bipolar disorder)il Hqt zle sr+71-
+e-6t4= g'+. 414.2¤q^.1 BoJ azlH, E= "Jaq ++
r
el ge Eql +n, olee ql++el ++qt}q HI*q^l
a'a
-I
7lE= 8¤^l7l= fl?la q-qg.!zfl xll 4 t.zzs47.z:ql +4U ql8e'Ja4 tr++ fliEg H}+^dql +El
gg olE4l er-oJ.=t{ E + 9its71.? +E +s qlHg Bq +q. ;lE49 s dzl + ,llE gl-r., 2+ oleg
^l"J = Eq trlrql+g dgql^l ¤^e+ HI*6I
ql=
^JC6t= a6&g +4u+.
-'q q Mscl2= ^Jc6Ir, *71(+s 4}A) 6q1,r] St qg rllH^J ga6l.
i t 4 vrgo= ^JCttrL
MgCl2(s)
Mg(s) + Clz(g) ------ [7.24)
zMg(s) + oz@) .+ 2M8O(s) l7.2sl
o2z| f4loJ u1l, u|:LJlf, ++g -Bs.6I: ag Eql Hzl e*= Mgo9
s3 zgo1r1. q+^l ul$ Mgz| H}+^dol rq4E .i (+.+ilt, zl-Fx}.
g;- zfl-EE "JE= g6J
^F&q: 4* Az
Ht+l Eql
#
^ll-B-tr ^l-Sg+.
"Ja4 E++ + +4e fld(ca, Sr, Ba)E El*+q qA q1g'gol u[:-
-g LJI+B+ q
=.+.
+4+ .JA=l E++ ol¤+ zlal ${oll.r-l ^Igg u+. }EE
=+6J
tF-*. Ege E*Eolollrl {4olE Be4g, H}¤:gg +^qg u+.
ol* +q aEol+ EEI-+zlB, zlE+ EI*Eq d-
"trql+n+ e+e
ql4eE ++6iq. ol9 a6J s+BEq oJolgoE ¤f4ol
^JBill 4"ll
r 4. a+e E4r+ zlo}9 g+ 4 +zlql 561 +s_6rtrt.
-.H.+ q
^Id4.J
*.B-q-e= 6I+E H* ol$ol Hcltr*4 HzoE {olqg C]-e+ H3O+= Bc61+ a.l+. .lelt} E}qql
+6ll^-l= r0z}9lrl ^J^ll6[rll 4.g aol+.
310 73 Pr^g +/t^1gE
l6+q^l + oHql fl= flA= Bzllt:(se)o14. ^Jql4sE e6}zl ?*9 ol gi= r+*
o-e.= +Col 9lzl"J, ullg ulgos5 $Eiflql q+61 +sdt+. se9l* Y*3 rEoei15o1
?l=rll, ¤zl9lts *9 s* j1?]e+ Hl+ql se9 gflz} aul +a F"l 9l+.
trl* fli= gFE{r.;o1q-. olaE +a= Se-H-r} trJ +d-6Jql, alll :l.q 9lE te-te
a+es ol+q4 fl4. s"c} reE 04 s7-lH -2 4}e+ tlqE ca++.
oq^l+El s, Se, regl olezlllzl, fliEg da q gzl-= ¤t6}q azl -,+cg
trlril g+. 16+ +a elqlEE gzl "J4EE +E ol4e =
'ilea++ dd a^++. +
HzO ) HzS > H2Se ) H2Teol{, H2O(E)7} 7it} "JC6}+.
S
u+u9 "JE= g40ll Hl6Hll 1000utl)l aLl. qB 6 clr-- 90J01 olal-d ifol
Lad7.27 BflA=SsExltrEil =
0ll 7lE-dqa 8z-tali7l? (a) Etr'J fl^|.9 EaJ, (b) u+oJP sqillolq E^'= 7lrll?.1
-drl. ol= agoll^l eJE 7l-g E =
4ill0lrl. =Pl tr. (c) H+oJ9 Br[HJ^l=
=
7.8 I g+ El3+el e-BF 3'11
I
a
t
I IT rf
t
Br,
12
gEdl+g ¤-?9 dz} rlsls <ig r*=+(t4 t.tz). trl+^l Btrtl+ g^E slq
=
g zlu1l6l+ ae, +E gie+El dzl-= Eq ge.dsl olg(x )g ^J^d6I= a6}ol4=
ae E++ "Jol olq+(Be H}*^]ql^l x= gE4l g^= Ll+utrt). ga=
HEtrJol+ olole_Htr+ Hl+col trJ rE|. =+eflr+
g+silE d+6.1+ Eil+Eg Ee(Eg
^I¤,
EEI)s+El dzl-= xllzla[_2, l-F3 +*E ql4H gg4sE E]8*+.
zHzo(t) + 2F2@) + HF(aq) + o2(8) A1/: -758.9kJ [7.31]
Sio2(s) + 2F2$) + SiFa$) + oz(s) AH:-704.0kJ 17.32)
arl4eE, g+sfl Tlzll= dEdql^l 4Fzl "lBr, 9l¤61+. olql SE6J tzlzl 9e
6I'1.
g^: BEd g^ + +84str 7l-t| ++6I+. gi= dzl Eal] 4cge "Jsqzl=
ql, ol= d+E olo-" o|{ gi +olgg Ez} ga(clr)e. 4}:z}rlzlril gtr}. g4= ¤+sfl
,+= B?], Er+ Adq Hl+6Iq ^J44sE qltEl HClr+ Hocl(6l.olsgi4})g ++"_q
g "J=trI-.
312 73 fl^g +71^1 dE
A E7 .7= 0l$dlq 0[r1go; flxl- HJrlErf 1 il- 0l$a[ qlLl^l= q|$g + ",J=71?
ulg¤ zli{l(noblegas)zp "JqA 18+ ?li= E-i ulf,Solq, dgq^l Tlrllol+. HlgC
Tlill= l.+ +gz}(monatomic)E qq il+(+ oJ 7]]E gzlE +Cqq 9l+). Hlg^J 7l
i] g^E 4. zlzl Er-lzJ ceg E 7.8q1 q4.Ifltr}. 4E(Rn, gz} HE s6)E EJ^tt
g Rng P+q| Hls.$ CAE E+= 4lql6}fi+. =
tsl+fc Tlill= sd6l il]9lll r4p9 +aeg 7l4L+.ls+el E= g+= rz| olgq q
Llzl {tol il, +E o}4E qlqe++ rz} olgsl ollulzl= rJA++. ul*}c zl4lE.Jc
6J d4 u]lil= 6t7l trIEq HI+Col ql+61 4+. ¤4l.e re60Hql ztlzl ol g^=g q
rJ4q$,zl qlEq tslgC zlzfl(inert sarqr EH+.
II]6J +6JEE
"J= + S,g as.E
1e62LJql ¤*9 Columbia 449 Neil Bartlett(tgzz-zo0s)ol Xe9 olgE} qlLlzlTI ?+
6l *ol s+.JE-g "JE + flg Aol4r +E6IH+. olBl'* HI¤_ol "Jq+ElH, xeE EF
sflr+ ?ol 4E EeE+El dzl¤ ,ll4.J + 9l= *qol q+61 Ea4 H}*4ot g
=
4o14. Bartlettt:5+eflg ql+.J el*E.J ptF6e} xeE q}*rl4 4lael ul${ zlill o}
*Eg 6JC5lfl+. E6J 4l* Fzk)el 4d H]+6Iq XeF2, XeFa, XeF6 $z| pl*Eg ^J
C*+. rBEe ,llEB+= /rol trJ rzl ql$ql HI*Col trl 4+. ^}d, rBEg +"J6I
,ll .JA.J El.JEe KrF27l.JEl4 9lE|. 2000$ql fltgel $q{-e=g ols=g s*61+
a Hail 613 gzlEE 3la+ nRrF Exl¤ E-r.6lH+. olag *g gEql^J"J "Jd6l-r|
+4++.
ol-e-r.
l-L [Ne]:s2:p6 87.3 r.78 1.06 t521
.f=alrl- E
lAr)+s23dto4p6 120 77\ 1. 16 1351
\\ EEJ qFlI
.4-t}1
o tl'llE
7IL{
Hl.t$= flA(Bi.3^l UE 83)E t5+0ll^1 718 Fz1? fl+0111. Hl^+E gA9 E?l ol¤altt HIAPE(bismuth
subsalicylate)= ?l E5 ilEqBoJ Pepto-Bismol@el dEo tt. I
=l¤
(a) :=J 7.7, 8 7.5.7.6s1 'JE 0lE6|.q. Hla+E fl4e] flxl" HJIIE= q|46lr ¤E6t^19.
=--J
qaf LHala+= "JHl4oe fl^l HJxl=o| 57t61.= ol+ts +1oJ7l.?
(b) 15+ fl^el
=E
(c) ul^+E! '*a +tsE= 7l^l= -sr'= dEe.E ,\l-EElol, tr|"It| l g+ ,\l^fl lEts grt4Et Eoil 6i9dtzl Hl^+E xf
^fEErt.
qgzl ¤B-g
i1lts ,|l^l7l fla E^4 afllolrf. Hll+Eol E+dE r4-g ntl, HIB+?.! tr^ "f ?14 e3 +olal=
+ ?l=71?
=8d ^tdE
(d)Bi2o3E ETld uElEoltl. ul^+E7f EP tr.|trl.HJS-g ttll EE 6[+ EJS^.I= u'\|s.. Bizoo 6.77 g3 Ee +q ae4
0.500 L= ?JEflrl.. Bi3+ olg Eo4e.lEE-Ets g0loJ7l.? ^!oll
20eAi= 78 oJE-d ol 5-4011 g¤^lel'6811.= 9 )lloyl?
1e; +'Aa E?l fllo1r1.
=^|15lE
(f) Hl^+Eol "JEts 25'Coll,\l 9.808 g/cm3olr[. -d e.,!alzl 5.00 cm?.! 88Eill oJ0ll Bi fl^l'= H 7t| Hl
so+ g 6e tq
+TlEEel "JE(^IE,7.1E) +7lgs= qH g^5ol 'IF+.Its cl Ert t!ElE(7.str) Erl tltlE(electron affinity)E Tlill {'-qlE +
qI4 Cer+ E44 CAE +^Hdql Mendeleeve] Meyer flz}9l dz} oJ zll= qdl^l ¤.ol3g slE trI "Jq+= qlHzl9 H
=Z4q
ql 9.ll 3lae EJEqAT]. MoseleyE 4 945"1 n++ flzt d sl¤ "J+trI. ¤+E d^f AelEb +olgol Ezl tlE]]g flz}q d
sE zlzljl 9l+= ^Idg +B6I*,eq, 7zl$e9l ,JoJ +4^J Hl6Iq Eqla+ 19 9'l{}4. .JH}49E dzl a+E: +
^Hl
g +q6lqq. Tlgsql^l Btrdi+g 6J6l g+ql^l eg{os a+q q +
=
+71 gEql
^l ag +E
fl 4E= s tlxtzl 9ul=J(valence orbital) ql + {tol gr1. geal4* 7l* ? S+el A4 A+E rtg 7}Aq.
gg +9 d^l-= r*= ag "Jn fl4. flzlz} d^t +39 olElq} Hlgc Tlalel d^I aslE= E+ "J+9 #g L+Elur+. ell+-"IE
+^l-Col. ,JZ 4 fliE ^IolE +^ICg L++.ll= ol#zl S4. eTIq= d^l7l -H-tf qq,qel +AAg 4+lo} 617l EIEolEl.
=
++ 4 fl+5.'.1o19 zloldg g^I7l-eBlE aaol 4e7l qlE Hl=+, g^Eg ++, Hl++, +++oe E
q =+,
^Ja+. +g + 9l+. 'il+EE +l^E #+o14. ++ gi= +7lgE9
==+(7.6$
8a -4Ed(7.29 4eE+q 4l9l4 4^lvl^lE BJ 4rle+, 4l g+4 +.Jql 9l+. Hl++e +7lgsE e=+ fl+Eql fl+.
912; ]jzltl lzlE *i 4Eo=](effective nuclear charge)oll E6il g
=
--+g *+4 Hl:aE+ ^tolg +g H9lql 9lil.J+. ++q Ceg
xlel "*e
^JA.l aAg+. eC+ {zl+ fl{a}e+q
alel4 d +44E fliel 46.E3 El*8(metallic character)ol4n 6}=ql,
zl= 7l-?.1= EJI
'll+ s44ol4. HlEq, ee aeql ilE d^l¤ ag +ql^l= oI4E Luqa+q +7}5ljr., ag +7lq^l= g+
g ^Jc' tql c.n+4eE- 714^\ EaJq. a 4+ g1l7l dxlql e-l ql^l sE4oE e++ ad6JtrI.
sll L4= +E qd6l+,Jg +7lql^lb g+q^.] eE+oE 2 ++e 5+E B-qg 7}zlr. 9leq, gr+ dzl9 ¤3 E;lloli1.
ffi f;zlaf,$. ++ol El++4 H}¤:6IE *4 gzli oJ=ol_e.tr &slqr., oJHI
4 os olgd Eeg ^JC,¤l+. Eil+EE ++ Ezldol
flrtel 0l8el 371(7.3E) g^l-el r7l= eA flrl Elrlt(bondins trI. ++ AI+ES 4lrl Hls" dlq g4 +g 4c.J+. ^l+Ee
atomic radius)¤ ol+6lq 4+q=Ell, ol= tr+ql$ +ql^J g^I
Hl++g ++^Jel ,JHol S.e4. 94 dzl= A 56l.zl *EEI.
A Bq4 9l= ar_lolEl. "JHlzlg-E flzl tlxl+g +7lgsE +
ql^Jol4tr,.llBle++ <.7161a., +7lql^]= g+ql^J e$.{_og 9. zlzl gi= ¤gql^J zl4le 3x1r3r1. ulf,feEuJ +^dg El
z3;5. z$aJ4.
qlEe trE ++.rl Els"6lq golgg ^JC++. Hl;!+ 4IEl¤g
4lColEI. ul!:f ,l!ffi$ Ezlq uJs. aI¤ gI+ +g dC*+. e
soleg raE Eg,(IE+ q +r, +"1¤e raE Eg^l-!-
4 q r+. Eg d6l-= ,*= olgE aTlz +71&Eel $oll,r.l o| ++3 ++4 Hl?+E +rJ Ceg zt4lEt.
4e 4qA++ 671-6J+. Edrl z{lE(isoelectronic series)e FoJ 1+ 24 4-*V.7d) g4'E9] +?14 44e # g
6J +E d4-= ,*= olgE 4lgoltri. re+ Ag Zlgql^l olgq 49 Ceg =4"1
=4_7.[ olollafi ql E¤¤ EilztEl*(alkali metal. l=J
qd6}ql ,}6}ril galTl trll+ql o}d6}7} 37}"J+ g +=d+ "JE7l- *g ? E =,4014. =E|.
=.zli {z.lfol "JrJ?] ++g flAE +
q z$+4. TI1L +g olgcl qlq^l$ ,l4Ll.4+4eE "JAq ++g ul+
:s
ql'+ tal ot BE E+-d +ol qalEg q3= + ?lotop
:dEr
.+E' qd6}(2"d9 zll'Jg olaI6f.r, qd6} q d^I ul^le+ qE 714 A.Jg #4dol {z} ufile} 9ts *2lz} 9l=^lE ol6fl
*4lz| 9lixl= olofl t4(z.z¤). ajr11z.s9. +{ ¤+ .E4l : 7.s3, 7.s4, 7.92, 7.95
+{ ¤+ +^\: 7.13-7.1s, 7.17 .++ ++EE 9zlC4 tsl;!+ 4}n+Eel {lCg EEl6Iq, ++
.7zl$.s.9 ol+4q flzI tlzlE, olg +^lE, olgE| qlLlzl, rI Hl++g pl+4 C34 E?-14 deq iplE ol6tl6J+(7.6
dxl tlpls q++E+(2.24, z.t4. t.+4. z.s4). ¤). sfl s+ E^ll : 7.s6,7.se,7.60,7.62
=¤
+H E+ E^l; 7.26, 7.42, 7.M, 7.s3 . olgslqlHxl "f {zf ullzlo} ee 949 Ec"l qBzl "Ja?.]
. d^l-= ?lq "Joleol 944, dzlE 9"l¤.ol9ol g Ell g^]-9 ++4 "J+q E?+E p+q}4 HI+d "t Ed.lzl SCiI +4lEl
elzlEol qg7]l H6l+^l¤ ¤E+tr|(7.3e). ¤B6J+0.24). +¤ S+ E4:7.67,7.68
=xlE
+{ s+ +^l: 7.28,7.33-7.3s - r4,219 ++ol g, t}i, +i, ElEtlr+ Hlso6J trllel +B
"*
. +7lgs.= ol+6}q olgq dzl- Ellil= + + 9lE+ +4(7.3 A +q HI*^1g ¤ + 9lE+ *r+(z l4, 7.84).
¤). +¤ ¤+ +41: 7.2e,7.3o,7.4s,7.46 +H ¤+ +4|:7.6e,7.20
ql ol$E| ollulzlzt qB4 H6l-=zl .+4e] EE_e +^dg +g6tn ¤B6J+(7.7a.
"-a zlag
. dzl-E trl-4
46}.9 ql+61.=q, 561 qd+ dzl-= allTl6lq olgEI.'J Ell ol +H g+ +4: 2.7r,7.72, 7.99
3p] 9lH zlzl Eg+4e.e H+61+ 49 .Jrlt4(2.a9. .olgEl qlq4 "t {z} ullzls},J?. rc. t7. tB+ giel Eaol
+fl S+ +4i 7.37-7.3e,7.42 clElzl Hi+d "t EE4
^Je4
qB4 s*ol glEul ¤BqI+
. dz} tlslsel ol$o] oiltJzlzl ¤sol g a4, dzf tlslg9 i 1z.s¤). +B g+ +4:7.73,7.74,7.76
Orl Hlql
-=.o u o .i
'Z*=Z-S lz.t) +s qd6}9 ql+
91f E;41
ts9.8 E.ts 7]lE +g. qd6l= +461-b rJ+'J %IH(^l z.r)$ ^;-3'a1q e
7.1 EEq^l EE.J EIe]. zJol, :Hrt aol, dxle+ eel "Jqrl, EL Egd+g zls sl/s.i HIFB +?-lel F4zl4e_4 zJ
\ rJd^t Coo
7.3 trl-g ql 4q qE 37lE +b Mg2*, c1-, K*, se2- ol¤¤
uHcqlll HTEEH O]I
erd fLt L|4U4. t7.3¤l
-=J I
316 75i fl^o-t+7t4 dE
(a) :H 7.8¤ araalzl "Ja, 449 olgrl += 4zl o ^19-. (d)^E Tldl EE(rH z.zz)Y dzl9l 9oll ollLl^l7l7lrt
o) r7l= nrjslHg 41, (i) c",* olgg qE F + 4+l4l dzlzl rq-gg f;gle olSa|olluJzl
^plql = =9lql
B^l zlF¤+. ol4l olEoEl
ogg9
34614:7I? (ii) s2- o1s-e1 A+-e-? 4zltl*Z qlqzl E
=9lE
olsE^J Hol g^J+4. Na flz}9l^l qts + qqzl
9zI ol 4C"ll+q6}.=^l B-6i^le_.
=
7.7 oFilql7l¤qq fl= ++ g^E daE aslcg +4Lll=
7.4 trl-g Hi*ql^l ;f+, El++¤.+Elltl= +y 44 q! a.J rBg re^le(tr. aEltql^J =# B.q+E ag +^16}^l
zi?:r o1fiE ¤B6t^lj_. [7.4¤] g).lz.z-t.a9l
HJ- gdE a* gzl. HI^IE (z) rzl olgq- qlqzl
(1) +E qd6}
oo
(3)
oo
7.s trl^g
*
Li Be B C
o,
=,1
++ fl^
l
N o F
He
Ne
4). ol Ez}9ld e_e eEl aol= d,olr, ull zllg A_x ¤
-4 Na Mg AI Si P S CI Ar
E aol: 44 a,ol4.lz.t9l )l
(a) flzI Ae+ x9 e6J gz} tlzlE¤ dr4 dz4 ++lE K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
^l-s
6Iq +{Lll^ls.
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
(b)x, .+4-q x-x a+ eolE d,rl dz9 tglE
^l-Sqq
o
Cs Ba
+4'-ll^ls.
N
^lL
".ro (ii)
gl\
H =-4. He
6-"-@
rBgNa flz}9 flxf eul$ qlLJ^l Esoltrf . 4 +4
Li Be B C N o F Ne
7.6 olEl
= Na Mg AI Si P s CI Ar
7l
eq ll! eEIEE += L}EI{zl ?*it4. tz.z¤l
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe
-3p
Ba
E
-3s Cs
2p
_2s
(iii)
-1s H =-=
gJ/\
He
(a) n:1, n:2, n:34 E.E +Aeol E+ E^lqflE7p nJ
flaE #l.JzI?
(iv) o) l8+q += gi=r+ 4E ol g^E ceg F TLzl xll^l
6I^19.
H +4 EA He
,.13 1-13$el g4E +q^l q¤ g^+ glEol7l* zle +
Li Be B C N o F Ne E qdd-= 7|^ln 9l=^lE al z.rg ol+6}q Z.ft-= tsI=*s
E *-e_^le. 9H flr+ g^Eol 714 a +E qdq¤.7[
rL
Na Mg AI Si P S CI Ar
,I zlr.9l=7|?
K Ca Ga Ge As Se Br Kr g4E alel4 gz}Tl dxlel +E qdd}ql ++ q+ ¤H
7.14
Rb Sr In Sn Sb Te I Xe 6 Efl ¤4-¤. rE^ls.
(0 +E qd6l+ flzI4 +E dzlq eloll z|fl215 4-39
Cs Ba
xllzl6l] + .!zll fl{a}e
^J4.J + 9l+.
(ii) +E. qdsl+ +7lgsq 6J iTlql^l g+q^l e-=3--e.
7.8 g^ Xb Fr(g)el Hls" d}q trl-.q-r+ ag B^l¤- Bc6JtrL F.6el e a++ rl1l4.
(a) ol HI*g +B *+ HI+4g
^^^ls(El, xel ^J^JEE ^J
(iii) gzfT} dxl^E
"ld+ dz}tr+ Bt ar+4_e_E qd6}
g +^I'JED. E 2ffl4.
(b) x= ++q_17]-, El++.Jzl? r ol+E ¤E6f^le. (iv) *.s. qd6l+ +7lgsE aJ fzl9 ¤ql^l q-g- +7lel
xigss a ql +4di A^+q.
lt (v) +Tlgsq oJ +ql^l o}4tr olti6J elg +.o. qa6}3
¤xllo1xl ?*zl olle.il, t%7$vl^ji dE4s.+ A+q4 ?+ (a) 4Cp {z}e} flz}z} dxfg z}H *+E 441.00, 0.oo
I eka-manganesee.l 3,x115 q+6I9+. :B z.t9l 44U olrlr z|{o}-L, sip} Clql flb 4)E4 4471 vvly
+7lg.s'-++q, MendeleevTl eka-manganese+J. += g4 Z,rAk* ql=6}^ls.
. zl rl?g qB4 E4Ezl B-61-^le-. +4g ^Fs6Iq q+q= Z,r 1I+= al4}5}^ls-.
(b) Slater
g^.= o, si, Al, Fe, Ca (c) 9L *Bol E+ C9QI z.r itg ql+61^=7|?
?.rt (")
^l+
zl4ql 3461+ 7I^J *g
ol+. rB gqBH, oI5 + t g^+E r700H old
7.19 (d) + HIB + + +7lql^l g+ql^'l e¤z- e-E a++ d^l-zl
qlAg +71= trtrI g ¤B6lb ag q! 4"J71?
ql
"Jed flfl=7|? slE r++E q¤ g^t7l? O) nEI "J z$4
E+q 'JEl4 .llEjeH e7l4 g4 ft zzlzlty ++olEI. s. (e) sic+ clel 4l^Ig u|g-s-E, pql^] 4lsl+ dzlE z.nE ql
4.sE AqEE, ol7lt ++E9 4++g plqzl gcql^J
=61^19.
+le+ oI4 6 qqql 9zl= 6l+7t? z.v lrrq n4"J 444 Krei n:3ol AAql fl= d4 + qL
7.12 Moseleyt: gxlg=E+El %L¤q= xd dflg F6ll g^I EE aol q +E qdq¤ !=4 4"J71? q- datT} 44 cl
9 zllf$ ol=q{r+. zl,lSzlz= ¤H6I^19_.
(a) flzflo1 6z16l+ +^Je +g++8, g^ q-*ql e= 7.18 n:3oJ Ae ..il dxl¤ol -4= +E qd6l7l¤!7161+ +^l
318 73 Pl+sl+/lrl dA
4e c1-9. gxl¤+ u]l$a|.<le. aEI ,JolE dB4sE ?g aslrE As-r ¤'* eol(2.ss A)
K, Mg, P, Rh, Ti e+ HlE6l^19.
flrl HJxlEzt 0lg HJrlg7.3tr) 7.24 4d49e 93 BiI:9 Bi-I AEJ Aolb z.at Aol4. ol 4
7.re gzle+q C++ Szl9 tlxlEg 44]l.71+l6li^l q] aole+ tH z.z4 EIEJe-e Biel flz| tlzlEg {l
"ltrlE} ^lEE
o}=ol ddzlse aCqqot 6l-b7l?
=_6I^19_.
(a) dul-= Bd$$go1 0e-E q= qq^lel z;l g^tE¤ flz1. qlxlgol
a71gsu.!g ,r.]-.ga|9, trl¤- 4rolxl
(b) F zlzl g^l-71a6Jg g EIel qrJ 7lE ull$alrle.
(c) g^I9 +E qd6t -2.t5=+^-lE
(a) K, Li, Cs
7.20 eEg ^lle.l6J ulgrd TlillE=$ +E6l *g gEql^-l ¤+611 (b) Pb, Sn, Si
.<l lxlltr HdJtrf. ole.=g 83 K ol4 gEql^l El-g fB4 (c) F, o, N
ae "Jd +aE El5+. 7.26 +71&*-"Jg q-S g^l¤¤ g^l-H}^l+ol 4zlE
^h&4q,
(a) rHr+ zJol $lxlfol
^lE
Bq 9148, l^tl ole+ql^J +^ls ullg6l^le.
ole+el tlzlB3
"l¤z]l 9bz}? (a) Ba, Ca, Na
0) A+ol olE39 Hlzl# rH 7.7q^l 4l*¤ flzt tlzl (b) In, Sn, As
Ets-+ +e7P (c) Al, Be, Si
(c) olq+ =71-,
HliE Ht*-s__tr, r.zll ole+ql^l 4 gzl+
^lE 7.27 c++ 4 t¤ol *.Jzl. zlloJzl= +H6l-^le_.
+Ei4 Aq}eE ¤eqq glqr gf ?iiz}? (a) ololgs=g tl.+61.= +^J g4-==B+ 3+.
5.26 o) Li+E Lits-+ 44.
I (c) Cl-E I--tr+ r+.
m3- 7.2s il1 *zlE Eb ol+ HlzlEE Els-n+ ag ailg ¤B6l^l
x 9.
r
(a) I->I>I+
Fe3*
I -rtn
,4* 4 ol84 Fd4 +alq fl= +d sxlb Fgtzt?
Ga3* , zr4*, Mn7*, I-, Pb2*
7.21 B^HIg +7lgs .I9 qtr ++tr+E +=e(3422 "C)ol 7.30 qtr olg=ig Ag d^l ullrl$ zizlzluJ tso6l.B +^J g^I
++. BlHl ++ Lll B".Hl flzf ^folE 7lr.l= 2.74 Aolq. 7I S.E a*zt ?14. o}49l 4 olgql ql4 Ae +el d^l-=
(a) ol4t 4aq^l ¤^HI flzlel g^I EI^l=e guI.JzI? Tlxl= +c $zl-$ *-r., ol $xlz| ag d^r ullzl= TIzl=
(ol3l,t HlxlEe;!+ HlzlEol+r. ++.) zl eA6l^le. u,le| ole]t';| gztT} ?tb+H, ql r
=xll6}zl
(b) "JE B^Hl ++g +g "Jq6lql +=ElE, B.Hl gxl flzl .S$af.<le.
,r.[o]g zla]z[ qg4l Eg 4o]41ql+61+zl? (a) cl- (b) sc3* (c) Fe2+ (d) zn2+ (e) sna*
7.22 a4 7.7E 46J gx} tlzlE"ll ++ El-S ¤B + EA ++g 44 olgt F-e+ Na+E ^J46]] tr^L
.:="
-zet
319
=* =r1l
(c)oldql= Slater 749 ,lB ^J+(s)E ql+6}n, 7.a2 @) r7+ql^l oI4E a+q lil ol¤+ qlHxl Hsl9 4"J
^l-*4q
+ olgelze¤ al^I6l^le_. * 9rl,tz}? ol {u}/jol flx} t}xlEg H+e+ qBal +41
(d)Fd^I olSEq^J +s qd6}e+ olg HI^IE +qlE q qE^l ¤E6}/le. (b) 4+71qr,\1Ktr+El Kre ol¤rg+E
r]aJ gggzJlzl9lEzI? tz| o1g5lqlulxl Hsl9 a6}e oll[l+7t? ol a6JCol gzl
z:l s, cr, Kel olEE "JHlzJ"J olgE¤ ^J46ll BzL *zlE9 Hple+ q$4l+Alqb4 ¤E6I^1s..
@) azlzl +z16l+ +^]tr gz]# ullga|,rle. a71gsq^l.el gl^lE ule"le-E dlq. r++ 4 ai + rzp o1
(b\ ztlzl +7I6IE +^ls olg-E¤ ull$a|.rle. g.lqlLJzlTI El 4Ig ag qe gzfoJzl ql+6}^le-.
(c) gxl-=E olgEq r7l +^lql^lE itoldg ¤E -7.a3(a) Cl, Ar (b) Be, Ca (c) K, Co (d) S, Ge (e) Sn, Te
=zlo]
6I^ls. 7.44 :cl+ 4 rdlql^l 9H S4z[ ri[ o1g4 ol]ulzlz[ c] 49zl?
7.34 c+* flz}4 ol89 4 rdlg a7l7l zo7l6]E. +^le HIg6t^ls. (a) Ti, Ba (b) Ag, Cu (c) Ge, Cl (d) Pb, Sb
(a) se2-, Te2-, se ?A5 q+ olgEE dz} H]]iIE .r'.rle. ul$.! zlille| ag d^t
(b) Co3+, Fe2*, Fe3* Hllil= TIzl= ae q¤ +==joJ7l?
(c) Ca, Ti4+, Sc3+ (a) co2* (b) Sn2* (c) zra* (d) ag* (e) s2-
(d) Be2+, Na*, Ne
7.46 q+ olgE"el d^l Ellil= 4r^ls. ol 6ql^l Elgc TliJle+
o*O Ag olf¤ aqdl ¤B6l^ls. ,J+ 4^l Hl]iIE TIzl= 19 ;rarl9.
(a) o2-tl o-H-+ 0) s2-z} 02 e+. y'*
-7:s(c) 52-zI K+-u+ =.q. (d) pd2" (e) pb2* (g Au'*
-E-r+ (a) Ru3* (b) As3- (c)
(c) K+zI ca2*-Er| -ar+.
=.trI. zaz 4, s, ...)el dz} ullilE 7t^l= olg,rll zll$ zl,rl9.
7.36 0lg a6J +qlE LiF, NaCl, rSr, nbrgl,q "a'@:t,
"Jolg-g 7.4s nff(n:3, d^I tsllilE 7|zl.= ole-,r'll zfle.v'119.
olg 4i,lb A(Li-F),
2.01 2.82 A(Na-cl),
=48
3.30 A(K-Br).
4, s, ...)E
gaE + Hatl dzl tl*s9l ++ 49 rA^ls. ol 4cql^l
3.67 A(Rb-Dol4.
olol+ g + qL 9lHrlz} LI.g ae.e. ql+6}=7p ol F
(a):H +qTI olg HlzlE *.g ol+4q oJolg-
7.8q1^.1 -zagHr{l d^I Ag}EE zld +CB f glEz}?
*-o139 7l4E q+6}^le_.
(b) (a).url Eg zlEe+, de4etr +a¤ ,lelel il-= al& 7.s0 g^q {xf {o}Ez} +q i}ol+H, olaol fl49 *olgol
6}^le. +aql^l 0.04Ael aqdg 7lfltrla r}46t9g +C gx}tr+.JA6I+= ag EEl6l+zI? ¤B6I^le.
41, F ztzl EJB9E Eg ololg-golgq ,lEl= a+ z.sr 6,HoJ K gzlcl K* olg 6ql^l qts a"l q ++E dz} tl
a,J+ 9,.Yzl? EIE= 7I7,1=7p
(c) dl} flzI ql4Eg ol+6}q eg olE ql 4E +6JEel 7.s2 F-+ eol l-E ddl-= r*+ *ol¤9 olg+ qlq4e+. +
ololg_*olg ,J 44+ g"Itzf? Eg Hl^lE aig ol
c"J F gzlel dzl {s}sg {L++4lE ggzll gbz}?
g HlzlBe-E+q 9e {FJ+ Aq.Yt? .1gE 1zI olge+ qlq4e+ dzl aE+EE ^J46u
0l8=t ollLlrl, drl tlatE(7.4tr, 7.5tr) tr^f. =+silE
z.3z oifult:el lil
2iL 3^I ol8e+ .llHzl= L+4tll= 49 ir -zsr(a) dz} ullzl$ sglaf$ 4 44ql 6l*6l= alg ,rr.le-.
I}A* qH a.JzL?
TI\L zl"g qlLJzlTl-ge+ (b) +l F il+ Hlqlq= +g= 7Id+. q- aol olol
^le. ^l.+
7.3s (a) BE lz| 2zl olg+ qlq4, G) zlEats9 ax| o1951- n, qe 4ol ¤-.JzI?
qluJzl= +4qlE 49 xr.ls-. (c) 9l F rtg 3q<iol z;$ \ea qtl6}=71? olq
"JE
?3s u, r, se ?glrl ol¤ fl4z} F Hr,llE olgsl qlq^l= etH, qe ae.l ¤H{iol q
zlzlizll = 7.s4 ot4 3rlEl
=71?
HI+!g C46ll tr^I.
7.40 E"J"l ?qlzl, zl4.JzlE ufolrl9.
I:l-qE Ca+(g) +e-.+Ca(g)
(a) ol¤s+ ollulzl= 6JAL gE <iol4. El-S ¤E + *e ag qL 4oJ7l?
(b) 4}}=¤+sfltrE} li} olg+qlLJzlTr q ?q. (i) ol ++E qq^l E+b ca* ol99 d^l rlElEolEI.
(c) g^fel zz| olgsl qlqzlE 6y* ril olgE} qlq^l!_+ (ii) ol tls-el qlqzl H+= ca fl^I9 li]. olgpl qlq49
r+. $i <lol4.
(d) 3il olg+ qlqxl= +C gzlE+q :zll9 dzl-= olg (iii) o1 tI+' qlHxl Hclb ca g^tE d4-aE+Eq ¤+
s+fl+ ql Beo.;! oflLJzlolrl. <loltrt.
?.4r (") glxlel rz[ olgq- qq4q "JH]4e +4lE ¤Ed[ Hl=+e|ctr0.6tr)
=zlo] =+ut
7l* olgs+ qlq^lE r*= ag q! 7.ss (a) +Tlgsq i,J+7]iqlel g4ql^l e-E+oe ollr=oel+E
^ls. o) +Tlgsql^.] =
flroJzp 7It 4g olgE+ qlLlzl= 7*+ 4e q- gioJTI? -o+Col +7li;l$7l, zgalfz[, H+6]zl f*E7]? (b) +71
320 7A 3a"l t/l^l d!
gEE + +.llE 9.lql^l ot45i olEo6J+=- ++col ?716I (b) tlc+ a(rr)e} r+Ed,il
a^4=7L H+617.1 ?+Y7P (c) (a)c}6)ql^'t +EIt (c) *&EI+rlE
=71,
+714+ lil olg+ "llH zl 9 HE+el a""tC4 oJil6l+zl? (d) ol& ol B+etr ++oI ++I+
^E
7.sG + g}.x, Y7t+416'J+. ol¤!6I+=+ed7l dE4lolr, 7.66 ++ 4 HI*q 4.J +e HI+4g /^^ls.
+E ae HlE4lol+. dE4sE EH x.el rz} ol¤El9lH (a) &EI eEl$$ E
zl= yE + Hll4a 6J+. ol + qE 4,ol rl ?4Cg zlqa (b) +tl+ ol'Jr+ E
6l L
,^\:,
7LO
I: (c) rlclatrE(rD45e gt}
(d) ol4}+
z.sz ** E6Iq 6J q^J.l "9t14 o e olol$$ BC6l-= g
q eqlts4 +&+ eq-+ ++"1
++olE+"4b "Jg 6ifl+. q4¤+ ol gq E96Ib Hl=+et 4d 0.7tr, 7.88)
^:
TL FE6Ixl ?+=7P =+rt
,.u, Ol rJf,ol oJql4 o e u|:uJlf,-Er| Hlgo Col olf+ +
BC6I= gi= ++ol =
,,og.ole_g
7.s8 ol trg E6Iq 6J E+^Jol 9..JzI? (b) zJf,o1
"JHlzJse e.El+tr+ Hl+dol zl3 ol
n, ¤.olgg Bc6l+ El-.+olzl ql+.il, olgg El
fl^= f.E F9.'Jzt?
d6}zl *= fl48 "Jg 6t9E|. qriBg 7.68 g.r+ +Hl# E El t+ olgg BC6Lzl"J, ge.l H}*dol
ol "JqlEE6l=71-, =++oltrt."+=
EE6}zl ?*E7l? gd q zl4. ol5 g^9 Eiq t.49 dxt uHzls] flz| tl
'19.4 4lo1go1 olgCoJzl, +zl^Jt^lg ql+6t^le. zlEg g+6rq olp .$$a|.rle.
SnO2, Al2O3, COz, LizO, Fe2O3, H2O
-zsl qg 4 HI*ql qi+ +e HI+4g ^
^ls.
7.60 qB ++ t}+E(ql: Sczor)3 ++6J En+= Hlso6}^l ?J:zl (a) sffi
++ol gi zlxll $flzloll,tl ¤r6JEI.
"J, &C E=
gTld +e{r+* H}¤¤.J+. Sc2orz} 4}C + -r.o (b)
^EEE 4lq¤g Eql aTFJ+.
aos qtI6l+TL olqE ¤zlt *94 qlg.'J
Er+ Hlg"g (c) 4E;'4el *EB &^ zl,ilql :.¤^la+.
asE qlt6}=7|? 'J"*g +B ++ HI*4g r ^le. (d) iE ++ol +8 +r+ Hl-&eE+.
7.61 4}sl EJTIq=(II)(Mno)zl ucl(aq)rl NaoH(aq) + qe a 7.70 trl-S 4 HI*q ql'J +B HI+^l¤. ,^^le.
+ q dril eI*$ tszl ql+6t^le. (a) *llf$
E"ll ?zloJ4.
7.62 tr}f &q¤i$ &E7f 67}.6I= +^le Llg6l^le-. (b) dztel4.
COz, CaO, Al2O3, SO3, SiO2, P2Os
^EEE¤Eil
(c) a$ol 4}^el HI*6J+.
(a) ol olgol ilQlz}? (s. 2.6 +a) z.zr zllz.zpgl;.] ¤B6.IHFol, grJ?-l ++g +^el EI*6I
^JdEg <"1
(b) g^E+q c1207(t)71Bcq= H]+ql ql'J +B "*+ { i+apg Bc6}i1, Bedl4 H}¤.6}q 6}Edli+E¤ B
HI*4g'{ ^19.
c.J+. olE HI+q^lE +^el gtr4lE EEtg Eljildl^l
(c) cboz9 H*(oq)* oH-(aq) + qL a+ q 4B6Ial Hl e. ^JtEq^l +^e+'Jedlg BEll= EI+6J7I? 0) a+
***tl? q- Hls" 4, 3+4 +^e+q HI+E tB +¤-^l
(d) cl2oTql^.1 $4zl -24 &q+= 7l4l4n 6J ql, clg =+eflei
g A^ls. ol5 HI+g z.fol$ f,^f{$ F9.qlz}?
^JdE-=
ale145 9Bzll qizl? olel6.J tI++E zI4 utl c19 7.72 sEl+l-e- +^el Elso6Iq olg a'J ElelE"J +^EI sEl+:
dz} Ellr.lEE qBril q=7p s Bct+.
f.641 g4 x= 4l4e+ Hlg"6Iq xo2E BC6In, g^e+ Hls"6|q (a) ol H]+E +B HI*^lg il^le_.
xcl4=-BC6JE}. Xori g4 nxllolq, +g gr:ql^i += O) rB z.t2E
7.t01+ gao 6t4, oI4 F HlAg ql
^IEE
4(rooo"c ol^J). -EFE aAql^1, xcl4E+4q E^llolq, q Hp+*(kt/mol)$ +61-^ls.
^l
s8 "cql^l #=trL .+ K*(8) + H-(c)
K(s) + H(s)
(a) XCInE 5rI HI+6Iq xo2e+ E +E +6J+g
^JC6J+.
-+ K-(8) + H*(g)
K(3) + H(s)
olql E 4E Elt}Ee Fl.Jzl? (c) (b)91,q 4l&¤ qlq{ Hs+P+eE+El qtr E}+ol A
o) ad x= ++, El++, #.+ + q! aol4r ^J46|
"J
olB^l n=^19.
i7l? (d) (c)ql,rlE dqol +is+ ol$$ E!|alf +^El Eq¤,
(c) olqlai cRC
¤Br+ ag +n +46f9 fla. xzl el BCr+ "JEqtlE6l+zI?
qB g4.oJzl aa6}^le. ^.149
t7e-* Ag deql r1op u.eulg gi g4= Blr6l^le.
r+* 4 Hl+ql ql{L +B "*+ H}+^lg /^^le. (a) 7s^I tsllil 0) TIXJ "J+4.J olg d6l-
(a) t5l El¤r+ E -rrt (c) txl o;gq- qqzl (d) Eql qi6J qI-*C
-7.6s
+7lE# E^l 321
^l 1.0,000 Cu Zn
- 119 >0
Ag Cd
1 23456 -t26 >0
0lt+ +
Au Hg
7.e2 14+ g^'= r3+ol+ ls+ g^ql El6ll ¤d gE d^l -223 >0
=
a+EE 7I114(rH 7.12). t++ + ol ^l,gg 7I1} + ¤H (a\ tzl gdE d^I A9+E7I0E+ ol]9+ +l9l7l?
=
gie.l Axl rlslETI oI4E ol¤:6}+E trl g
(b) 11+ (v) gzt HI^IEol 4EB4 +tr|.
=
ei ag zfxlS o1.,9 F9"JzI? ('fle: +zlg*q^] +=
^11f,9
=
7.104 (a) 9rJ4 ++ + 6J ++ol &ael Hlssfq g4 n4l E
4 Saq d^I {+EE +ql q= a6}c9 4^t6}+.) eg Bt++. ol aTql Eeg Eq +olB. +"lql^l r+t}
7.ee +4i qtr Eq^lb gaE =.+n+ Eli+ ceg, "l¤ EI +i(Hror)7|aeflL+. ol +EE g* dBg 6l-E ¤
Eql^lE El++r+ Hli+ Cag TIxl= g^ol+. olEl6J .H.4 E+3 .H.q ol$ uf$e-a. il¤.ql g,J
ce 6 oJ+:. dz} Hllilql el6ll, .Ji= olgsrl =+. ^I8:6J
"llulzlq E ++ol +toJ^l #6l.^le-. (b) ^Jd¤ 94 Eer+ E
dx} rlslsg *ee gga3+ 9l+. 4E +B EIEI HI+4g *.rle.
(a) f4.9 {z} 4lr}sz} E}stlBEt grJq ++ri q El 7.ros znz*y ^JEql +g+ ++ olgol+. Zn *l ^J^ll 4 Hi+
i"J olf¤ ¤B6f^l_e_. q +q6l+ qBl +qeq A.J¤ BqlE tsdgzl"J. tsrJ
(b) E+g 6IAIE SHI4"J p+4zl *BsE= Azl6ITl qB+.
^]¤'g ^I,goJ7I? "I4
"+^b +'J+o Bc6l-b EE g^ 6ql^J a6J gzl 4 cd2*zl ${ rl zJzla}71 d7l qiEql. zrr'*E s6}6l-=
HlalEol TIAI z+4." +Eeg fl+6171 g.lall.! Zn2+E cd2*-+ ^l+d+ a+71-
+E olqEH, ^l+¤ +A6l^l-q. "J"+ *btrIB, dzl zl-+ 9l+.
tsl]zlel +dq^J ¤B6I^le. (a) ol [to]l,rl ullg g4 "i ol9E9 c¤4 fzl&erJ9
(c) fA9 ol$s| oilL{zlz}-
"JA4 ++BE}.Je.419 o1c- olSE glxlE n7j6lq, zn2+ 7l+i]le^]g cd2+
E]
"ilHzl <}!l Hlid olr9¤ ¤B6I^le.
E+Beg 7l¤6}^le.
^l-g-
(d) +is+ olee H-ol+. +AcI ol$$ tzf olg+ qlLl (b) ++ H!+el +EE +7!^lvlY BEe¤. n++r 6J
zlq 4%I6l-b 49 ^^r.ls-. q. "*e E^Ee q "J*g ql^L 4+q + ge
^J4l
(e) (d)91.! B"J He] dzl a+EE +4q1= Bl oJ E4ol+. s.Aql^J Zr,r* 4d cd2*=
^.lg ^lr+ ^h+g' a+
J.6I^19. ,.JzlE E4d + 6I+=, cd2* il+gl7} E^E gcg
[z.roo] 4}} $z[s-l rif olg+ qlq4= E]-g H]¤.ql^-l ge6J ql zla\zl/ul ulgc oe "JEEI= aol+. cd2* olel
Hzlol4. ql zn2*E ql,ll6J + 9lE +E ++ olg¤. xll.<lalr,
oz(8)..-o2+(g) +e- ol fi E zltro|.rle.
^ll ^l6J
ol H}*ql^l Be-qL qlulzlS 1175 kf/mololq, ol aLg xe g^ql 48l] 7l+qq fl= re^]l7l dE L
[z.roe] qr1z1z[,rl]tr"$
9 ri1 o1gol9lulxlq oll+ Hli6f+. o27I F2e+ Hl+6J c(rszzE)E BA4fl+. ¤zl9l dB ].E 7l+9 g+7f
aol4 q^J6l+7I? "JE rB+E ol H]+E ^JdE(+e 9l+.
^JCEE=)g
ql+6f^l_e_. "¤cE eE4, ++!H H.J. Btr+ ++. 5ql S6&9
[z.ror] ol 4q^l ti:"J r]]tr ++Cg Cgg + gleq, g^E Szl t**. +71 6ql^l 'JCt+. +=d3 rs:'c. "Js= z.t
glcm3. 4zl dEE= =14 4zl dtr.;E 20vo. TtE}- 4
H}-&drl. grlul dz]l dzl¤ s"]ul4E 3EE zlz,E l ,JEE E lzo. ol Ed +.20 s* +=*el &l!
+Cg 4elE +E 914. st gul-4
dzlE dEdl-= t 7l-
(iv) +E qr96I7I AEB+ zl+. B aolq. *cs| zluffig HlEi]lE^J. 7l+4 oe f+:
^llf9
324 78 u^sl+714 dtr
t ?zl&s,.Jq flE szl + 419 g^ol+. stsB e+ +7lgs^JE +lilb qB +4q il=7P
q atlq dzl sleb +rE 7l=E 6Ii1 9l+. HIE^ll E[ (b) HIE^ll .tlB9 *4lzl-==3 trEI +zl= 'II-VI'
^l^&6}q
aJ-g-e.al d7l ,l}gqlE ql= Eq Hli+ rJEi r+'III-V'Eeol4i1 +=trI. il-vl+ III-V7I q¤
^F&gEI.
(caAs). "JsI aE(cap), +sl 7}E+(cds), Eqlt.E+ 7IE Eq] BJE^lloJzl ++6il -H.^ls.
E(cdse)Eol 9l+. (c) +7lgs*q g^EE +laq 4d9
(a) uJEill sl*Eq ol$ flA$ =4atq, ^l]sg
4drl, Siel Geoll q1u1f, HIEAI Elql+g ull rl a|.rl e.
d^lE +"Jzl+olr|. Li9 li} olgp+ qlLl^l= ql+6}^l -29 &+tl4E TlALla AE¤' 4HEl.
=
(a) ol dEql^l xdq +a-g 4l4l6f^le.
s. (c) 4l& Arl¤ .s. 7.49 H ]lg &r+ El.il6}r., -r. ilol ^l-8-t
(b) ol5 zlee.Pq9 f39 al dzte+ tI49 rs d^I9
E ¤E6I^le. (d) .J"*g ol$c+ ql"lzl 7}g xll="$ + 9{
^Iee+ElE +s-r+ t}}$
ql'lzlel. 7+E ri| o1g
E +a 4d+ l}e g"I"Jzt? ol iie (c)91^J ¤B.+ 14 E] 9lHzlE HII6I^le.
oJzl6l+zp
(c) Hg'*, o'?-E Hlq
^J4 dz}
uflile;u19.449 4
[z.ttt1o1gq- 9lu]zlE +A6l+ 6'J 7[^l *He %]d affi z] * flzlzt dzl+ dzl-=.Jzl?
oitr
a-e, 6l+ zl-9d *dzl tsrJB(ultraviolet photoelectron
re lz.rrrlul:2u16, ++ol +71 +ql^l ¤46J oil(rH 3.6) + 7l^l
spectroscopy, UPS E= PES)ol4 (0.2¤). PESqI^1,
6ILI= ++ ufzrJlf,(Mso)oln, E+E
dz} *eg olzlalzl +16ll. B^q*o1 rle.9l 3 I¤+. B ^JdEol ^JCg+.
6lLlE Mca+ e4 Ezte+g HI+ trir.ql
eq* dzlel gF qlqzlTl +CElflr+. *zl9 9lHxlq ^dCE.J ade+
6o14. e^+ Elrql+ql +9 dzlalH, ElrLJl+4
d^Ig +,E! 9lHzl zJ ilolT} d^l-= xllTl6}= Ell gs+ oI ^l+
qlq^lql 4B+E+(olg+ qlq^lq ql*). pES dBg trI+ "J.erl zl 4l zt,'J C ¤4.
4dql^l +{6}fl+lt a}z}. ;g +7lE ++ol 58.4 nm
(a) dAE| olggl d6}ql
=Z6Iq(E
2.5), ei+ ElfLll
+el ++^lg ql+6}^le_.
"J
zl9d Hr+ !I4l 4^l6}Htrl.
a* =xll 325
=r,
G) aApI ElfLll+r+ ErlE HI+E +B HI+4g r ^l E +B "*= p+q Hla^lg 4,119. (c) 4lo] u1r-g.e
e. ol EI+ql rI+ +dqe +E"J7I? (IID= &d *"191 Hrl"J, Nacl(aq)4 +g grld +
(c) ol deql^-]ts u}.zHl¤' EE 6J a49 s.zlr-l 4ql a!q= +4q4 sE+. .l3l+ c4ql 7la6|q, Hlr-
4 *z\ +zll6pl^l ¤^^lflq. Si + Mgo$ d^ +=7| ++, Hl++ g^ + qqql 4gzl 9l
q EfrLll+ gqlEE ¤=J3 o.+zo golr|. $$ rzlul =++,
3a|.rle. (d) Hl/.+E= ¤.+efl 7l4le+ HI+^l7lH
.ll ?zlalB ++ Hl+ol 'Jqf+. El]iIE ol!-o 6}q, BiFse+ e
=16 {dE"J
Mgo BiFsE
^Jd+trf. Biel {z}
0.486 gol Eqe q4^l ETIq= ,J4i;l7l +l6lq 7I g 4dE +*E ¤Cg ¤B6I^ls-. (e) BiFs9 Bd*
gd}9+. xlg g^ + EqTI s6JEql^l e4+ Efr 7l+6I^lEJ, +E EIE{]E$$ ul:.+eE s'Jed+
I
\
\
iI I
'/
Ir
tl i1
I
-"*--
/
ry i
8.1 > Lewis TlEet 'JErt+=i atEl A*
e.l zl^l +¤. + olg At}. *+ A
^ll
EI, ++ Ailql ql4 HI]+EI. a'*g ¤
B6I= ql 9lol.rl Lewis zlni ilzlz|
d^l-= +46t= ql +s"6J *HE xll*
6t=t z6lo
EE-
6JtrI. flxfEol 6J,.J gdzt +49 trI
=+=
ag tsHg+.
-1 -1 8.2 > 018 flzlEol Hl4 d6l-= r*=
7)= 7]lH olg59 =-cr'
44214 oJ{oll elol,q 443
qq 9lE olgd EAg gElE+. ol
ed EeE ^dd4+a¤ qlLlzlq ql
ol5 EeE 4zI
"J e4 "i "ilq4 E
o_IoL-H-El-
327
ti, 8.1 | Lewis TlEgl "Jtal +zl
g4 7t+71 dB(crzHzzoll)olalE, raJ 3r+E aaJql+q6E AzI= gzt4 {z}(valence electron)4-ll..Jt}. til++ g
E olgll Hl+olo[ 6tts7t? zlel glzlz| dxl+ 1j.471ill+lA ale.l4 Aeql
=q
il+..- (o.s¤).
"l+E
sl4z} G. N. Lewis1azs-Dqe)= gzITI dl¤ E^le-es,t^l Ae. ^8d 4Cql
E+C rJ dzl# t+61 +461+ ,JHg xll,r.la|flr|. olE Lewis dxld 7lE(Lewis
g^lEol qI=
lrtr ?l: =a1
'E^te.l electron dot symbol), E= ++6IZl Lewis zlc.4l'*4.
+q
Httrf oil e]6[^J
olrL
"]tr fllel Lewis 7lE(Lewis symbol)= r gAq E]4 zlsel Szlzi dzl-E
E^]6IE dg-E +^dgtrt. qE Eq s*3 [Ne]:s2zpn4 4zl tsHzl= z[zlq, o1
7 \
)
+7lgEE
=
flaq Qlfl
2+7le+ 3+71E
-
8.2q1 +4LllgE|. ++gig 2)zlzl dztfbrg^E
Lewis TlEe+ dx| El]zl¤i faJ
49 Ezl4 Bg.ela
./ +. qlE E9 r0+ gi.J &ie+ %I9 rewis zlEt. EF 0zH9 d o e s^loJ+.
zo l
flxl-=ol+rl4 'Jtzl +zl
=--Joil^l
8+6lq +q flq. flzl^b dzl¤ erl+ ga'l ++6Je__E,r!, ?zl¤erJql^J zlt4 zl* zl4 r
arB 8.1 o|E e:'J =-+ e-d, 3-ct
zl +lxl6J ul$.! zl;lls] ag drl+E r*=+. ul$,! zlzll|ql* .Jc¤ dz}
r-Joil ?1= 7l^l rI"E E:3 =+ += 6] tsHilE 7l^)il fl=ql,
olag olge+ qLlzl, *e dzl. a3r+E, *g slql HI
^11 ^]e
-+'J:doll 96lI Eq 9lt[ oTobik/shutterst0ck *csE+El g + 9l+ ==, (7.8¤). = HeE zll9pl sE Hlgc 7l^ll= 87llE fl
zlzl flzl$ 7l^l:r- 9l: ailfl, s++ EI*q +q6l+'il+Eq gzl.= s7H9 g
zlzl 1.zlg tl! fillzl +9" ql+. ole+ Ag +?+ql zlaai{, gxl+ szlsl flz}z} dx}E
zlS flitlzl d4-= E4+, g4+, ++++= g1gx1ffi(octet rule)ole|5 6i+9 zleol
"JEqAq.
gdzl-b flzl9 s Pd44 p +44g=- E+ iH++. gdzlg Lewis TlEi .*. s.z9 Ne
4 Ar9 Lewis 7lo.z.lfl, g4 7lE ++lql flzlzt AxF= ql ,l]E %Lss ++U+. gdzl
+4e 9lgzl H= ae ot,-.lzl"J, slq a.Jql 4+ q+l TIzl +-e6J Tl]H9 ¤H6l* ql
a-1 2 13 14 15 16 17 18
Be B C N o F Ne
d^t H|l^l -Li
-[He]2s1 IHe]2s2
Lewls / le ,Be. .8. .c. :9:
-Li.Na Mg AI Si P S CI Ar
INe]3s1 INe]3s2
Na. .Mg. .at. .si. .P: :S: CI: :Ar:
8.2 I ol+'JEJ
olgc Edg "JHI49E +7lgEE g+q +lzl6J ++4 sE+ql 9lil+(18+s] tslg
C zlxllE zllgt) El++ +el H}*ql^l ^Jd¤+. qE -.4 t5(NaG))4 ¤a zlril
=q{C8"1 gi}af,Nacl(r)o14.
(ch@)71d+6|H 4a-1 Ele"oJr(=eJ8.3). o1 gg Hls"e.l
gs} iEe d:zlg4_q_E EHgqq llb tva* olg4 61 ol$e-e +cqq ql4(:a a.a).
Na-tr$Q Na"7[ ^JCE]I. Cl2-tr+El cl 7t ^JCq= Ag, iE
g^l+ dz] aJ 4= g
7ll q:a gi
gzl+ dzt aJ rHE g7ll q:
aolq. + + rliel 4zlzl Na flxl-E+q cl g
xle oleog4r ts + ?14. zllz^J"il.<J flet
flzt9 CA + F zlz)Z ¤EtrE, 9rI4
+o16}4l dx} olf(electron transfer)ol o19q4 4.JzlE ++g + fl+. gzle+El
dz} oJ 7l]E ,q4d+ 4ol 9,I4 *oltzl-= +4.11= olgs+ "llHzlq, fl^l7l dxt = *
zliE 9"t4 dzll tsol¤ol=zl¤ +4q= dz| aslETI BIE raol4 (7.4c. z.s4).
eI fl4+ dxl-= dzl s7l6lr.(z}3 .lgp] qlHzl), += 94+ dzl¤ dz]l Eol¤.J
- f
glg r|](+e d4 {s}s), {z} olf,'ol ¤rll gqL}^J d6}7} H}qlql F olgg g
^JC6trll
+. trl+^l Nacl* olgp+ qlLlzlTi 4e ++4 dzl aEtE7r El++eE ol+q4 il
=
7l q+ql dB4.J olg a6J slElEol4. rewis dxld zlEE,r.l*gap., cl2 gz[ 4t] cr
g^Is +49 rll, ol *¤¤ ot4e} ?ol 448 + 9l+.
Na.a1r^.Qi: --------) Na+ + t:gj:l- l8.z)
\ cNa(s)
/d"\ a
ep
ch(s)
"+ NaCl(s) Ed
olgc Eag H zlzl 5cg zlzl:r- il4. olES .JHlzlee +=dol +r. +
,rlzlzl fl$ Eeolq, ol8 44e aaBg EI4^l drll
,Jg 0ltel a+= 'll++ ¤¤d E¤o14.
^4,388
ETl6fxl
v\AL+.:H s.+"llrJ tr= ailfl, olqoJ ol9# aL6E + 4gg Alzl
gg a+, ol! +7|, Na+oJ^|, =Ce
^4gE gzl.J Hl]gg +zl6|E+ al-b cdzl4.J Eql zl.J*r-t.
q! 4,3s1 ?7[ ct-Erl "J + ?ts
gH3 qlLlal
+10J71.? ol¤_ rJEJ St
o = Na+
o
44el Na+ ol:e 449 Ct- ol83
zl a.tq1 -Erl¤ ,fl+ +E 4^J {Eq(au;:-4t0.e kl): iEr+ g^e+El
: cr-
gEI d$el
^Jdol
dc¤s q^l T+ &.Jg Bq
= gg r+C"Jg Bq
,}|+
= =+.
++ cE +E olg¤ EAq
qH ol+s olgc Ea
^Jd ^l =
gol
67tlel Cl- 0l3o.e 67Hq Na+ol8oe g^J6l+ 4.9tt? = =+.
?lq. 9lr[.
=zl4q =al,rG al s.zglrl Nacl9 olE6l+ aetr E^16[9+. z]l
^8cg Na-EFq cl-tr dxtT}
z.+dgl,tl flzlzl d4¤ SE r+Ce 6Jtr ¤:g 4C"Jg tsll$,+. Na*(g)E ^JC6I
= 7l +l6lq Nak)_e,Frl d^I6J zll$ z{zla}eJH +sa kllmolol g.s6}+. E}E9l z.s
t
eql^1, Hl++ flzizt dzt ,]]= Eg trll= .J!l4-e-.e tsg r+d, g^E d
z]. 4lEls.z[ *9 ,Jg Tizl= 19 uHfl.4. ql$ clk)ql dzt oJ=/l$ fiz]a[
=q
H r+s kllmolol %I=gtr}. ge-l + &sE+El, d zll9 Na flz}9l^l zl]9 ct g t
\ ztEg d^I olrE-og BE 44ol olLl+. d4l 449 4e6-34e:taz kllmol9 ollH
zl$ $e-E 6l+ ¤-g 4¤o14. ol ¤-g +ae iE olg4 EEI ol9ol ^Jtqq
+d 44e ¤q4 fl= a.ql 6llBEI+. El+q "J6lE, ol "J9 9lHzl <13
arc 8.4 gEl^-Ee.l,l¤ +a ^JE
+ olg ^iolql ,$s oJHol zl+6}rl s= ag TIaoJ 4.o14, olag ol$,<J r.ill
e+=
"l]+ 4E ttgrol4.
olg a6J s+6JEol qldal +g olf+ Hlql d6l-= z|41 olgz.1 .Jq qlEol+. ol oJq
I o1959.<le E9B4 qqalE HJ¤dtr, BS ol9ol rH 8.44 rJol rilltr-Hllg, +
44 +z= B^d6t7l ulEol4. olgd r14lql^l Elql d6l-= 7I4l olgEE ufl$ollr.'l ei
qldE9 a7)E 4x1 otlLlrl(hftice energy)4tr +El. 4z} "ilrJxl* ra{l olg aB +E¤
rgE EE olgg ,l4l dlEilE oJ.$e-tr sd6l q gs+
E?.161+"llHzl.l4.
Naclg qlE EE, re 8.4E Adg rll+ S+^14, 4 ol9 ,J 4471+oJqlE slq E
E olgol sd6l E9zlE ag tltr-6ll -tr7t. ol 4ag 788 kllmolg gaE 6E, olaol
4z|.llHzl z,lol 94.
NaCl(s) -+ Na*(5) + Cl-(g) L'H4zy: +788kJ/mol [8.3]
ol4ag ql+ +g gg 4aolEl. ElqlE Na*(g)el cr@) 7l ^J-+ d=6}q Nacl(s)g.(J
c6l-= qr+ae gg 4col ¤46ri: -788 kllmol).
E8.1ql= {4 =z}zl olg At} e+BEq {z} ollujzl <}ol iE99 = "J9 91tr}. ile z
81 4 ol9 rJq ,il+ rJ6J oJqol zle"*Et= ag +4u+. +ql d6]-= tr olg rJ .Jq
qlEql HJ=6]-=
"llulzlE
olgEl44q g,s,* E-gH+ aq, a44se ol-e-c Ea ^J
col tsg 4col qal *+. olBl6J rJ6J oJq ql+q olgc EeE 'il+++ qq6}j1 +
Lq47) d_il., tg +=dg '*=El. q= Nacrg 801.cql^.] +=trI.
=q
lxllel !z| olluJzl a7l+ olg=q d6te+ =.21, _L4l ,llE aE %I^lql q+ a
ol$^J
dg+. d6l-= E + "Jzi ^JE rJg 44214 ElHl¤ qluJzl(s.1e)= +¤. ^lr+ a+.
8.2 018 331
=Bf
x.8.1 otg eg EloJEsl 4xl qtLl^l
u",:9* t8.41
qH 8.1
'7 4zf qlt-lrlE q7l
E. 8.1E era.alxl "Jl. olg aldE?l NaF. csr, caoE 4^lolll_l^l7l=7l.61.= +^1e +E6t,\lg
=--J
ol.gg.-tr, CaoE Ca2* olg4 ez- olge-tr +Cqq 9l+. s.8.1= -H-zl EJ-L, ol¤ AE+ E.*Eg !z| ollulzl +^l=
ql+6l.^le_.
a6I9 +"J QrQzts rl a.+9 ts^Iql 9l_e_Es, olp.s.l {a}z}
(a) NaCl > MgO > CsI > ScN (b) ScN > MgO > NaCl > CsI
a7I6IH {z} olluJzli fr{al f;zirf,r}. IIi4^],2+e+ 2-9 (c) NaCl > CsI > ScN > CaO (d) MgO > NaCl > ScN > CsI
Ad-= r*= ol$e-tr ol+qd caozl ^l plqlE 6q^'l 7I+ (e) ScN > CsI > NaCl > MgO
olg rJE 44tl +7I6tE 4zr qlLJzl= Ai6lE-e, !zl. olluJzls.l HF +^ll= ol8 tI
zlE +^ll= rlE+(:H 7.8). +7lgE^Jql^l ae +ql^J ot4E 'lleJa++ olg HI
zlfiol f;zlalzl 4lE"ll +qa=61
olg a6J p+6J89 49, fzl¤eql^J oI4E
'H4a++
4zl 9lHzl* 4eil4. =aJ 8.sE .JA4 ++ g+E rvrcr(ru:ri, Na, K, Rb, crr+
gqE Nax(x:r, cl, Br, D9 olpl Ag a6JCg Eq ^E
=+.
q¤ rtsE 0l86lG KFsl 4^[ollH^l ,Je.l H+.1= +61'^le.
910
1 834 )1
788 788
^[ ^[ 732
oil 701. 691 0ll
657 682
Ll Ll
rl
^l
o o
E
x -Y
HeI= crts) C¤ elBEle+ giel dzt a!+E(EA(cl))E qI lts 8.6 NaCl Edoll t[|6J Born-Haber tS 0 | Hess E4lsl E
ol4. --JP fl4_++El 018.5 r^-ll= 85-g tt|I"l 0llt-l^lrJZE -Eq
=+.
tol ;+ ol¤-
olgsl {lHzlE xllTl6l+ 44+71 +714 41"14 #4fl +7li'l7l trI$"il, olg atJ sl
*Eq 4zl qlHzl a7l+ "JHI4oE 4q ^Jl zll Szlnlzlul trtr-B+ 9l= "Jol+. tr}4
olg a6J E|6JEql ¤4al* "JolgE a6l+ +E I +, 2+, 3+ol+. :aElLI dol *
^l
334 8al 6lqf 7lE 7H.l
=--Je-l
+E Eil++e Elgc LI+ dz[tr+,rJl zfl o]trel dxl-= 7l4L+. qlE, e ++e
7l^.llel
[rr]+d10ss19 dz] HllTl= r*:+. rr4(Cu, Ag, Au)* r+ ol¤ol qzlE q]4(CuBre]
Agcl$ a+el go1). eg*9 ^Jcq^l= ss d4¤ oaa- 4d +aee E+ ill+ ^}4z} ¤4.
olz-1fl {ol +++ .Jqi4ss HlgC 7l^l {z} ullzl t}4e1 olgg
^J^d6tzl ?*=E}. Bd
zl +zlol ++6tzl"J, 4+ H9l: BE6}|l xllqigr+.
r
\-q qFll 8.2
ol8 {El
44 r+?+e) A+, qE flcz]-o3'o1s- E= +olgg SCg 4E {f4aj ole dd-= E_2.4e+ 2.sql^l qetq.
x.JxlE +7lgst r gig +lile+q ql+g + 91trI. > !r= sFltl
: rl-s ,.JcB zls.dol zlz* +g ols-g ac6}7l +16ll^l q+ + 2+ olgg ^8cts zl-tsdol zI* gi= qL a
r giE {z} ullil$ ol+6J+ 9l+. oJTl? =
Eol (a) ^EE# 2+ ++olEe oJolgg rJctJ xol4. (a) Li (b) Ca (c) o (d) P (e) CI
{z} ullili [rr]ss2o14. E]+^J + zll$ flx[z[ dzl-= g7 > 3il= qF{ 2
Sl+ olg-e--e B 4o14. ElrLll+ol eiel Hlg"g uI ^JCq= olgEE d6F= ql
(b) +g r04 ul*401E + +olg ,.J,.dol 9lr}¤4. dz} ull
+6I^19.
zll7.4¤ql^JaEg EleI aol, aJ flzt_tr+q oJolgg ^J^dg 4lE zitr a n r"l* zl4
_sHlBE d4E x,ll"J Hzl g= ag zlq6l+. trI+^l Aol ++ol olgg ^JC6J 4 zlt
{x] Sx}z} dd dzl¤ gI, f-E}* = olgE d4q olezl +14 g.0-+ E}tE d 4^l
g=4. qlE Eq l*)td6+s2 dzl u}]z]= r*= Feql^l Fe',*E 8^Jg ql f zllel as d
=
zl-= gr l*)zd6 AzI ts]]7l= r*=+. +7le 4zlzl zllz]qB [er]:as9 {z} uflzlg zli
Fe3*E
^J^"i6Jr+.
8.3 l#EErJ
aE ql++E Elol Eee olgc Edg z*zl g*i4. Er+ aol ,H.J d6I
=cg ^I*ol
ts Be Eee, 7liil+ "_441, EE +=dol *e r.i]]7} Elq.a q}q. +lg+e+ ?ol, d7il
+g.51.= EeE ulol fxllaf,u|. E+^q u4ol4 E^e+ zJol, :::ll tr-4"11^l dzl EBq:
EeE Bol ll4.
olgc EeilH aE6}zl ?*= E¤ol "ll+ *eql, ol Eeql 4e"6J + 9l= aq} E¤
ol pealr|. G.N.Lewist:6J -gzl7l. rt= gzle+ dzl-E ++6Iq HlgC zlzlE {z} ullzl
r*=qr ^J46IfltrL fl dzLtg:2"go;'cEAl ^Jzli e+E eQlg *# EB(covalent
=
bond)ol{l ajr1.
+^ EZI(H2)Y zl* rJ+oJ ++ A6Je-l qlE trq + 4el +A ?)zlzl ^ls d=
=+.
8.3 i=? 335
=--J
6J oll=fal 8.7(a)^lH "Jd6l¤ E F oqol Hlg6[n, +d6l¤ E F d
^l-tr \
zlT)QE Hlg6I= HlEq. 44 dzl= d:olB-rJ4. dzll +i ts^I
"j ^folel lrt g
^Jtr ^Jtr trqol tl EolrlE (b)oll^
7f "JC6IEI= 49 "JHol Elgqtrq a+L 4¤ 9"laJ4. ol +4ql
=z.]]dt Eel daEollolE EetTi gclLlfl=7t?
.Jqg +' q zl^116l $pall trz[.
=zll6.s¤ql^l flz}{l 46t9 4eodJ
"JzI qo+4 %IHq +^IqI %l-Hg 0l+6} drt==
,tlE EIal drl==3
{ tsz} 49 dz} "JE EEE al4}g + 9lr}. H, Ez}91 4oJ re+ rJe 4l& H lH_.f 6lr I BoFJeLf
e q4 dxl zJ9 "JqeE ql6|], rB s.z(u)4H {z} ujEz} q ^}olql d+
^1e
A
^l.tr.
-4 d^l gETt
^lololl?i3 AA
Lewis 7t d=El:
E"f ?6J ¤Cg Lewis zl.e_tr +48 + 91tr1. qlE 5q F 7flE H flzItrP
=-ctoltrt.
++.ll= 4ol H .J+4ol+. olEloJ ,JHqE H2et ct2E Lewis *4.E +4LllE tr|s_4
*r+.
H-H 'gi-qi'
Hl+eq 4+, +4 flzl9 ?)zlzl {z} ;5 49 ¤zl.4 HEe+ e+. q+^l Fe+ ,Jg
t7+ gi= gdzl_E olgzl flall 6J 7}]E =o* d*g ¤^J6Ir, oe+ ag 16+ fl^= +
419 a"fr Aqlg, Nr+ eg ts4 flaE ,l]g ++ A6Jg, ce+ eg t+4 flaE tll zH
^ll
++ a6Jg ^J¤6J ag ql+6J + 9lEt. olEloJ ql+g +7lgEg
el 2+7) }ll++ gaE
+^ 3I+6JE]+ rJol "*3 sl+Eql 4+g + 9l+.
H-F: H- N-U -H
I
H H H
336 83 at+ 7lE 7H'l
=-ErE
qFll 8.3
Eli',lEE Lewis ?.4.
E 8.2011 LlElL.I trAel=+9E! B4ol Lewis 7lE= HlEJo.-e, EAel-=+ealol EjBg ttll 8¤El= ?JEploldE E|.:-JE{F 7f^l
dEs_e +dEJ 61.-stE)el El.+^l= ql+6[r. Lewis irE ral^19.
6tlt
.84 eie| Lewis zlEi ere+ +l AE +Aq gilt Lewis +4ql^l -u,E flztz} gazl-? E
=+e-fl9
zlzl $zlzl4z; stfl*77n"J* ++u4. =+e-ilE 3tr+.Jag B + 9l+. + a* d4-E aI49 dee q4q1
AA 4 gz} +9q 9447I qE+ + fla$ a$oflo| oj E Lewis +4q "l+6llzl{, 9p$$ +4= ^l-8-6}q dTll
+. e^= 9drl-= z*zl 9lr}9 41 7l]E {z}z} $eal q}S 9d4-5 q'Jg + 91tr1.
ql, ¤+_sflg 6J ZIE {z}z} peal-c}. .J zl]el 3*tr aj > EE qlrjll
7]]q i,o+61-L + tlE dxltl'$ trI+ + ++ dzttlrl Hl*+ dzltr9 izl rJg E^l+
=+sfl ^l-olql
qldl^j= gd4-= "J+6Izl"J, gA g4ql 4ollrlE =+e-flql
gdzt q= X.JzI?
trJ+^l7lzl *6J+. E|4^l N flzlz| {zffii.f zfl oldr z} (a) HCI (b) HrS (c) PFg (d) CClzFz (e) Brz
=
e + il= %r-"Jg ^J46il E g9.zl914. >.H=qH2
Eol gi Szl-b $dzl-E SC6l7l fl6iq ^l llel s=+sfl uJl$$ Lewis +4e+ 4qt(CHJE Lewis 748 Hll.6l^l
flzle]- 44 6J ,d-9 dzl-E *frollol6Jtri. ar+4eE + g e-. 4 +aql= q ,H9 $zlzl $tlzl9l=7r? 4 +aql
a-e +Cg p+ElEe NF37l qqot +4. q ,lE a.J dlol fl]rq, H z]]9 ulpoJ {tol glEz}?
=
.ry. + S.F: -------)
"'ii'"
:f:N:ii: ------' :[-N-[:
,1,
-r o Atl
rlz. eH
ZIE ="# dzl4l-e. +g *+ a6Jg c^d++. ol= rJ+61 =Jet flEGinslebond)olell
6.J
Elq. gg tszle] flzl-E=g + zl] ol^]E dzl+]g ="*6]9 Bdzl-E olEE]. F flz]zl +
zH9 dzlt}g ="f6lE Lewis 74.91,rJ f {9_tr L}Et4r, ol= ol= EE(doublebond)ol
?+r. ++. elE Eq ol&sl Eaq1.tj a6Jg gz[7] 4471tll zll'J +^e+ fl^l7l 4^l7l
ezH t &A,t lol oll,tJ
"Jq+q.
g:C:Q)
--- O::C::O (E=
:O: + .C. + :O:
9ql +ElU Etel aol, 4 &i= Eie| + Tl]el dzltl9 ++4q 9dzl-E olE4. coz
9 a+, ts^= F tla flzle+ '/+4 + zll9 dzl4l$ 3" f6l9 gd4-= olgtrl.
N2 Ezlq^le+ rJol ¤zlg(triplebond)$.q1 zl]9 dz}4}g ++.JrI.
gHI4sE flxlzJ A6J Aol= no# dzlt9 fz| $$+q S4. ol dg s.e¤91^l rJ zl
gqg 4o14.
^116l-Zl
g^ta1 EJ4(co)e] c-o Zol= r.rs AoJ HJE, cozoilll c-o t.z+ A
olt[. Lewis +6= =-d .Jg
ral^l ?J-r. CoTf 0l= qE=-EuJol=
Ar.6 A?]^l= s:dalts
Il + "^)E)l?
=--J, =-ar, =-Bt =
"J
^J=
+ ilzltl += + flzlHr} E,* d4¤ q ^llrll sotBzJ4. "JqI dzl-E ¤olBzlE
+qel ^Iol7I +E6l rE, olg ?El.l rJC¤4.
{71 #JE
9E Eqlol ++C *# E!l.Jzl, +C -2"+ AdJflzl, ol$ {a}olzlE ¤zt6J trll= dzl
gcE= ol+*+.
Ezl E*lE(electronegativity)= + tszlql,<i gzlz| dzl¤
zlzl <1o a S"lBzlE ,rllzl-tr a9++.
dzl *cs aol zlzl ffetr_ d4-E Eq'.rzlE tllzlzl e+. gTiE dzl *ds
=++
s olg+ qlLlzl+ dzt +lqlsq +fl^dol ileq, olgsl glHxlei xx| {r$E rB ^}
otu).J flz}9 olgsl qlqxl
Ell(agr
^J4zl ^Jdol4. ,]]+ = ++ztel dx} rl:+sc} =
4l* r*Y s4* += gzl=E+q dzl-E 3q*214, z}4lg 4zlzl E47l7l *Zl 6l-=
r*=+. olE g4+ $zl $$uz|ql* a4.
^d6.&g
dzl *dgg #g olgsi qlHzlq 321 {a}rs"J o}q+ qrl daql zlntq. uJ
E"JqS._L, E ,[t] tsr-l ol+q= dzl +Cg zJg, p]qzt Linus pauling
^-l.s "149
(tgor-1j/gq)ol g3rlq|4 EllolqE zl{l-s._tr ,llg6}s.+. fal 8.8q1^J H= H}e} ztol, szl
gcE= +7lgEE g+ql^l eE4, ++ql^J Hl++ gaE ?J++ +7l-dJrl. qq ql
e_l(561 dol *^JE ElE6li1, ag +ql^J= = flzl Hazt +71-g++ $zl $$rzl z]4
*+. olel ee A.Je ee +ql^J= flzl HszI f;zlpffi olg-p+ qlqzlTl ?i6l-r. d
zl rlslEE rTil H6l-zl *= qtr-q= E4ol4.
^I¤E+EI
dzl ¤.cs <i¤ "JzlE gs= Hr+. ql{ql izl¤Etrg dzl ¤-dg E:4 4r}g .Jol.
oI F g^ + qe 44 4zl +^dE <tol 4 ql+B + 91trt.
=zl=
fl s.o-+.0
lz.o-z.o r{llq/\lE
uu I Eo+ 7}q
uL
@ r.s-r.o E?l7lg.rl.
Efl . r.s
BC
/ 7
1
2 /r C/
J 2z / 3.6
4 <2
5
6 /
8
9 ?r <J A\
10 Pn th
&rt 11 zd 22 4/
12
sar¤ 13
dz t4
15
15
t7 ^-
t7l¤/6iEsf EEErel +d
+ gzlql 4El dzl ¤.cE aE ^lE+El aB +cel aE= 7lsI=6J + gi+. olell ^ll ao +
E s=+sfl sltl$s ^J46ll tr^I.
F2 HF LiF
d7l3¤Eit 4.0-4.0:0 4.O-2.1:1.9 4.0-1.0:3.0
eg EEtl ++d aP +8 ol8,l--J
=-s' =+ =-J
Fz9 ?*, dzl¤3 F gx|.tp1q1 +F6[r]l 3o+qE-e., t+ Aq]e +
zl]9
=+-sfl
+c"lE|. a6Jg ol+= flxiE $zl $$Ezl F.J6J Ell ++c ++ a6Jol BdgtrI.
HFE a+,
=+sfl
fl4t +A gzlq EI6ll = dzl ¤.t= ** 7171a_, r a4 dzl
e-l ++71+E"6|xl *61a1 slq a6Jg +col+.
"JHI49E +c ++ a6Jg flzl-E9 d
zl $$rzl rl¤ tril +El-+trI. {}4zles 47]|gcE= 7l{ s=+sfl flziE t}Eilzle
=
E +g dzl SCsE r*i +^ gzls+q AaI gEE gq'Ja^J +^ g4q ++4.J
"Jd6l-=, g+sfl flx}{l +84.J +d6l-= EC+trI. ole+ Ag A6I es= 4S4
rJol
+4.-J + 9lrl.
6+ 6-
H-F
+, a - g]=+) Y 7+7+ +84 e oJd6].el +d6l-=
6 1'cg4
=q ^'el'c$Q
ulol L:]
^'+r ^J
d++. +c a!+ql^.t +4+ olgE d6IZlH+ zltrL
ol
LiFE A+, E+efl flzlc+ 4E flzl
^tole.l
z Zj,71+^dE Zl-a oJ6}] dzl-= Liql^J F
+_e.E zl9 4PEol olE"6-J4. a44ss A6Jg ol.$ {$(ionic bond)ol=p a}
^8zli
aol HE| cq+ s.¤olr+. q4^J LiF= sd+ ol$ pf|eE trE LiE 5+= 1+olr,
=
F9 5-b 1-7I gtrL F gzl9 dzl *cs zlolT}2.0 oltlolE, ol= rJel d*¤ ols
4go1aP. t4.
eqlql^l flzl g.fi5.zt rJ 3 gzl.tr. d^l EJETI olEo 6li ag dzl. ujt gE 4l4}ge
"J + 9l+.
qlE E 3rlq+el 4&g dz} gE EEE rs 8.eql ++,119+. dzl "JE
^ll
Es= FzollrlE qla4olr, HFql^l= r flxI +sE il+zl_r., LiFq^l= zl+e Aszl
8.4 +d "! tr71 8dE 339
=cf
+ Eq
=+.
FZ HF LiF
q A* g + 9l+. trl+^J olE qlSg + g^lE dzl ¤-^ds xlz| pffi aqle +c
=
ol q r+= ag tr.1
=+.
qH 8.4
7{Elot
pH-l J"*l
f o
qBq e--J 6 clE tl (a) B-Cl IE= C-CI, (b) P-F -EE P-Cl. 4 e+q^l clL fl^[7|-+84?] 3E
=-Erol = =d= 'l=71?
dl-=,J=^l= LIEILI|^|g.
r*btr}.
"l = aol+. er+4sE s-cr ?Bol trJ = +^dg El-g + 7It +^Jol e6Jg 9= lqlzt?
4zl *duzl7l* q gi szlzl 594"J +d6l¤ E =
(a) H-F (b) H-I (c) se-r (d) N-p (e) Ga-Cl
+.
=
> .H.* qlr1l2
G) ol a+, oJol F a6Jql *F4 oE ETll= F +g Aq+ * zl* +Col ag?
4 ctq {zl $,$rE Elrt6}E g+.=7l]6}EE, +zl& S-Cl, S-Br, Se-Cl, Se-Br
=
=+eflol
s+al s{!E
HeI FE dzl *Cg. ile oJ6ll, HF Ezl= *C =" # eBg ,*+L+. q+^l *-d6l= d7l
+dE7t,;l r flxl9l d+qi1, .J.zl $$uzl rJ ltg H 94+ "Jd6l¤ "l4l .J4. He
=
Exle} eol, oJA6I +dr+ gddl +dol oJzl6rzl ?+= +zl-= =l8,Ert(polar molecule)
+i16J+. q4^J A6J4 d,I Ezl-= +Cr+ ++C oE ¤Hg + 9l+.
HF EzlE +Ce + 7l^l "JBeE +48 + 9+.
340 8ef ++ ,:*ol )lE )H.3
ii-'F E= fi=
Cbl.= H gxl'7[ TlDlol E e-=+ szl %IHql^JE a1ggr, dz} trJE7I flx| $eE 7l+rl ag ++U
^]e ,JA6l
=+efl
+. El"$Eql.! +z[-tr g g+9 ¤++g Ex]E oJA6] ¤g +4ql= +7la+n ^J4
pb
=alu, =71"61.b71., 6J + 9l+.
b7f,oil-lE EalxlBbTf?
0- Q+ +ce dEdql^J+ "Jtlq^J z^14 +=ql^J +eq= Eag 94 zlzl d4s ac
6I= ql E¤¤ +C E{+ zltJ\A + E 19 +d6te+ += e49 oJd6|= ^l
tt
-- It =+.
E tlottrJTlE+ Elig*+. u}t!z]zl-E *C ts4b olgql olEfl+. +C tsz]9 +d6]
r-------1
Eg oJolgql oJd6I Eg ¤-olgql olBloJ tr-g 4I¤+ tr, t2, l3tlql
8|+r[EfllE p: Qr =411, =fl+.
E]lg slzll, r.zll, +"_qE Be cag ¤Ee+. +zt 4el d6I +q= J*Elcolu} 4.J
a fH 8.10 8=^l.sl- Al=^1. E ^J
dzlql^le+ ag qlqzl H+ rlaq^l +s+ qeg.J+.
fllE ,JP rTlol EJII] 8ol Q+
el o-71 r Tlaloll EGI^I glE + ts lE +cg qBzl 4=JElg i 9)&t4? a7)= rJa +n7l EI4{ F d6p} ^l
lrTl=
rr! O-/\l=
.^
'_ll,
,\H,\l6lrl
OO!-1. -+ Eq4 qg uI g'=-r(dipole)z} BC¤4. ''Fzt aTlE A*4 4E= 8=rlsE!!E
(dipolemoment)4 6In, s,-tr- .E.^l*+. reJ 8.rcq]^l .H.= BIe+ ztol, azlY er +s
7I Hlql"J F A6I Q+e+ Q-71zl4 r"J? Eq4 ilg tr]1 ,HzI EHIE9I a-7)+ QeI 19
+ol gtrl.
p: Qr [8.10]
ol4g e7I +7[6J++, p] f;z]gffi.Hz] EHIET] 411+= ag Hq ,Fz[
EHIEzI =+.
AElg trJ +^Jol 94. Frq eg ++¤ tszlE .B--a_zl 5_HIE= A6I +
alz[ $o =++
ss so14.
-gEt!2.(interharosen) sl-:slE,
A .= gE{!
=+eaJal-El(crF)elE+eaJalopleE(rF)e
7Jel4d= ?t= = ^ie
ilEt=olrL 0l + Er|.6 cl! a0l r] s=_r|--"fl!E= ,;=7fr
fl^|.
| =
,51-+^l -EHIE= ¤e4eE +Ag + fl9.q, yJ4sE ++UE|. 1 debye
debye(D)E
y z.zqx t0-30 e+xl.= ++)ol+. Ezlql 46H^l= "JHI4eE dot +
=E-trlEl(c-m+=
fl.tr- dzl-e r]]E {a} e(r.oox10-1e c)$, z3o1E ++lE solEE¤ + d6].
^l-s"6J4.
r+e| r-E d6IGE Efl)zl- r.00 A trq4 fl= A+= ^J46ll HzI. ^J^dEl= r5r-lz]. E
EllE L
u_-L
Ezt9 ,Lr.+zI EHIE +AAlg, qlzll 8.sql^l -H: aAH. tszt 49 d+ +Eql +* +s
oJ dEE zllr" t4.
qH 8.5
olflri Erfol,'"U.+7.t sllE
HCt eol= r.zzAolrl. (a) Hel-ct flxlel E6lty 21211+el1-g rrtl, At=^l-EE!E= D E+l-tr zllbl-^I-g.. (b) !-d4
E^lel
=-cr
o+ *EE HCI(s')el 8+rl EEIE= 1.08 D0ltl. 0l 8--^l E.fllE 'J= 'zJ7l 916}|,\l= Het Cl fl^l'e-l c.al a7l7l e t?lE EnlG
0t6f=71'?
>5r=qF{1 >E=qF{2
HF A6J(aq] z)o\ 0.e17 A)ol ${al olgC e6JolE+ 7} 5+e-floi Hi(clF(c))q ^d+z} LHlE= 0.88 Doltri. ol
dg Hrel ffiz| EHIE= gu}.Jzt?
trI, 849 A"J ?olE r.oe Aol4. (a) q'- gztT} +Ezl.J
(a) 0.e17 D (b) l.e1 D (c) 2,75 D (d) 4.3e D (e) 7.37 D gd6l-= z*Ayzl? (b) ol $zlel dolE e +flE gtrloJTp
E 8.2= gs4le+ +iq a6J ,Jole}.ld-+z} EHIEE Ll+u 1o14. HFql^J Hr-tr 7rE
\ 4zl +cE zl+ aa6}r., EtI zJol= 6zt+4E ag +rE_6I+. HFql^J Hr_tr 7tE^l
a6} zJol: zlzlzluj, dzl ¤.cs zlz| zlolzls^l ts?]g a6}E*ol a46}n, t[+z[ EH]
E7t qlrll s.sql^l
4ot{r}. ^F&oJ
4+ ,Jz 414}g HFql^J o.+r +e} 0.41-olH d6l.7},
Hrq^l:0.0s7+e+ 0.0s7--tr 4¤ u_"1 rH 8.11q^J !-= ar+ ,Je 4+
=qE= =q.
x. 8.2 tJE{!E} *4.e; z3a 2Jol, \71gt5 ^f,
t+^t sfl E
Ei-'J= d7l=8E i[ g+rteslE(D)
=B'JO(A)
HF 0.92 1.9 1.82
HF HCl HBT HI
:gEUtrl
a:19 8.11 +AE d6l.Eal HFoll^] !71 S¤EE += F= H_e+El l^l gE= 361-4
= =GI
'JZtl. Hloll^l: FErl3g 5713d^1oJ l= 3+ I^l-= F.J= ?.16lzl=Gl'J7l^l ?J:tl. qaf^J 3--J
ol r,\lq r.]
_l xlrl =
- -oL -"1.
142 8Af atq "J_*g )lE )ilLJ
El Zll}ql^l e= dzt tsee$q, ol= s+ElEqlrl dz} d6}el He+ CE= be + qql.J
+ 9lrt. ol +{¤el 4*, 4zl +^dE zl9 Eslz}.i&+zl EHlEql olTl: ¤.Je 4* rJ
ol9 EEIzI += ¤6JB+ r,l a4.
{ tsx} Eeol ,*i c4, = +=d4 #=dol *r Eq +eE olga}qzl ?+e =z}16[ cag
tl! 4oe qltr-gtrI. HlE, olg 3a;o1 iE4ql 3r+6JEg +^Jzl7l ¤1., 5;4ol *
4^l +zz 7lzlq, Eql +eE zj{oll{ol El= Eee qtr-++.
EE, olq'* rHg4.J E+ql= ol luflel A++ql^l .H-= Hrel zJol, 9l9zl-=4loJ+.
rHqlE E+6Ir qH Eeg A6Jg ++ A6Jr+ ol$ pa]e_+, Sali bqe r Ee
E ^Jeql EI* F3qg olz{ ol: 4r3o1 ?s4"JzlE 9ot4= ?l* ++ BHol
E^ll7I ¤+.
=q.
TltL ,J+6J ,JHg, ++r+ Hl-Ir4 ol$,$olt, + EI++ ,J9 ^JE zl
'JE tl-E 4L¤+
¤+ ++dolrlr 214a13 4o14. ol tsF$oll 96J q+g ,]]* ti44olzlqi, FH4r
;.1-$alzlolli {lgzi q+ Bq. ql$ EH +49 ++oli1 gi= Hl=-+olzlEJ, Sncl+E:
Ezic Eeola tlgq^l +4t ._qillol4. Sncl+E q=dol -33.co11g---4ol rr4"c
olr{. Sncl+E olgc EeE Sae r*a glzl ?++. qts Eiq}Eql^J zlEl]zjoJ EB sBol
9¤ 4.JxlE ACd+ ql ql+g q e 6J + 9l= *Bol 9liz|? -B+ ai76J *H3 ol
g a*ol +E4oJzl. oo* ¤Bol +E4qlzlE ad6l= i,r z16o + dzl *cs9 rt
5 ols-ool=|. 1o14. ol olBg ol+618, dzl ¤.ds9 7l7l r.2oJ Snctn {r'}g ++ a6J
-qzlql q zlal qlETt fl+. qlqe= +ololEE, *3, zlul-k¤ 5 + ?l=rll, olE=e. ad.g EB 3"f ei}"lal"J ^le
?4 ¤e¤ rE +aq r14lol4. ol geg 12.7Aq 7l+Elq 9l+.
8.5 Lewis +4 l.l7l 343
ffidl-Ll= 41"c0tl^1 +r, 131'c,tl^l Bts taJ^q riilet, 2320"c0t1^l + +^q -r.^ll7l ?ltt. olE a
Cr2O30lL, tl= 6lLl= OsO+alE. -tPJ^4 ?^ll= +!olal? qlSEl=7|?
I
r. d4l d6l-= rt{+q, E= gz}E gx}7t dz}E i}*+. 4 flz}g i)zlzl dxh=
ad6l= E¤-ol g+E +7l¤-E=
EJI
^I++rI. *ol¤9 a+, ¤.d6l6l+B dz} *
zl= rl6J+. oJolgel *
a+ "Jd6| 6t+.J dx} zl= nBI
=+.
qB gzlE+q d^l
7l eL Tl=zlql r]16ll^l= 4la ¤ $szt S+. + {z}$ zflfu3 +.c6}+.
z. gzlE 71E-+ s,<lap, q-
gzpt q!. gzlql aqlg 4..JzlE ul4qzl +16I +g
Aqls-E oXB flzl$$ gA++(6F+9 Ce F 419 dzl-= +4U+). plql^le E
zlr-| olgoll,rl fl^l7l gAg +^JElltr a-7\E qI+. ql= plql^l HCN$ *Ltl
=E
He+ Nq ¤6Jqq il¤-g r+ElU+. co,'-q sFnq ,J3 4flz} tszl4 olgg +d
fl4-= oJ E7] Ezlajil. 6d gz}= gHlzleE 6d flzl-E EEl.'(tj1 9l= trlE gzl.
EH+ zlzl $$uzi 4+= 4* zlqd}+. qE a++ Lewis 74E _a47) dql q
Y+9 Cs=ol ¤ea14.
:.6d gzlql aqlg -E= gzlq q6}q gdzl_= gc++. +r= .J ,IE azl.g"J
714 + 9l*¤ 7lqflai.
+. gdzlE dzl-b 6d gzlq +b+. ole+ aol B c eal ?d 9zl* gdzl
=n}6l+
ol^JE d4-= r*zl g+.
s. 6d flzltl gA4-= q}+g
"J+ +'E+ d4¤ *xl *attr +=! ABe-s s^l+
+. +d gzlql A6Jg flzl.9 + 7l] ol^Jg El++ dxlaJ¤ ^l-.S6lq ol+ e6Jol+
A}+ a.Jg "J=+.
q¤- qlTllSol ol 4^"r¤ s+6I= ql E+g aolEl.
=
344 85! Al+ z3gol tl! tllLJ
qF{ 8.6
Lewis ?t. falzl
Ar"gtrl oJ(PCl3)ol Lewis +I= r4^19.
*Utrl
"tl ti {u}z} pea}+(+aql^J 4
allr.lE z+zH9 dg 24tE 4^l
g{lt filg E44-e-E.+Q Lewis +z= f4= E4lol+. +4U4= X9 zl9at4).
=
+lq^J ¤H+ s+Al r+49 ole"aJc|.
:ci_P-Ci
Eot a4l, flzlz| {z}el ++E 414}++. ql(1s+)3 s7l]9 t"
:ql:
$zlz| {zf$ 714q,4 ga(17+)Y ztnq flz}z} {zl$
,*=4. trt4^l gzlTt dzt9 +fE']..s4 eq. "nxll, + $zlzl ag 7lq6ln, *2
zetllof, zt11 dzl¤ #d
+]4 Pq 9lzl^171tr ga47} $cg+.
s+(3x7):2a
E4, qL flzlz| olr flzt"ll ¤49"1 9ltszl-= 44421
:ci-ii-ci:
"l
gzl# 4¤614, r= a*g ffl+.
I
:cl:
+l6}q
^plq +"J.JHI4ee
flzl# Cg6l+ %lBg +"J6I+. 6tzl"J o14 ol +a: r-.= flxlz[ gdzl¤ q]+6]E-tr ol S/loll,t] u[z]
+ c}.JE.q^l Elq4E *q s^l¤ fliz}+plxl g^Sql H 94(9d4¤ E}+6I=4E qe.J ql= +'J aqle drt
96l] Eqr4q 9lEt. trtq^l e4 4 g^ fl4¤ ¤aq += F zll99 7lq6l4).
+oJ A6Je_E *4 +48 fg + gl+.
> .s.* filxtl l
Cl-P-CI trI.g+ 14 $zlzl ElAq+ dzltl.g ,*zl ?*= Lewis f4
+4+ qL AoJTl?
I
CI
(cl g4-= p gz}9 El]zl6.t9=zl=
94, s-="+, "I4+ql =r*Y
(a) COz O) H2S (c) PFr (d) SiFa (e) a, b, c, d + 6l+ oltl
qru 8.7
cl* ¤Ef* {i Lewis f3,
HCNoI Lewis 74E ralll9.
$}tS
fa= rzH, +i(r4+)= +zl], ¤i(ts4)i s2119 gztzi d ¤ i 9lo I,-e +^ql= trl ol^.IE dzl¤ Hl];<lg + StrI. "J
z|= Tlal+. trI{^J gztTl dzlel Aill aj$ 11415:16o1 E ts3 67Hq dz|= 4i$ ${21-5 "J+6}4 ull;la}$ 6
+. gzl4eE g4# ullzlalf %r-He qE z$\zl \fi. 3 *dzl-E olE + S.+.
+^= + 7l]E d^l-6}"J 714 + 9lo Ir + .Jtl + ,ll9 +g H-C-N:
aq+"J r*=+. trI+^l c-H-Nrl ag El]gg Ez]-bal4. u++^J N9 ,* zll9 ul=ofl- dxltrg ca} N .r.1o1q1
Bg F z$l zli-$! H-c-Nr+ H-N-col+. a Han ^l-so6t{
ol+ aqlg reJ E+. r4E c9 +flql EIrl¤ flzlzl t\
ullzl= de4es +"Jg 4o14. +q}^lql^-l gzl-=ol olel-
71Ei^l -F6IE-tr ++ aqlg rej Eq. ol +a= ce+ N +
,Jol u]]¤9"1 91r., +i7i e.tr+ {zl ${ez} *ot
"l +lq E-+ 9dzl-5 "J+Eltri.
s+?ol trl+^l ot4e+ rJgg4 +aql^l
46J+.
-_oJ+:l+. ^l
H-cilr:
/'; '
--------) H-c:N:
H-C-N ce+ Ng4ql 4,* gdzlzt "J+qfleq, +a gzt ++lql
F zl]9 Ailg dz}4zlol+. H gzl= + ,l]el Azl"Jg 7l dxl + 7H7I Hflzlqfl4. ol4ol $ulE tewts +aol+.
8.5 Lewis +4 -lal7l 345
>E=qld1 (a) $.* (b) tzl] (c) 2zll (d) zfl 1e1+zll
Ezlrlol czHNolq. Nol 4= gri 6I+qEI ?ElE EzI > H6 ff|rfl 2
9 Lewis *45:4^19. gHI= Lewis fsoll,tl ol+ A (a) NO+ olg, (b) CzHa9 Lewis 73E f.4^19-.
qle H 4"J71?
qF'il B.B
trffl1|ol*ol Lewis *-4.
6lq drll dz} izlq dzl t 4l= +716ll^] 4l^I6J+. trI4 +4Ie+ olg(of-)el Lewis faoll,r.l Hlaql d4+g P 7l]
d4l flzlz| 4x} ig z + (: x o) + 1 : 26olq. Soa2-, No3-, "J7l?
^l
co:'- 59 &A& +olgg a+, 1}A 94¤ol +C Hl+ (a) z (b) 6 (c) s (d) a (e) 3
=trI.
I :O-Br-O: I
L,[,.]
E^l t'lsl t=44 ?.L
Lewis
Lewis +tE :rzl,tl $z[ E= +gz] olgq dz] EE= ¤B++. trllE= gdz] +4g
EI+6I= rI+E gHlE Lewis 73E rg + il4. ol +48 EF +zt LIql^J d^IE d
4l uH¤"ll zl{a}QL ^J4B f 9lzlr}, E= 7l-L.o6J +^71t+6trll 7lq6}zl= ?}9 4,ol
+. qBl Lewis f4 + qL Aol zl* tst;J7l? 6J TIzl d= *Hg ilzlzl dzl-59'4
4l1rP(bookkeeping)'E Fsll 4 Lewis 7691^1 4 grlE B^l dtl-= Addl+ aol+. '*
+zlql^l 5d flz}9 E*l Eol(formal charge)i +zI ql 4aJ dz}lJ¤ + g47I E*6IZI
{h{ zttl4l TlC6l.S.g 4 4 Hzltl r*r]l q= d6}ol+.
Lewis 7:E0l^l Efilel E^l E6l= Xlt!61= gE
[:C:N:]-
6C c g4^b +2fl$ $zlz| azF= 7l4L+. ^IoloJsl olgE ++ a*ql ezll9 dz}q cgl
346 88 Ef-+ 7tE TtjE
=-c'g
27Hg El++ 4^l7l glrt. cel B^l d4= 4-r(6)-2:-lE zl4I6JrI. Nql ql4^-l= g
zlzl 1J,zl szl, olg ++ ¤aJ9 dzl67H, AaE Hl++ {x} zz11o1r1. Nq B^l
^l-oloJEl-
d6l-= s-+(6)-2:0ol+. ¤^l d6l-= s^l+ dill olgg trIgr+ ?ol :E + 9l+.
-1 0
[:c:N:]-
d6l-= -E+ t}6IE olgE A4l d6}e+
4 flx}9 B^l te
-l.J ag +HdlE. +^"i E
,Iel ¤^l d6tel *g golqot afr, ol9e1 A+ B^l d6te-l 6Jg olgE d6t=J4 eq.
ol{ Ez}{l qq zlzl Lewis +a= rB + 9l+8, B^l A6l rll'dg olL *az|
'ilql
q +s-*zl, + qL +z7l trl +^ll+ Lewis +4oJzl= AC6l+ ql E+3 qE
=+. =
ol co, EzIg Lewis *3 + 6I+= + ,llE ol+ AElg zlz)t- glq. rel+ tl zl]9 rI.J
A6J11 el zI9 t+ e6Jg TIT! +E ++q tsdz}4lE "J+g + 9l+. olg fagl 4aI
q B^l d6l_= 4l{}6ll _BE,
o C :O-
gzITI
d^I 646 646
- (flx}"il BBg dz}) 646 745
d6l: 0 0 0 B^l -1 0 +1
CozE UlC Ezlol!-.E oJ+ Lewis *t l.+ B^l d6lel 6Jg oolqo} Elq. rB+E q
-
+471q +^llq} +4"J71? .JHI49E F Zl olt}g Lewis f4z[ 7]+E] trll. trl-3.9 7l
+g ol+6IE +^.11f, +aE dqB + 9l+.
9lllE! Lewis +:E tr¤6t71
A =+eaJE E:d6r.= ¤;d Extoil^i =+eal flrrer E^r E6r.7r' +1oJ Lewis ?aE g4
I a e^t rao++El olE =E= ol=ol'J +
I
?,1=71.?
(b) +^ll+ Lewis *3t .JHI4SE B^l d6l9 tlol zirJ >H=qF{2
Ie tr-E11E z*Al A4elA t). ul+^] 949 faE * olg(NCO-)$,r11 zlzl Lewis ?rz| 71s"6t4.
^IoloJ4I
,$1f, faz| otHg "J + 9l+. s.oJ s.a¤ql,q Egt 4 (a)
^ll
7}zl9 +a= f4r, 4?fE B^l d6l-= e46}^l
zlfl, Ng ce+ sql uloll dzl *Cszl r+. q+^'l +E -S. O) q' Lewis ]42| *,tllszt?
H H
arg 8.12 HCI E^loll tH-sf (a) uE[+, (b) E^] dol', (c) E^l "JE EE
348 88 6l-+ 7lE 7flLJ
=-c'E
8.6 I +"d 1z
0l+Eel qE EaoE+El F
7fl9 Hle+ o g^l7l
EzI4 olgq glq^J, d¤zlsE ACg flz}9 Ell¤g * t zll9 +^Jl* Lewis if4E rJ
E
Sdltl= aE g+ 9t=7t?
^1tr 44zl9lE 4e4zl ?*3 4*zI 9lq. eE(o3)e + 49 &+-th ,J Az'J zl4zI E"J
6IE^J ++q11 Belq +zZ r*= Ezlol+(ra 8.13). 4 &a g4+ 67llE gxITI dzt
E zlzlus s= +4-= 187l]e.l flzltl dzl¤ ,*E+. olAg Lewis f4z[ H]=.{1 + ,llel
o-o s"J A*r+ t z|]9 o:o 016 A6Jg 7l4o| 4 $zltl E+ gdz|4= "J+Elg
9"laJ4.
1.17"
r\
rej+ ol +"J +ab +^ll+ +471otr-]trt. ell+6}E dfl4-9-e ++g +ae+= B?.1,
arB 8.13 e=elE^l+6 + 4E {}i-4}^ + a6J9 z)olzl ^lE +E7l trllEol+(o:o ol+ aqlol o-o +.J
Aq+tr+ Sg as.E qtr-B+. rel+ Lewis 74E rB ql g+ql o:o AdJol +lil6t
Eq rg +E ?ltrL
o4:0,
+ 7l7l Lewis *.aE Ezl9 +a= edal-L ql 9lq +aol 4=J6l7l qlEql, + 7l^l +
t*4. ol + 7l^l +zz:H ull flz|9 Hllzl= sq6lrll E
a 7i+ql olL olulz| +^116}zl
"J6Izl"J, dzl9 Hll^l=,tls 4szll ¤4. ol4aJ ++E Lewis 73E BEl iiE(resonance
structure)4I t}trI. s=E +e= 4¤61 ¤B6lElE .J+ Lewis *4.E E+ r?].l', oJ
+ %r-6J d¤sE srlaJ4. ol= dr] Ezl^E + +ael ¤t_e__E ¤Eg + 9t+g +qU+.
I r84oll BzI. :i
[ ,o' l- :O:
H
--
Lo*-.,] 't'*)o:
I
l-["iJ (a)
=oi lx .aE{ lr
+ qla 4ol d+l .199 dxll +=E 4e44 srlal* aolr, ol"ll rll zl]9 E^l Lfl 8r[ oJETI $
N_O ?6J zJolE E.J6l-trI. Ell84BE +=6lat. + l-
I aa ere.
gB EzI4 .l3g 4*gl= E.5 TkoJ Lewis 737t t+6I71 sg +
olt9 qE ^le qE 9= EII
E gl+. +E "Js 6iE, 6I+ E= + zll +a7| +3trq q G)
+^llg + 9l+. *sE olq+ ql= E}+rll ¤ 4o14. arH 8.14 +E +4E E
-Eree.EIl.==E ^le ,iP.=iEg^l
LfEILt|=
{!flel +'c ^qeel
E-sroe ErJg 4q,3tg ¤E6l= a+ Bl+
6fr[. (a) +^! Eee T=^q+ -r$^qe.] E
tBg *zl EzL cusu9 Ezl4g ,*E {doenzene)olrp 6l-b eEl+
-erq_+ -sr 7f^l g^l
=al
A= seEI qrffi(aromatic) fzl +ztE A!}g ¤H6I= ql 9lq^l +s-+ 4l
UEclTltl..
=4P
zfe trE-g fi.rt (b) e= E^l= + 3
^q
^
Hol4. H14lel oz]] Et gz}= +4e rrl "Jql^J ^Jtr A6Jqq flr, 4 +a E +ael trEEtl. e= E^l'=
=--Joe
+4'Uo-" ¤E:Bf + g.tl.
flzl"i] 6.J ziel +a gz]7r a.Jqq 9lE]. ddlg F ,l]E F."oJ Lewis *4E O 7|Iq Lewis
<------) EL
ole+eg rJ+"J s7l *Eg, Hldlg +z7l F +B +aE s6J ¤44= 4* ttzlrl
4 ++ aolTlE 611, c:c 016 a6Jol +4 rel 4E +Ce E^l4ql raqq gl
a rH 8..t5 .,J-d=' +71 gF-JE zl ?++g a=6J+. El44-==g HlalE olfl ES+ 7l-b'* F zlz], E¤g 6J4l oJ+.
^l-s"
?.! fll{! EIIIE^t= 8q4E= 0t
E EJ^ fl^I.440il +4 ?^Pl-Lf zlzlt_ ?14. ol4aJ s}E.E=e
Eol olEl6J {ldlE +4 ael ^Js}E+ Eo}. 9E
7lI^11
=--J-st
-dEHoltl. EdP F
= =cg+s6}tr}.
+ tsot "t a+ 4E {tql 9lq^J
AE +47f LlElLfl
=-d
q, c_c =:srE=
E"J Ole
I
=--Jol
67J0 al.= a= =-Er-4
E ! -Lrtl. Eldsl 4 Lewis 748 C:C 0l= z;5r[.,tll7l|el C:C 016 +
" I |
I
.. -1-
:o-S-o: l-
(e) 99 E= ¤Hol *+.
tr
eJ7.Pf
E4 EilE4E -trtfltr -g tttl, Noel Lewis 74.E q! '2101
tl +^11-d7[?
;!aB)r;
ol faoilrl s4 19 B^l d6l+ 0ol+. ol+ a6J9 ^Jcg F6}l B4 ++lq 87H9 dzl-=
Ellil6J +E 9l+(+d gzlql gdzl¤
"JE + 9l= ++6J 4zlzl S+8, r-l+ AaJol B-
g + 9t+= x9 tzlal4). r+zl 6tE 7l4E #l" 6J +H +2.71^J¤¤+(B^.] d6r
^ll
5 S34 "e +EI4fl+).
'F*' :F':o :F:o
,;iagiF:p'-?qrl]p'.,- ;ril(nl'
?++9 Lewis *5.E E+ s=+9.fl g^ls 6Iq+ +4 gzlel +71 4^l* :il" +6rE+ +
4. aiz1u3 olae *+eflg +g d7l +cE= r4dl .H-E olae *zl s4. d^ile B
d6l= ol*l+ +4714e6J lol olH¤ "J6ll r+r+4 Lewis 7491r.1. n:p oli
^l =trL
a*g 6l+ F flzl9 ¤^] d6t= +r"J H]H, ^]q4sE *g dzl g^dEE z*E s flx]
I ¤^1 d6I= -1ol+. IrI+^] B:F 016 a6Jg 7*E Lewis +a= Bi ++lql szl] ,l"J
352 83 al+ 2:alg )lE )flE
B\
I
.-B-.
I <------)
tt .-;ij'or,
:.\1 F.: i{: --F ,")r,
EiBdol
=
74 ?^ EIBdol +3
-E-E BF3= seg 4l ,J 949 +81+ +B +a"Je.E 444Eull, olrll +^ +flE g
zltl $zll62fl$o1r1. BFr9 444 ,l# ol S.d4 "Jzl*+. BF3= oI4 H]¤-zlH
+iel =q
A6JE+ + 9l= Hlr"f d{{rg zttl Ezte| 4¤61 Hls"+El.
H F HF
tt
H- N:+B- F H-
tt
N-B- F
tt
-------+
lt
HF HF
olq6.J .Ja.J s+*E(NH3BFrq^l +A= szflg glzlz| dzl_E ,*=rt.
zI9 fb t::ool4.
t + (+xz) + ololeEg ffl9l rzzle1 dxlE T}4EE gd^IE+ dz}
ol*9 6d fl4+ r flzlol4. 4 cl g4ql 87H4 d4¤ Hll zi +zfl c'1 gr1.
zl6.}E(r4 ct ,rtolgl +.J e.Jg s¤af= + rdlE dzl¤ E > jd.= qEtl
sx4:3244 {z}z} $ea}c}.
+6ll^J) 4* Ezt* ol8 6d gzI.J s"ll t zl]9 El="#
=t9l11
A+ tsg 4^E 36-32:40lEE ^Jqzlee = olole{91 dzttlg ztzla 9lE 4¤?
(a) SFr O) SF6 (c) SOFa (d) SF2 (e) SOr2-
47HE dzl-= Hllil++.
> !16qffi2
(a) s, c, P, Br, I flzl6 9E 4ol szflts-r| *g fl47}
[,p<Eil $zl3 zlzl ?+= ae?
(b) xeFz9 Lewis *4.E rel^lg.
ulzluJee, gdx} +4g "J+61+ Lewis f.3e-l-gdxl¤ ar+6tE^l $zl {a}el ullzl
zl *fl +a
^Iolql^l
dqg 4ot 6l= 4lzl gl+. qE Eq .Jt ol.g(po,3-)el rewis
+a= ^J46il trzl..
.. T .. 1 -'13-
l:O:l
1
:O:
l*r..-r
:O-P-O: lo.. lo..-,
I O:P-O:
I
:i I -,"
I
:9:
L ,dr' ]
flz}9 B^l A6l+ Se4_q_tr E^lqq 9lq. g+ +aql^J p flzl* tsd4. +zlg "J+
6lzl"J, e_¤+ +a= p flzlz} szlel dzltlg
TIzlH^J B^] d6[7]
^Jql4etr 4e t]ql
olrf(-e-gf Lewis f4oll qal] +z]-+ 3zl]g +H +=;l9l4= ag .J + 9l+.
:*o,r4-==9 olzlE por3-91 4qI +lE + +a + ql
{ol f,rllaJz}ql ql+ 849 Bol
11 9lr+. al=E oJzI qq|g olE4t 4ltlg u[greE 9p ¤74s=3 g+ +
*
zzl cl +^ll6tEl-rz +t}J+. =48
+E ¤+4-E=g olg rll9 Ei] zJol= r46J Ell. 9E4 +
+tI++. oleT]l tlHig e_lag qq 'lle.l Lewis frz|
Z71q +^116}+r. gztl+ ez} Lil
8.8 I # rJEJsl
^llTlsl
,Jol
BxlE qlcce E4¤ol 4E a"* ad|el ^]I7le} *¤ol glE}. +?-l= sttgld "te +g
a.Jql ql.J s+ a6J $gylE +a.J + gltrI= ag E*tr}(s. s.a). s s.a= {zloIr.J E,
8.3e-tr +^l 6JH Hl+g+. sql^l g + 9lF"l, trI=! a6Jg "JHlzleE +"J Aqlq Hl6ll
,.16I+.
¤+ Ael $girl= qqg + 9l= ax]H, gHl4t "*g ="+9 a6Jql ql+ ¤+ At}
a"lE +48 f li4(s 8.4). gul-tss d¤ olrl.J flzl a}"llrl flzlzJ a*ql q+
=61
a.J flgrl, ¤aJ zJol, a6J+ rJE tl++zlol+. qlE
=q
+i-e^ +"J a6J, ol+
a6J, d+ aq}el a6J qlBrje+ ¤oJ ?olE Hlj/B *. s.r4 s s.ag zl.EEu11 +
^l-.$6J
el+.
C-C C:C C-C
r.sa A r.:+ A t.zo A
348 kJ/mol 614 kJ/mol 839 kJ/mol
354 g3 6lqf 'J -sfg 7lE 7H.J
si-o 368
Si-CI 464
r L= 7i;l
"t6 =H
C:C 614 N:N 418 O:O 495
C=C 839 N=N 941
C:N 615 N:O 607 s:o 523
C=N 891 S:S 418
C:O 799
C=O 1072
o-o 1.48
Ea gz1 ?J 4.*+71;!71-6Jql q+
flBq= +7[6[r, ¤B zJolE A4++.
a6J
olag +^ gz|7} 4 211341+lil6l_rz, tlE ,Jql trl+ q ,J6l4l Ealr gl¤¤ LtElu
trt. g+4etr + gzl
^lolel A*itl +4ilq 44 aBe
z)olzl d.olzla q ,&4d
4. N-N +.J A.J, ol+ AB, q i[+ e6Jql q]+ ol3l,* ao]g f.al 8.16q1 ++.]]fl+.
8.8 301 355
=+ =-Jsl^llTlel
N-N cJg e-drl016 e-dol E¤-.J TlqE 61.= 8E +^0ll ?,101^.1 N-N e-cr'oll rflEi eg
g!=JtrlE qE6i^le.
1000
N:N
900
800
=o 700
E
J 500
Y
H
ilru 500
a N:N
fin 400
flru
300
4
z 200
100
N-N
qFll
F ¤-E!I
.a.6t 7UL{
o H'llo
{l1il +7le ,t[EE +'\d!(phosgene]8 gttrl EJ*etg4 Tlitlel E11$"lo+ HJ3^14 ilg-e-e:El
d6ll
^'ll4ltHE0{l^l
,-^I7l =7l
[llE0ll r=l1l EBElfltl'. r
=-JE=
0lE3 rel.\o'lel phos("!)e] genes(eHolt-lct)0llll +46tfltt. +.\{!el 34 zsd HqEEP
EB 7l=eE C 12.14o/o,O 16.17%. Cl 71.69%0ltt. EtraJA 98.9 g/mololcf.
(a) ol a[-glSolE^14]= +6l/.19.
(b) -E= fl^l7l'EJd^l +4= PJ+6|t=E^fq lll zfxl Lewis +4= ral,\lg(ClalO fl^l'= Cel
=-sr-dtf).
E4
(c) E6l"= olL Lewis +47178 ?All-d aE^l
^l'e-6lq =86t119.
(d)gil 0flLl^lE coklet cr2(s)E+El Tlill +,^{!e-18¤ HJ8oll rH-d aH= zl{l6l'^le.
=:d ^l'E6lq,
6tlU
eEg6stq
EF4 e-st, Lewis 7lE "lgdll ++l(^1E, 8.18) ol *ql^'lE il e.l
^Jdql +q6lb^1. H
zll9 dz}Tf EEi* drla(E= a.g Erl
=t ?lEf(chemical bond)9 Bd6t= tlE ++ql
=dg *+fl4. S(nonbonding electron pair, lone pair)) o E Bof 9lEzl$ oJ +
+E e*g f4l ^,ll a"FE BF9I4. oe EE(ionicbond)g Hlql tl4. BdzI +4e + 9zI zJ aql+E AA6F= q 13+:6I+. 6J
d6l-= 7It olg5 ^|olq Cdzl4.J 6Jol4. g+ eg 49 dzl*J9 ++6|= d3 're f,E(sinsle bond)9 ol+n, +
=^H6l=
(covalentbond)g + gzl.Tl- dxl-= 3o-+ol{ ol-folzlr-. Ea g7.I
^Iolql F
1l Eb Zl9 dzl-trg 3"S6lE 7+4 oE 4A
=+ ^-ll
ol+ aB4 ,d.
(metallicbond)$ -o4 g^Iql fl= dzl-59 ul¤2110*e$el Bd (doublebond)4 +t= ealt.iplebond)9
^JC.J+.
sEl. a.Jq B^J3 g^l7l-
dzl4b 9zl9 494 dzl-59 tta + a6Jg flzI zJ El-6 Aq}g qlol+. + flzl ^lol9 eq} eol=
++9s ol+q{E}. 6J gztE $z}zl. {2ffi sBg trll Lewis 7l + erJ ?l?-lE +48+. ¤{} zJolE F flz} ^}ol9 eq}+7l. +
E(Lewissymbol)e|-r161-: dr+d 7lE= g^l¤g gd 7I6Jql Ei+ +^6JtrI.
^l-s-o++.
rlf*l(octetrule)$ n[=71 9]oll flzfz] dzlE ?|4 *+d+q.
e-d +¤ "J d7l gdE(8.4tr) ++ a!+"Jzl4s" 321-5o1 ;
ol +49 Bzf+ olgql fl= g^l¤ol azll$ flzlz| dzl-E z*E
gz}
^lolql^] f,-f6}al ++qzl ?*g +E 914.
eEI
4."14. =c(bond
polarity)p 6l+el a6Jql,tJ {z}z} ¤+6lzl *]?9zl *= ag
018 olg a.Je aj flzle.$el += g^[s sd6]rl EJ{}+. EC 8+ 3t}(nonpolar covalent bond)oll.tl A'*ql +q
=-d(8.2tr)
d^t7| olti6.J ¤4q_lrll, d6l-= E oJzITI +Zfg 4^l +eE dd 6J d^l¤e + gzlql *56}rll *#9zls}, =+d B+ flE(polar
aJ4. olSC EAel
"JAC3 6J olgr+ r olg +9lE Eq4-= covalent bond)$ q! 6J flz}9 dz}.ll Eilr.J oJqol qE flzttr
HlEll +s9 d6l= ts olg ,J6J adTl .Jqql Eql 439 qq 4I+"J+.
^LolE =.ril
4. ol tE t49 =zli 4rlolt-1xl(latticeenergy)E BzlqErll, ro+6lb dzF= A
dTlEtlE(electronegativity)+ trIE g^Ie+
"lg 4zl-= Tlill tlqlE olg-s.e Er.l6I= ql ge+ 9luJzl= "J zJ4eE EqBTl= bqg +4.IE +iloltrl. EFgflg dzl
'El+. olg 46171 +7V;lA+ olg ,Jq 4471zlTlgE 4xI 9l gdETI 7l* gioJEll, +E gzle+q dxl¤ Eq*zlb t'
LJzl= 7ltltrt. Born-Haber *S(Born-Habercycle)$ f+6J gq =
4ol zI"J =+= ag 9oloJ4. dzl *Cs ilg cs9 0.7q1^.1 F
qt4 ++ 48 ge,tJ, {x} ollulzl.i Hess E49 ol+6}q olg A 9 a.otyzlE B+lE zf+14. d7l *dEY +Tlgsql^l ?J+ +71
ti pltlEol ^}^JEl= qel Elzlql^Jq qlq^15 EL6lq 4ltql+. "J A+ 'JHl4eE
g+q^l e-E-a--9E ,J++ +7l6la, rJ? +
g A+ o}4tr r.ilEja+E A^o.Jtrl. AiI gzlE d7l SdE ilb
8e
=-s'(8.3tr)
t+ e.Jg g^I aql g1I7I a7,h= ++4q a6JE +Cg a48J Ell ol+el + 9l+. r ifz| g.;. aq}e +
ol+qdE+. EzI 49 dz} tsg= Lewis ?E(Lewis structure)
E Ee'J f 9lir], ol %LBg E6l] q zflg flzfz| dzlz| BEI dol4.
¤i9 HJ34l 357
ACB + 9.lE Lewis +48:zB ; 91r|(4.:9. . gd^t +4E qlelE Elsi6la, gd^I +49 ++^l7lzl *c-
+fl S# E-41: 8.3s,8.36,8.47, 8.48 qlqlE C++ Lewis 73E rB + 9lEt(8.74.
. dzl *ds il¤ ol+6}q ++^J ++ AEt, +C o"+ Ag., ol +E g++.41:8.63,8.64
e eE}g ^lE'J + 9l+(8.4e). +H s+ E4l: 8.37-s.40 . a.J ¤4(+"J, ol+, Aa, aEr.rilzl(Ei flBirl), Et] uJol
. d'¤4 o + +Ag ;d+^I EHIEeI eE. ,Jol= f4g, olflz[ +4lE ql+"J+ 914(s.s¤).
^IolE
E^lE d6t Br,lE 4l4I6J + 91tr|(8.4a). +¤ g+E4l:8.7r-8.74
+A g+ E4l: 8.43,8.44
-=.o Hl'e-/'l
E O -
O!-
- *QrQz
. za: Is.a] trn $..a"ap F d6}el ul¤l¤ glulzl
il
't":Qt [a. rol
u|e{!E
.B^l d6I: flzltl !zl-)(a6J dz})-Hl¤L+ d^I la.rrl B^l d6}q Ael
358 88 el-+ ):6Je1)lP )lL=
oJ+ +all
tso.tr _H.= 7]lE 8.s 4* Lewis +aql^J, A, D, E, q, x, ZE +Tlgsq z.l¤.
8.1 +S 4 Lewis zlE9l ql6ll, 94. x7I +61+ +Tlgstlq + + +zlE g^E¤ +EI4a 9i+. EE Szlel ;Jal {a}z}
g r^^19. [8.14] 0ol q= 94 ozHE E+ +e_^le. [8.3¤]
(a)'X' O)'x' (.) :*' :E: X
:A-D-Q-Z
.. il t
o
1+
1-
o
2+
1..1..
I :o-x-o:
l"r"
I :o:
4 6
Lewis 7lA(8.1tr)
8.e (a) *.!LE zl4:flr9 $zlz| {zf i= flzl HEe} a+.
o) e4 flxl-b H 7\E fl^l7l d^l-= T|zln glEz}? (c) I
7 8 9
tr gzlel {z} u}lilzl- ts22s22p63s23p2olEl. ol gz}E gz}7}
8.4 El-8- sHlB EE= qE fl39 z+ olgel flzlz| dzl¤ 4 dxtE H lloJ7l?
44r ?14. ts.z¤l 8.r0 (a) + EY 4^: +4 flxli gdzl¤ a]]g Eil 7I+ .JC
(a) ol g4= *9.JzI? 6lE|. (b) * flztz} BdzI ;|zl9 qeq{ flztz} dd{l
(b) ol gaE flz}9 dzt uH^lE.r^^ls. H z1l9 {z}z} rl ol¤ flxte.l dx} ullzlTf
ge-6J7}? (c)
k22s22p3E4, gdzl +zlg uJsalzl +l4l E zllg {z}z}
1l 1 1 1 1 trJ gg6J7I?
4d +4(si)g a+ (a) ;149 {z} ullzlg r ^ls. (b) #} ¤z|
-8rl
u* 359
=rll
9 Sxlzl dxlL H 4loJ7l? (c) flulz1{zf$ z}zli ${{ 4ElE +A6l^le.
g qL 4"J71? qgt Edt Narq caob Fdzl-Col+(g^l-7| dzlE +
8.12 (a) 5-1o14;.(ri)9 dxf Hl]xIE
^A^ls. 4olEl+'flzl-9 fl -s23Tl rJ+).
xlzf H zll.Jz}? o) ag 4+ g^ql 6}EE(H0E
{zlg d (a) 4 pI6J¤9 ololgE Ad¤ +6}^le.
HH^l= 4^19. (c) Tie.l urE ulzl eg +q $zlz| {rf (b) 4 sHlEe] *o189 A6F= +6}^le.
^l qtr +ElE"l q
*71^lil fl= aaH eE++. Hfel {u} Hl]ilq^l 97}7} (c) 4zl9lHzlE *ofB^l ?*g
^J-qq^1,
sElBile 4E6l+ +aag qr 4.Jzf? +c eHlgile 4^l glulzlE z[114]r 9lt9*z]?
=
4E"61-Eag q! AoJTl? (d) E. 8.le| 4zI qlq^l= ol*61q, ScNel {z} qlulzlE
(a) Al (b) Br (c) Ar (d) Sr 8.2a (a) olgd rSlel 4zL qlqzl= trl-g *+, (i) ol$el {;}z}
-*r, trI.g +r}*ql q4, (ii) olgEE a7l7l G.7llJ.ql q+ ,+4 +71
s.t4 4 gzll+ olgel Lewis TIEE rt^19-.
(a) K (b) As (c) Sn2+ (d) N3- 6l+7t, +^6]e71? (b) -B.8.rq E^lqzl e+e +-g EeE
0lg
I 44 {lulxl$ ql+6iq 9lHxlz} *e a+El ufl$op.le.
e--J(8.2tr)
MgS, KI, GaN, LiBr
8.15 (a) u|:ullf, g^Ie+ 4I^ flzlz| q!$alq olgC Ee-J olg ol$ qlzlS
L}4ql^ls. 8.2s A6J clqlE KF, NaCl, NaBr, LiClollrl (a)
MgoE ^JC6I= El¤¤ Lewis TlnE
^Fs-oalq
(b) H ,llE dz}Tl-olF6|flE7f? (c) 9tr flzlz| ql$oll.tl
(:fl z.s)S ol+4q 4 +6JEE oJ=olg-golg ,JE 44
E +C6I^le_. (r) (a)9 B-g EIB;_s_-a 4^f {LlzlTf +^
dxl-5 **Ez|?
6f= +^Jqls clqlBg +g6}^le-. (c) (b)ql.<1E q+rl E
8.16 (a) caq p flxl ^[olq] "JqL+b tlf,$ Lewis zln$ ol$a]- 8.rql +4ki 4zi 9lHzl9 ¤E<lg Hli6J trll. olg HI^IE
q +44^ls. o) ^JCg aol+ ql^Jq= Eeel alE4g q qlt} ql+ol c++71?
jt^le. (c) H zll9 d^Izt olE6I9.b7I? (d) qE gulzl HI
8.26 trt*el 4zI 9lHzl 6ql^J q! aol ol¤ Hlzl.EE ,.t
*ql^l d^l-= g9=7I? olql
a,dJ.
419 qlaalrle.
(a) NaCl > RbBr ) CsBr (b) BaO > KF (c) SrO > SrClz
-s.rz(a) Al4 F (b) Ke+ S (c) Yel o (d) Mgc+ N s27 Cuq^l d^l F
'lE
zllad}q Ca2*¤.
^Jd6lEH
qlLl^l7l
g.s-61r., oql d^l-F 7]]= dzla}g o'?-E trllE ql
8.r8 trf.g 4 flaE SEol Cdal-b ol3 aEt sl6JEg qH a
^Jcg
uJxlz| pealQ. rflqlE caozf z.l.g tlelel glql Hl6ll oJ
Cat4. ol49 7l* $ ¤B6f= ae Elg + q! A"J7l?
oJTl?
(a) Hl¤4=+sfl (b) g^ (a) cao9 4xI9l,jzlb HI¤¤ "J"zlzlql +S6l r+.
^ll+.4
(c) 4E4 dl (d) oJFulE4ta
(b) caoE =o# 4d-slqlE"lE ol r+Ag 4e6}zl 9+4.
rpg- 4 olgel {u} ullzlg g,r.lop., qL aol ulgC zlzll (c) CaoE ca* o-E-4 q ¤.e+9,*Etrt.
9 dz} Ellil= r*=zl ed6|^le. (d) cao9
=
qlgsl= 4t+.
-arr(a) Sr2* 1b1 Ti2* (c) Se2- (d) Ni2" (e) Br- (0 Mr,'*
^Jd
(e) Caob 4zl dt4"llrl 9IC6IEI.
8.20 q¤ 4 ol99 {z} ullil$ E^ld}n, qL aol ul$rj zlzll B.2s g+e+E BaIzE ^JC6fzl flaN Born-Haber tEI9 ¤4161
9 dz} ullzlg z{izl Aa6i^le_.
p3
i rJl ol*¤ 4 +zlE gz6l^le. q! BalTl gg Hl+g
(a) cd2* (b) (c) zra+ (d) Ru3* (e) As3 (0 Ag* ao e qltl6l+7f?
r-zr t")-4zI qlLlzl= qlills ggglTL gg"Jrp (b) Naclg d 5g-c,:18 7.t0, rHz.rzE^EZ ol+6}q Rboq 4zt
+, 4^l "ilulzl9 $ag ¤B6l+ Elq +*^lg 4 o^ls. qlqzlE Al&6f^le.
(c) NaCl4 zlol, ttl d6'l olgg-e. ol+qd 93 Caoq,J -s2e(a)
8.30 E 8.lql ?ol4i vtgclrq srctz9 4zf qlHzlE
ol2zl $ol ol$ee. ol+q{ gq El6ll 4^l diq^l7l aA =4E,
caclz9 4^l qlLlxl B9l= qltl6lrle-. (b) PE c, rg
]=aL *All:7L9
L'I. AL'I:
-
7.tL,7.r3 "i cae.l zz| olgq- qlqzl(ll4s kllmol)$ olf-
8.22 Nacl4 KF= Fg,il 44 +48 zfzln !]rf. ACg +.Jql 6Iq. cacl,e] 4xL qlqzl¤ z1416}^le.
zloldg "Jolgnl¤-olg
^Iol9 44o14. aa e-d, E7l38E,
(a) ol E9 4^I qqzlT} E 8.lq +q4 914. 4zI9lHzl
8.3r (a) q+ 4 pltlEg =:d=d(8.3tr,8.4tr)
6199 EL Na-cl4 K-F A+ + qL aol a6Jol ++ ?aJoJzl, o|{zl$ $$ai
E
=Ae .r.ls. (i) d, (iil BEI^E, (iiil E, (iv) &t. (v) otEr
q ,J+n ^J461+7t?
0) rB 7.8E olg HI^lBg Na-cl, K-F
(b) F 7]]E +g g^E+q {dB Ee xY= -33'cql^l
^l-.&6lq ^lolE
360 83 +qr 7lE 7tl'J
=_srq
#=+. xY= r"+c E¤4 olgc ge + qL aol4 (b) Al, si, P + 7l+ zlg gd
471 ¤.CE7I
6J f glEz}? (c) Ga, P, Cl, Na 6 dzl *CszI zI+ g4
=
(d) K, c, zn. F ¤ Bae| ols- a* e+ql$g B^dg
8.32 S, H, K, Ar, si 6 roS Aqlg BC6l7l qEe 94= qu 7l^tsCol
AOJTI?
TleL= g4
8.33 Lewis zlEel *3.E ^l-S6Iq Sie+ Cl gzls+El SiCl4
Lewis 8.4r El=g eq} + +doJ ae qL a.J7I?
,t^JCq= HI-S4g s7l6}r, gztT} d+= +ElLll^ls. (a) B-F (b) Cl-Cl (c) Se-o (d) H-I
(a) azl9l si$ flzlz| dz| fg-? 4+C A*q^l d7l gCETl q gzl+ qg 4..Jzt?
=
0) azl{l 4 cl gxlel gzlT} dz} +=? 8.42 +gg*col 4zlb i^lE_+4 ull$olr.le.
(c) sicL B4ql^J si +9lE g^I7I dzf +:? (a) C-F, O-F, Be-F (b) O-Cl, S-Br, C-P
(d) sicr4 tszlql^1, 444 ct ++lE g47I dzl-+=? (c) C-S, B-F, N-o
(e) sicL +zlql= H zll9 ?6J d44r"l +461-=7I? &43 (d s.8.2-e.+q, HBr gxiE +E
Ezl¤ +c6l+ He.| Br
8.34 Lewis zlEel Lewis *48
^l-.*6lq
p4 r gzItrPH prrzl dal¤ dz} d6l +91 etr. 4l4lal^le. (b) gzl¤g +E d
g47t 6i7I H6Ixl ?+=+r zlzg;[n, HBr Bx]q h3 "J49 z]
^JCqE HI¤:^19 s.7l6}r d^l-= +EI4^ls.
(a) azloll P9 g^I7I dz} +=? 4^l Aq+ 4olzl zAl A^++H, ,C-:arz} -EqlE= +7161
(b) azlql 4 F gzlE gzITI d^l +=? !z|, zf,Aa[{=7}, H6izl $4.=7p
(c) PF3 $zloll^l P +fl$ g^I7l a^l +-L--? 8.44 H enJ+ ololgH(rBr) +zl.sl e{} TJolY z.qg Aolr, ]d+
(d) pF3 +^Iq^l 449 r i?19 t]zlz| dz} ig-? xl e.HlE:: 1.21 Dol+.
(e) PF, $zlofl= q ,|lel ?B dzltlol
=z116l+71?
(a) ol BxI4^-l q¤ fl^z} gd6l= g ase q^J9bzl?
8.35 (a) oz9 4 Szlz} e.+ gdzl +4g ++6lb Lewis 7 r ol+E d$6t^le.
aE ¤4161^le. (b) ol +4ql^J a.J dztq f3? (c) oz @) IBr Ez|91,<] re| Br
ed^l7t 714 +E dd¤ dzl Bgl e
+6Iq 7l+d-g a+q r'',<le, 8.62 l3-17+ql flq +Tlgsl*e-s 3+71 ol6IE giEg g
8.s6 Lewis ?49 No*, NOz-, No: q^19 N-o A.J d^I +zlg trlEzl ?*E $?tl t* 9l+. ol$ ¤E6l+ ql
aol +^l=
=71-tr
ql+6}q zI+Sg a+q 4^le. qq. qtr
^l+g +49 g^Eol 'JHlzlsE ol+ e6Jol
* zlll: (a) Hldlql^l EA-+i + A*e eolTl EF +$+ a6Jg trJE7l d+j1olot7l6ln, E qE ^IBg+
7Ja, c-c +.J a6JE ,Jolql ql*+4. oI^IBql
-s,y (HCCH)E +^-ea + A"Je Hldl9 c-cO)A.Jel B+ flzlc} ¤i}g6J+ 9lEla ¤B++. ++q "Jol SSzI?
rl-¤- 4 olgnl gx|9l Lewis +48 rel^le. gdzl +zl
aoltr+ rJEI.
g trls^l *= ag +oI ol+= .gB6}^le-. olql 4 EI.J¤
[r.ss]6,qg +C6l+ +sB{l +zi(croHJ= 6Z]E +^7} a}q -8.63ql^J qL $ulz| ${z} +4q^l B.q+=zl, Et
E r7l= ol+a, ol :z7l + /lzl x1 E^l4E =" #6}b 7
r S^}
35 ol+7 914. ul$c Lewis 7.4t rls-4 aq. E +Hq 6J,J.q= dzl+ p zllolxl {ga}r.le.
(a) PH3 O) AlH3 (c) Nr- (d) CH2CI2 (e) SnFo2-
H H
8.64 E1* 4 olg+ E^IE Lewis 74E rE^le-. gd^I +zl
H_._ C\
I
t-at'
I
H
s.67 l}4}(HrsoJql El]qq fB H H
+ 9lb Lewis ]42| "*4(4 u
E oql a*qq *+).
-C-Br + 2}{- S-H
I
7-aJ71?
(b) ¤^l d6l-= 3li+6t71 +16ll qE rewis +== rB a HH H
ttt
(c)
"J7l?
8.68 qB pl+zl-==g +xI+ ol,gel
H-N-N-H / H-N-CI
+ Cl-Cl --------+
Lewis Taoll^J 7I+ +^Jl6J
+4= aa6}b gd^t +4ol a H4l zliol 99ot aJ
ql 8.71 q+ ¤BEol *.Jzl, zl1l.Jzlg {$r}.rle.
(") ?6J9 ?Jo17l 7Ji1 ¤*
+7 ^d4-J+. E +E q^l¤g 7l* zl¤+ B^l d6l¤ E elBulzl 4t14.
g + 9lL+7I a H4l 7l+ol qqo} qqr Ecl. H g^I (b) c-c EtlS c-u ¤Ele+ rJ6I+.
Eol o sul¤91 eqlE oJ&+ +^ olg(H2pot)g qltr- (c) 9HI4 e B'J Ailg s-10 A CEel
" aolE 7f{+.
(d) clsl a*ql= qluJzlzf 9l+.
Eq +gq B_61^le_. ^]tlElq
(a) gdz} +zlol a H4 zl+ol4-a oJ+E, 7I+ +^ll6J 8.72 EI+ ¤BEol +oJzl. zl4.JzlE ¤B6I^le.
*3E qL aolet qldl6l+rt?
Lewis (a) Ei-84 t+ a6Jg +a-+4 +"J A;JEtrr S+.
(b) B^l d6l-= a Hal zlfol4r. *4H, 7I* +^ll+ (b) o, $zlql5 Aq6l 6z]]el 4* 4^l7l +zl]6Jtrl.
Lewis 74t qL a'J7l? (c) "Jtpi +Aql 9l= ts^-&^ ,J a6Jg ol4}sl E^ql
B8 eEe] eot(8.88)
9l= tsa-&^ a a6Jtr+ 'JE+.
^1t7tg
8.6e s.8.3E ols"619, ffi zlzll{ H}¤.9 AH= alt}6}^ls(g
(d) s+9 .tl4-t^ ,J A*e tI^E &^-&^ A A.J
Hl++ dzltl-g 44421 S9trI). trtrI *+.
^iE (e) g^IE {zl ${sz} +¤++ 4E gx}e+ "*e a6Jg
(a) H H
+ H-O-O-H "+=trI.
H
).:.( H
-------->
+71oJ+ +41
B.7z At.J 7Jol7l1.1s At +}.-+4 ¤!*9 zld ^l]Eg Eeol (b) Nach9 !z| ollulz,lz| qq MsClrE 44 o\q^1z326
"J=qa+. olaElg+.J, ol+, s+a6J+ql"lH 49zI? kl/mol)4 a+r B rll, Naclr9 s+.tJC SlBul(AHi)
8.78 4q z)olzl r.zo AoJ ei-ei dElg zltl .<Ne$ Eaol <i3 9"I?lzl-?
"J=qA+. AaJg tg,
ol ol+, tI+ e,*6ql 4{cA47fl 8.84 qElBq ,lAzl 4zl +CEql +6ll EE 49 9!. :,1+r.
,ilE+.
s.7e trlg 2+ pl"JEEE 4xt .llHzlb BeHz 3205 kllmol,
MgH2 27 9 | kllmol, CaHz 2410 kllmol, SrH2 2250 kJ/mol,
(a)flzI xe} yb 4zl *4szl.rle 4e.4. A+E ol?lz|
BaH2 212t kflmololQ. +^t x-y+ HIE^I +Cg zf{o} of,c}n "s}+EJl, r
(a) olE sl6JEql^J Hel&++= 44 gut"Jzl? "Jol*gzl-?
6) +q4l s+6JE5ol -E_+ nill ^Jqlql^j ag c:^t?l Ellg 0) E r a+9 gql 948, aqlq^l + ?l^l7l B?-l gq
$ zltl:L 9l+r 7}Afl.g Ell, oJolg-¤-ol3 Z?-l: q 4 9ig++ rd+^f E_EIEE trl 7ld+a 6F=ql, *e
B 4ol 7l+ *gvl? A"J7I?
(c) BeHz9 49 t mol9 izill$ olge-e 44b ql 320s kl 8.8s ul++ g4 o, p, re, I, Bql qls} 4*o14.
9 9lHzlzl-g-s_aJ7p oI'-.lE :zos ktg qqzlE %Ie (a) 7l* +^J.J +.J aElg BCd-= + g6E r.s^le.
6I=71? (b) 7I+ ,J +.J a*g ¤d6lb F zlzlz ;r e^le.
(d) ZnHz9 4^l qlq^l= 2870 kllmotolLl. 24 c+6JEql (c) xyz9 EIE|^lg 7Id +q|+9 ,.J^JE zl-btol zl*
ql6J 4^I qlqzle.l a"}.g jlqqug ql q¤ 2+ fl^71 3*g r.E^19. =
Zn2+el o1e- Hlzl=+ 7I+ ElidJzl ql+6}^19. (d) x2Y3E d'¤4g 7l4l slql+g..JCEI zltsCol zl*
a*g TIe^lg. =
8.80 E 8.19 *g 7l4e- 4q, Elg +6JEE 4^I qlLlxl(3o
kllmol ol tJl)= ql'U-6I^19. 8.86 'J,t}+ g^(clo(c))= s=+ !}llql ols4 qE 4zl*9
(a) LiBr (b) CsBr (c) CaCl2 r+aql^J +.s.t q6Jg t4. cro $zlel ffizf EBIEE
8.81 Mx +=E r*= qtr olg^J EAq 4zl ollHzlg oxto' 1.24 Dolr. o-o a* zJolE r.ooAol4.
(a) cl4 o gzlzl 7t{ A6}q
kl/molol4. M olgel d6l^= I +, 2+, 3+ + qL 4"J71? =7lE d^} do} tgl
etr 4l
r+Zl ^J4+ olf¤ ¤B6l-^le. 416.I^le.
(b) gdq d7l g^dEE 7l3e clo B^Iql^J qts
6J Ell,
[s.az1"1e- ?"J s]+E caoi g4 dE4 ag +=E AAp]¤ gd6l-= g
4(:B a.:).
flxfz| fg1z10e ase 9d-oltzl?
(c) Bal d6l¤-7l+e tJ oll, ol E^lel +^ll6'J Lewis 74
(a) ol +4ql^1, P zllg o'-2144 olg4 *Bot ll
Ca2*
E r?]^19_.
Ezl-? (fls: rH 8.3q1 +EI+ 9= olgE qlEg %I
^ll (d) Clo- golgol ¤4.Jtr1. ol Clo-91 4t al49 rewis
6}e_e 4l+6ll^] El+¤r+= 19 zl9o}4.)
(b) cao ?Col E4 E4E ca-o ol$jt6t9-tr 47ll41+8,
+a= ^J4e4H, cl g^Iel B^l ddl+ gtrtoJz}?
.ll H zl zi E-+9 4iz| *¤q fl=rp [e.ez] (a) Brr+ ctel dzl ¤.cE.E ol+6]q Br-cl Ez] LI g^]
(c):H 7.8q +qd olg ElzlE¤ F.ll, ++61 "*BoI9l Eq ++ dd¤ ql.!-6l^ls. O) ol ? E d6}el f.H 7.89
6tr+9 Ca-o olS{fql ql.J ulQ|j ollulzl$ ]a|,rl gzl HlzlE¤ ol+6}q ol B^Iel rd+^l EHIEE +6I^l
=
s(d6}9 rzl= 4 B q+ql+q4 9l+.) 9. (c) BrClel dr]] +Ag ;6l-+^} E{!E ** o.sz ool4.
(d) olEl'* r mololl ql6J qlLlzl= faf^le. ol{$
t}9 Brcl9 ¤B z3o1z| flxf *zlE9 qlol+n rlc+EtE, ¤
cao9 4^f 9lulzl4 ulaa[{ o]qdz}? Ezltll6l.ff zIEfltr Ag ol+6}q srclgl^l flzlEg I¤
(e) cao9 A+ol olg a6J!.+= ="+ a+ql Tlvl& 4, d6l¤ altltl^ls.
+e AA 449 47]|4 ^Ja 4+ol E'J olg,^6}q A+ 8.88 'fa {zll(hydrogen economy)'E d4B 4l z}at qaig A
tr+ g{ ++E} a + qqoJ s"Jol (d)q ollulz'lp.t} g, ¤B e
^l+g +aE +e +sltr 4+6}b
HlHg +E
olE alolql 7l* g6Jg Elaqr.
^J481.=7I? 4o14. zlHS ++E +i EltlEg zle +qtr ^J'JEJ +
= 4E +4= zl+E+ + *zl ollE"ll +^E zl+61+ E{ ,ll+
8.83 4$ ol$o1 2+9 ddl-=- ulE zl{} E+6JE Nachg {Cql
Qla.J Born-Habe. i*19 :"4r.le_(r$9 2z.l olgol qlq E44ol+. qE Eq NaAlHaE NaH(s), Al(s), H2@)E E
zl=*. 7.2q1+q4 9l+).
sl]6l+ 4Aql^l pelel s.67oE Hr(8)E %I=++. NaAlHr
(a) NaclzE gg HI-&ol qEJE 4zt glul * 3o# aB4 olg ¤*¤ g+ z|^lr ?lr, ol ="# dB
^JC6|= HI+ol g 54 4flzl9ol85ol ,tltr S¤qq
zl= gEl+ 4ot 6l-=71? flEL
364 8g 6l-+ ?:6Jg )lE tilLd
(a) NaAlHrz[ E6IqE r+Cql 4+ +B "*A H]e.49 ] (c) 6}olsgi& olgql^l cl9 tr14= +6t^le-.
(d) cl-o aBEol EF +.J a6Jol4n ilg 4, rlg^41
^19.
(b) NaAH4ql^J d7l SCETI7l* gr= q- 4"J71? olgql^l cls] &q+E +61^le.
E 471gtETr 7l* 4* gi== q- 4"J71? (e) &q-*fl HI*ql^1,
"l¤
ol9ol q dzl{tgg A"J7l?
(c) dzl gdE ih= 4sz} ¤.ol9ol -fglolxl $|al 8.e2 Nzo9 Lewis +4 Ttzl= El-¤=r+ e+.
ol olgel =71e, r?]^19-. ^'ll
-r.. Lewis *4E :N:N-O: .------ :N-N=O3 <---+ ;5:5:(j:
(d) +gz} olgq flE +^q B^l {o}i $u}olzp
(a) ¤rl d6l¤-^|&4q, 9lel 7I^l +H +4+ qtr a
8.8e I:- ol8* +.Jq4 ilzl"J, rr- ol$$:$zl $Q. ol 7I+ +!_6Jzl
^Jl
"J5I^ls.
(a) Ir-9 73E r.?]^ls(C-4$ol oI'14 dB'ltrt).
Lewis
0) Nroql^l a^-Ace'* 4olE r.rz Aotr, oJql4
,J
O) Ag Hl tl+71, 19 dzl ¤.CETI Ll+ +o}^l +E F ?l r.r=N c.3 at}tr+ E+ aq. s. e4-4}i rJ a
gzls+ ¤qlg olBzl qlEgl F:-i + fl
"JEzl B zJolE l.leAoE, "JHI4ql N:o-84 E+ *4(s
r+r oJ+. tlTzl Efl4E ag +B617l =zl]g
+16l] ql^l=
8.+). o1 +il# EqlE g q, qL *B TazI Nzo9
xll.rlafr.l9. qls4oJ +3+r Bf 9ldbzl?
(c)4E +l*E r:-E gdxl +49 +lH]6J aolTl qlEql
[a.sr] (a) E4olo]41(C3HrNJ3,tll zl]9 C-H7l7l No e H]fl a
+ s,4r'6Jtr1. ol rl+s] tsg *g=z|? g zllgalE HI4l +4e+ zJr[. o] gz[g Lewis +a= rEl
=xl]g
(d) E 4E a+E F3-E F7| + 7H-H.+ *g gzle+ aEl6l
,<le. (b) l.al Lll tsd-er eq} aol$ ql{-6}^le.
Tlql= q+ 4ol^l + S+a +El. ol a+9 "J
=xllg [e.ea] +-E]olpEEHl4l(c6H4ctrg HIAIE +i gz] zzllE E
q
+ &s-=vl?
q+ gzls il+4q gqdE}. ol +zlE u{rllz} u}e-$ pol
8.eo 4 E^l+ olg +ql^l c6ild gxlgl B^l d6l¤ +6I ^'
+q4 fl4.
^ls.
(a) o:9 +d gzI'J
(a) EEF} dxltg +7I6Iq ol +^tE Lewis *rE r4
(b) PF6-e; oJ ^14 ^19'
(c) NO2E e4
(b) ol tszlE A+, +E +azt f4aJQ{ :
f.r-]^19.
=zl]q+zp
(d) ICI3E otole-H
+=E
(e)HCloa9 g^(+^=+Icq aqlqq 914.)
(c) (a)s}6)q^lel +B +ab Hl4lel +B +45ilH ^lE
trEo6.J +a5oJ7I?
8.er a1o1+$A4I ol+(clo-)e .s.Elrllel .r?E. d+ol4. 49r HH
41 o1.$(ctor-)g e71 e^Ixilq 7I+ +s+ d+ol4. F \/C-C
olgql 4EJ Lewis *4E 44 a4^le.
(a) 6lolsgd4} olgql^J clE ¤^l dq¤ +6f^ls. H- C-H
(b) cr-o AilEol e+ Bg A*oleln *g ql, +g^& \ C
olgql^J ctE B^l d6l¤ +6}^ls. CI CI
H (0 qH ElqlEol olgCoJTI?
uEt oil=JE! 0ll1lEoJt1l5l0lE
8.102 d7l ¤.dEE aEE 71ts 4lHe El-9--4 e+. g^tE d7l
gtEb r g^19 olgs+ qlq^lql^-l d^t a+E= u ilql
H
.,H Elql'JtrI= 7il'Jol+. dzl gc-=.:k(r_u\ k= Elql^o}+
H\llllHHHH (a) cl9 {z} {e}E.z} Fel dz} A+Ets.E+ +qlE E+6l.
(c) H H+ lC:C-C:C-C -H r. FE $zl $$tzl cl-H-+ ol+= ol a9= ol+
H
-H H/l =
H 6lq ¤E6l^le.
ElElrf0lu
^t0l=euEJl (b) olgs+.ilulzls+ dz} aslEE E+ d7l *cEeI +fl
ol 9lb olf-b Fl"Jzt?
(c) zilztrq +qd +zlE ^l-s"6}9 19 dzl +dE7l4.0
(d) H N=C+H ol qb k <lg 46}^le.
-C:N
A+= ol+6lq cl!+ oel d7l ¤-BE= aa6Ble-.
(d) (c)9
olol4^loloJ6+ Bll= 0l^1lELlolE= (e) dzl +cEql 4iJ e. +E aE= $zlel ri| olgpl ql
4 Eeol, +e 6I+qlE ff!.\ zl=zl5q 9+. E6J + (b) 5+ cql^l o}^llB¤I4 a^ Eztg glBE= *"I
^8c
ELJg dQl +eglE lH 4llE: 76.07o RueI24.0Vo O(4* ts_J., olEEo6I qL 3rttlEol El .JA4.Jzl r
^19.
ul), zH +BE: 61.27o Ruel38.8% ogln 4q fl4(a=* (c) N,z| sd &+4q Nzosk)E ^Jd6l+ +q HI+^14,
El). of^lleflol Cor(s)e+ H2o(s)¤
^Jddl+ EE "*+
siq
(a) rH *EI^EE ,,JEl4e Fq..JzI? tsI_q-.,-l-q-
JO f
rl o
= ^r.
(b) 2H +{}EE dEl4e P9..Jzl? .l F +E}EE +d (d) Nrc+ CzHz9 g"o} tsl flgqE Zl&61^le(Nro'(s)9
g AAd-= dtlg 6lH^1, r=+^l +6JEg 2s "cql^l ^JC
qlgElb 11.30 kllmololrf).
+E HlH, d9.9 zfFL dEl tI^19 41 gsoJ rzoo (e)Nzel czHz= ¤tl tlgulzl ^JB6l +g s? ¤*9 zI
.cql^JE Ezl *EtriE ag grll g+. zlr. 914(s 8.3). q¤ + +.J¤ql 44q 44 E & +
366 83 al-+ 7lE 7HE
=crol
HI+el qlBqE 4&6}^le. o}^-llBHle +^e+ Hl s.r08 +4I3 HCooHe] +El4g zlzl=. 914. oly r.220 slmL
^+ qlqloJ(cHJg {d6|l., 3^= +4e} H}*4q
s.6Iq I "JEE zl-d +^qe.l "iillol+.
(a) EtI9 ts+ gzlg
"J zll9 HeI + 7l]E oql ABgq
g-E.qoI(NH3)E
^JC6J+.
s.106 54 aAq^l qlg._qgl "JEqotel Hlso6Iq +r+ e^E 9l+. SAIE Lewis 74.E rqr, +r-Bol +4l+48 tr
ol^19.
¤ olrJe ElElEg "J=+. ol +qlEg + 6e.0%oe} e^
30.4o/oE ol+q7q 9lq. e"+g 184.3g/molE 4EElfl+. (b) *4lg ++'l {L4qlrl NaoHq H}+6}q +4} olg
g.+49 g4+ uBlezl ,fgqHg Ell= qle *B'J4. ol (ucoo-)9 ^Jdg + gl4. .1trll9 +B "*+ elq Hi+
+zl 4ql^l +4 e^= rq +=E olfr.. :r4 Lll E.E 4¤ *r'l-c-.
(c) *,tI ol$el Lewis +=E r?-1r., +Bol S4tIElE B
e6J rJol= AEI.
(a) ol539 dE44+z}^lg A.rle. ol^19_.
(b) +"ltl cBE ol EzIg Lewis *3E,!^ls(fl (d) 0.78s mL9 *t4 Sd6l U*6t71 +16ll^l+ H mlel
e; uli.{ z}g=zE,
+q +^.il+ Lewis +=E +olrll+). 0. 100 M NaoH i 8 o-!ol gg-aldEz}?
(c) n4 4 9zl rJE a6J AolE ql{}61-^ls(ts1r.: Sa n4 8.r0e g ailH Sr.qo1= d-E+sflEI $c(boron
^118.7¤q^l
ql^.] s-s aoli z.os Aol4). Hlso 6Iq ?IA.J Elql+g BC'J+.
trifluoride)q
(d) ol c}6J¤q {d sBq= 480 kllmol.tr 9ltt¤4. s(c) (a) oJe.ulol-g5geilsl +4E EJ+ ^J^JEE Lewis 7
9 m;5 222.8 kllmotol4. .l sHlSE B+ a6J S 3.E r.q^le.
Bq= +44^le-. (b) BE6l B-N Aqlg c-c e*B+ EJ +dg E+. E
oJq ,IfL gH}4ql ¤4= zlq^l B-NE d6I.EsE ql+6l.q :4,<le_(xlls.+¤
^IEll 7a9 {zl
s.107 pa $zlolcf.
ql ttg 6+el6- TliE
9l g^| 47||= ¤+614. ^l-S6}^le).
(c) t9ri +4= +=+silF+ +ie| ulfo;| grilos o3-
^.1
{ltl(c6HJE +E +a7}+*E.gEB6l "JC6}4 "J=tr}= 4 e{}g ^Jd^l7l+ +4+ H}*(hydrosenation)ol 9t+. HlAl
g dllfl.trI. ol f +rI U¤¤ E6Iq 67llE c-c
^pl=Edl^lloJ(cuH,r,
+"J a6JrI l2zll$ q-H +.J A*g 7ld +g^I rE +
(a)) *9 c9 rllolq= ol+4q, 1.0 mol9 CeHok)q 3.0 mol
*E)"e d¤¤ EI d¤4'J +4+gg 208 kflmololr|.
E o1,q1p{l(c,H,(g))9 S^gg Eln1.6}^le_. E +ql qL ,tlol=eald(C6H16, lzllel C:C ol6 EEL sz11s.1 C-C t
lol rl ge+^-19 Tlil= ^lq=7l? Zl^Ittol Hltlol zlH g A+, ro7Hel c-H toJ AEl¤. 7I4l +gzl nel clql-E)
oJA oJil 6l+71?
Cn| g +4+ Hlg"EI trll dql4.J +islg
=-E_,*
O)) HIAle] +i + 4l7l -cH37le zl+E E+g(c6HscH3) ^lol=edl^lloJ-e_E
g 120 kllmolol+. ol Ar+Eg ol+6}q Hl4lel +B .JC
+4-ql 46ll I (u)ql^JE 21{g q}$6}rle.
(c)) tszl¤¤ Elig + 9= E +E HI*e e4-e4 ol+ 4
p] 9lHzlzl
"l- CszI B^l q+d-q -H.^ls.
(d)) += tsEl+ie+ Elf,6J trll, HIdq AB zJ.lq ¤t143,
'*¤ Hrp+ EI+^14 c-c +oJ A'*4 + Zle.l c-H +oJ
!e ¤zlE^11 367
\
i
(R)-naproxen
9.1 > Er[ sg +^]E +z]g +aE ril
t. tr}.
Erl
gztTl
Taef
ae
Tlol
dxL'tl Hlg(vsEPR) _E
=
Bg E4q 716I +== ql+
^l_s6l.q
+E+.
7)
E l= 9.3 > Ertsgr| Ext+¤ ts^IE 716l +
ae+ A6J
ql^l
B4E B46l{ Ez}z} *C
++c.JzlE ea6Jr+.
9.4 > B+ eilal eHl=J Ad ++ a'Jql
Lgwis 75= Erfe.l ol61dt.= Elt EEE raj I rl flzfE ^folql dzlE qB4l ++
^da1ap =-Er'= =rt. 6t=zlE.JolB+. g47l ail olEql
L[ Lewis 7^.= E^lel zEl6eet 6 6[Lf?] E^lEi1l9 Eg= LIEILII
=d ^l aEI dzt= + gzlE gzl sHlB
rl gr=tl. E^fe,l Esr.l"e7l(Erl +4.alrE Er')= +d BrEg =4 ql^l TlqlElg trq olE gz} e
4alZalql 96[q
^lole] Hlgel Aaol .JqLI=+.
++ ellg BC
=!EJtl. +tr|.
^llE
EiEn, E46ll., Cz]eI4. El.
CI
-Cl:
Lewis 74EE"J.J BEql g4¤g l-+ rflE|. rEl+ f.al e.14 zJol dzll d-ztg Ell
gql^l= Cl +lz|7l,t|{{(tetrahedron) l.^l?-lql +lil"l] 9lr+. ull zl]9 E^]4e+
^}Hill=
ull zll9 dd}4¤ Eg r*= oJill EBol+.
+z}el Eolg Z!il4(bond angle)oll el6]i Adqr, A.J4.g Ezlql ¤46l+ flz}4¤
fla6p dq 96]] "JEqtl+. +zlel AaJ4g ¤q} zJol ,.,., (8.8¤)e} E}41, +zt aTlel
E-o&g ac++. rB
e.1oll.tJ cclaoll= E+ 6zH9 ct-c-cl paJzJol olE. E
=46tn,
E6.J ql z}l9 c-ct 46J zJol= g
+= F"J+ t0e.s.olq, ol 4EE' ^[Hi]lE
=Coltr].
+ Eg6|rll l.7sAolq. r4^l ccl4el aTle+ !-oJg 1.78A aolg c-cr a*sE ol+
qd Elot4* 6o19l EzIg t^Ig +a= r?-l7l fJ61]
^iEalE Sq6I4 ¤Be + 91tr1.
rB e.lq +e+ 9l= +zlg ^l-soJrt. gHlzl"J dg +ol Hql fl= ad.g 9ul6}r., #g
4lzlE 5=ol g|$e-+ qq+g.J6ll Hq+g A6JS L+ElLllr, dde +ol +14_q__+ ¤4
Eql/l^l E{zlE e$g +ElLll: ql ^F&g+.
ccLaH EI ,]lE +d gzlq F z1l olt9 ee 6+el flzlzl a6Jd ts^l(E= olg)+
el EzI9 EoJql 4* E9= BzI. oltsl8'J Szt9 .JHI^lg AB,ol4, *C flzI e
^146ll
9l rzll9 B g^l7l. gaqq fl4. COrc+ H2o= l_+ AB2 Ezlolq, SO3el NH3= AB: E
zloltrl.
AB,BzlE 7]+6J EoJg iE n Zlq 9=-Jtr1. ABz4 AB3 Bzlql^l .JHl49.e BaEl
Eo&S r.e 9.2q1 44H+. AB2 $zlE C¤(linear, 46J7J:180")o144 t¤¤6ent,
=
4*r++1s0")olr1. AB3 EzlE 7IT "JHI4oJ + 714 E"J:g AAL4B E^J?lql B gz}Tt
CI
P= Ct t
-C -Ct C1
'J943 109.5'
8_ETtl EB 3?J iilt sE 8^l?l g^l s-d
^lEill
arB 9.1 Ccr4el ,\tEill+I
370
e.1 E^lEg 371
o.,.o-,=o
COz SOz sos NF3 clF3
dB
AB2 AB2Eee AB3 EE Ar4E A% 8'+gE AB3 T^tE
8^l-Ei1le0{l^1 EgB o e Eslg nll, F 7fl e.I fl rlt= ol gzl dE46tLLt7 | 6ieE}7 }?
^llzei
s^laloll^1 3^t
Et 7ll= rllz
F flrllE,\lalo{l^l
flxtrllz
+ +
lTt!9
=q31
^l'Eill
arB 9.4 +Eill
^l-gillE^l.E,gel
rH e.3ql EoJqlE +4zl olul lelal g+E Eolol sq+qq flzl ?*4.
flE sz11
ql= EE :H s.zgl EE6J so2 Eztg fre¤4 NF3 $zlE +49¤e:.H s.:9 t
olql= S.4. :44 ++rll 4olzl"J, +e¤4 AI4g¤r+ zJ! +zl4"J E"Jg
t I
s7n 7lE +4_E+El +Eg + gltrL elE 5E :e e.491 H= u}e+ pol, {,r.}{xlloll
+rldq flxl-$ ¤+4qe ^ll4g + 9l+. d^I{ill +ldql^l zllrl6lfl
v ^J
As:9 ={61=
/J4gd +z7l EEl. + trzll flzl-= 6.J 7l]q flzl-E zllZdtE 4"lzl ABzE
... g¤ +e7l-g+. =-
ell AB, +4+ ql+E re e.39 7le +4q +Hg Eo&g 7l^la- gleq, *4E ol
trl.l-Eillcl.tlEcl, AB+ E^lel gHJ4oJ _"gi 7t8rll 6fl_l.= ,l.t4 EJE(square ptanad
?^,01rt.4 szle1 grPl tr+ ee EEoil Eq fleq. g^l.B= E^leloll ?ir. fl
A: ecql ral e.3oll^j ,Et 7tl 0l8e.l fl^lE^t4Bel q. EE 7l5t
^l ?i. q! =4etr[.
^t4e.q
q= ^ilz-g ^t4
+5E Eg?.!71"?
^llTl]elEd
E{O{,\l7l
ou o- Hud erlP
s.2 I VSEPR -E¤
+,Je F 49 +d Eg +4 +e ag ^J46ll !.zI. rs e.sql^l B= tste| ?ol, F
,1]9 +dg z|fl!s.-+. .r.le. H4 EHaJ"JE|. 4 zl*alE '^J-e gfl Eq4 fleql1'qI
+. ^ll H4l +dg +7I6lE +d=e dA|4BE qAAg.#"JtrI. ql Hzll *dg +zI
a|fl .<|Sillz} g+. olz,lH +d +q q+ al4e-l zlt;l ]zzl g + 9l+.
=r]]6Jg
E4ql^l dzl¤g qH Eql^J *dr+ Aol 4Eet4. oJ ZIE dzlt}ol flz} .r.1o1
I +rJg ^I{B ull, 6}+el *# Etlol ^JCE$ "Jn 9+ -l.. (8.3¤). ¤* dzltl
(bonding pair)g 4zlzl zlzJ
"*ol
gaq= S9.ll fl41 de]++. r*l* gq.g E
Ljl 7flel=d
HllE
rJB9(electrondomain)ol4r A9++. Hl+6IAl s.:¤9lr.J HIEoS dzr}}
^tEill =elilH
(nonbonding pair) Ei rB dz}4f(lone pair)-5i 6}+el flz}"ll +lzl6J d4 Sq-s-_e
a.l.H 9.5 Edotr Eq C C^l
qo{
o- cel.J+. qlE 5q .JEqolg Lewis 73= e4 gz} ++lql ql 4el dzl. sgg zl-
9.2 I VSEPR -?-d 373
zlrl ?lr}(sg de-e. s^lg rll zl]9 ="# dzl%}4 d5e.E^lg 6J Tl]el Hl++ d4t)
HlSP t^l-8
H
8+ IrtS
Bzlql ¤{{+ r+¤: aaJg 6l+E dzl ¤99 +Ct+. E]+^J os9 *B +a= +d
&d gx} ++lql rll zH9 dz| ¤9¤ r*=+(+.J e6J oJ 7ll, ol+ A6J oJ 2fl, uleo.S {z}
tl oJ zl).
,9-6:9
gHlzlsE Hlso+ Ax},lr, +g At}, ++ Aile +4E +d gx} ++lql^l 44 xJ 4
49 dzt gqe "J=+.
+q4l dzt s99 +ql q+ 4te_l tsllgg ^}g ,Je_l +ge 4ae q^= aol+.
+d ,Jq +^i^dg ql+61 7l^l daa13 7\61+471E'J6l+. rH
dxlle AzI ¤E4
s.s9 *d4H F 4e1 dzl ¤93 d$ee ullga[-r., Tl|el dzt ¤93 SH +4¤ E
^Jl
oJeE Elig4q, !l zll9 dz} ¤qg tsl]goJtl-. ol*loJ El]¤E+ Elz4l sz]]4 0z]]
^IE4IE
9 dz} gqg r*E a+= e s.r9l 'I4*+. sg.r4 rH e.39 zlt;l ]49 ulrall -E_
^iE +=
AB, Exl E= ole-E sole *d flxl A ++lE dzl ¤99 +ql ul4 94
a+.
ABr tsztE= olgel 6d flzI +99 dzl ¤99 u]]99 trt Eqq 7l6t +E
(electron-domain geometry)4r 6J+. ole+= 84, Ezl4 olg +9 flzt"J9 Hllgg E
rlel 7F175(moleculargeometry)+r ++. e49 zla| fa$ E^l-B ol] E= Hl="* d
zftfg ^J+"JuI.
2 dB 180'
1,20"
3 dd
ou ,AI7L6j
E- o 120"
109.5'
4 109.5'
^IEill
900
,<LTl.il}4d 120"
5 E- O= O
90"
6 gEill 90"
t. +zt+ ol$$ Lewis +='E rq-r. :.::: (9.!p), 6d flxI +9lE dzl. ¤9fE d4.
Hl++ dxp}, +"J A'J, ol+ aB, ++ Ad.g 44 6t+E {z} gg-s-E ,J++rf.
2..s e.lr+ eol, dz} ¤9 zJ9 *Bol A|zl EIE+ flxI +Eql dzi ¤99 ull
g6rq dz} ¤99 zlul +a= AA.J+. =:d
3. aqlg flztg EIgg Eu]el zlot*3E ad++.
^l-8-6[q
E e.2= AB, +zl9 +d gxl. +9lql ql 7]] ol6lel dz] ¤9ol glg EI 7Po* +z[9 7l
6l +e= sqts"J 1o14. gdzl +zlg tllq= e4+ oleql^J g + glE l_E -E_olg.s
*6tr 9zl ,llE.ll s e.2E zla| +s6[+. fei
e.2 I vsEPR -"8 375
89.2 6C grt +qq 2, 3, 47ll t^t "dqg 1ts +4sl {xt odol fl Exl'sl 716l +L
Ert BE+ fl^t gqq 716l +^ Efl BE uleg BE Erte.l 716l +4 qt
2
qrg 2 0 d-{M ,\l a!
g:c:9
:id:
I
3 3 0
E{ol ?\l7la
.ti\r..
E{Ei tTla
2 I
I/\]
=_qa
4 4 0
A H
c
I
t"
t
J *Y
^lEill ^tEiil
l.i
3 I
,Y t*t
J llgd
,\17
E-=O
2 2
H
itiiH
+-9.4
=H e.69 vsEPR
.Er¤g +41= zl+6}q NH3 $zlsl zlal +aE ql+6]= %r-H
^ll
g Hq i4. Lewis +aq^'l 7l|E ¤q+r} 6J ZiE EFo# dxftl9 9l zH9 d
zI gqol
^ll =4= fai
"J'J+. trI+^J .s s.r-trPEl NHr9 dz} B9 zla| ^lEaloltrI.
=4l6Jg
<.LH 9.6 NH3 E^[ 716l +4
ol
l=d
2771
NHs + H- trl-H
H
I
+ ',Lzt* + ru
Lewis?I= E= d^lgqg 4ltl6tn. g^l=el BHE= g7l
ralq. E^t gqE 716l+4= =gE
el6ll^1 EII e-J d^t gq.J
eEEl+Ee.13 lEEtt[ na16|q E^lol 716',f +r=
(^lEi]l). 3E:eltrt(At4g).
376 93 E^lel 7l6t+^ef 0lE
=--J
Lewis f+++El + 7llE dz} gEg HlE"s dzHrql Tl"JElg .Jr gleq, ol4g
^IE
ill9 r-ll ,]] +{d + 6I+= ilxl6tr. 94. Ezt9 zl-ol ]4$ AAg oll rll z]]9 N-H A
6J"Jnq6lq, III+^I +49 zlt;l]4zl gq. re e.4sl +rJql fl=+e, +
aq^l 'il zll9 flzl-= 4a4gg EI +e: a}4g azy aazl g+. ql 7l]9=^IHill dz} ¤qg
,*= q+g
^iHiil +aE+q dl4g +zt +a= + 9l+g ++6I+.
t4g tszle] fa* ^]Hill dz] ¤99 fagl zl=t 4o14. tr++^] ol^J4
zla] zlo]
oJ 2*49 lge.s"ol+.
?E flz}4 dzl ¤99 +7I E oJo}zl *g e], AEt4g "l^J4
.J 4EE+EI Hq++= ag +
"Jrll
g 4o14.
E += qlE, co, +zI9 Eolg aa6ll 5!z|. Lewis +38 .HE, 6d flzt iHql F
Tl]el d4 ¤q(r+4 oJ 4lE ol+ A,$ol il+.
0:C:Q
+ 4E dxl ¤9.$ dBE dx} ¤99 zla| faE ulla$lQ(E e. r). E trI Hl++ dzt
.,5ro1 olr-lzl qlEql +zl9 zla| feE d¤olq, o-C-o A6J4g 180.olr}.
qH e.l
\6EPR -E-E
^lt
vsEPR E.B= +3 E^l"l 716l+4= q|=6l^le. (a) os. 0) sncrs-
^t86tq
THU 4A +zlE zlol7aE q+6I71 96Iq +d Lewis +zE
E4 E+ gE}^l"l AB,oltr, +TlgEq p 79.11 6tl'J.61-b :fl F ?d flzI i?19 dz} ¤q+E 41416I_2, dz} ¤9
6d fl4-E 7|zlr. 9l= E IeI4fl4 ol39 E l^lol +q 9 zlal +a= e:+. Aqlql 9sL dzi gqq Hl]ge+q
d4(oall 9lq^l= Ac| szl-E+ &i Szl99 f-rE-6l.4). EzI +aE 9olt4.
+e+
^ll
a|49 dzt ¤qsE al4I.J+= ag Ed6t+). ,tll zl]g d7i gEg 7I
rl u}l¤3 ¤H d4B"l+(E e.r). dz} gq * F zl]E AElolq, 6l+
=
Hl++ dzHlol4. trI4^l +zI zla| fai ol^J4.J 4g-4ol 120"
oJ
Bg¤ol g41s. l.z). o,o\o
+sl ol qlql^l tr=ol, EZITI *B +a= 7le q +E +a + 6ILl-=
ol+6}q +zI +a= ql+tr + 91trt.
ol$$ r.. .. .. 1-
+a= Elg-r+ a+. :cl-sn-ct:
t
(b) snclr- Lewis I I
'Jr' ]
6d sn S4+ zfl$ cr gzle+ A6J6Ia. .J zl]9 El:,-+ d44}g 7l-
^.il
zlE+ Sn gzl ++lq Lll 7l]q dz} ¤99 r*=+. ol= 6fLI9 +lld
ql= Hl++ dzt6lol +zfl{+
^tflxll
dzl ¤99 zlal +a= r*=+= 0
'st-cl q
XS 9olaJ4(s e.1). rll z]]9 aq}++ zH9 El=o# {z} $$$ z}zli Cl \tu"
dr} ¤qel +zt zlo[ fa] g4gqolQ(E r.z).
\.,
^IEzil
9.2 VSEPR -?E 377
s e.2q sE6J Ete+ aol. olt}4.J zlalfa-+$q ErJ H.q'+E aEgvsEpR E¤g ro xlTLul
TO
H-Y5n n-Y5H
I{10e.s' I{101
Hl=o # dzl-tl9 jzl ¤oJ4ol ad6.Jg Tqale|. E" f dx}%[g F Et] szi
|zlxlf!
el qql E6Iq El=o# dul{r$ 6J qql 94^]rJ oJ{ol 4lsoaJ4. Hl=".$ dz} Hl83I^l.8
=elzl"J,!-v\71 ql+ql,
%r-e e9 "Jqg E6}ril dzl ¤ 99 =" # dzl-t9 dz} ¤ 984 +tq^J
q H4 ul{Q(:H e.z). r}e},t1 Hl="r? dzP^}ol =o# dzB}B+ q He +rJg il.zl'*r+.
Ed4eE Hl++ dz}A}g :H s.s9 Hl+ql^j q r_.1 +F* +dn+ z;Q. Qt\4,eE,
El++ dzltl9 dx} S99 ol* dz} gqq q Hlgqg 4+6Iq AEI49 A4^la+.
q-e a6Jg +.J aElB+ dz} da} ulEz| = trl-6 a6JE trl
=uEd^I gqg zizl
=
6Jr+. E,\d(phosgene, CI2CO)9 Lewis 73E {zJall az}.
..\
:Ct
C:O
,(l "j
.l.B 9.7 e:cr.g Hl,lEr Cxl.
4el dx} ¤gol 6d Ea flzl¤ llerr+, aq}4ol 120"q-l BE al4¤e.l EEg 8rtl4?.!+tr|
^ll =q+r.
zla[ f=tr qlt]6J + glr[. r4+ ol+ aq]g Hl++ dzl,^d}zlH aE6[q cl-c-Cl a
6J4g 1u.4.z} g+.
=q5q
Cl.-tz+.e'
,"1[]g
/?124.3"
C1
"JHI4ss q+ aElE dz} S99 +"J A*E dxl B9s-4 ol* Azl S99l cJ *
Hlgqg 4+4.
Lo:. )p:
0l 0lE"l ,3EJ2f? 120"01r|.. 0l gll 116 Elil= B:3t0ll1l tselEt lal.oJ
=al.= =:Er.0l =:Er.rjoll
ildlET|.?
378 98 E^lsl 7l6t+^q z--J 0lE
E 9.3+{ grt +glql s7flet 67l| txt gEql trt odojql 716} +5.q Ertol 718} +-T.
E1|6J
5 5 0 PCls
4 I SFa
*"
"d
^l^e
3 2 clF3
TII=d
2 J XeF2
,\l6t
6 6 0 SFr
r..l
EltH +.I:ol
"JEilIE
5 I
I BrF5
r L7lE6l
I
4 2 XeFa
r L7l Eloia
9.2 I VSEPR -?-d 379
szll9 dz} gqql ql6J 7It .Jaqr dxl 899 zlo| *ai /$4 r^dlg(6|+9 gH
9 ="#q* F /J.4g)ol4. ^l+vl^) ="Pt rlg ull$$| gr-1, $4 agE ax} g
+Utr flII", 6d ?^I, qE HJB
93 zlalol4oE EEsl += + ="F9 +lrl7l. 9+. + ,llel ¤Eg q. $r'j(axial g^ti\lolol 2+E= 71)4 g0l.E7l?
position)$ 6J-.1.r., rll zll9 gqg 4E *i}(equatorial position)S 6r*+(f.H 9.8).
4 + %r-6J ¤qg -E= 4E %I"J ¤q4 so.E olE4. 6lLl-E zlE %I6J gqe += =Hl5t
7flq
F zl]9 4E %r-.J gqr+ 120"8, +BJ6J ¤q4b so"E olE4. ^il Hl6l
^lc
qts Ezlz} szflel {z} ¤qg 717)a- 9lqr 7}c6l] trzl.. r+ a}4 0lt}9 Hl++ ?.1^l=
q rzl gfl6}s._4. Hl=" $ dzltlS 6+tI ,s4 Agq zlE *t:J ¤ qg zlzl6J+.
Itq qH e.2
tni qtE flat7l.?e¤ *E +.atE 714 +a
vsEPR -"E= (a) SFq, (b) rF5 E^lol Tldl+4= ql+61-119.
^tE6G
6tl3 +d
4lEJ Lewis 745:fl F, VSEPR EBg ^l-s'o6}q d
E^l +d gztTl +7lgs.9 p *9q1 9lE en,g E4¤o]4, 4 ¤qq zlol Tac+ EzlE 716I +6= aA++.
..q. .F:
FF
+
380 98 E^lel 716l+rq olE
=-c'
g0l
*3t +gq aq .- . ,/"F:-'.
(b) IFsE Lewis
fz'rI.r.:
;.q.
ololeES gz} +gql dill 0zH9 dzt sgol 9la, r+ rJ zl]E ElE".? d
zl+oltrI. El4^l dzl- 899 zlol *=E BlE"* dzl{l-ol 6}+9 gilE i}
F
al6}r. gl= gtrillolq, EzfE 716I+a=
^I4gqo1Q(E
r.:). F r,.
'-i-' 4 | ,.,,0 F
+sl Hl*+ dzttl ¤93 ?tI dzl gEql Hl6Iq q rEs, ulelul= u[$
q flts +zll9 FE +ql7l9 F gal-= 6J6Iq EJ +lE +oI 9i+. dql4eE
Hlqr+ +q7l F gzt 4E= gE^llg ol*4ql 4Eql e0.B+ zle
^lolel
82.o14.
* Ezl'9 s.oJ
zl7zlzl EE,J E olg=e t4 aI49 #d flxl-= -tr¤-6}J
le+ ?lzl"J. vsEpR E¤g
trl +d-6J EzItr-E qtlg + 9l+. o|,rllE4l Ezl-= -l?dl _H_zI.
H
H- C o-H
I
H
vsEPR E-¤g ol+6l.q 4 *^ flz}9 z)el ]4$ ql=g + 9l+
H :o:
il
o-H
I
I^f gE+ 4 3 4
d^t gEel 7l6f +4 Eitrl ,\l716l
^tEill-d ^tEilt:d
qlAr 109.5" 120" 109.5'
=-cf4
e.2 VSEPR -E--J 381
/.tEill d^f gqq 7l6t + et gE a4E drtgqel 7t6l+^et I^t EEq 7l5l +^el
^fEill E^tel 7l"l ?4
Erfel 7l"l +4 EE A4B E^tel Tldt +I E3e
^tEi1l
a rB g.g 0l^ilE{!(cH3cooH)ql flrl +glel dxl. BEzl. E^1. 7 16.1. +4
=c
g+ c= 4Zl9 dzl. ¤E(E+ A$g zlzlue' r gz} ++lel dz} ¤q zlal. fae|
EzI 716l +a= 5.i r.|flxlloltrl. 6C cE:zlls.l dz} gE(ol+ AEle 6l.+el ¤qeE
al^I)g 7V)q, dzl. ¤99 zla| fae| +zlE zla| faE E + ¤E +I4¤o14. e-
o fl71+ +{el {21 gE(+ ,l]el a.J4 + 4e.l Hla6J)g zlz]rae dzt ¤99 716} +
a.=
^IEijlolr EzIg zla| fa| +g¤ol+. q-+ e6J4 Hl++ dzll^dl-e +rJg "*ol
ztzl6}zl qEq 6d cp+ o gz} +919 4*r++ olt}4.J 120"eI t0e.s.e+El ErJ Hq
t a,es qtlg + 9+.
ol..rllE& tsz}el +aql ql+ +4e fEJ e.eql gl+.
qEI e.3
,j6J4 qE
,J4El b0ll Eel Htol'J gE=lpoly(vinyl alcohol)]olalu 6lE +Ed rE^lE E.:d-6tq, HpILJ gi.=olzlr. 6lE
?.P+e
^l.EElts
EPJE-d e7E Erl-= TlEeE -dtl.
HH
H-O-C:C-H
tl
Hl'01'J "JiEsl H-O-Ce[ O-C-Csl l',J= ql*6l^19.
=-ct49 =
6fl.J
E4 +471 +ol7)il, + aql4g ql+61+- E4lol+.
rewis
rfs- $o t-rE c ++iql Zl9 dzt ¤9ol 9l+. q^Jq=
^Jl
4lEl 54tI AqI4g ql=6t71 9l6}q ?qI fl= gz} Azl ¤qE zlal+aE ¤B +4¤oln, oltr-4oJ A.J4g
^Iolql l26"olEl. :alu| c:c ¤9ol rl r7l ql$ql ?*43 rzo"
E ++lE Eqr^|I 9l= dzl gE+E ac6J+. ol^JzJ?l
zJ9- t gr} ++lE dzl. ¤99 zla[ ]agl 9=t4. ol 4 .H-4 oJzJ H 4ot'J4.
* HlEos dzlttol4 q+ a6Jql E4q qA aol4. > .H.E qF{ 1
=qE EA ,llB
Eol H-o-cq^l o flzl-b ?9191 +zll! $zf ¤9(zzH9 +T181tr
^FS9= +qlE"J H
6l.0lE4ll(CHuN)oll 3x11oi5 gz15
4q}$ zzll9 Elaq})g zlulL 9l4. relo-e. o ++19 dz} H H
¤99 zlo]. +a: ^lH4lolq, ol^J4oJ Aql4g loe.s"ol e ++4 zJ"l Sdqq 914.
C-N-NII H-N-H9 ol^JzloJ a N-H
4. H-o-c 4E= El++ dzl4t9l e.l6}q ErJ
loe.s"-tr+ ErJ +g a_sE qt¤+. =q5q *49.44 9"IoJzI? H H
I I
(a) 109.5", 109.5' (b) 109.5', 120" (c) 120", 109 5"
o-c-c a.J4g q+6I71 9l6}q +aql 9lb c grl-= a (d) 120', 120' (e) Bol S4.
qot tJ4. ol c gzlq ¤ElaJ SzlE,tll zllolr., El*+ dz}
382 93 E^lsl 716l+5el olE
=g
> E6 qlr1l2 H
uEulol(propyne)ql^-l H-c-He+ c-c-cq a.J4g I
ql+6t^l9-. H-C-C=C_H
I
s.3 l+a|soJ4+al+tr
ol4l= +zI7I ell $A.J E"FI ¤Eil= zlfl=zlql ql.J A61l= 7l^1A1qHq. rl4rl a.a
¤ql^J zig EqoJ At} +C4.9=_z[ E_{Eql q]6J +^ll_+ Eota 1o14. aqig +de
a$g ol+I 9l= + dal flzt ^Iolql 4zlzl ¤"t4 +E6}rll ++qfr,={ql qlEI 6l+
9 4E+E 4* zlq6}4. + a6J flz| zJ dzl *Cg zlzl fizl$++ A6JE +CE r
"J+
olgzl tszlE }d}+zl -E-HIE= EzI9l d6I+ EEq ql'J
=:7I6J+(8.4t1).
zlE+= ag "J.l. 9l+. =^H6l+
oltel gzts ol+qd +^IE 49, ffi4.5rdE= 4 aBE +Cq +xlE zl
.rll zll
6l +aql el=++. +ztq 44 aqlq q6}q eg $-rJ(bond dipole)E .746llot 6l+
ql. olae AqI* + g^Iql 7lq-l6l+ /'d+z} E.fleo14. dBg co2 $xffi- qls Eq E
z|. :aJ 9.10(a)ilfl zJ C:o A6Jg +Coll', C:o 46J Eg E.J6IeE A6J 6liz|$
a_71+ ?4. ol tsz}9 dz}'Js:1Be 4 ¤Elol +Col4= ag EB6l trq +zl"J, E
zlE d4l ,|bl-+x} -E.H]E=
"lEzI?
olEg aTle+ %16&9
e6J ,&d+z}e} ,Lr-+zi EHIE= qq"J"lE+.
= '*=+. 49zl EzI
E .}HrI .EHlE: e* ,FzIg ulq6Jol+. EIEIE oJ6J trll dEI 4*xl9 a71e+ oJ6Fg
E+ n46}]ol 6J+. coz9 + 4E A6J .&H4+ a-7li ?zl"J oJ.Jg Cq6I4l Hlqlol
<---------------+
f t I T
tsP TII "JE
3.5
(a) (b)
A
| =,,
O:C:S E^l= ,SEolq, Lewis +I= CO2el+^l6ltl. 0l E^[7|'-7qdolal.z GlAEl.
fa e.11qlE "J+9 +C +zIeI ++C +xlE ql= Ll-E+*.sq, ol5 Efr +C Aql
$ zlzl:L ?l+. +d ?)zlzlt'"J6J fl2}"il E6il qla4ss ;Alq il= E4E ++colrr
(sr,e+cclr. E= s flzlz} Eg6J AB, $z| 6 EoJol qlae a+ r+ Ad-ol +Col4i1
6Jzl+E ++C +zl.l+(dB(ABr, ¤H +4¤(ABJ, ¤EB(AB4), d-4
^lHale+ ^I4
,^JB(esJ4 ggi111an)).
3.0
3.0
1 l+ I I
+-----,
2.1, 2.1,
HCI 3.0 2.5
2.5
4.0
=,$
-o
2.5 2.1
NHs
3.0
t
BFa
o=ll
cH3cl
f/\l CCI,
o=l{
T-O
qEl e.4
szlE +d
ttB E^lEol +=dE^l= qEd[^le. (a) BrCl (b) So2 (c) SFo
=doJ^|.
rtlt z|.rlE t}4qq F*c Ezle ¤ a.Jzl, ofr.ls ,r.lE z.t5]
E4 7l]9 Ez}^lol +qxlr. E^l7l +c.Jzl= ql+61+ 6lq +^J *zlzl9 4e1xl5 $o}ts4.
^il
Ez{o14. Eoi (a) g^= uB"Jtr4 dzl +dE7I =+. +C aqlg
44 47]|+¤E7I +E + zfl$ $zle ol+qA E4-= + ,*= E= olflz| gzlf *C Ezlol4. tri+^.1 Brclg *E
col4. ^ll zl oltlE gzts +dg Ezi9 *c3 EzI9 zl gd6l-= trl= gAE zlzla 9lE *C Ezlol4.
6t +ael4 a.Jel +Cql BEI 9l+. Ir+4^l ,tjl zll ol.$el
gzl-= s'B6It 4 Bzt9 C*E Lewis fa$:fl.t1 $zf
BrCle.l {t-421 EHIEE +C<}g p :
;=i Dol+,
0.57
9 zlal +a= A46l]oF oJ+. -]Aa_ 4zl gCE alg ol¤: (b) 4Ii= *ts4 dzl +tEzt =-71 *C d
trllEq sozi
6lq ai+.!8-:a_zlE %}.Jg aa++. ulzlu_|e_e a6J.ts+z}
fl-g zt^lr 9l+. TIzl *E +a= +.Sr+ a+.
^]
384 93 E^19 7ldl+^q 0lE
=-J
"r'\
7.oJ71?
(a) t49E O) EE /J4¤ (c) rz}¤ (d)
^IEillB
SO2el aj--z| E.HIEE .,,JBltg p:r.63 DoltrI. (e)Bol F z|] ol*
(c) EFg-fl* slH4 dzl *Cszl rl^l Aq+ 4-=-r4+
= > HE qI{I2
+-sflg 6r*tr1 641 s-F aBe +d + ++lq gEal El¤. B4-= at.JzL FAC.JzI?
LoJe-tr ts1|g6JtrI.
(a) SFa O) SiCl4
F,S;F
t,,
FI t
e.4 l#'iEFzlsHIEJ 44
vsEpR E¤g Ezl z16l +aE q+68 ql ¤il-l.J ElBolzl"J, flz|,'.p1q ql A6Jol
zil6l+zl= ¤E6tzl *.Jtrt. =".s ¤oJ olEg Tllgp ol slelzlE'$ "J4 qolg ol+6}q =
4E %IH oE r Erllql d=6IH+. gzt sulBg ol*6}q e6Jg q$rll ¤E6fr, Ezt
9 zlal +aE q${ ¤BEt f 9lEzl? Lewis9 dx}{}A*4 gzl sElB T]]Hg Aqle
?rJ dzltlS fl4¤ ^lol9 ¤qq d+qq glr, Hlaa,I d7]-tlg 5c +rJg.Jql +q
9= s+q} A6Jq EBql flrP] ee olp(valence-bond theory)o-s olqd+. flz| 9ul$
g gcg + gl: %LHg E*6Iq ol d=Hg q-a-6Je-Er{, vsEpR EBql qq" 6]+
^Je
¤EHg g=trI.
Lewis olEoll.{Ji flzffiol dzl-= ="fre- ull dz} "JEE q ulEql *
^Flql A+^lvlTl
ro 7l=19
* ¤ltol scgrt. flzltl aEl olEql^l= qI gztg gztTl gz} sHlgol trI
gzlE g7l7l ?lzr sulg4 *rJg ++6J trI, aa {(overrap) + q
I
oT ddvt/
=lllill I
=H=
Pl.-lleHl= EA
=
.il dzl "JEz] 6z]a]E 1es E + 9l+. sHlB9 = AaeE *4 l¤¤ ^}ol z]tl
1s 1s + 13.471q ^FlE ++g a"*d}l, ="# ¤aJol dCgtrl.
f.s e.zql= F zll9 flzlzl d=flq 6}+e.l E{-= BCdt= ql$ fl
H-H ^ll7l^l
ol$e_e zlfap ?14. urE ¤c6l+ qlq^J, ,+ +L g4-= ls eEl
^l7l 4t*
1s 3p
+9tr1. aa ¤qql 9l= dzl+ .J+ qql 5^lql a=47]| ul+ql ?lzl-= ^JE E
q 'Ja 6F+E ++ A6Jg
H-CI: ^JC++.
sHlpel AaeE ="# EdJ¤ ^JC.J+= oiolqq=, += EzlqlE "l+z}
zlE + 4+g + 9l+. HClg qlE EH, gi= [Ne]3s23p5el dzl tsl]i]=
'*=
3p 3p
q. grq fl^l7l _sHlgg dzl6J zl]r} zltl 3p e_HlE 6I+E zll$rp E+ ill
gl4 9rI. ol ap d!-b H9 rs dz[e+ 49 ol+q ++ 4.,]g
^Jc6[q HClg
,9i-9i' E|4l +r ?14(:H e.12). gaq rt= + zl9 3p sulge + t[e] {z}e olul
AreJ 9.12 H2, HCl, Clz9 E*'J-'Jg fl ill+14 ?loIr-+. +deiE aElql +q6l.zl *=trI. u|{z}zl-+ cl, $ziel ;19
^[
9HlE'01 2Jeo eu 88Eq. a'Jg, dut aJ 7H7t ^ll914 ?lE cr gztg 3p eul$ol 4E cr flz}9 3p e_Hl
e.5 esl= 385
=5
@ @ I
I
I
I I
1 I I
I I
I
<
5 9HlEr zEol 67t--Joll qal
6
trlEJl¤ ollLl^l7l #4
sCole.l "JHI4fl BEI= oJotHzl fl6lq, vsEpR E¤ql eldl ql+g dB, EeB, ¤
g+Cg +9 a4lggBzt.
^IBiil E9
E AL4e, tszl +ae+ eCsl ¤ql
^IolE
sp Et 9HIEJ
ecgl4ag ¤E6l7l 9ldlq, ++4 ?9 Lewis +a= z*E BeFz E4-= r.qdl EzI.
:ij-ge-ii:
vsEPR E¤ql qe.$, BeF27l + Zlel $E"6J Be-F A6Jg r*= dB +ar+= ag ql=
g + 9lrl. flzlzl A6J olEg ole"o|{ qBZl A.Jg ¤HB i gEzt? rel {z} u11x1
1t 1t
1s%2p
se fl4-= Hlq
^Jqlql^l &4^l7l szl 4lE9l =+eil flzlpi a6Jg olE + s4. :4
u| Be flxl* zs 4zl + 6It+= 2p e-HlB.e'+41'+rlr z[¤*c-e/] + 7l]g a.Jg Bc
g+ el+.
1t 1 1
Ls 2s 2p
+ + =¤Et
1s sp 2p
Mffi BeolEdoll elq6[^l .9J3 F zHolp 9ulEJ8 + T||sl ee-F zgzto]EE HJ:*ee Btlef6l-
; itf?
-'J4l A^ll
sp2 Ed e.ul=J
(= EEtrJ Eq
-et zli9.s 9ulEJ =)
4*rc a =¤tr|
F zl.9 p gul=J
)llel sp2
^jl gHl'J
=5
alts 9.t6 sp2 Ed 981=elEd
388 98 E^l'g 716[+4e] olE
=-J
E gC sElge BF37t ¤H d'-48 +471qE+ ^ll 4E ++sfl gzle+ ^ll 7l]g t']q" 5J
a6Jg "JE= Ell ^F&g+. Hlq il= 2p edTl eEIBg gcslqzl sr tsol fl= aql +
el6l+. olae Zl9 sp' ¤d sHlgol +q q= ¤Hql +zletr ufltj:o|-L 9lsq, 6I+
^ll
E Etr= ¤H +l+ql, +E 6I+= or4+ql +q 9l+. ecs]qzl ?*e stslBe e.6¤el
ol+ adJg ¤EB trll +s6t+.
s gzl sHlgg Ae +Aeql fl: 7]]q E= p flxI sHlgr+ s6J¤ +E glq. ql$
^ll
Eq csoE +i g4-= +a gz[e+']l ,l]9 .E++ a.Jg "J=E]. ol r+cg 849 zs s
zI eHlB4
^ll
4lsl zp flzl -qHlgol 4q^l ql ,l]E t+:'*
'p,
Ec sHlBg EIE= aq
-E g + 9t+. 4 Ec sHlgg ^lE^ll +lldeE H]]6J"J EH= 7l4l+(ral e.17).
'p' =
ol sC -stslge He+ Ae r+E g^lel flz| eulp$ A! + zll$ {x}e ol+qtl A*g
"JE= rll ^|&gEl. fl^l7l A6J
olEg^l-*6|q, cg Lll ,]]E d-s"+sp'¤C sHlgol Lll
7l]9 H flxl9 rs eHlEr] Ae-e-er^l HI zl]9 #6J A6Jg BCd]-= aee cH+9 EB
g ¤E.J + 9l'I.
A sp2 Ed fl^l'otl= Edoil 6tq6l.^l L:E 2p e'HlEJol p] 7tl 9,ltl. sp3 E¤ eulgE 7l'T.! fl
zp gHlEJol 4 )ll o^)=71?
| ^loll= =doil Etqstrl ?J?
p eHlg 60il^l olE aol .F Hfil faJq oJ 9.g4 sp3 eHlg¤ EJE= Edoll 7Et
= =d
TlqE -dEla 8r-t6l^b7l?
= zzzz
+
v v v
x x
s 0- Py P,
-et 2fi9 s gulEJ
=l HJ=="h't
et6il L1t 7flet",
=¤Elofl
sp3 sp3
sp3 109.5'
spj
\
sp3
sp3
O-H tg
=-ct
gdslg 7il'Jg Hl=o# dzl-rat¤ E6J6l= Eziel aqlg ¤HE trllE ol+gEl. ql= E
gz}++lq il= dzt sg zlal+a= 4qI^IE^llol+(r=Je.18). trl+
"l urog =!d o
ql 9l= aee ^J4g + 9l+. ol s^d sulg +
^l 49 dzl-t$
sp' EC sHl$ql
=q
F 7}l: Hl="fr dzP^"r9 gaJa|-I. 9111, +e F zl]E +A gzte+ eoJoJEl.
6e.J1Pf tr,i
zlfi;ztlzl gcslql 4.J EEE +i, ei,
4I4e+ ,J2 2+71 fl^zfz1 q+6}flE|. 3+71
ol^JE giEg 6d flzI ++lql ezl]-H-4 *3
dzl-3 7+= EElrPt(hypervalent)olzl oll+
q1 ;.fftr& C4¤- EoJdl]ot 6J+
(.s.711r. xllr.z{oll,<J pcts, sF6, BrFsq ,J& Zfl^l7l
+zl¤E z)al AzZ q=g ull, vsppn EBol + "*=E|: Ag tr9i+. ol5 E4 rqq
E A*g 7l+i;17) +l6ll^J g^d _sElgg glEzl.?
'J+dl
^l-o"6J
i
4Eql EI6IE otq+.
z,flzlzl Ezlql gC _sBlgg
El]6l]^-i
^l-8-6H^l=.JgtrI.
r ol+E ¤EJBzr.
2+71 gaql ql6H flxlz} a6J E¤e flzlzl. ae sHlBql azl o1a1E 4z]-= zl
'l]gql
zla glE ..J. 3+7\ gA plBEqlE + zl+gEl. qlE Eq pr:g HzSeg a!+g ¤E6J
el +d flzl9 s4p sHlBq s^deE EE6r= ae 4e6l+.
gdzl-= Hqd +6JEql 4611^l: i)zlzl44 a sElgg E6J^14 g^"j eHlgg
"JE
q, gC sHlgg += +71^l7l: ag tr-^J611 E + 9tE|. ql= EH sFo9l glold azll9
gc sHlgg "JEzl +la}{ *9 :' sHlgr+.!l zll9 3pq\ +7lE *9 zzH 3d e-HlBg
E-6J6t= ag
^J46ll E + 9ltrL
relLt *4 U -sHlgg 3se}3p-H-+ 9lHzlzl. ¤d Ezl
qlEql, 67llE sC sElBg
^JC6lzl 96Iq
gsql qlqzl"JE 0zH9 EFe-fl flzlc+ ¤
6J6Iq E= qlqzlB4 r+. olE4 4lllql E"rE, *9 :a sElBe *4 oz11E
=+e-fl
flz[49 a6Jq] 14 erq6]zl *=+= 1o14. q4^-l sF6oll fzfialg aq]g 67HE g^"i
e-BlB.s 7l+61+ ag E}'J6lzl *4. sFoe} 4E aflzlz} tsz}9 a6Jg ql g
.q_6J + rl g+ =E6l=
^I^ll6J
A.J E¤g s+ql H+lE B.q++. +461E +4¤q 7l6}oi4 5
C9 Cdzl4 +gqeE ¤B6l+ vsEPR E¤ol ol= EzlE zla]'f=$ ql+68 ql ,l]
+ f+6}trt.
r}+ql^l EBg d^ll7i ol.,-l+ ¤tI ?ol, a6J qlLJTl, Bzl +a -EoJ+ aol -
^Fsq*
46J + gl= ¤illE +Eg g^"r sHlgE a+i.lH 6t+g EBg q!
^J+5i= ^lEolr+.
4t7yz1y + *zl"J :aa* Hq^J^l= .z+zl *4. 2+71 fl^oll ql.J gc eHlg -E.B
e q]+ ++6}+: 4.1 fzl E}qlql^J ¤zH ¤.Jr] tszl 716'l +eE EEg
g+4ol+. rq+ sFoel =:89S.94,
rJg Ezl¤91 El]61]^J= E¤q +417| 91trI.
"ll
390 93 E^tgl 7l6f +4q 0l=
=-af
+:^J 9HIEJ gE
+z}el 6d Szl ++lql 87ll ol6IE Azl-= 7l^lil 9lr, Ezl 7lt;l +371vsEPR E¤ oE
ql+.J dzl ¤g zlal. faE qe= a+, dE}4e-tr flz}7} 4B olE¤ ol+,* gc s
Elge +zlE ++ a6Jg ql
^l¤6I= E46I+. sc sHlB 7ll';el ql=ol .J4l= 7l7la_
qlxlrl, dzt ¤99 zlal *aE "Jr 9lg ql, a*g olT= 6d gztel gzl. sElgg
^l
+6171 +16ll gc+= 6J4.
^l-so
olqoJ +41: f.al e.1eql qlE 44H,r, NHr9 NE gc+7t q¤4 aaq=rl=
trq =q
=+.
8 9.4 9,3 9.ulEJel 7l6qt4 ulloJ +^d
180"
,\l:-1
E{B{ ll7la
^lEi{
NH37[0|.U PHSE .84:-J tttl, 014 raJ= olEXl +¤-g + ?lE7l'?
4.
,'':ltt tt'
+ "-T-" + "izi\ + I
I
NHs
"' "' T
HH"
N9 sp3Ed gHlEJg 7lle.l
Hzl 6d 9zI i99 dzt ¤99 +E aCaPl flo|{ Lewis q¤- olg+ qL a"J7l?
^l+¤ 4+g + 9l= +rI+
.6C
7ag =fl4. vsEPR E¤ql E"ll ql+g aq zJol, eCEl flzl9 sp, Ed _sE]BE a"Jg ¤H6J + glr, 6t
+d grt ++lE dzl gEel iel zlal +aq q=+. +E gd sHlgg HlE"f, dzHl-g zlzlt, 914."
= (a) Coz O) H2S (c) oe (d) cof- (e) Bol F 7ll ol^J
Eol Lewis +a= q-.q- n+ e+.
> H.6 dlril?
[H:1-v:H]- sof- 6d gzlE dzt ¤99 zlot +ae+ eCEl¤ ql+
N ??l9l +fl! fizl ¤9ol 9loqE, dzf ¤q +== a^l 6I^ls.
e.6 I E|6,.'1iJ
z)]llzl rqql ++ A'Je] dzt "JE= qg ¤eq+ zld(qrJ f, internuctear axis)tl
ql d+qq 9l+. + qg E= d$ s-u1gol ail= ¤gg zls']= zl+rl, rEo(o) ?!
Ef(sismabond)olell6I= ++ ¤6JE + BEIIE BC'Jtt. r.l:u} ABE ¤C
q-r+ ^lrll= +
Aq.
. Hr9l^J ,+4E HE+q g F s sHlgel atJ(uB s.rz)
. Hcrql^l -J ,l]E H sel- ei zl]9 cr p sHlg ,JE Ae(rH s.tz)
. cl2ql^l 4r:4 cl-tr+El g F ,l]E p sElg ,J4 44(J4 t.rz1
. BeFroll.r.J FpgElgr+BespEd gHlBrJE aa(rH S.rs)
q+ a6Jg ¤H6I4E, qrJ +(:1H e.20)ql +4etr HH6JS F zl]9 p e_HlB ?J4 4
eq^l ^Ja + Hall ="F9 a.Jg -aq6l]ot 6.JE|. p _sHlgol gss d4^J rlol(2.) cg(pi
bond)ol ^J^.ig+. z-E6Jg "lrJ +q ge} ol4ql^l dazlE at}ol4. o d6J4 +_=.rll
, ¤tJe. "-qrJ +ql^l a4_= gaB ffio1 s.+. Hl+:.H s.zooll,! tsB6l4l Holzl grzl
"J, z. E*oll.<l p eulpel +H aeg ^Jql4etr w
d?o14. a 4+ z. ?6Jg a 46J
trr+ "JHI49E q E6I+.
4el E= a+ql +"J a.Jg o 4oJ"l4. ol+ e6Jg 6J 7l]9 o ¤6JrI ei zl]9 n 46J
etr +^dqq 9lr, t+ a.Jg * z1l9 0 ¤EF| F 7l]E ??. a6Je-E +cqq 9l+.
< rB 9.20 o'Jilal l,r'JEJA
ulE z 3doil^l -4rJ + +lel0l
o rJ¤J
A^l^ltsF Bqol 6|'Lfol
aHoll^l
p p
392 93 E^lsl 7l6f +^ef 0l=
=-cr
H H :N
H
)Ng a ?33J :d rll9 ,l-d4 ?jaJzl"
6J o Ef z|iol o
'it zll9 o Z-d F tll9 r'Jil
olqoJ THHEol q¤4l rt84*zl-5 oJotHTl flall c:c ol+ A6Jg r*= qlBfl
t
I (czH+)g ¤rlszl.. rB e.21E +-E4 EBq^l Eq += 14 ,Jol, 4 trag 4lE
^ll
daJ4ol qi rzo"4} a* r+ +d gzlE += +i "l F z|]9 +ae+ o E6Jg BC6r7l
afB g.2t oil=JdlelEE S4 glafl ,p'gc sHlB(rB e.16)$.r.]-g-o.r-o- 9"laJ4. +4= Hl zllg ilzltl dzl-= zlzltl
+4. 016 ,Jgtg -sI THel C-C a, +ql 4 +r9 '* zl]9 d4* ulp{(unhybridized) 2p sHlgql Bo} ql4.
o 2JBJal "J 7|]E C-C r ,J*9 'p'gcEI
e ol+ol^i 9,lrl.
ol Elgc a_ElBg rll zl]9
'p,
Ed sHlBg EE-6tr. gl= ¤Hr+ -'-4 grrjeE +q gl
*9 zl9al4.
qlBql tszl.9 Aqlg ¤C6l+ r+Ag
^J46il trzt. +l flzl9 4 sp2 EC eHlBe 6J
7ll9 dzl-= r*=+. aale.?2E -HE +d c-c o AEle 4 Et gzlql^J * zH4 F z}]9
--?
7
.C
)
ulEd 2peulB
-E
il
p 9Hl=J3 + Tllei EE= 7l^ln
?lol^J, r + 2llel +tr=
7l^l-r. 9lr[.=-dE
o-tLl'= E^t EE 9]0il,
tl= 6lL[= E^t EE olafle ?]q. valC-CzrEilEd
:
tc c L.
_ a
L -2781
I/
,./ =B
ulEd 2p eul=J
C-CgC-Ho'J-dEd
v 23il
C-Ho3B - Co
ssEd
C- Cn 4'J +C-Czr
H
EtsHlalolc E^lLt|g a[-=t ? HlEd eul=Jel ZEee ¤861.^le.
=-J= =d
nil.J H13+ E^13=
C- Ho 7l^l= 9Hl=
s4 *"Jql4olE EzI ,Ie] Elq aqlg gc aEIBE ¤B Z6J
g ag s+{+ Ezllol4.
fllel +"J ¤6J3 o Aqlolq, ol+ Aqle o ?{F} z ¤*e
E ol+qd+. olqil 4!Iol ¤c9= %r-H3 vsEpR -E¤
g {=t Ezl-9 zla} fa-e.$q +Ets + a4.
^l-*6}q
--J 7tl9 c- orAil C
- O o'2j-J
Eol c flz}.L: +flql 7l]E dz} gqg 7t4rrE, a.J rB 9.24 Egtll6tolE(HrCO)oll l9 o'JaJl zr'l-'J9 Ed
^ll
4ol .+ 120"oJ SE +4¤ +aol+. ol+l6J a4Y ctl sp2
sC sElBg r*a 9l+= 4¤. 9"184(* s.a). ol sC s (fl g.3q;4o1cel c-o ¤iI ?ol: ql+g(H3coH)el
Hl93 o Aql.J + zlel c-H aqFI6J zflg c-o ?EI9 c-o aq+ ?ols4 sg aol+.
EJE= EJI Erel u14.,,3 2p e-Elgg rQlE $o[
^FS'J+.
(a) alLt9 dE+ *+
glr, ol= rll zllg sp, Ec sElB trql +zlsE +q fl4. (b) ¤H (il4 (1121";g
o gzlE +gql ^ll 7flE d4 S99 z1z1oe eu1 (c) ¤H (il4 (liilol "*8
tl! 'p'e46[+E
*3 a o e ++g + gltrl. olE g^d sHlg 6 (d) ¤B (ii)e| 1iii)o1 "19
c-o o ailql +q6ln, += + 4lE o gzlql il= F rl] (e) EE ¤Eol
"*g-
E Hl="+ dzttlg r*a 9lq. l=lo+ C gxlijH o gz| >E5q42
E EzI ¤Eq +zlel 6J 4E p sHlgg ,*=+. + F zl]9 (a) o[.tJlsu[o]EB(acetonitrile) Ez]ql^l 4 Ba 7gE
p eul$o1 c-o z e.Jg ¤c6t7l 9611 444q(jr?Je.zt). A.J4g ql+61^le-.
> H= qr{|1 H
*d qrlq^], *.oJEll6}olEq e"Jq ql6l^l oJolB9ttrI. H- C-C :N:
I
H
(i) E4q^l dzl+ "- ¤6JS BCd-= ql ^FSq*4.
27l]E
G) 4 Ea gr}e.l g^.i+= 4l^l6tn,
(ii) +zHl^.1 67l]el d4+ o ?QIg ¤c6l-= ql (c) +zlE o ?!I9 fel ?,.aqlE +E e46}^ls_.
^F&qfl4.
9.6 I tl6 395
=-Bf
*B +4, H
ltrJ4El, rr 73aJ
<------, IIL
H H
/
4 c gz[e] gcg sp2olug, 4 c gz]tr]rt +z]E ¤Eql :-u; B-a]eE ull¤E] zl] t
9 p s-u1gol 9l+. 64lq p e-Elgol n4ql El]gg 4,9 zll9atE, ol ^}Elg qlBHI4 ql
+6] Hli6}r+(f.B e.25(b)). B9 0211E fl^l7l dzl* 4p s-u1g-o- zl]4 ill+l 6 6zlE t
p 9-Elgg {g+.
+?]=p s-Elgg ols-oo|{ ^Jl
7}]g ¤4¤ r ¤6Jg ¤cg E + gl4. ==J e.26glr-l -tr
e \
t
\
vU \-
\
,/
no{
\ ;-
I
\
/
396 93 E^19 7l6f +^ef olE
=-c'
q += a^lfl, olEa.J Ezl]H Az}g "JE: f,="6J + Tlzl *Eol glErll. olE 44ol E
ztE +H +4 + 6l+ql 6HBg'1. r/l+ + 714 +E +aE rJ g Hls6l+ ¤Hg :H
g.zaq e-E+ql -E-ol= a4H, E= 67l] tsi ?lzlql ''J4 EIA' 6414 n dzl-= r*r]l 6l=
1o14. trlltr]lE Hldel s^lql ^l-s6}='q4¤ .JE g' re4, ol :zflol qBrll qlgq=
zlofl ffiflot'J+. ol EBg Hldlg B^-+i AtJ,Jol7l E+ EoJ6Ir,,46J 7Jol7l
c-C +oJ A6J(r.s4 A)4 c:c olf poJ(r.3+ A) ;.1o19 4.o e ql+6}r.ll 6.J+. ol ql+g
dE4s.E ++g H1419 +i-Ea 3a3 aol(r.40 A)e+ "Jil+tr}.
HlU9 z, A.Jg ol* flzl zllp {rJ9-e ¤BE f S. o E'e., e4zl rrAly e44
^lol9
Er gz1^lolql Hl¤4qq 914(detocalized)a_ "J6Jrt. Hlalg r 46J {z}el ul$xfl rfl$
"Jaq-r+. Et rr EEt9 dzl. ul$zllelf r*3 #zl +ai7| qE ol+E ¤
ql 5H6l
^49
B6t= ql ++61+. HlE4lg z.E6Jgl Ell6J trtzlIr+ ?sql d3 EzIg zlal Tagl ^ll6Jol
9l+= 4o14. ul¤xl]¤ z.eulBol 3l4eE ¤442]|g16ll^l= ulEz]]E]g zr ¤6Jgl $4
g s= i)zlzl ae ¤Eq] FqoI"J *4. olelt +44 r]6J qEql o dt}"Jg se-6rr
fl= +4ql^J= E + S.: EzIg dzdg Eq "^lrfel slql'g e4).
=+(3e7+4
{x}$ ul$zlltl frzl tsz}9 Ceql qB4l g.}g +:7}ql 4a]l #zl e+El. ^lrJql ts]]+
z'll ¤ 4o14.
qH e.7
'7 Hl$|tE ,JtJ
. aq+g szl¤g -EE tlg 6J 7l] oltl-el dzl,'ldig ++.JEl. Lewis 74gl +4r+= d
9 F z119 *f, dzl-E'lEl$rl. E= A6Jg:a,li6J.J rLlE 4^l7l o EaJS d+ g
gltrt. .J gzlel ol* gzl
^tolg d*9 B^d6l+ ^l-851ts
zI o
^iolql sz}]g"l
Ell
4At e^J gHlBe ++¤ tsz| +aql E6l] eag+. sC aHlgr+ flzI ++1E
aJ
zl-ol ]4 ^Iolel
+4lE E e.4q +4H+.
trllEql +E F gzl
^iolE ¤991 ¤4qq ?lzl
. o. ?e.9 d4+ + 4E aa"I flxI
^lolel e+ql:
r*3 zl{E 6}zl *6Jtr}.
. flzl-5ol F zll oltr9 dz}t}g 3" 8B tril, + Ee o ¤*9 ¤^J6[= rll ,tl-$rl-r., :z
olt9 dzl-ltot$ z. EEl$ BC6I= ql d6I "JE +de qrJ +9
^FSg+. "- ¤6J9
+lc+ o}4ql +al]'t+.
. B4+ 7l] old-g ¤!* flx}.ll Aa fl= ?'4l= zl4 + 9l+. +tlg z'419 dzl¤
^-ll
g'BlEz|]'qq 9l+r "Jqlq. ol eql^J 7l+6-J rlEg olsoa|{, Bz[9 491 9].
"'41
dzlE 4l+E +qe + 9l+.
=
^lrjq Eqt
^l4g Hol b9 fl=ql E61l b9 oJ+g arln ?l= ^ilE 6Jol +zlql ft d-lCGigidity)o]4
+"J "J"+ql adol "*+la ql ^l4}g+. "J"_|g Eqle+ gg
ol rll al-i *i*41(photorecepror) Ed'6J+(rB
^]l.E.=
Efrll lllE
e.28). "_iqi o+* Hql "Ja4q, otrJq g tr]] I
^llE= ^L+g 3g
gg qlA6I+. E.]l rllee| fl$.t11 ^llE
^l+g+. ^lls= ^|eq
EE +47lql= EE4l(rhodopsin)ol4E $zlz| llfrll, ol
EzI= 4qg(retinal)ol4a 6l+ Bg 4+4 adJ¤ r
^qa7}
$d(opsin) Eq¤e +CElq 9l+. ol Ezlq 9l= Bllqg
g o16 a.J ++19 *az[ u14g ¤^+lz]etr I
^l4ni +Hg
clqt HI¤¤ol gquq,
+rlE + 94 ^tolel ol+ a6'Jol Ag gz} ^folE E"J
\
Ai+trtrI r}6t+= 4¤ "Jl 914(E 8.3). al+g Eqe "J a rH 9.28 tsel oJ+ tsel g"_Joll ?: ofrH fl
ull ol+ eoJel E += +Eg.Jrll qfltsql, rag ol+ 4 E ^pJ
ll^l--dole ^1lE(EaJ^!)e+
^llE(+=^!)ql+ ^lTl
398 98 E^tsl 716l+^q olE
=-Bt
CHq H H H H
t" I
H nI
,H
rr, -
-a,\t
BilElg
ArB9.30 EEt!E^l"J/.l4elsl-+eECOl7l^lBC=E+6lE,HP^qo+s.^lE016,j:-J?.lz2J-ct0lEcl^lr,ol80lzl-56f:llElol
:ddEtl.
E^l+^9 EEfTf g0lLfn +/.l lr e-Blol 34 ael +Ee H= 8+61-r ZtrJ6l :9r1.
tszI sHlgg +lz} eElB4 ee +cg g:ol Ttzl-n 9l+. ql= Eq 4+9 uoE al4
(+= ^gg ,*=) + zll9 dzl-$ zl4 9lr, .JAaJ qqrl$ zlzl4, flz} eulpz,lfl
i
Eo]1d e¤HeE dzl
"Js +E= gqB + gl+. rq+ Mo= gz} sHlBr+ BE, 6t
49 flzlzt otqq dAl +z}e+ +Aqq 9l+.
*A q
5:1e1 +7,f HIE-
+^ Ezt(Hr)E ol*a}q Mo olEql ql+ ++=
^l4}6l4ltrt.
4r+9 u fl4-9 ls flz| e
ElBg ol+6|q Hz9 Ezl -qHlpg ElEq ts 1o14. F zl|E flz| eul$ol d4zlfl,
HIE^I F zll9 Ext 9.tslg.ol {a+. lqoE HzE ¤t6}rl +lull F ,l]el gz}9 +i
rs eElgol aa^l + zllsl MoE "J=trI. :H g.sr9 9.=+ -'t+ql -Eol: 4, Hzll uo
=
+ ,l]E rs sHle-9 ffi
olfz[ r]6114^-l ^JrJtr]. +4= olag ts.z] 4.*(constructive
combination)ol4l C4. olfl 44s_ ^$zJ ivtoE {l'JzlE tszr= BC"l= + 7]]g gz}
-sBlgE 9lHzle4 *4. ol $z| 9ul$$ EE8 gulEJ(bonding molecular orbitat)
olelJ, *4. =r]
F H4l Mo= F zl]9 flzf eul$ol dizlE +d ¤qq^l {z} njs.z} t^IqE %}H
o-e. +AA $^dg+. olag,g'4 aaj(destructive combination)ol4r aJ4. ol 4
otr.tAl
C* ol tlE flql "gzt sHlgr+ Ezl 9HIBE +l^J'ql^] q +Efl EEE 1o14. olfl
ar+g rJZ MoE Elegg Exlgul=J(antibondingmolecularorbital)ol41 6}=ql, r ql
LJzl= flzl sHlgE9 qlHz]e4 trJ ttr]. H,9 H]¤6JC Mo7]:B s.:r9 s_=-+ tr-+
q el+.
rH e.3lql^l B i ql;ol. A6Jd MoE dz} ,,JE= + 7l|g q ^Iolql d+qq 9l+.
ol i^lxl EoJE Mo= + 49 gzl. sHlBg rlaJ_q_-Er!
^Jcqge, gzl eHlBg +t
EI+E + ,ll9 6l ^Iolql^l 6JaTl+. ol Mo9 dxl.= + ,l]9 qol d-otBzl-L 91o us,
trlH+ q .Jdd}Q(*g qlqzl= r*=
^JqE +^ flz}el ts eulpoll 9lg
ol d!-= nts
C o Ot^
ii@.@
1s 1s
a:19 9.31 Hz9 F THel E^lgHlg 6fL.l: E^leHl=ola += dlLl: EJ=-ctd E^|. gHl=
0lrl. =-Btd
400 93 E^lsl 716l+6\'J -ct olE
4). clqol ol Aql^d Mo= q ^lolql {z} ujEz} d+Elrl trilEq no+ e*ql^J flxl¤
g Et=+.
^lE
HlE, Hla6Jd Mo= 4
^I"lql
{z} ujrz} rlel s+. $z} eul$el ul-E 6J+: q ^t
ololl{ a}!zl= Elldql tr-41^14^1, 7l* dz} "JE: F zl]9 q E}4¤ql flr]l
^leE =
g+. q-4^J Elaql^d Mo= aElol B¤9 Hle ¤Eql^l dzl-= 4+=+. Ela6Jc I s
ulBg HIE^I dzl trJE7l ool 9E q
^].ol
¤q.J olc! ¤lE!(nodalplane)$ r*=+(re
s.:rr+: ol+9 rHq^J trrq: ddq_+ E^lg+). Eie*d Moq dzl= a.J gEql
rrJq+EE +^ gztel rs sulBgl^-ltrr+ E
^l "JC6I+(+g 9lHxlE r*=+).
rH e.3lql^l Hz9 ¤6JC Moe+ HIA6JC Mo E.Fel dzi "JEb + qg Fr+61+ +
ql +l;<lElg ++6}4. ol+loJ +¤E MOE Exl gHlEj(sigma(o) molecular orbital)
^lfo]
ol4r 5J4(o A6J4 Hl+6i+). Hz9 46JC r.l:u| Mo= crr,E *4. olrll flzlf :
MOT} F zll9 rs eHIEE "JEqa+g 9rl'*4. Hz9 Eld6J.! rl:ru| MOE of,.a 3
4. Ee: ol uoz[ H]AELC"Jg +4utr].
F z]]9 rs flzI sElgr+ r=E+q ^JCg tszI gEIBE t}'ilzl 9lHzlE qtulxtEgts
E(energy level diagram, $z]. 9ul $ + * (molecular orbital diagram){rE d+).P +El-
U4. olfl EE= r.al e.32ql^li-ie, g+rl sE+ql gzt sElgg zlgull9l Mo= Bq
+r 9l+. g^I sHlBi]g ,+r+E MoE ,d-9 olE F zl]9 d4-= ++g f 914(pauli uH
Et gr-]) :r.:t: (g.l !l).
tA s.zzq Mo Esql^J 44HFol, 44E
H2 flzKH)= Bzlql eL zl]9 dzlE +i
,ll+6}q +^ tszr(H,)q= + \l!
$zlzl ll4. ol F zll9 dzlE *3 9lHzl9 ¤aJC
Mo(orJ9l r 4F9 "1E4. ¤1}C Ez} sElBql EqrJ dzl-E Et}
=q781. ^¤Eg
{z}(bonding electron)4i *4. o,, MO= ts flz} 9HIEB+ "llHzlz} *71 qEql H,
tszlE F zll9 E4g Hql Hl6l] q 9lC6Ir}.
gzlE {z} ullile} u}}z}21tr, Ez}9lrlg dz} Hllzl= H zl]g 4^l7l ill9l4 gl+g +l
ezle s^lB + 9lr}. trI4^l Hr9 dzl ullTl: or,2ol4.
trJef Hz E^le-l H g^l# Ed4g 3:d eol.EttF utl q EoEeq tseE, or" MOe.l ollLi
xlE olgfll ElilE7t?
o 1,s
otl
L1
^l
_uG.
glt tt
rfl"
H ,' H gxl
'.fl".,'
H2 E^l
2
c1,s
oil
Lj ,f,I- -8"
^l
He 3rl He flxl
''- Tl,Fu'
He2 E^[
"ioi?
,JEor il+
+zt gHIB olEql^J, ="# ¤6J9 "JA^dg z!fl i!*(bondorder)e] +flol 91trI. aql a+
b a.Jc dx[e] ,l]+s+ H]a6J^d dz]9 zl]fs+el i]olE 2tr +b aetr cggr+.
A6J ;<l+: i (a.*^a dz1 ,11+ - EIA.JC dz1 ts. rl 711+)
a.Je 4zl z\i i}olE ig a.* il+tr 6J+. a* 4+71tolB +oJ A
{zl_ri!-olE.tr.
tl, zolB ol+ Ail, 3olfl r*+ Ailg *.J4. Mo ol$$ g+ 49 dz|= TIzl= +z[
E r|+!.-e, i ,i , i r+ ee Aqi zl+E 7l+6I+.
of zfl H29 He2el AB 4+E aA e32q e33g +a6}q +qtrzl. Hr=. 24tE e6J d
zffi-zlzlL 9lr, EIAEI dzl+ zlzlt- ilzl gre Ee, p{} z}f} 1olQ.
rs e.339 7l.l4 95. gx|(HeJ= +l+ .ilHxl f+l Es= LI44:ql, eE Ezl+ ts
z| eulpql Ljl 7l]E A4-= il]+lot Et4. Exl F zl]9 dx}"Jol or, tszI sHlgql 5qa
f :lzl q+ql qE + zll9 d4* oii ExI sHlBql Egzlo} qL+. tr17+^J He2$ {z} u}l
7l=' or,zof?olQ. He $lx| eulgol He ¤Eld MoE ol+Hd szli glHul ?4E ue
g4 sHlgol ue HI?5Jd tszt eElB¤- Bd6IE^l +7161+ 9lulzl"ll E6ll ^J4lg+..
Hezi zz\4 A6J dzle+ 27|]E HIAaJ 4zlzl9lo =-=., AoJ 7l+: 0ol+. A6J ,;l+71o
olel= 9ulE e6Jol s.+= 4o14. $z[ eu]p olEq E6ll +i: olfl4 $zffii ol$xl
"J.
q{+g r+zl ?*+: ag dq6}a1 q+B + 9l+.
He2* olEg ,J--J x145 gEtETl? 0l 0le0l He flxlel He+ ol8eB EalElts a4 Hli6[q ?]¤ts zio+ q|+6h=71?
.HJaqlc Mo: aBc MoTI qlqzlzl-e-E +?]+ aql ulEl qlLl44-qe 3+ q EqsI+. tr14^l aelc stslgr+ Ela
llc aElgql ae 4+E d^I7I +^I9 qlLJ^l: eelc ^JEIg a4¤E q1qxl-H.4 a+ El ++. a44eB
=q7IE,
ail.l¤dqzl *:E+.
402 93 E^lq 716l+rel 0lE
=-Ef
f 4 yl(r1' ,/
0tl
Ll lll,l
^l (ri,
l-4]l
I-.. \
is IaTl \ IIT-I1s
l il,l
a 07, ,"
Li llt,l Li
Li:
a fB 9.35 Li2 E^tol ollLlrl tr++
=9.1
4 q r+. Li9 rs sHlgE qlqzl 2s 9.HlBs_4 :E{d q *r, r=el oL9 H}d
=+l=
ollHzlzl g{
6J.¤ Mo= oz, 46Jd Mo-H-+ *+.
4 Li gzl= ^ll TllE dzl-= 71484, L'z EzI stslgg 67HE d4¤ EEI'JE+. rH
e.3s4H, 44 + /ll $zlzl or,, of,, ozs MoE d+++. aqlc sElBql ql 49l dzl,
HlAqiC -sBlBql + ,llg 4zlzl ?lo Ir-E, 4q} 2143 i@-z): rol E+. B4+ +"J
A*g 7l7la-, olE Lewis +4eI'J7l6J+.
Liz9 or,4 oi: uo:. EF gd6l ill+lzl!-E rs 9ulg3 a6Jql 4el ot+aE 71"16[
zl E+r+. rrzg E.J A6Jg
=ts4e.tr'
Li gzlg zs flzlzl sHlBg 4+ql Tltq} ta
q. ol ql= q-q=r+ ae .J+4"J +4g ¤Eql+. ed+ Axl+ gHI4sE Ezl
^JCE
a*"il z4 zlq6.}zl *+4. ol +4g Lewis *rE ql flzlzl dzI"J
^FS6I=
a4 rg
ee aolrl. q4^J 4E zazlE olflzt Ezl-= ¤E6J tr+l= q ol,rj ls sElgg rqtr g
.s7l-$.+.
Bez9 MoE Lrz9 9lHzl f;fl s.++e+El drll "J + 9l+. 4 se fl4+ Hl 49 dz|
(1s22s2)= zlzlaa EzI gHlgql az11E dzl-= +olot ++. trI+^] or,, of,, a2s, atsMo
g-d6l il]++. ee +E a.Jtr+ HIA6J^d d4-E zlzlsE A6J zF+= 6olr]. oleloJ
=
E4r+ .Jzl6]-F, Be2! fxJl6[zl ?+:tr].
2p ilzl e H
IEJE+EI Eal sH l=Jsl ^Jt
4"lzl 2frzl olgzl +zlE J.q6[7] 4q|1, zp gz] sHlge.l AbJs-r+q rJzlE Ez] -q
Elgg ¤qot.J+. p sHlB z+¤+ f.B e.36q +EI+ 914. 9zl9lrlE q+
oJele
^lolE tr-g
+eE z+g dqaJ+. 2pz sHlgg rltr. dEge "*.llrll 94. s sElgol eql6}
az]H, 2pz e]Hl+E_ F zlzl HJHeE AEJg + 9l+. el zlzl A6Jg dzt trJE7I q ^Pl
416zla}4 ¤'JC EzI _sElBg "J=trI. E tr}s aElg ai+ gEql^l dz} trJEE tsll4l
6l+ Hlu6Jc tszr sHlBg EIE+. olsl'* 7+ E4 stslBg dzl HsE qrJ +g q+
+{E}. :falog. l4,E=3 orp* otp+=- o Ez} 9_ElBol4.
404 93 E^lE 716l+^cl'=-cr olE
AO+AO 0tl
Ll
^l
MO
=-Jd
x{[H 7{il ( .l
I
. oi,,
I
o*.
2p, )n
'rz "a- ozP
7f.-
0_r
id Tiit
G
fi
a
2l,,
+
a\*
)n
@
@
a
I
a
fr,Zp
,'ffi n2p
$ \
o
11
)t frzp
2pv 'ry
+= + 419 zp sHlBg +Ee-+ AA qrJ +el 9le} o}4ql {z} prz} f;z}aJu}. o1
el+ ++el MoE r Er] 9.ulEt(pi(a') molecular orbital)olz|-L *4("' A6JII +^t6I+).
2p, edzl 9HIBE ,Jel AoJ ") zp, flzl 9HIBE ,Jq A*ol 7J4 n AaJC MoE "J=
4. ol4al F zl]9 rzp Ezl sEl$g Ag qlqrl= ,*=tri. EIE "JE= f,tr1(degenerate)
qflq$r fl4. ot&zi7lE, F ,llel +El ?t Ela!+^d MoE eq4lq. F zflg rrto ta1
Be ^JE zl4ol ¤4(+ rllE 2p eul$o1 214.J aaH). olq6J ntp5g r-ll 4el -Etr=
7v1q. ol*l6.J EBES rH e.36ql^l E-: HIe+ zJol, F zl]g q_s_-EpEl gqzl= HJ6J
ee +e+ 91tr1.
+ gzlE 2p, eul$g {flos
aB'J+. Ir}+^] F zll9 2pzeH)qE dag+
r.-lE
414 2p. EY 2py 9-HlBg AAtr+ rq. q+^l o2p MOE z-2, MO-E-E| trl *g .ilH zl(rl
.JC6Irt)
^JEllql fl= asE
ql+¤+. u[4!z]zlE, o], MoE z.], rvrouQ q +g qlq
zl(q E.J46r+) ^JE]ql
glrll gtrI.
9.8I2+)l olB^f E^lol 3-Bt 405
*g $ffi $ulqlQ.
= q¤ r,JE= *f9
zll=}jetr -E^lq7l qlEql, {l=e. r
+rJt}g E= Tldql^l *izl e + fl+. :q4 z zI ilf sin2 x
v
ill= ++7lg 714 +E 9lq. ql= Eq rg 9.37e1 6J
^foJ
+8..J46I -H_zl. +19 r4sql^l ^[.J ++=
xzl -?,,4]4
ovl^19 H+l "Jql ++Ag, xzl 09lr.l +n7lzl4 H
flg ql x
{l- <l-
u
;IU
itb0 itbs
0hl
W W frI
H H
I I
v v
x x x
z z z
+ +
g 6I+9 fluf$ rs sHlgr+ += 6I+E Szt9 rs gulg
ol Qollzl$.<l ¤cg+. F zl]9 flzl. ffi.J++ + flzI rI
++ olql d^[ "Jr5 5:21,,.1718^.] Br]6t: aaol .Jq*q(r
ryry
1s flxl
9HIE
1s
9HI=J
flxl
----------->
C
of, Ext e.utB
o eI4.
{
of, tvto9 EIE *+E 4l+6hqg ull, :B e.32ql^l +q
a4H dz} "JE= erll gtrl. dz} gEq^l= ?lt}ql 4
6J Atr= g# trl^l tH ++614.
gzt "l +zI stsleq u+5 E++: clE erJ, E"Jo+, Hl+
Cg *e o1616I= ql g+gn 9l+.
"JE *zl E]4
H'J A)I =Eg
g +r}6tzl 9+8, {zl! Eol, g,g-o1 *.rl$ sHlBg E
+E 9l+.
a + ---.--------->
+d g+ Exil: 9.107, g.tte,e.tzt
1s flrl 1s Exl o1s E^[ gul=J
9UIB 9Blg
'W4;
:-
=LlMul.
qt
Ll
^l ffil,zl,
Itt I(r..
2s [-_l l=__-l2s
,- 1___f
f-1,,2' ,'
408 98 E^lsl 716[ +zsef olE
=-cr
olL E^i eulgol 84q qlH^le.l xialE Hl+ll 61"ts7f? (8!+, 9E4 rE HIE)
-tr
7. r_ _r_l
-rlt1 ffi
o2"-o2pg:z +Ee qLlrl
=9tel
,Jatd= +gEltrt.
I-
02 p gYleJ? ollLl^|7 t tso t o2s 0ll
o2s g.ElEJe qlLl^l7t L1
^l?, ^l
'f0tctrt.
oy
rB e.4tql^l dzl# qlLlzl tr*q 47El7l dql rElbllot 6J s4zl + z|^l trJ
=91
ilq. 9lHzl EEE +^Jg 4l ,* flz}9 zs eul94 += gzl9 2p e-HlB
=+l ^lolq ^J
E 4|+ol $.trI7 ,t46ll*E+. ¤4lE rel6J tlE 4L¤+ 9lg + ?l-2, sal "Jq\}4. f=J
e.42+ * fl4.g zs eBlB4 trIE gztE 2p i-EIgE Aeg +EIUEI. olel+ zl+e
^JE
o2,$ ofluJzlS +L^lvla- orp9 ollHzl= +71^14, oz,4 azpq qlLlzl zlolE r4l "JE+
(a4 e.42). olEl+ 2s-2p ^Jg zl¤+ El]+61 + ilq, tszI s-HlBel qlq^l +^JE +
gi]H Br+lzl tEl. Bz, Cz, Nz9 rr2pMo qlHzl= = n2pMO qlHzl.H-4+1"il
9l+. Oz,Fz,
Ne2el o2p Mo qq^l= r2pMO qlLJzl-H-+ olillql flr+.
Ezr eHlgg qLJzl +^J= rEj+ Br9l.^.1 Ne2zlzl 2rtzl olszl +zl9 {z} uflzl} Q
*4 A+. ql= 5q +^ g4= ^.ll 7l]9 flzlzl. dzl-=,*=+(4+ 449 rs d4-E F^l
6.J+= 19 zl9al4). r7l6l-q BzE 0zll9 dzt= $zi eulpoll +otot eI4. olE 6 ull
z}lE oz,el oj,E EF d+6IE-e "Jat EEIS S4. 4ulzl F Tl]el dzl+ n-2, ?aJrd uo
ql +.J+. 4 t zll9 dzI.E .1rrzp _qHlgql +oln, !1 6.J 7l]g dzlE E+E 6J zr2p Mogl
+olq, + zl dzl-= *l"J6J t}ql= ,*=rt. l4 o e Br9 d,* z}fi 1olQ.
^s
2+7]|4 eE4e-E * gi4 olEo ¤ oll"I4 F Tllel dzl-= re e.41q il= qlLlzl
fl EEql H Foto} ++. qE E9 cr-e. zlfl Bru.trI A^I + z11E trl ,*=+. ol5 dzl+ =
r2p Moil *.4 EzI n2p 9ElH¤ Sd6l ill++. Bzoll^l Ne2{zl olgzt tszt9 {z} ullzl
el a6J rl+_L rH e.4ql gl+.
tz,l-Hllilel +alsl^d?
zlzl* +ql^J Eeg 4f,$ Eeq dz} ufl${l 'Iel +s.J AE= xlldialzlE ++. +
7]] olt}g gdzlE ,*= EzI: ztzltrgl olgil+. e+ql+ql gdzlzl Bg++ q]qe q
,J6ll Tl+. o I Bl oJ ++el zlzl 4 4# gtz t|!(paramagnetism) o ElI. 6J+. I
\] HJ'JEI'¤ eulgoil 71"8 Ee qlLlxlE dxl"= 7fxlts ?J8El E^t(E)3 ol' ztro)7ll
oip c\- 1t
0ll
q ,5p ri" 1 1 1t 1L 1t 1t
^l ozp 1t T2P 1l 1l 1t 1t 1t 1l
o2s 1l lt 1l O.^ 1t 1l 1l
1 2 3 2 1 0
tl=Jtrl(kllmol) 290 520 941. 495 155
=-d Zol(A) 1..59 1.31 1.10 1.27 1..43
=-cr
dtr 8^17ld u^l7ld EJ^t7ld d|^l7ld HJ^t7la
^1714
a:19 9.43 2+71 0lErl E^l.oll rH-d Erl 98lE E^l Hllilel E 7l-^l ¤:d
^[e
Erl fl= sEfl0il^l EJ^t7ld IE= Etrt lt3 8Il'7ld /.lE= Htrl= EBe-e < -LE 9.44 ri7l.8=
^[7l8ol
eg= Etrt. EBf -e.e +8 EJ trHoJ-.J Erl). ErlElrt ^lEg =
^leg ¤61ts d6J
l-
I i
,t!
A &\
I
lfia.
r rE
0- ^lE
i t
6 3
I
0
f
410 9.} E^lsl 7ldl?^sf OlE
=--J
.i
L.
J
M
Eillua=
0l3aJct. ^t7l6t0ll
A rH 9.45 o2E AfrtTld a4^ll ll4= +qE, Eill CAzf rl5ql 'Jal-==tf
^f4 ^f0l01l
a 7*71*gql +E6i+. E{} 263 .l=E ^"jeql g.&g += 6J oJz}g sol+. tr}= "J
4+ qd6}e+ _sElgg dd9 zz1o14.
&4 Ez}(or)9 ?Elg Ezi sHlE olEos ¤E6I= gul_E* qolrl. 4Id EzlE
Lewis 738 ol+ 46fl+ gd6l {t$- olE d{¤e +4U+.
9:9
s9 o-o Hlr4 tg ¤.J glBul(+es kl/mol)E ol+ aq+el
26'r aol(1.214)e+
=4el
"Jil+r+. relL}:,H s.4391 ++U EIeI eol. tla Ezl+ + 49 gd4-E zlzll 91o
E-E tlzlTl^oi Ee.Jql, Lewis 7r9l^l= olE Mo olEql^J ql+¤I qlE,
^lEg + sr}.
o,el $zlzl,tJol reJ e.4sql +4+ 9l+. Mo ¤Bg &^e-l 46J 7l+7124= aE Cq
6rrll ql+'*4(o1L3 Lewis *i9l^lE ql+E]9tr|).
orEPEl 7I8 F zll9 dzl¤ Bzla}q rrfpMo= EAq 4++. trl+^J FzE Hlzt
F2-tr
7l¤ol+ ql+qr, Lewis *34 gil6l+ F-F +oJ A.Jg Tltltl. ufzluJ9e F |l9 d
zfp frzla|$ Ne2= trJEE, dz}= E= eqld q HIaBC Mo= iHe+. _t*lEtr Ne2
E AB x|+= soltr, Nez +zl+ 9+= ap-tr q+g+.
=^]]6].xl
qH e.s
2+71 olg7,l ol*el+at sHl=J
:
oz* ol8oll ttlotq qE¤ ql46|,^le. (a)=d^l+, (b) (c) ?!=trlel.'Jd,Jol
=-cr'r[#, =-d
NH'J AB zl+¤ Al&.J + 14 e.$E zleg r.l-a"6lq eql $l
841 02* ololgE ¤4 zlzl ceg ql+61-= E4lol+. gqel A.J zJolE {l*'J4.
4lsl o2*9 Ceg Aaolzl 9lat9 or"9 Mo]-39 ol¤' Bol (a) oz* ol83 ttzll$ flxlzl- dxl-= 7l7lq, ozE4
6J aol+. *d dzliE aa4i1, Mo oilqzl EE= rfl 6J1l7l44. or*E ^JC6I7] fl6l.q orE+rl 4lzlB dzl
4. gd4y Hlql ^flg zl4.4ol $,= dzl,ol+. Aql zI+ + ,llel ,tp ==1j,zl6E 6t+ol+(:H s.+t ara). u14,t1
=
: AqlC a.Hlgr+ HIABC sElB dzl+ zlol9 l/2oltrl. oz*i B3 + rllE gdzl-= 7l4Ll.
s.812+7l olfl^f E^fol 411
=-'J
(b) +4+ 87Hq eqlC dzl-(o2s+ egJe+rll zl9 Hle*C
dz}(or-p4 eI zHzI 4g)= r*=trI.
"++^J A.J
xh-L + 49 .19# 46J
^l+714tg
aql^l +^lE +g6}^l
=
s4 a+. 9. Cr'*, N2 . o2-. F2
(u) Cr'*(N2 (o2-(F2 O) F2 <o2 (N, (Cr'*
i6 - t7: zi
(c) 02 <C22*<F, <N, (d) Cr'*(F2-(02 (N2
(c)oz*9 a6J 7l+= or(4,* il-+:2)e+ Nr(¤B il+: 3)
(e) F2 <C22*(O: (N:
trl+^l aq+ qlgqe+ ai+ aol= o2e] N' ;.1o1
^lolq 9l+.
g ql+ +TJlxol ggot c\q 700 kl/molrt 1.15
"l-4, 4+
Aol4. ol olgE dqlzl a'J qlBulel eB rJol= 4zJ azs 4¤- "139 zl-7ld+ e6J iI+= q1;;f.<le.
(a) r-l-tlcl-ol&(o,' ) tul o1-4gq- olg(cz,
kl/mol4 t.tz: Aol4. )
No= g+7H9 dzl¤ r*r, HI¤:Col '}l* zzl ql+ol4. ol EzI= ll7HE flxlzl Az]E
7*a. + 7llq 7l-b* Lewis 74E, :aB + 9+. q *g B^l {6}el Lewis +a= AA g
4ql gdzl-= +s^l{+.
00-1+1
l-rl:9 .------ 5:6
+ +3= E+ ol+ a.Jg 7l7la_ 9J.xl"J, rH e.43ql fl: Bzl-E=r+ HljzB u]l Nog .g
E4e A6J Aol(l.ls A)=, a,* ^I+7I2-B+ z+= 19 zllrlt4. Mo -E¤g ^l-.s"6lq
No= qBz]l ¤Hg f 9LzI?
olfl olflz[ Ez]9 g^l-=ol dzl *Cs z]ol7] zzl gfefl, Mo rHg 54 olflz] E
zls.l Mo E-sq 6J Ttzl +,qt +c 7l6IH ¤4. dzl gcETI q gzr eHlg
^I.*"J =
9 qlqzl= 471+4E7I q zle flzi eul$H+ q *g oiluJzl ^J491 ?l+. Nog Mo
EsE rH e.46q +EHeq, 4}dE {zl ${s.z} =zl ullEil, t}aE zss+ 2p gz} .s
BlBg da9 zscl2p e_HlB!_+ .JzJ rJ *e ag E + 91trt. Mo qll,lzl EE= +
=+l
Ess+ 44 +L+. E]+6IE + gz}9 zsel zp sHlBol
4 olflz} BxIg Mo qlqxl
=+l
z++6l.q E.J+ Bqg MoE tlEzl rllEolr|.
^JE
olq olgzl Ezl¤ rEloJ trll, Moq E +E +.qql zlolTt il4. rvro= + gzlE gr}
-sHlBE gqte-E trJsq7lzll,J, "JHI4ee MoE qlq4 4 zv\& "llHxl #g
=+lq
E zla gz} eElBol q EJ:e TlqE 4rll g+. el= Eq No 949 4*, c,z, a6} Mo
: NE zs flxI sHlB.trEl 09 zs flz| eulpoll "ll.lzl +ql7l4 211d4. :14a1ozs Mo
Nu4 o7l E7J trJ "*g 7l"lE,tI4. ol4* -sElBol rl ol^J Eq olgzl +zlE a+
= rJol gzlE
4 + 5.jqo+ g'JEol otq+= ag "J6ll Hli6}4l, ot, HlatJd Mo=
=tr}.
412 93 E^lel 716l+^el olE
=-.J
D
o.ir,
II -
_*
oll
2p
I- Tl t"
1L 1
2p
1
Ll
^l ffi
ozp
- t1il
IlL---
lr' l'.
+'-
ai
u
a^
L>
"¤ffiil Zb
ozs
qqzlq 9lq^J Nel zs 9zl sHlgq zl*z) 4E4l N gztT} rJ 3 zl{5 .$4.
rg e.46E Mo91 rrz11E flzlzl dzl¤ ,.ll¤-_e-Er{i Noe.l Mo 9lulzl i+l Es7} g^J
¤4. az11E a.Jd dxlsi 37Hel HlAaJd 4zlzl glEl= ag A6J 7l+7]|1(a-:) :zi"J
g "Jrll 6l] olag Lewis 76-HtrI= dE4?l ar+e+ q a gil+r+. gdxl= N g
=r+.
zls+q rJ E zl¤E BE z.f, Moql zlEdl.rll g4(Sdz]P. dp MoE s=+ol+ g+
qL *ol+ EqrJ + gl+). trI+^l gIE Lewis *r
+ql^l ¤dzlzl N gz]gl gl= Lewis
+4(¤^l d6lql zlaa3 EI +dq= +z)71^Id4.J dz}EsE q dqq ¤B++.
sHlEJ3| qlLlx,l
a
o
a
tsolll4. +^qol4+ ¤49 ++.]]= EeEe E-f; z|;.1
o
"Jdol dzl_= +g ^J4g Moe
olF^la + flg 4Etr
il^l HlEs E^f
9HIE(LUMO) HOMO_LUMO a4ol Eeol+. Nrg 4* HOMOqI^]
ru =
o<
{ LUMO-E dzl-= EE7]l 'JE= 4iE Hqlqzli-200 nm
6
I + ol6tE ultlq ql+g+. ol +tlg,.EtrBfl z}e.ld gqql
B 4q(zlrl*cqE+El)+6}zl g+ ,, (:rfl 6.4).4
^.lE
oil
Ll
HOMO-LUMO
)l)1
r}4ss N,: 7l-^l¤FCg ¤+g + flq +4¤. ,*r1l ¤+.
rl {z}z} ill$lz{ gl= ^}Elle} Hl tr-EHE qlLlzl t4E r7l=
o
z
a
1L
t alr d+ E^l
4lo} 9luJzl dElql^l +s6l-tr1.
=
7l-btr Elol ¤+6fr, *4 qlqzl=
+E= ol^JzJ os
^l=&
zl-:,al olluJzl
qloJ rlzl
Eo 6or qHl
-4.41 TUL1
o t4'llE
6[l'J :S_S:
(a) *9 16+ g^olJ., [Ne]3s23p4E {z} uflzl$ r*=+. + ..,/
:SS \..
4 tl* Hl+6J dzt ,*= +r= gAb +A(dx| ullil tt
t$...
Irte)zs2zp41o1t-, +Tlgs.ql^-l * HIE +lql fl+.
:S-$:,/fr'
(b) Sa9 Lewis T4E 4s=r+ A+.
414 96l E^lel Tldf +^e.f ol=
=E'
4 *
flzt ^lolql E"J eqlol 9la, 4,%r flxlqb F z}] 4+(6J 419 ol+ AqD= r*r, sz9 ,S Moq F zl]9
9 Hl=o f, dxltlol gl+. Et+^J ?:r+E * gzl +glql= gdzl¤ ,*Y *47l4olap 9ltaJ4.
!l zll9 dz} ¤9ol il+. r4n sp3 eCololl 6l]B6t= (d) s8 E{+ Hl z|]9 s2 +zls
+hqxl= HI¤¤ ^J4+tri.
^IH^ll
dz} ¤99 zlal +44r qltr-g+. El*+ A^I G)e+El Sse s-s E"J aqlg r*1, sri S:S ol
(b)e}
elEql s-s-s ad|49
.rd}
^rBalg
ros.s..H_4 Ea + + A*g r*={n E+. trI4^l 84l.el s-s +"J A.Jol
g asE qltlJ + 9l+. ¤ql4sE Se 6 s-s-s a6J #q{n, +zll$ s:s 01;= e6Jol ^JCq= e1*o14. eI
49 tos'-tr qltl{t4 e "Jil6J4. +trlE7llE srol ¤E + elgq= ^l s.339 olo-"olol Al&6J + 9l-n. -E 8.3ql
a4olE, S-S-S A.J4g l3s.qol6J+. 4tlql 58 r ¤+ a.J qlBq= q-s=r+ ?J4.
^-l
El= +Eg 4-of.r.l sp3 gCarIrI -e-+61= q zlg 4E= AH,-:8D(S-S) -aD(S:S)
TIzlrll g+. : 8(266kJ) - 4(418kJ) : +4s6kJ
(c) Sz9 MO= +E 3se| 3p flzl. 9ul$E+El +cqrl"J, D(X-Y)E x-Y Aql flB{= 9"lErS *zlol4. la.*
:43 oz9 Moel Hl+6I+. Al4zl Szts OzelE"J6J g > 0olos g¤ Hl¤:ol4(s.3o. ,ll+ "J+ <iel aH,*
r*=+. 44^.1 ozel Hli6IZl, s,:2E Aql HI¤:ol .JqB =
ql rgol gs+ ag.J^1.J4.
^l7l4^E =
sE'! 6s tq
Ert sg(^lE, 9.1tr) EaIg +ilg Eolr+ r7l5 ?tfr4(bond dzltt Ell ZlHg +a-.J {oluf. flzfz} poJ
theory)$ Lewis9
angle)r-l- 443 polE ea"J+. 6d flzI 1'zl nzlq B gzlE E "of ¤** ol* galel flzf eul$ol ^.le Aa^J ^J^J
olEql^J
elr^IoJ +^l+ AB,gE 4E+1ilq, z\z;l ]4 E"Jg n +eL +q6J ¤+. Aa gqe F eq 116l + 4E dzfzf F^lql "Jqg "JE
gziql q4 g?+rl,L. ql++E a+ ol5 zlal7=E 4c. q q "JAplq= ¤Eoltri. + eHlB aE Aaol BCq=
=-A* =++
zlzl zls EoJ(dB, +49, 4i4 tr-g. gHilDr} +flgE+.
^|Bi.il,
a6Jg ^]r+.
VSEPR E.E(g.2tr) flrl7] Ee drtg uJ,,J Eil(valence-shell Ed eu|g1e.str)gzI7I ?!l olEg cl-flxl SzI9l +*61-zl fl
electron-pair repulsion(VSEPR) model)$ 6d flxI ++lel dzl af{ s, pE g!}4q ESgulEt(hybridorbital)¤ "JE= ag ^}^}
7l *4.E)71 dg ¤E.J Ert Eet(electron domain)E ,Jg Hlgql 6lloh oJtrt. *¤r(hybridization)t: A6Jg BC6I7I 9l6}q 4E g
E.J +z}el zlal ]a$ 6Jr.l4_s-E ¤H6J+. drl*g A.Jg ol zlE eElBr+ 44 + 9lE %I6JeE rl 3 ec0ote)= ,*: gC
E *ll +"lEI 39 prltl(bonding pair)$, zA Er]ts(lone pair)ol g^l sHlBg "JEE}. gC sHlgg Hl++ d^l"Jg ++g +E
4lE. 4e5 ulffi fl{$(nonbonding pair) o + ts+6}i, ol E 9l+. 54 BI4E gC+=.r-ll zlzle.l "JH]4"J {2.} $$$ zla}
e gzl ffl9 dzt gEg ¤C6J+. ol EBql E6IE. dz} ¤q +3e+ +¤alg + 9lE+(dB:sp, ¤E *4:'p,, ^IEill:sp3).
g rE x|4lol f {zl! t}gol .a,l^7} 9-=.q u1a;ojq-. + rEg gdzfE4 q g}g fl4-= z*i !filxlz](hypervalent) ezlE eg-
,;b6l$ Eel Eqd 9l+. g g^J sHlgtr ¤E6f7l d^l ?*+.
El++ d^Itg =of|- dzP*E+ trl Elgqg +44IrE. Hl
= oltl4 trl= gzl-E tsed+ d(4,J ag q4 {z} pEz}
ao]+ dxltlol daap glilTl gln 4t3-z_|s_-+pEl =:d(e.6tr)
=4 +e ++ B6J9 rEu(o) ZlB(sisma bond)olap .J4. E6J3 p
Eq+r'll t+. ++ eqlE d^l gEe +'J 3!lur1+^ Hl
_sHlgel +E Aase+q
^JCg +E 9l+. rq6J A*g
Elol
Eeg +4utr1. +C gzt 7919 dzl-t Ellgg $lsqq 7El+ =
(z)?!?J(pibond)ol4n 6J4. CzHe9 ol+ a.Jg 6J z]]E o a6J
5(electron-domain geometry)qn ,trl. flz}9 ul]93 Erlel 716l
rl6J 7ll9 ,, ¤oJes +Cgr+. 7Jr+4 +t g4ql gCp+q^l g+
?4(molecular geometry) 41 6J4.
I p eulg1p orbitat)ol 9ln, olSE d?ge z' ?6Jol "JEqd
EII +d(9.3tr) +gzl .$zlel rSz]- EHIE= zlp g!=-r[(bond rl. crHr9 SA a*g 6J TllE o ¤*4 + ,}]9 ,, aoJe.P 7
dipole)4L 6I:4 d.J9 4d}*zl-EHIEE Eq,*ql q+ g+n dE4. , a.JE ^J^Jg EzlE 5+t ullalol pea|+. ql= 5
+. dBq ABz4, ¤E tl4qq ABre| rJg ezl E"Jg A6J tl ol crHr 6 F zll9 cH27l= aqlg
^J^J6IE ag ¤Eql +qo}
+^f7I ^J4lqq ++d E^l-= "JEq, ,'5t+^t E{lE= 0ol g+. dJ+. Ar+4e-e. zr E'*9 ¤41= ExlTf aaCg r*E+
"JEtrI.
ABre+.s4ge] AB:4 rJg Eolg e'J.rtF-zl-= tl4l6} c6H6ziH q-+ a*g T}zlq + 4 ol^JE +B +3E r*b B^I
"gBE
zi *dlq, r Ezl= +^J ol g {ol Q({t-=- z} EHI E 7} 0ol otq q). 9 z ?EIe ulElrlliElct(delocalized). 4 zr ¤6JS $al flx1,t1o1
q qdr+.
88 flxl.7l 0lE(9.49 frtTt eE otE(vatence-bond
=Brt =:Et
HJS^I 415
=i9
:( O Hl._e_Al
Orl- L O -r
. eql{+= }{a'J tzlg +-H}aB dz}9 i) [s. r]
416 93 E^le.l 716l+asl eEf 0lE
oJ+ +41
tso.E -H= 7llLJ e.4 49 EzIL Bolxll R-:ze. BEI= 401=+es4qoJ
e.l 9E ao. $zlf 'r.lC(seesaw)'E-o3o14. (cH2F, ol E|[e
.2A, e 3H].
1"17a91 qsE, ol tszl9lrl H zll9 dz} sgol c gzl-=
Eq,Rln glEz}?
(b) ol .$z|5 0ol olH d^+zt EflE= 7l^lE.7l?
(c) ol
"JeI $xlz| *^dolH. dal d;rr^I EHIEE 4qE
q
+gvl?.l
(iiil ta=.grl +^ g4¤ +d4zl
4461-q ol
^li.EoJq ezl¤ "JE + fl= Ae qtr a.J ^folE
(iv) tsae+q +^ gzl-= QI6ll 9l=
zl? lg.t9l
e.2 (a) ul-* rll zl9 *dol ?3 a7144.. +g^ln+ a+^q +.^J q
^lolE
49 g,l.Jzl? o) "J"+ +¤.\_q +dql +rl= q Bq (D
zlzlE, 89444 aq^l +d
^IolE
4e qB4 qA=7t?
(c) vSEPR E¤9 qtr Bol 6)q 9.il ¤B9izI?
(i) d^I ¤9f ail qlt 716l +a= e.s rl-s E.-s: + cr gzlE z?lql q-E 4HI¤ 9lulzlE ut4
^IE,Jlol4.
(ii) Elr"f dzltql 9t
dxf Sqg a"+ dzlt}9 dzl u aol+.
¤qtrEl q f4. (a)
"J.-t F
gzITI ql+61 gr] ¤q4 9l+8, olEil ElHl¤
(iii) dxt gqE ¤H t4¤ zlol +4q ^Jq.d-b gC 9lulzlE gulol{lbTI?
e15 5prolc|. [s.zd1 (b) cl, Ezl+ d^lle ¤4+4. trl^g E-E= H7, cl2 $z|
E 4+s] A!+ Aole+ 4a3.,r1lzlE ql+6}^le.
(c)
"J'J 4+61 'Jq6lql^'l Ct2 $;lzl "J+.1
g+8, A
E-g r}6l] zl
=
4Ez|. o_|oll zl
fl.=zp
200
3[o
0ll
0
"G"
Ll
^l
o -100
\
(a) (b)
J
-200
-300
0 2.0 4.0 6.0
cl
- cl4ar(A) ------------,'
&.q, (ii,
,Jtr}.
6J Tlel 4zlzl ts sHlBql^l+q
zJ4.
3p e_HlgTizl g+
(e) (f)
417
=* =ril
(b) ol gcs+ql^l qE BEIg g^Jsl eHlgol tdqEz}? (a):H9 + MoE 44421 96ll qtr -*.^lg
^l-8-61+7p
O) +gq EzI4 ol3 + qB 4ol 9l olluJzl 591 ssql
-------)
1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
6||B6l+7I?
3s 3p H2, He2, Hr*, Hern, H.,
e.7 4* +r14o= trr. E+ql B-61^le. [e.6¤] (c) ol $zlu| olgel aq} il+= gutoJ4?
"J"+ dz} t
7l]E ol 4ql +7}dl-8, qH Moql ,.ll+lzlE
HHH H (d)
H-C:C-C-C:C-C-H
ttll 7l?
tt
HH
s.rr trl-.$
*d flzl
MoE EJE= Ell
+zI sulgel ¤ir'tr E^lql^.|,
*E p), Moe] B4(o Ei zr), (c)
g-ulgG
^I
(b)
(a)
(a) 4 *^ g^Iel gC!+= +9.qi7}? MoTI AqlcoJ4 Hlaqlc.Jxle+. (d) trlq EHE 9lil= 4
(b) ol Bzlql H zl]9 o dllol 9lbz}? 4 aA6I^1e.. [s.z¤, s.s¤]
(c)H 4lel z'd$ol 91ts7}?
a a a a
(d) ol Exlql^J 120'a!l4g E_F *_e_^le-.
e.8 oI4 rBe +++^ +ElEq^J 46Jg BC6IEI= F rll9 (i) (ii)
sC gEIBE Aag trq +EI. te.6Al
(a) rl-s + q¤ ¤tlol rJcqflEz}?
t
e.l2 q+ E-*.E 6d EzI cxq 4ln A+ Mo= L+44n 9l
+. q7l^l g^ xE c(tst)e| ag +rlql 4,a3r]. [r.a¤J
(a) dzlE zllffi reJa|{ xE ac+^le-.
e.e q+. E^IE #*(furan)o14. *zl Ezl-E ++61 s^l6t= (b) ol Bzl+ t]-^tTlcola=z|, tlxlzlrjolA=7l?
EIEsE +dE
^Jq6I9-L, azfl9 +aeqi *+t144 (c) ol $xle.l n2p Mo$ rEl6tH, cTlq a4l7lq6i4=7}
9l+. te.s¤l x7l q aA zl{affliz}. o}qH F flz}e.l flz} eulp
+ glb a+e+ E+dt a+B qtr A"J7l? 4 a+ql ql6ll zl-B +E=71? Be, C, S, Se, Si, Xe
¤B6l^le. (d)rB (i)9 ern +4= "JEqr qltlq= gi A= r^^l_2.
9.21
(a) HzS (b) BCI3 (c) CHaI (d) CBrr (e) TeBra
trl-* E^Iql= H Tlel Hl++ dz}lA}ol "A!.7l?
f
9.22
(a)(CHJzS (b) HCN (c) C2H2 (d) CH3F
6d flxlzl trl.sE dzl ¤99 zlzl* Ezl9 dz} s99 s.zs 4* e^lq^J zl4q} a!l4E 4l^l6}^le-.
9.23 =tag
zlal7a4$zlsl zlaf +aE +Etr]l^le-. /:\ ..
1
El-¤. +zlel olgq dzl ¤99 zlaf +=e+ +xlE 7161+ tal nl \*
9.25
eE.&^19-. 7
(a) HCN (b) SO32- (c) SF+ (d) pF6- (e) NH3C1+ (0 N3-
Ets 4 EzI4 0199 Lewis 73E f-?-17, dz} Sg9 zl
s.ro 4.- E^lql^l 44+ a.t}4E +}t{ts xll.<lof.r.le.
9.26
6I +=e+ ts^Ig 716I +3E ql+6}^ls.
(a) AsF: (b) CH3* (c) BrFr (d) ClO3- (e) XeF2 (0 BrOz-
(a, H/Pt9:6
e.27 l;l+E f-Bg AF3 Ezlql^l 7lg"t dl 7He.l +4ql 4.J +-"-l 2
(a) SiCla O) HCN (c) Sog (d) TeCl, (c) H zl]9 fliltl ]J.zltl EzI9
""A6Jg
trJE='Jl rl-SE
LTLO
ss3 "l-q gC sElg *?r:+ 5A.J 49 zlzla !lc|.
,llel \:/t!
^il (d) q ,}]9 il^l7l4^l7l tsz}9 ul*.,? dzHre-E Bof gl
4 dr-ql 4ql +q1l zlg tlzlzl +l+ gC gEIEE gCsl yzl?
=o+E A46l^19. 7l-!,o6J aql aC6I^19.
(e) ol $zloll{ 4 +A fl^}q gcn}= f9..Jzl?
,.6s o|,(]lE& 9lB(ethyl acetate, C4H8O2)3 ¤:El]e+ 6J7l Zld4]
Bt
1
e. rF*gi a}z1zf 45 EaolEl. ol{el rewis +a= q_¤-
I I} e4.
H :O: H
e.sa (d BH4-, cH4, NHn+ql,r.1 zla| faa| +d g^I9 g^del H
ttl I
H
ql=6f^le. (b) ol +^L=ql^l a6J 4J+^l-el rTle+ *6J H
=
g q=6f^le. (d 3azl gAq +^I sl6JEq dlrJ-61= +a
4& r+?J;r.rle(HE 89. olEg 6d ?zlzl (a)e} F"J
(a) ol +zlql^l 4+^ flxl9 gcsl-b +E"J7p
(b) ol^llE& qlBe_l
d4 flzlz| {2145 go}.Jzl-?
6J ECEI= tl! 4 o e. ql+qEzl? gzPl
(c) H z}I9 d^l-7}.B^l-E o 46}9 EJE= rll 9=7p
q= eg(e.6tr) (d) H flzltl $zltl "'?-Jg EJE= Ell ^l-Sq=z|?
7l]e.l
^F:o
+iJsE ulei(fl{al-=-) 4ol 4l+z}, ol-ulE zJSz}? ¤H r.ln e^q A+43 44 gol-"Jzl-?
6l^19. (c)dill9 +^l o A6J+= guI"JzI? d4l z.?tlf: gul
oJTl?
,.s? @) 9lHl.J(cznJ, qlEfl(crHr, of^]lE{(CrHr)9 Lewis 7
aE rq^ls-. 4 Ezlql^l tsi flzpE gdg+= +E.J
(b) s.6z ol4rlflgsl .JBj{ o}^]legeldt(acetytsaticylic acid)9
7I? (c) "JE 9l+H, ¤E +49 B4+ l- \"12y2 16124 Lewis 74E EIq-4 eq.
S^Iq= H zl]9 o' ¤6Fl z A6Jol 9l=7I?
12
e.s8 Nrql^l A4 g^I= r++ A.Jql +q6IzlEI, 6}olE4d v
H
(hydrazine, NzHa)$ r+^l gEl. "i'a
,ll 3 H
(a) + tszlE Lewis *4E r?-l^19-.
(b)4 E^fql^l e^ gzl-el sd+= H,C C
e.68 +g ElEl+q^l'#¤4o e s^l+ gzlel gcq+ Fi.Jzl? zzfle] eulg tleE+q H z]19 o. a6Jol "JEqe + 9l
(a) CH3CO2- O) PH4* (c)AlFr +71?
(d) H2C:CH-CH2+ (b) 27ie) eHlE t}-e.-E"+q P 419 , a6Jol "J5qe +
6lL7lo
^=/t:
Exl eHlgrt 2+71 olflrt Ert(g.7tr, 9.8¤) (c)zzll! sul$ a6re-e.+El H ,l]E HleElc eul$ol uJ5
e.6e (a) gC aHlgr| ts^l- sElgq zloldg +E"J7p ole + "^l+71? E qtr a"F9 *46JC s_ulgo; q}=q
(b) gz}9 4 ez} sHlBql P zll9 dzl= -Jg + fl=7t?
^l:-7l?
(c)*?6Jd B^I eElBg dxl¤ zI3 f glEzl-? e.74 +* d+ol +.J^1, 4l"JzlE s^l6f^le.
eJo (t) F 2fl9 trLE g^Ie+q F zll9 gz} eHlgg (a) s9ulPg o EY o* MoI'J ¤^dEJ+ 9l+.
^lE. =6J
6Iq eHlgg "J=H, olag gc sHlBoJTL ET]- (b) r* eulBel qq^l Azl¤ gd.g + 9l= +Eg l00o/o
^lEg
sHlBoJzt? (b) o;] flzfel F zll9 g^l-eElBg a6J6Iq {l ol+.
Ee eHlgg "JEH, olag g^J sHlg"J7l, Ezf eHlg (c) ,JP g^I sulBql^l
"JEq{ sHlBol+8, H}A.J s
oJTL? (c) pauli tsll4 gel(6.73)= Moql HIBoI A6J sHlEtrEl qqzl ++l7I tstrl..
4+qE7I? ¤B
6l-^ls. (d) d^l+ HlAql sHlgql Eq,J + S4.
sJt H.. oig¤. ^J46fl B^l-. v?s (") Aql4-+, aql aol, a6J qlq^l
^Iol9 +ZlE +EoJ
(a) ol ols-$ +zI sHlBg ralj1, "llHzl 6?l EE.= r4 7l? $) E^f sHlg olEql qEE. Bez4 Bez*t a
os ql+q=7l? ¤B6I^le. =^l]g.
^ls.
422 93 E^lel 716l+4el olE
=Ef
e.76 Ll** ¤B6f^ls. (iiil No9 rtp Ezl sElgg $d6l 4l+14 9l+.
(a)!41q- olg(ol-)g arhl+ olg(or-)tr+ rl ,J aq} (b) No, No+, No-ql^] N-o 46.3-e1 ,qlzl +^l= ql+6}
,JolE 7l4L+. a. 444 zt7l4 Ceg ¤B6I^19..
(b)Bz9 z|7l4 Ceg r2pMOTI o2p MOEU| qlLl'{7t * (c) 6C9 Fq olgzl E^l 6q^l No+ "f No ol+4 E
gA+e+ "Jil'J+. {z({zlfz}
Ag).J 49 F{qlzt?
(c) or'* ol99 ozE4 q ,J+ o-o aqlg 7l4E+.
te^831P, EzlE ExI e-HlBg r.q6ll EzI. +7lgEE 3+71 ol
y?? (")HlzlTldol4E $olz| e]ulol-y ag +E.J7t? 9zI ErI9 MoZ 2+7l|olflz[.$z[e] Moe+ +^]6]+n
llxlzl:j Ed¤ xlzl^Jql^] qB4 Hls"6I=7I?
(b) z}4dis-zl.
(c) 4¤ olg5 6 9H 4ol *zlzlr3 oe ql=q=7p (a) pg
"l- flzfz| gz| eHlgol p2g Mo= +c6}= ql
Nr'-, or'-, Be22+ , C2-
^FSqbTI?
e.7s (a)+x}Tlcol+-L $olz| $ulali 43 F9.tzl? (b) trl-* fBg pz9 Mo +E 6tLl^= rfl aol+. ol Mo
(b) {zfzl.! Eeg x}7l+ql^l qBzl H}s"6}i7}? el Hag+flo14=71?
(c) rl-s olgE u! qts 4ol $xlzlrj o e ql+q=7|? (c) p2 gxffi.!, El-S rHq Moq q t\9 #lzl il]+l^l=7\-?
or*, Nr'-, Li2+ , O22- (d) PzE llzlzl/3 o e ql=qe-7L d-zPlC a-E ql+q=7|?
{Lz}zlcoJ olgEql qlofl^-lE gd^fq +E aa6}^le_.
t4 e.3se+ e.439 ol+6}q q-e--q Mo dz} HlliIE rq^19.
a a
(a) 82+ 0) Li2+ (c) Nr* (d) Ner2*
-xm4 ol99l dzl + 7||E fi7I6IE. r clE+g A!} zl++ +
7I6l+zL *}61+71?
[e.8a]rBr +zl+ EEd+ 4i]gol+. rBr$ $uf sulgg Fq
e.80 rH e.43ql LlElu E4 olg^1.$z|$ ollulzl +9 EE= olg1I Exf Fre+ +^161tr|!. 7}a6ll tr^}.
olq olfl^lr tszf4 olggl 4+El + glrla z|4a;1, c1-g-
(a) 14 Br9 qL g^I7l g^f eHlBol IBr9 MoE 7C6I
olg9 aq+ il+e+ deg ql+61^le-. Ell
^1714
(a) Co+ (b) No- (c) oF* (d) NeF+ = ^h&q=z|? gu}.Jzl?
1b) IBr EzI9 aq+ 4+E
cN*, cN, cN-E dz1 tsIilE aaq^lg. (c) 49 fBg rBrE Mo +9 6I'-]¤ rfl {olQ. ol Mo
e.82 (a) &F] ¤i.(nitric oxide, No) $z1E dz} t rll= dAl g (e) rBr e^Iq^l ol Mooll p zfl$ {z}z} il]-?l^l=7}?
ol tlo* olgol gtrl. ell ol;t+ Etr-ol "JqL+=zlql ql
+ ¤Bstr rl+ zJ*+ ae EI-g + qtr A"J7l? a a
(il &^= a4BEl 4zl *4szl24.
(iil Noql^l 7IA +g {'l xl9 .j^lY,\p +^} eElBql
+q ?iq.
?l t++41
e.8s (a) vsEpR E¤E Eelzl zla* P9oJzl? (b) vsEpR -EB PFa-, BrFa-, CF4+, AlF4
g 4+El Eil, ol+ al}ol+ +6 a{}g +"J d^} sg-g-e (a) 9E olgq a+, ?C gztz} BdxlE4 r*3 dztE
el:flz}?
4l&6.J4. 714+71?
e.86 "lH an, E{+ +4 a*9¤ dzl ¤99 zlal +4_e. E.¤ G) qE olgq A+, dz} gqrlExlq 716l+2.71$s-_tll
.JEI. (c) olE ol8ol gB^ll dz} ¤99 zlr;l ]4$ zlz-litll
(a) e flzlollE H gqol
Tl]el HlE"+C (d) qE ol$ol .rl4$ e^lE 716I +vE 7l^1y712
q6IE, =zll6l+zt?
o)+qd Atrql ol EzI= trl-S + "]tr Ezi9 zl e.88 PF4CI E^l-= leJfl 5.2|.
6f +4oJ7f? (a) ol E^Ig Lewis 74E r?_ln, d^l- gEE zla| fa$
0 BH *48 (iil S4gB (iiil rzlB (iv)^lHzll ql+6}^le_.
e.Bz trl*-e.l xF4 ol$$ l{o}^19. (b)p-F aqF+ p-cl aq} + q¤ 1"1 q Fte +rJg iI
+7f EA E^lt 423
aos q+qEz}? ¤86'l-^le. g^I egl ul*fr dxl-,'ld}ol flizl? olf+ +E.J7I?
(b)
^16'J
(c) pFacl ts^l.E 7l6L +4= ql+6}^le. 6)ql^]el Bol (.) (c) flzL szi EEdl gz}+n TIad-E, gz| AE izlgs
aoe q*El=71? f-e+E 9Bzll tr¤941=z|? e.e4 Pt(NH3)2C129 clo+{g r*E + zf^l sl6JEol 91trI.
Ie.8e] +afig g$illE oJd6l^l ?*= ql 7I9 E^J?-lql
NH. CI
^I$,lle]
6fl'JaJ+.E44ql 7161+4 4ltee, gEi]g +d+ + lt
cl-Pt-cl cl-Pt- NHe
49 +1dg fla8l^l "JE 4ol ^IE^,il ts^tel 544"J
4 tos.s'99 trol^19-.
tt
NHe NH3
9.90 trl-g sE HlrJg ill+^ls_. B^fg Elq 9l= a+ s-E4'g 4484H(cisplatin)o145 si*Eoll, 943 e
^ils+ol {^E4E (transPlatin) ol u}.
ql= r+"lzl 44gEJ+^lvlE q= *s^ls-.
(a)ol! El!+Eol 0ol ofH ,rd+z} EHjEE T*+71?
Erl Ert gqel flxlE g=rtEEIE
(b) ol + 6I+= E}oJzllollr, trl= 6t+= .J"J s4zl s.
716l+5 =d
E¤EI OE
.TlT
E|.
"J.J
zl*3 "J"Jzll9 Cl- olgEol DNA r-floll z]-z|
Coz
ol 9lE e^ gzl¤ql eloll 1+lqE^l .Jq\++.
olo ^JCg
N-Pt-Nq A6J4g e0'ql 7IA+. qL pI6J-Eol 6JoJ
sp3
sp3
olo
ME xllolu.l {l4o}.rle.
drd
ou /(LTLa
E- o Ctl o
SFr
tlE
[e.es]H2oE o-H at] ?oli o.so H-o-H [oll. 4g
l04.s.ol+. E +^tE iC'+^t EHI_E= l.8s Dol+.
gEi] (ro
o-H a6J9 aE+ ''5q4= qH
ts.r.E 6J-.I=7I?
olo
(a) %16&3 E
sp3
E^tg ,rrFzf E.HIE BlEl: qu ufaj9-tr .J6L=7I?
/*EE cio
El-t
^ITL ci e. El.E (b) o-H a6Jq a!+ .t8+^le] r7l= 4ltl6l^le(ts1r.: Zl
XeF2 4Ig +l6ll^Jb 4q.Jol ge6t+.
(c)(b)9 Bg Bsdle+ ftg rg:=-u1e.HlE(s 8.3)el Hli
e.er Lewis f3E$q trl-S Eztt ol&9 7J o 4 z'9 ?6*iE 6'I^le. qfle9 Bol 4}iel
ec6l^le. ^J44q1 dzl $Cs.ll B
6J6l+7I?
(a) Coz 0)
^[olo]Ldl((CN), 9.96 (a)XeF2, XeFa, XeF6oll,<J xe¤ 6d"+ gl d^I S99 zl
(c) +oJql6.lolE(HrCo)
(d)+4XHCooH, 6J zl]el He+ F ZIE o flz}7t ce+ A.J
6I+4= ql+6|^le.
6JtrI.) (b) rF?g +4y e4 tr'g¤ol+. 4 s41g rzt 15 6ds
e ¤B+ s4eg +d6LH! 4E %r-6}ql +q 9lr.
e.e2 +E& +^I(cH3cH(oH)cooH)= tr-+ ++E E4+ * Litrlxl 27HE F= + %I6Jql +q 9lEI. rF6-E Ezl 716'I
g Lilb Eeol+.
+aE ql+6}^le.
(a) ts^b .JC'J +ql$ql^l 6J^J ql 7||E AElg
"J=+jz
z|{a}.2. ol +x}E Lewis *45:1i]^19. e.e7 sc sElBql r]+ El-g 4+ + se ae?
(i) fl^I7I sp EdolE 4xlH fl,+q= 6l+el gcgfr} q
(b) ol tsxlql} H z]]9 o ¤EFl o A6'Jol 9l=7I?
(c) ol Ezlql^l zlrJ **zl? zl ?*3p sHlBol 91trt.
"1tr co d,*ol
1ii) sp2 Edalql^l q 3 e.E-= C4l4¤E +Ldg 6r*4.
(d) ol d.e aBq +qq+ 4 +^ gzlql ql+ g^I eul
(iii) sp3 gd4^J + e H AE 4E= 10e.s"o14.
99 sdEl++9,.J7I?
(e) ol -Ezlql^l 4 ts^ g^lE a'J4e qlq g"l"J7I? [e.e8] 9flI(allene)9 Lewis +4= E]s=n+ er+.
e.e3 ABs E4-= :184 Ag zla| fa$ 7l4l:l.
9.99 oHel Ag ¤!19 zlzl} C4H5N E4¤i1eJ6l^ls. (d) (a)elG)q^l +Eu Lewis 73 +ql q4 'l]el +B
(a) Lewis +4E $C6IE, ol B^lql 9 z]|9 o 4*4 r 74.$ zlzl;4.o1 llizl?
¤Elol glEz}? (e) (a)4 o)q^l +Elu Lewis f=oll^.l sel N flz}9 I
(b) ol .E4ql^J H 4e_l gzITI (i) sp EC4, 1ii) spr gC dElE FloJzI? F Lewis +='E g4E=g BH +4
+, (iii) sp3 eCol¤ zlzlizl 7J7: ) e ql*qE7}?
^19.
H H (0-H_eld Exl.9 ozl]9 B-N A+g E+ t.44Aotr. E
I 96I+. gHl4?l s-N Aqlg Aol= got 4$ol l.sr
H-C -C-C-N-C-H
I
I
[o]a olf ¤'*ol r.:r [olr[. B-N aq] a.lE Z]
H g aEg oll, F zlzl Lewis *4 + qH 4.9 daa15
aE(NaNJg Erl4 +4ql Nz= *¤61* *
Ie.100] ol-^IolEEl-
7l?
4 "JAB +qlEol4. ol cl6J¤g 4-EilE qqEql ^l-* G) e4d9 z.4l9lE Q zlel {x}zf ilEzl?
¤E+. 9.104 4r d+ MOE HoMo4jr.6Ir., ;l^] Eld+ MoE
(a) ¤al d6l¤ ;lr+6l{^l N:-9 Lewis f3$ rzlr.l LUMoqn +q. dE4ss E^fq ¤+(^|eld-7}^lr*
e(r.?-l ¤4= olq+). zld¤.Jzi, #g¤.J7P d) BeE Houoel LUMo +9 qlLlzl iI
(b) olzlolEel olgql^-l +c N g^IE gcq¤ a^ls. ^EEeg
olE'J + 9l+. gx} +39 qzEgl .zp-
^EEHql^J
(c) olzlolE+ olgql^l +c N flz}qE zlzJ \ zll! o nlp, c2,-o!, ¤¤ .*'^lal + 9lE+. oli {xfz} "lE"t ¤
?EF| dElol qiEz}? Bdrl Ezleg -E^lql aol4. HoMo-LUMs ol-E+ u|
" q t}4ql^J a H4l 5E ^J4eE olSol+.
[e.lol] e+(o3)ql^l B4E¤q 9|i + &4 g^l+. ^]E seoo 6IEt.
(a) e¤9 g4ql 4t 7lt[ zlA6J sCq+ +Eq_l7P (a) Nz9 Elq tr-ele+ a H"fl 5= t}4el Mo flzlzf {z}
4 t^ flzl9 ¤d-49
o
(a) B^l¤ r4^le. q+61j1,
(b)
(c)
g++E s¤4 +e-E 4 r}^E gC+= 'ri-,rle.
z|gcll c-c A)= gHi4"J c-c +oJ
AB Aol(1.48 (D
aql aol(E+r.s4 A)!-4 *4. ol= TtgEll c-c a
6Jol oJHI4oJ c-c Bg A.JEEI r}6l+= 9"loJz}, (a) ol $x| gHlBg o Mo"Jzt, z.rvrooJzl? E olaS a
EdIEIE 9rloJzf? *coJ7I. HlaqlcoJT}?
(d) (c)9 T}eqlel 5}¤ c-c e'*,Jol=
Bql O) H,-ql^] p zll$ {z}z} +l Moq ,.ll9lulEz}?
=Z6Iq,
¤EEl + 9lb #44ol$q e* E6t^le. (c) Hz- olg9 aq+ r|4= $ulolzp
=Cg
9.103 -E4d6orazine, BaNrHJS se+ N flzlzi iql-e. (d)Hz9 H-H A!l+ ElasJ q, H2 E H-H A+g 4
=46I g + qg a_otr ql^J.q=7p
E +fl^I rzlol4. 44E Be+ N g4qlb aJ zl|9 HzI
eqldhl. 9lr. ol B{+ BE +=ol+. (i) trl d-r. rl zlolQ, (ii) cl zJz El ,J6I4. Gii) q s
(a) EE gz}9 B^l A6171 ooJ -H-411E Lweis 74E f r El o+614. (,") q ,Jn q "+6[+. (v) p$ z3o1e1-
?_l^ls. e+ ^'ll7lol4.
E.= g^Iq ql"ll gdzl +219 "J+61.= 74E zl*
^l+717l-tr-4Lg 4*4
(b) Lweis e.r06 q^¤. E^fe+ olgE-g ael
r?.1^19-.
+g6t^le.
(c) (u)91.<'l lil +aqll1 flzl-S9 B^l d6l+ +9.
Lweis =+e-tr
Hz* Bz, N2*, F2*, Ne2
,
oJTI? Be+ Ng d7l g^JE= nq6IE, olE ¤^l d6l-
[e.107] rJ¤. rHg Eq olflxf $z[$ Mo= EJE- r]l
^l-&q=
E 4grEtz[. olHzf?
+7tEa E^lt 425
+.JEol B slqlE.H+ rqI "Jg + 9l+. "JE ga! a [e.lll] oJ4]+ +i(co)= Nre] f;{21.,3014.
cd zlFe+ +4 ae^j 7I+7l. gl+H, olr=. {o1 11 3 (a) 9.+lzl-E "J+d+ co9 Lewis +4E r4^19.
HoMo_ LUM9 zll g tlzlfllzf? coel MoE rr.l7l 9l6}q rH e.46E E*.E ol¤-g-
(b)
9.109 ola $-E(azo dy.)E *rJ9 Lil= ar+ Aol, +.J + 9lEtn z|{oll trz}. eh}q= coel AB al+= g
^qg
+ ++ql ^l+El= +71 gEol+. "*g ote g-eE + trtoJ7}?
"l Bg (a)ollr.J :fl Lewis 74e] +qf6l.9-7}?
71 5e"J o}4{7$(azobenzene, Cr2Hr0N2)9 +EAlol (c)dE4".a coE 7I4'+g qlq^le.l dzlE oB9
+. +^I6J +ag Eeg dlolE+a{d(hydrazobenzene, MOq qEl= aol .JeJeEl. ol ++ ar+b rH e.46
Cr2Hr2Nrolr+. ol F EeE Lewis 74i +94 A4(HI ql +El6IEzf? r+zl *+8, Es.E EJE7I fl6}oi
tl +3E zJEI+ s¤g tzlal.4). qtr +col gea;!z|! olEl+ +ae fH e.43r+ qtr
ti:N
ot^.E!tl
O @11O
6tolEa[6Eld!
*tsol glEz}?
(d) cog zr2p MoE ce+ o gztel flzf gElgol 5+6I
,,ll zlq++j1 ql+61+7|? r+^l ?*48, rl t*ol zl
q6I= gxlb qe aqlT}?
(a) 4 E4qlr'l N g^IE eCcl+ F9..Jz[? e.tt2 :fl e.r09 .llHzl 391 E-EE 6J a6}9 p e-ulBol +Eo
(b) 4 geql^l N+ c gzlE Hled+ g^I sElBg H -e 644^l EJ=5 zro35r1- Hle*Cql ql%I6I= F zl]g
7HoJ7l? tszl sulBg +ElU+. ollp{l(ethytene)"1l,rl F Tl]el +
(c) 4 Ea"llrl N_N_c 4¤: ql+6t^le-. gz} ,1 eulgql= 6J 7]]q dzlntol gI4.
^lolel AEl
^4B+ +t}q
(d) ,
oI4HIClg 6}0lE+4HIdlE4 dzl-E rJ El¤xflp+ $z.lg g4a1E A6J 4^16 t zllE o,pgl
o'JE+. (a)4 G)9 $$ zl++ 6Iq olE bg6l
oJtrliz rJ zrlp EzI sHlge dol^la + qEI.
(a) olela3 {z} {olz} HoMo_LUMo tolr+E. qBdql
^lg.
(e)ofa{{$ EE g^}E ag ¤Hql 6tolE4
glzlEJ, HoMO= Ft"JzI?
^lE
4Hldlg A ? E r*zl ?t4. ol (d)ql^J bE'* (b) olelaj az} dolTl-HoMo_LUMo dol4B. qlBHl
^l-dg ql^lE LUMob Fg.Jzl-?
4*4 Pel9bzt?
(0 oI=HIdg ,J,t Bg e{zlr!olz1u3, 6}0lE4a{dl (c) EE ALEllq^lE c-c A+ol BLq *4ql^19 c-c
e ,lE r4ol s4. qE Eeol EI"J qlq^l H+ +al A*Hq +6lAZ7l?
ql
^l-8-6|7lq
q +e7l? ("sHl$r+ qlqzl" +=) (d) c-c el}ol EE: ar-4e+ HIEI ^JEH 6 qL tLEIql^l
[e.r10] (a) +^ g^|e] ¤+sfl flzf9 alg4 gz] sulgq]g Fl=qrl d&zl?
426 9a| E^tsl Tldl+^el olE
=--J
9.1t4 sFrE oz4 aa6l HI+4q r++ #B "*zl *= Hl*ql q 9.1t7 (a)tsA-ts^ E.J, ol+, $+ aEJE 4g ql$ul(e s.:)
4osrng E54. E Eli6ll^.]. zr Etl9 B+ SIB{ zlqEE fi i6}^ls.
SF4(g) +oz@)-oSFa(s) tg dq}ol ol oJql Tlqd+ Hl.gS gE}oJ7}? (b) N-N
osF4E o gxle| +zl9 r flzlb 6c szl s.ll eil+4. a*q qlql ulfoJ ulr$ 6.I^le. +99 g f 9lEzI?
(a)ol HJ+^lg sa6}^le_. (c) N2Ha, N2H2, N2E Lewis 74E r?'ln, 4?-+9 A+ql
^l e^ +9lel
(b) E.E flz}9 Bal d6I7IooJ osF4e] Lewis 74E -r"4 scpl¤ aa6l-^ls. (d) (a)4 G)el er+
gld zI^J ilolde] olffi xllrlalr.le.
^lg. =
(c) ¤t a'* elBEl(s. 8.3)E ol+6}q ol HI*gl ++ { 9.1 l8 HI4l(c6HJq Szlc} HI*ql gs.J AHE 4l&6171 9l6lq
gqE qlt[6]^1.e. ol H]¤+ gg.J7], Bg.J7]? ¤+ eql $Esl(*. 8.3)E ^l¤:6}^le.
(d) osF4E dx} ¤99 zlol *4E eA6lr, dz} gEq coHek)-6c(s) +6H(g)
zlol Tagl zlat 7I+.6J F zll9 +z}el 716| +4= AH/ Hess Bzl9 Eqd <tr+ ol <lg El
;r,tl9. ^lBel ^l-8-6}q
j7.61^19. + atol z4 +E ol+7}+Eol+n
^J46I=rI?
(e) (d)ql,rl 4l^lt + Tllel +=ql^], 44 a tllq pzl 4 [e.l le] r*9 dol ++ g^ sHlEe ++ g^t zldzl.J
E HJ6J+ + q:7I? ^[o]ql
"J6*ql aElg ztzlr. 9l+. z+ol -o4-*4 eE-+ol+j1 ztA
9.1l5 Px3el x-P-x Aql4g EI-S4 eol E+tr}. Eltrx}.
PF3 96.3". PCl3 100.3". PBr: 101.0', PI3 102.0' (a) 9L 3d eHlB(rB 6.8)0l ++ g^I rtol9 o ?d.9
ol A6J^Je trF Ee4l flz}9 dzl gdEql 7l"J+trf. Ejl+ ?lE7I?
"JEL ^]-&g
(a).5r8 AzI ¤qel a7l7l7Jr+a- 7|C6IH, vsEPR -EB (b) oaaE*rI oja *a.t}C Mo= r;.]^le.
ee ql+Elb x-P-x 49 gtrIoJTI? (c) eulgq +ltr(phase)oll 4t +os4q ¤Bg +n6l-q,
(b) 6Jtr4jE dzl ¤.Ce 6rlql qe x-p-x 4e qH old MOql oiufsl ulrlz| 4 ^dzlEul ¤E6t^19-.
.J+zlt a6JCg 444Ezf? (d) (a)9 3d 9-ElBnJol+9_6f+r. z|{a}n, screl ollrlzl
(c)vSEPR EBg ol+6}q xE d7l +dEql qE 69.1 s.$E f.E^le-.
x-p-x 4fl ++g AEJ¤. ¤B6I^le- (e) Scz9 4{} x14Y tsu}oJz}?
(d) (c)9 Bql 7l:a6il^1, pBrCla9 +aE ql+61^ls.
9.120 El+. +71 B^}.= Aq4¤E s^l4q q-$z| r=lz| {{}
[e.1l6l 2-+Hl(C4HJg,t l r- - F {r-. ol.${ fl,}ol e-fa gdE zl qq fl+ Hldl +Ealol4.
6i +aq Eclz} .J9kl4.
CHs
'"\ C:C ,/H LIE=JEI
,/\ tea1,51 EllEat{l
H CHs (a)HId4 olE +6JEel de^19 AA6I^le.
^-I
Eil^-2-+E! (b) ol +tlE 6 6I+7I +qdqE, fl^ E4g F6ll
^1.^-2-+E!
"^l4el p+ql"q^J aE+ HIe+ zJol. olelaf, H+= Hql 7l^1 + qtr 4qlzl qdd "J f 9lbzt?
^ll
E6Iq +B¤ + 9lsq. .JrJg ^l4ql+sdl-trI. (c)¤"J9 +Ce.J +ggfle g4 r8l"l4. L+sg¤lol
(a) z-PHl9 + +C +4 gzlE g^JsI= +9,"J7I? flc6iq cor(s)e+ H2o(s)-tr q= ++g SA6l^le.
(b) ol^de ¤tLe +c c-c E.JE plaql 9.ll gq\++. (d) Llegqlel Lewis fte] -s. 8.4q1 flE Bt a6J qlg
tfl s.zs= +j161-q, F +d +4 gz} ^IolE ,,7 a6J llE ol+6}q LlsBfll$ tsAEkt/mol)g ql+6f^le.
ol /'.-2-+Hlql^i Eil^-2-+Hjee eld6]} +Aql
^l
(e) Hld, +sgd, ?]EqClg fl{olzlu.l, ql=4tlg s
d u+q EIE ol.$$ .$$olr.le. ql^l4ol+. olag ol E^lE dlql4.J HoMo-LUMo
(c)¤t aq]. elBqE 7l+e 6J ql(s. 8.3), c-c z.d,* qlLlzl ilolql^] +Eg 9El6}=zf? (eHlB4 qLl
,= =0, =rlt
427
HH
tt
H-.-azc-'-a zC'- H !E= 37lE^tel Z-\/
tl
HH
7tEt6l EAo=-!
+EftrlolUoutadiene)
Z'\/-V
dl,'.f E efoIUhexatriene)
B-7ltrEJ(B-carotene)
B-7fEHg B=E Etg 9-H]^l4g L+Eq= f a EeolE+. E (c) {zl,t1 zllts¤ zl|HS trl
dE ilAl4+t;l7l+lali 9tr Ez}
'il olb + qlq^l ellHg(rettnal, "^l4el EIE +3)g Eol+7|zlo+ $ea|fliz|!
^Jc6l
7l flllJ ¤o}iol{. (d) Eal4o14, ¤{}9 ¤zll4 Ag +^19 olq4, Hl
=.Col
Ezl-5ol HoMoql^l LUMo.e d+= dol6l+ ql g
(a) ol5 =!1|6'J Ezl]¤ z.4lzl 71,^l+rd gqql^l .JqLI= d^I
e* qH dEg r..JB + ^EEHE
dolq 6s+zlE ac6l7l 916l qq+ d¤g r9l6}d=
"tlHxl9 "Fg AC6l7l +lqi 9t
Y7l? zI? (fle: qrlq S= += B4# A+4 g ¤sz} 119
(b) 2.219 gole+ dol ollrjzl .r.;o19 +417| +zll6lb4= a4 4o14.)
617l +.l"ll EJlolElE l4 o e qB4 E¤6I4E7I?
I
I
-a
I I
I
ffi
tt
t!
t 7r
10.1 > 7lille.l=¤ Tlill a+9 CAg "lxllel
nillel cd4 Eljrdll tsEl.
429
10.1 I Tl"llel fttd
trFE gEe+ 'Jqq^J zlxllE 4. zlzl g] +ql^l He, Ne, Ar, Kr, xets tflz]
zlz.floll, Hz, Nz, oz, Fz, Cl, f,$ =46[=
olflz}
zlz1lo14. B3 tszI s+.JEg zlz1o1r1. E 10.1
ql ol= 6 "JPzI +eqq fl4. ol zl4lEg E+ Hl++ gatr +C¤ ag ++6tr+. E
oJol=e EF Z+oJ Ezl!4 rql q= z+e ge+g ,*=+.
tr5. tr-qq^J .-qi]le+ r4l-+. EeE, gH}4e-e zlzll $QlE + gtr}.
=46l+
ol4g gol f;z!(vapor)42 t+. ql= Eq EA H2o= .-qill.J =4]6J
E, rAl.J 99, zlill.J
;i,zle-
=4lo.Jt}. ,ll+
¤4 zl;ll EeSol +E +EI4 ceg zlzla_ ?lzl"J, Eq4 cdql +EI +,ll+
+^IoJ 4t¤ _H..J+. q= Eq 4zl9 .J eeo/oz zlz16l+ Nzq ozE A4 +E slo}4 C
42 7l^la- fl=ql(+ zlzl ^IoldEJg .Hzlal{ ozE oJt ^JHg +z.16il +zl"J, NzE :
Bxl t*4), +7lE ol + C+g E44 Cdol Ed4 o a ztzl q+ql EE4 oE= ZE
dI+E 7l^llzlB |filtrI.
7lillg Eqzl CAe rlzll "l E^lle+ rAl qs+. ql$ Eq 7l^ll= z[${e-tr S+6}q
8zl5 ill++. a44ee, TlillE +!l= 7l4l7l Eq 9l= .szl9 +qe} zJ4. zlillE .J
+col Ell+ r+. El4^J ,l^llql .Jqg 7r6IH 7l^llE +rl= aA.JtrL ElHql rille+._4
ill= S+6ll^l SzlE illfzl fap., drll .J+g + flr+.
E oltle] 7145e ctsol4 tqzl.J Hlgr+
^J*$,ol +"J
g6J+g Bcq]+. Ell
=4
tltlzlzt +e ql +el 6l.'+0l+. E olt}el Eills E= r.illE=g rEE El44 deql q
+ +"J ¤C6I7IE. 6}jz, rBzl 9+g +E 914. ql= EE E4 7l¤fl9 4l-9-E
=6JE-g
+ E^ll= +49 +9-E tsoI flz.ll 94. olelE qa4 oE, .-qill 9lql #zl*
=7I]6[=
7l+fl *zl+. +"J6J Tlal gdJE-3 ¤C6J+.
zl;ll $z|-! .tle. 94 Eq4 9lq^1, Tlillq +56J 5^d(qt}6}q SzlE qI il+r, E}l
S "J+Col +sq, +"J e*+g eC.J+)g ,*=+. qE 5q .J{'J +ylel *?1E 4
+, Tlill Exl+ dill +rl9 aI o.rozoE zlz16}r ill, 4"lzlE Hl +rJol+. trI?+^l 4 E
zl-= Ell++ +E E{Sol S= ailfl 4rE"o.J+. er+4str ¤el zlilli
^Jil +s E{¤
430
10.2 I g+ 431
xllE(xe)= )18 +712 EE-sr Hlg¤ 7l^]|-", EEeJol 131 g/mol0ltl, tr 10.1011 LIEEJ
10.2 I o#J
Tlill +^l-=rag +e^J6}rll ¤"4o14
^Js
aql E= +7lE qql +E6lrll g+. *zl9 Hgl
+E=6tE^l g^J6I= +49 qg EtA+ss "Jqql= ES zia}|l ¤4. ?lH(pressure, p)
2 t1At,tl zIf, E](F)g flol zlall{ EEfl H4A)ee +.i &e-E A9g+.
p:F [10.1]
A
Tlill= d+61+ 5.E EEql 'Jqg 7F;lAl g+. qlE ++ +d +E zlal= +dE
L}]+ sEq %Iqg zlaJtrI.
=q
trt|7loJzl.#J4l
ai,L!, ei Ezl-E=g E+ zl+E +csE ztzl= c"J +qg Bl ql4. ql=
,r.].gr,
n?{ol ++q^J Eqe 41 zleo6}t +qql e-l6ll +lzl qlqzlT} ++ qlqzltr Eir}E_lH =q
zl+E 6}6ll Bqzl= +E= dd B4zlzll ¤4 <re (r +¤). 4zl ?9 zlxll flz[ e]
^l
+7tE ul-{z}zlE, +q 7l+Eq g6}9 tsE+. 6}zl"J 4zlE +¤6}= oJ4-==g a7l7l
Ell+ 4Ie--E.tr ¤9lHzl9l el6.J uHlE g4g(+F qlqrl)ol +qg ++Els_ErAl zlf EE
.ll +4921 *=tr}. rflqlE +qol zleo6|¤ 4zl zgzllzl z]*.tr91 "Jqg ztoJs-eltJ t
+l E4q1 T16llzl= 4zl9 E o + {E!= QlzJoJ(atmospheric pressure)¤ BC.J4.
Ezg gol'+ a*gtrE Bg + 9l= Hl E+^q Hss 4zl.Jg +B6l] BoJ
=4=
+ 9l+. El H E+= BolEolE $ol 5-94 o-e 4rq^l= ¤t}g E + 914 g+. olB
7ll
"J= ++4.J d+ ^JEHE rll46tE, He +^l 94 ^Jqtr
q5otJ+. E 4P9 *zl
E Bol-=olH E ql+e-l +71 tszl-= qq, ¤q= +71 E4¤q 96ll BE LI+
=q=4
ql^l Hla+oe "Jq4:6Jtr4 4zl 69 $zl $2ffi-ol Bel el+ql^] 716l+.6Jol azl
,l ql$ql $$ al:.elzlrI gtrt.
4zl.J9 a7)Y al to.t9 ol+6}q 4ltg+ 9+. .Jel$ E{q el6ll Ttdlzl= El(F)g
4*@)4 zllE(a)E =" d (leE F : maol4. zl+9 +q q Eq1 zl-*Egl 9l= Eillql
?{zlE 7l+E gE s.a m/s2o111. q+^J 4zl9l el6ll^l zl+ sHql zlull4: +q 1m 1m
('llrl9 e"d=)g F:msE Ll4'J + 91tr1.
olzll zgzlf 4zlflg +E6I=, tH4ol r m2Ql *71 7\# tl^J6ll Bxt(ral 10.1).
ol zlFg Eilq 10,000 kg9 d*9 r*=+. ol TlEql E6ll ot4 H-6Je-E zlo1lz15 8)l7lz
EE4 1m2,
Pascal(t62:-1662)E olE¤ E 1ol4(t Pa: 1 N/m2). olp} +fl¤ 'JqE ++l= ui(bar)
olr{(t bar:10s Pa:tos N/m2). tt}at^l *ql^l 4lt}6J 6fl+E.ll^-lel {zlS.J 100 kPag
1 barE El'g + 9l+("JC zldql^lel drJl qlTl"Jg zla zzSal l.Eql 44 B?+tl+).
g}qg E +E +9le zll+.JzlB 4g=(psi, lbs/in.2)=,tl-$alzlE .J+. 6H+Hql^JE
'll
7l"Jg 14.7 psiolQ.
(4 qalEel Dlal 9l+el E40l 25 cm x25 cmaE 7t¤6tl E^t. +EJel Col !-lal Pl
=
Eh=;r "^)=71? b)E401 100 in.2afE, trl8E"la='Jxl ElET;.oJ)l?
=
A 745 torr9 "JHE (a)mm Hg. (b) atm. (c) kPa, (d) bar9 g+ 'Jfle Hl+119.
-]-
10
r|1717[+= xEoll
7l6t= g=
h
..r-
lO alE^l
/l6vl rc
O
qHl 10.1
s+laP$al-zl
611+Eel r|lTloJol e8 kpag n}|, at++71- #d sr.o m olatloll gltl-E trr++ollzl 7f6H^l= salS kPa E+ltr gEloJTl-?(E. Eel "J
-Ets 1.00 9/cm3: 1.00x 103 kg/m3, 6al 7[-Ets 9.81 m/s2, 1 Pa: 1 kg/m-s201r1.)
"l s+g+.
m-sz
ol qq. t++ql .Jqe
Ilel A++qlZl A"1]zl= dill oJqg 4zl"J4 +"JE tlr+ a6Hal= dal
a+. +'Je 4 to. t (p : r/a;$ ol-4" a|{ +g + 9t+. Eql Ptotut : 98kPa + 300kPa : 398kPa
Etll^l *++q4l +q1= il(F)g +qql 9.J zI^-Es+ e olq, olag 3.e4 atm9l 4'J6J4.
*9 +(r: mg)et +48 + 9isq, s:e.81 m/s291 dl'J F H.6 o4lr{11
t4. "J.J
e-l+ gqol lOt kpaolr, +¤¤ ql{6tq E(d:1.00
Eol Eql E+'Jqe r+s-4 a+. g/cm3)g Tl"Jalel zl5 +ol= g"t"l4tszt?
^F&$fl+{
m (b) 0.760 m
,: T:T (a) 0.0ss8
(d) 10.3m (e) 0.103m
(c) 1.03 x 104 m
ee fl= 7l^llE E-qg +a6F= qlql= +.J"J 717]|* g+. ql= Eq 4olol 4l
^l-&6Fll
zlsoi]. E= zld4 4o199 +rl "Jqg +46171 +16ll zls
=7ly ^l-&g+. dEd"llrlb
,llE Hl+6J 4IE g4E zlzl{ {lxll 10.2q1 $Elfll(manometer)4t: t}zl= ^l-S.J+.
^ll^lE
qFjl 10.2
oJEl4lE olg6J 71r.il
EaJ +{
olt- 'J. d-ddel TlJAlTl tHTlgl01 764.7 torr$Z LlElLHn 9l+. 7li1l E443
^|E= ,\l.E6l.q
oil ill?z -d+ E0l gzJ +p "JaJ/|oil uxx[flr[(.].H 10.3). rlEl Eglel Put*
^1.=
U^l3Jq F =Jel +3 ts01= +d6l- tl. EaJ E +0ll^19 += Eolts 136.4 mmHI, E
al^3 ?Jq 7li1le[ tr+6hr.9l= =Joll^1el +01= 103.8 mmfltl. Ltl+oll ?t= GPI E
=-J E
=al^-=.
7l^llel "J+3 (a)atm Efle, (b)kPa EPltr gEl-E7l-?
nllff
Hq "JqalE + gE f g +ol7| +q47,
qlzl"J(764.7 torr)al
=E|^r 'JE
7lzll .Jqg +6}= Ezllol+. ol {Eq^l igE +ol= "J4"lel ++]tr +c6}a
136.4 mm
9l¤¤ f+614. ¤+^r +ql 9l= gq^lE +e gol(r0r.8 mm)z| rllzl $-9.E
,*F-
rl I
gfl gql^.lel kol(136.4 mm)-H-Q *.9-t:B, ¤+^f 49 zl;ll o3elol rllzloJ-E- 86 =Put* *Pn
4 +¤¤ g. + 914. r.I4^l +9 TlallTI d+g gtr+El 4
=4^a
z1 4g e_ gfl g *olo + +s-g "Jq.Irll ¤4.
=41re+ arB 10.3 +e "JeZl
494 10A| 7t^lt
zl4 E4Gas law)ol=p.J+. +q= ¤ril +Ag f lIo oe, ¤+g I Ezll zl
= ^lg Hzlg + 7l^l H+=
7 ^ll "J{6l{ +^lfl tlE]|ql^1, +ulq q.J 4= eI zlzl E
nE7l"tsoidoll q+ 7lgr"e 67f61.ts
+9 aq-= +4U 1o14.
)l.rJAdl57t? (PE EAIE +^l6tal.) HJ+l
"J=J-Ssl +t4l: Boyle
TliJql 7}6l]TI 'J4ol ,L^6J+E zl^ll9 Eq+41 gtrl. EI+^l nETt
+tl= t
g++ 4zl"Jol *-olzlTl ql+q, zlsHglrJ E+l gfl zltr *+* +d(.fa
10.4)g {F^o6J+E S+6}rll gt}.
=l ¤='9 :+elz} Robert Boyle$ezt-16e1)g Tlillel .Jqr+ +tl ,J9 +4lE A%I
J 4eE a^t6J 4=el "JEol+. q= 5q r= 7l4lE sqg eHIeE *+rll 5l
H +irl7} +qE + El]E +7loJ+= ^t¤g ga6}fl+. HlqlE .Jqg + Ell
=rl qE
tfl7l=
tr +71^]17141 +q= a7l +irlE ¤Hls-s g+.
gaiTE=6ll olfl ++59 gE6l+ =qE4l
Boyle H4(Boyle'slaw)$ trts=4 rJol
=d
44U4.
"JdtJ gEq^l
.J4+
""t9 zl4l9 +ul= Se.il Hlulql++.
F zl]9 +A*ol HlHlql6tE, alulzt zlzlH += 6I'+= +old+. Boyle EzlS
+q4etr ++J+ aol s.dg+.
ffi y: t+, ; E= pv: *+ tto.zl
"JtreJ 8Eotl^i "J8cl ge-l 7lilloll tfi-si P Lnllvq ra|]sts olE Eggzt?
1.0 1.0
V V
0.5 0.5
0 0
0 1.0 2.0 3.0 0 0.5 1.0
P l/P
a f H 1 0. 5 Boyle E =1 "J I -d gEol |
gsaJsl 7 l^l I o | +tr|= oJal ql ff H I al I
-Lrtf .
^l
+al^tg Eg + 9l+.
HzlS ++6ll BolzluJ, 4+^Hl^l +e+ +lil= ilzl.J+. BoyleS 4
noyle
aE 6J TIzl E+= i{4l4_e-E Hs+^l7l= "Jflq dBg E"6Iq 4E Hfq ,l
il= g6;9;^[6]fl+. ol de5el z]E= de4 S4l.J 'Hzl'g qB6lt ql
g+Elfl+. J
+E-l= rllo}4 Boyle 849 4s"ql4. qE +q= S+4 +<+ B
sBg i
9l= +rlr+ -du} oI49 ++t q4Eql 9ull zlull= *=+. +aol s+6}r
t
¤4"Jol o}4e g4"J ull E+ol "Jq++. olfl + 7l^l4+o ql+q qE +i4
-L-
-.t-ril"
zl Qzlalt_, q 4+E 7l^ll *qg z;-+,t14. olq^-l qq "J4ol 4rl 4zl"J4
,JoI¤ trll4zl qlTloJg ql +ss +7lE "Jq -+=E|. g+e HI'ilE 4tol4.
¤,Jg ++6Ir. ¤4Ee fl+eE +4olq, qlg +El= z3a*4. a44e
=
E.Jq +7le +7lE q +-g-tr. r1uu4. arH 10.6 +trloll rH-d 8_E Erl
A EE= 956[zr +rrg rH, +trr71F H,1T;.ErE "JElrEr E7r L1.1^] 7ri1q gqe org4 Er
I
I
n=rn
0
(r sd). Kelvin aEe-l +Aql{ Charles H=l(Charles'slaw)S +q=r} rJol +l -200 -100 0 100 200
g_Efc)
¤+rI.
ArB 10.7 Charles E4l "J5-zf "Jalollll
g4+ Sqql^l g4oJ oJ9 zl4l +i,l= ¤4 $sql 4HlEl+q. g8aJq 7 l^1l0ll rH-zr +Ill= EEoll E le]l-srrf.
436 10A| 7li{
A EE= 100 "c0tl^1 s0'cE L++fl= q g6aJg 7li1l +Et= ga1 ,Jel truee a46t
I n=rn
HJ+l
"J-*rl9 tt4l: Avogadro
714lel *r+ +rl ^lolel +Al= foseph Louis Gay-Lussac(1778-tsza)4 Amedeo
Avogadro(tzz0-tss0)9 g+ Ar+E qsr 9l+.
Gay-Lussac$ r+E^IqC {AoJ -E-E7}.E EB "JoJ +=6J .JE + oJ 1804H
q r= ¤zl*E E+.r.23,000 ftvl^l &E*4(ol 9lB3 +d H 7J AjL^}*ol+. iltrg zl+oe.
fzlqfl4). Gay-Lussacg 7l+E + q g 4?_6171g.16ll Tlillsl cag ¤7aI94. rsos
LJql r=+q aqrel B4(lawof combiningvolume)9+3618+.
"Jd Sq4gEql^],
4E zl4le} El86I= zlzll9 +q= zlg C+Hl +4lE ,*=+. ql= EH +a Tlill 2+El
zlzll r*ule} El*+q iGz12+irl= -=:r: (1.1p).
= Amedeo ^J^d*+
^}^ Avogadroi 3H +ql, g=g Avogadro 7[fl(Avogadro's hypothesis)g 'Je]d
zll.Jg glgeal Gay-Lussac$ ++g 6|]46IH+.
,J9 gsc+.Jqql^l, zl4lE Pulzt aeE Ae +E E4-= EiI+E}.
qlEEq reJ 1o.gql^Jq ¤Hzle 0'c, l atmoll^l "J99 zlrll 22.4L +ql= 6.02xto23
llel zlzll EzI(+ I mol)z| s+Flq 9l+.
Avogadro E=l(Avogadro'slaw)* Avogadro 7t¤g qgr 9l+. +
gc6J gEe+ "Jqql^-l ,l4lel +q= 7l4lel E+ql 4EIEI*+.
v : gf x n E= X: ** r1o.4l
lzltl n* E+oltrt. trI+^l rel pz| ol{r.3 ull, zl^ll9 g+E + Hfr +71^lvlE +rl= F
ul]zl.94.
rB 10.8 Avogadro 7l¤ 5"J-d +tr|, "Jal, 8Eq,(l ,\le tlE 7l^ll= E'J-.J +sl E^l= +^lU, laJ
3.rle +=rf
10.4 olA 7l^ll^l 437
qH 10.3
P, V, n,7'4 ,Jct7l7l4loll trlilt oJEJ
87ftrl-71
E4g + 9l= tr|.^Eol 84r.EJ dalqql7F1l7l urt^lL|.7]-rl PJE+ E E?]E SEHE AA flq-? 7l¤6|.^f ...c,= (5.28, s.3=!). rlSel
4 flaPl (i) Tliile] gfaJ, (ii) .saJrl LHe.l Tlillel E+, (iii) Erf rJ EE T.jelql 0lrrl-d gBE El^l=^l ,J6l^le.
(a) g¤Et g+0ll^1 TlillE 7fE-Lrrl. (b) "JtrEj 8Eoll^l +q= e^^lzrl. (c) E-Ee[+q= g¤6l"zl +^l6lE^1 TlnE +7|.tr +
g-drl.
i]9 Eizl ?7}6tE Ezl Aq ¤+ Zrl= +i++. q+ z| llo e(py:tf), 7141= +7la +E4q PqzI #
716}zl g:=48 .Jqol *zla1o}6J+_r. eEg .Ig +
^l
E4'rJg ¤+ AAYWnql Hlql6J aolEl
olrI
-,-^-t.
E0i
(a) *4ol .J46tZl +zlq7l qlEql, ol $xlloll.rl *qg H > H.s ql& 1
olu|. Charles B4q trl-sE, gC+ oJqg +zl6tE^l E9 9s= 77 Ktr *izl fl"il o-qr]l aiz} +'J¤trtB,
zlxll$ zlpalH rl^Eol +zlq^] +q= +7l6tzl g +dq +rl= $ulz| elfliz|f
tri. rII4^l Ezt zJ9 44Y +716J 4o14. (a) t7 L (b) 22 L (c) l.a L (d) 0.046 L (e) 3.7 L
(b) +rlE ,Ji= .Jqg +71^l7l4lg4(Boyle H4). zl^ll > sd.* slx.[ 2
atm9 .Jqq^] 35.4 L
E + trl zlg +rle "J+^lrJ ull, zl;ll9 d7-ll 5+ql= Egql^J
^I+q= +AFg 14e.6.JA6L4
Hclzt S4. trI{^l d^ll g+= "Je+7,11 +zlgq. r 9 +Ia= se-6E fl4. erzl +zlq= aaql
q+ TlrllTI q 4Lg +rlql adl 9lo oB Ezl rJE ¤+ ^.1
*qg 1.00 atme.E -ftzltr +7ls oltr^lzJ4H, &a
445 zf,+6J4. 7l zlz16|= +rl= gtrt7l!4lEzI?
EIr{
^}+E Rol+I 6}8, F^l.$ ++4 A+.
,: r({\
'\r,/
ol 49 4C46}E, +94 ,Jol ol8 7li{l l(ideal gas equation) E= ol¤f 7li{l H=l(ideal
gas law)olQl 6i= Eqd+.
^lol
PV : nRT [10.5]
oltlTlfll(idealgas)E .Jq, +tl, Ss..<1o1e1 +41^lol ol{l. zl4lzl"tr Sq6lrll 7l+q=
z[re] zlill$ g.J+.
olt zl4!9 +E6J oll, F ztzl 714"1=4la.Jtr|.
. ol,lr zlill EzlE=e. tl-E 4}+6lzl ggq,
^Je
. exl¤E d4l +ir]= 7lAl7l itzl6l+ +qq El6il ¤d zlEl.
olfl ol$E ¤-zl 4.11r] Ezl¤ol zlz16l+ ++g $,+r olfl zlzJe
x.10.2 qq Ttrl Eg]q 7l4l ^J4'J+. "*g a+
t+Rel +^l -E oJdl E.Jq= zl3 s-21; 6l+g + 9l+. + q c+q} 41.1101 pea[48. Ex] zJ9l
Elol
un +it
.Jqr+ Ezl9 aTlqt 4"I
"Jl. gl-s-E ol TtCg trAE + g+.
=z}lEI=
ol$ zlrllloll^l Rg zlill!!f(gas constant)af-I1 oJE]. Rg A4 +fl: p, V, n,
L-atm/mol-K 0.08206 ^l-Sg
19 +9lql el=+r+. ol{t zl;llzloil^l rel ag 6}t eql gE(dr{ ql{ql a{ee;qop
J/mol-K* 8.3 14
pl4. zlxll9 oJ nP BE 5+E +4U+. 'Jqr+ +vl: 4z; at-4 4rl(r)e +4U+.
cal/mol-K 1.987
al-zlu3 trIE ++lE El+g xileloJ 4+89 ++q^l=, "JqE *+]tr
m3-Pa/mol-K* 8.3 l4 ^l-sg +E 9lrl.
L-torr/mol-K 62.36 +^Ag ie. rl¤-a;r1. E 10.2= 44 zlzl ++lE E¤g Rel +ilE ++r]lj1 ll4. oltr
.sr ,l^il^lg trll= +zllq^J +q1l p. v. n, rq +9184 oJil6rE+ Rg BEI= dq
rI9 ^l-&B
qlot 6J+. ol 6Iq^lE .J4ol f-tr atm +9l.tr' +q47]| qEql R:0.08206 L-atm/mol-K
zI+ 4,o14.
= 1.000 ^l=s6J ol$ zlxll$ ollJ. rlrl^lql
atm, o.oo"C(zn.ls K)ql^J 1.000 mol9 ^J46ll Ezr.
r'14 zl4l9 +ults +q-ri eq.
v:ff
1.000 naol) (0 .08206 L-a*rf, I mo.l-K) (273. I s K)
(
: 22.41L
1.000 atm
a srp 4zoil^1 olg Tlill 1.00 motol g8Eilloil 7l.Fol^l ?lrtE, EEEillE^1ale.l zol
i = ", E+|tr g'l.7t :slil=7|?
I
22.47
22.06 22.31 22.40 22.40 22.41 22.42
=20
-trl
oro
0
old Tlill Clz COz NHe N2 He Hz
arc 10.9 sTPoll,(.lel=+rl Hlf,
qFil 10.4
oru 7ffilt,lE *8
Asl4el +¤E?l EJ{t #6(CaCOs(s))3 7l.g-J nt] CaO(s)elCO2k)-+ EdtlEJrl. CaCO3 ,\l-e7l.EdllElol 8Z 0lt]tr|-EJ^= 250
8}lff
E{ co, Tlxll ^l-E'7} +tl(2s0 mr), oJ4(t.e atm), &E
(:r "c) tqe. .=xHaJ+i1+qail, olull r.lE 4 co, z1r1
":ffi
: 0.013 mol CO2
3. tl TlleJ alol E!+EE glE^lTlI9lElE! Elrl E!+oll Ell6fl r q molel zlu1l=. g6.lop 9ltrt'= Eg 4l+6}r glq. +q:
EEotal. .lt
^lE
Tlal^lql 46H^l ++n+ ae ^l]c49 ql ol 4l+3 +q=4 ag oE sB6J + gltrt.
^l
f49 -q+.J H4g rl-&B 4o14. n
PV 7:0.15mol/L
,_nRT ,,_rRT
P: PV
V,v: p,n:RT,r:r* olg zlzllrlg Sqq 4qlEE,
4. i]8E4=st-tzt. AltI4Cq ++lE
4¤. ¤.g." e.9-Er! 49 gHts4l
^l--S614. ^Ig
E
aE.J +
,:#
9l+. +fl5ol ,<le i49ol=8.=^l=
96l= E+q +fl ol{, r}e_$ aol El-E + glril g+.
^lE olulE
= =+8,
alg guf-e4
^F$"tqg 1o14. .: (+)^,
trllqlE q TIzl B+q q6ll +Eql {Ig +zl ?}o}^l +^ll
44^l n4 ve] llg +zl ?}9trl"J, ol
49 E + 9l+.
7I Eg + S= ailH tr"J + 914. atxlEJ olfl a+ql=
4l+El^] ,Jaii}glFol, s+q E4lE += aql q+6flrl7l
ge-6J H+5e] Ztg 44i;17\ 9l4q g+g + fl= AHE
91.il ¤4+ol 'J + 9l= zl* 6ss} 43 u_+ qAp+ ol 1}
ol +qa aol+. ql= Eq r atg +qzl-r., n Et, v 4I?
9 "tzl*91 9l= g+ +Zil= ¤q .E-: 4ol+. qTlq^J ¤
+qxlzl ?+= E4q^1, ol$ zlz{rl$ ^}+6}q sqg +6t B6J a+ zJol. 4l4l4.J 'JHg H+E
^l_s"Elstrr{ "*g
A+= ^J4ui trzl. 6[xlEJ +4lql,t] ',tltri I Ltr] o.ts EoJ6r= E^llE +: ql qq*¤ 4^+e + il.g 4o14.
=
T: "^: d.+
gs, +5lE a7l tlqel al6 tlql= 44
"J9, "14 Bz} 14 2-tr s^16}H
\vr Pzvz
[10.8]
T1 T,
10.4 | ol.3 7l^ll^.1 441
0ll01.++ aq 7lill"JaJ8 25"c0ll,\1 1.5 atmolr[. 7li1l7l0lcf 7li]l^lE rit=rir 7l"trdlE, ,.!= 450'c-tr 7I.EBJ q "Jal3 grl-oJ7l?
qlu{l 10.6
?EJ 7li1lt4 oltEPl
L?.ltdol "Jalol 0.45 atmol fl 4ztrl Aeiiltt. SedE 5?l Tlillel ZE=22"C011^] -21 'C
6ll+E(1.0 atm)oll^1 +tr17[ 6.0
_+ aa-drl. n|= 7+0ll^1E Edel+tr|= lltbl^le.
6flH
E4 "Jqri gETI E-+ Hq+ ,d:qql,r] zl4l .{ee-l .rllEs
:tuo'r(ffi)(ffi):-'
+q= aed+ E4lol4. EE {4-' 5J44 e--e tr.J+. 414} 4aql a7l +qql -J
4lq gE=kelvin !++ ¤+&6In, +qT]8tr= *e "JE
qEle} $EEI$ +g +6tr 9l= 49 744|4. {+zlstr
q^l +41= gq E4. oJqol ,J46IE +sl= gETr +r6IE *slzt
P V T a^4ot,*+. $q47r =i7}6lzl+,
gExtts_4 Ll a7l q+ql. .Jq H
z7l 1.0 atm 6.0 L 295 K
oi9 a4z14+ +El aaql^l +¤ qgg e aoe 714
3l+ 0.45 atm V2 252 K s+.
ze gC6IEs, to.8g^l-*E+ 9l+. > lr= qF{l1
^l ol¤ zlSlzt zo"C, z2o tor6}9l^l o.7sLq +tl= zI^l'J
Eot yzql Eil4q 10.89 44el6IH, 4e--4 e+
^l +. 4r "c, 760 torroll,tl -L7l7ll7l itzl6l+ +q= got"JTI?
Vz:Vr*
P, T;
(a) 1.4s L (b) 0.8s L (c) 0.76 L (d) 0.66 L (e) 0.3s L
nri
M2 10al 7t^ll
> .s+ qlr{l2 El,\Ee + zlill$ oJfalq +q= a7l +tlE ¤HI9E,
+zl.J + gl= rl^Eol ,$+B dflqgl o.so motg 4Ia
zli.ll ill+r. 0'C, I atm9-tr +zl6ln 9l+. olq^l drAl P EoJTt?
^ltr.$ =
1o.s I oltTlll^.lsl?EoJ ¤¤
ol ¤ql^l= ollt zlzllzl$ *d zl;]9 "JEe+ Ee=J ^l-olE +41= a96}r.
^F8-4q,
olq^J slol H}*ql^l Stqrl'l Atrq= rl,llE +tl$ rJl4l6J 4o14.
., g _g
mol
L ^-ol -L
trI+^l zlxllsl ule.i 4 ro.s9 e-E4
^letr +qd+.
- n"0L Pil"
"- v - Rr u0.101
qH 10.7
= 7l*ll "J5- 4lt6fzl
7{el "JEE +6}71 916}q 4 ro.ro.g ^F&.J + 9+. rq o3qol elo torrola gEz[ 2ss KoJ +z]ql
=rI|6]E
Ellql
4 ol al$ dql +q{ "&g 4"JoJ ++ls +I4IB oJ(cH4)el EIE| $u|?lzP
^|&6t71
gs-z} il4.
"J49 4zl.JgE, gEE kelvin zlEE il&all (a) o.ez glL (b) 6e7 glL (c) 0.057 slL
oI6J+. E6J ccl4el Ee%hg 4lt6llot ++. (d) t6 slL (e) 0.72 glL
A
zl ro.
'JA EE9
71419
+-=zlE N2EtlgET1.
gd+g +g + 9l+.
=7'4?7?
t1o.l1l
":T
tr|4^J q^ll 10.s4?ol, dil4gE=4qI7l4l "JEE^l-s"61{ aTlAl +z}el ¤|e*g
a4g + el+.
qH 10.8
D ,l,rllE BUBI 4ltatTl
qE 4q.al T.!=i EaJol ts+.s07 g0lr[. 31 'coll^l 0l e-eE zlnE iHP] "Jajol 735 tonTf EIEE
UEE, :. traJg =af^r=
137.456 sol EJti.
=af^r0llEtraJE
tl,(l Tl8 SE[]E'J= rt8, st 'Coll^l Etr iH+r EaJE E lfl, r EaJP
=a|'43= =8dl
1067.9 g0lr(018-E0ll^l EE "JEts 0.997 g/mloltl). 01A| zlxllLl= tttEtl? zl¤alz, 0l z;i11o;EtraJE 4llbl1l9.
B[l'J 7l-g+.
s4 TlillE ¤+rl +qE aCB + fl= ABe+ qBq, e 7lzll9 e*e 7lal7} iI+l{ e=*+ 4l+ t}Eilel
-E(Et'c)c+ oJq(73s torr)ol 7q4r., 7l^ll9 E.e"*g 414I d*el x1o1o14.
=4^rE
6l^= E4lolEI.
={^rE 137,456 g - t34.567 g : 2.889 g
olxll, 7l,ilE d*(z.aas g)4 Pul(0.s36 L)= 98, 7l4lE
+qE 4l&6171 +l6lq
fitst +7lel il]+l ql
olElE E=+. Elq fl= =E^aqlEg
4z}ri zli]= il|g "JEE 4l4I6J+ 9l+.
4^3E 4eJ3 zl4l9 e+g =+^3EAhI6l-= ql ol+g + 914.
= d : 2.88e g/0.936L : 3.09 g/L
ol4t} aisepq zlz]lg EJE= 41416Ir., a1 ro.rrg 4* "J4¤ zl.Jc-E, *E= kelvinoE +416J +. ll ro.rr9l 4
4q 7li{e] ge+g Ah}-J4. E+E EA"*g Al4l6J+ 1l+.
dRT
Eol TlzilE +slts ill9l4l 59 +qe+ rJL+. E ,ttt": p
=+^r"ll
I +sl= e?*r+ "JEE+EI 4l&*+. Ee.l A*e Eol ill (3.09 g/z) (0.08206 Y,-a+rfr I mol-I{) (304 K)
+.141 t}49 ¤4^f9 4S i1o1o14.
41+ (0.967 effi)
=el^fe+1067.9 g t34.567 g: 933.3 g
- : 79.7 g/mol
"JEql ql+ 4@:mlv)g v9l 4dl x]lufl$a[fl, ,JE +91=ol zle441 4l¤q*r, +6Hd Ee* ae de
v:;:n (93j'3 o) e36ml:0.e361
,,
ffi: =ilql^l
Tlills
=^116'l+
Eaql EI6Iq t}E-l4t atol4.
444 tOg 7l^lt
qEl 10.e
7la{l HJ+q el6-|.%}E tredlTl
xlEil.g qlqEe 0l'x[olE+ 4flsodium azide, NaNg)9 uul= E6ll UB rflEoll 9861.= trA z1x11q1 el6]l tsd6l"1l Etl.
2NaN3(s) + ) Na(s) + 3Nz(g)
qlolEqel+tr17136 L011 1.15 atm,26.0'Coll^l trA Tlill.tr. qlqH-q= iH+a18, r=Jel NaN3zf E6tlElol0t6E.)l?
=
nfl3 xEl 7l7ll9 zlE(P, y, 7)e+ ol$ zl;llal$ ol+4q qlqE
E4 0l EAl= ++Al E4lol4. N, zl!19 Pui, "J4, 3e ol gHts4l zlE6tTl ?16ll g^86ll"t 6l* Nz TlillE E+=
+fli1, NzE ts^J6lE HI+q +q e}*4ol u{^lqq 9l Z1416l= ++ee, +¤ *+ el*49 ol*
Aol gs6}+.
=
4. ol AE$$ ol+4q Nz $^Joll 9&d NaNr9 olg f ot$ NaN:9 E+¤ Zl+6J + 9l+. ulzlu_|e-E, NaN:9 5
'J ++l.e A1416l+ Ellol+. +E fH +gtr +t}o}ts g+.
Eot H+r+dgtr+g-r+a+
7li1l xlE Nz9 E* NaNaE -+ NaN39:aJf
:1.7molNz
oJiai
I 0. 6 | 7 l11l +6HFE-1I. ?=.
al+vlzli- 6J +Cg ++6J TlillE ZE"EI nel6I*EI. + Tlz.l oltlel EA
Tlzl Eee"J
e +dg Tlill= qB4l f#olEzt? Dalton ,-.,-- (2.1¤)g +7lE Ceg S+61+ E'J,
+soJ +Cg +e4q+.
zl4l EElEsl A{ *qe 7l. ll4 gE q 44 z++6}= SqE qF} A+.
=4E}
Tlll e.JE 6 .J 7l^)l7l ElEq .Jqg 7E{lE ?E ffi(partial pressure)ol4
'}]=
.7 '*+. Dalton9 =A6J
+g A+= Daltong +E giH HE|(Dalton's law of partial pressure)ol
4r t4.
pE714l gqlEg dill oJqol4il 6}r, p,, pz, p2.,3 g6JEql s6JE 4 zlill9 P
E Sqol+l16IE. oarton H4g +¤-4 Aq.
Pt:h+Pz+P3+... [10.12]
q+ +4ql^l H= azlH, ol 4e gdJE + ,f 714r714E zlxll="ll
'il6}q +H4sE
ol Elq, ol {g gA.J gEe+ +i{q^l zlzlls-l {ill .Jqg, d4l7} 6J Ttzl Tlillol= g6J
Tlill= rJ*$,ol dill 71819 + g+E AC¤{= 49 9olEI4.
s E¤ gs.q +qql,/.l, eJrJel ozE E7loll +g-g r|], Nz 7lr.llel gaJS olr& gd= ,J=71-?
qHl 10.10
7 Da[on9 +E "JEl Ei]tttPl
O2k) 6.00 sllCH+k) 9.00 gol 7li1l 0'Col 15.0 L E7l0ll '-l?tl. 4 7l^lle.l ?E "J471. E719 Eill g'al8 grloJTl'?
=-Er'E=
no.Rr (0. I 88 mol ) (0 .08206 L-atm I mol-K) (273 K) xlzl6Fre, 44 o.z mol9 fA.ei 0.5 mol$ CH4E goJ¤
Po,
V 15.0 L ol q+ 1 atm$ .Jqq^l ls Lq +q= ilzl5'l+ ae 4A
: 0.281 atm
ql-E-oJ+.
(0.563 mol) (0.08206 U-atm / m.o,l-K) (27 3 K)
^ _ V _
kHnRT
'-cH,-- - lS"0L
> r= qlr.il 1
dzll g+
[10.1s]
nt
=J9ap1. (a) tHTlol Eill oJ40l 745 torr! ttH, EBJE 6 Ozol +E gajE Zltdl'119. (b) 0l tH7l7f 295 Koll,\l 121 Lol +trlE ^|.
OzE H E0l "J9-d^lZl'Ilal.tls.
^lPttlE,
6ilff
E4 EBEE dll .Jqr+ &4.9 mol "/os+El &49
(a) 6Jtri.
H4 tsz}9 fEe .J6ll g^J.*+(-ls to.tt). tszl¤ol got* zt?, 9"I4 ^llrll Eg ull?.1
L ETI
EE^I
449 1061 7t^jl
0'Coll^l= EU 0l6tol 100 "c0ll,\1= trHJ 0lgel u.p: 718 ".JE uav : EE Er[g]
urms: EI[g] EE
E^lEol 5oo m/sEtrf E^lEol 5oo m/s-Hr[ EEE'f= E^I E{3.4E 3E qlq^l='+=
3 -^Ee -9.^lolrl +_E_e E^loJrl. ol -AE E^tol +E
=
-Ooc
100
oc
E - E
^f
el ^l
ol
I
E
e \ E
af.H 10.12 e4 Tlillel E^t+5. Es (a)E^lAEql rl^l= 8Ee] g-BF. GIE+E +rJoll^1 +C ol.aHsl 8L||! E43 ral.J +E= +=
E^lEsl arH4 EE.= LlEfL.lrf. (b) 7l^ll9 7|¤| *e 4E(u,p). oJE ^_E(uuu). 8A rllE= AE(u,,.)ol gl^l(o1 E4 z;r11q;
qa a0t+.)
^lE:0.coll^
10,7 7l^11 E^f EEE 449
A 2e8 K'il^r Hcr, H2, 02 ^rl 7[^l TlirlE r.aiE rrH,,rrl ,rl*,l ?tE E^l-=sl EE tE
'rlLj
| ^e Hl-il.6tq =7t6lE +^lqe L|Edl^le.
I
ol^J 7l4lrl
e+q^l ¤EaJ EzI gE"Eq Eli+ 4{ 7}zl 4l+s+El, 7l q]Eol+. u|4^l +e.r+ag+Al^lol CBaJ+.
ol{ zl;llrl$ Ss.z} z1+."41c1. fel+-ftra}zlts-Qi {zlr.l
P n mq^" * *^, "'y
ExI SEEJ+ ol$ zl;llaloll ql6J ac4ql t++4lql ql 1* t1o.17]
=
6l]^.1 oJolBzl-. +z}e+ Hol ?E=ol-L tl, "Jq(++l E4'J exlE ¤+ +F qlLlxl l*fu,^),* gEql Elql4sE
o;, ro.z¤)9 B,l4 rll4l qql +E6l+71(+E = *(u,^")' o T"JS 'J + 9ia, ol=
^l Bd6l+
to.tzgl 4E61] !.z.I.
^l
+4+)e+, 9"t4 zlf +E=61-=7t(6E HIE)9I *dol il4. nm(L!*)' n_T
.VV
p n n tlo.lgl
6E ^l ts^J6l+ ?4* x ?E qls
Po
{zloll zl;-ll {}+ Rg 4+6}H trtsr+ ae ol^} zl4lal¤
rms $E-P +zlol= EzI$ A+, $Eeeg +Eql eltl dg + ald
+4=6Lg +zl9 +*i+(Ezi9 A*4 +Eg *'. mu,^")a]
P:nRT
$dol 914. +5 HIE= B9l +slB "zl4 i@lv)el rms r [10.1e]
+Eq Hl46l+Ell, ol= ol $q+ olE"6lts Bzt"Jg aBl6t +fl g+ E4: ro.7s, 10.76
qFll 10.12
F Eat 3+C ¤-s"6Pl
a7l0ll STP 9t= ozTlx1|^lE= gE 8Eoll^l trl 4re +tr|tr g+61' .t[. 0lel'Je EEF= tlBoll olE g:d= +=^l q|*6[
8Et|01l
(a)E^l'el EE 3E ollLl^|, (b) E^isl EE +E, (c)E7le.l Hr.loz E^lel E?l (d) E7l EE9 'J+l E40ll Et|
^le. ^lzJB ==+,
-d02 5x19 E+l^lZ'J=E#, (e)Etal
450 10d 7t^ll
+ Le-E-s, +91 EZJ'J +5+E +7t6J+. (e) +z|71 qql 4q=r+ Ag HEle zl^ll +7lql Nz EzI9 rms 4s,t.
qB4l H6l+xl q+4^le. =
+P6l: ¤+ lle "Jc6I4 +zlqzl"J, ++l ^l+'J, B9 E
4'J +qq= q+71 zo 71617l qlEql "Jqe +7FJ+. (a) &s.*zl O) +ril *tl (c) eggEql^l Ar
^lEelg6'J
EEgol 7[8 7l^]lb clL 2^47ft E¤aJol 71"8 lt3 7li1[E qL 2ioJ7l?
=
o2
E
I
^l
ol
-l
E I He
=rt+-E(m/s)
arg 10.13 2s .c011^.1
E^l+_Eofl 4A BB
=traJe-l
'10.8 E^lolE=+Eft 451
I o"
-oU
o'e
e()
I
",n
oo c ci,
0
ir'nou a 0
¤e*ql 4el ExI +Eg g=Cg + 7l^l .gul 9= Ar+E *=+. a Ha]|= gs e
e o
I
co(,
e
o
Grahamsl ++'Jl
Thomas Graham(t8os-186e)g 1846Hql 7l^llel E= +E7l Eer*g zll*+ql +ulql6}
ag ga6|HtrI. Ag gEe+ Ae.Jqql^l F zl4lzl4g +Bol *fl + /l9 8zl"ll
=
,+4 Eq fl+i1 7146}] Hzl. + zlalE += +EE 4zJ ,r4 r24n 6lt, ge*g,0r1r+
ilrqa olE, Graham ElEl(Graham'slaw)3 +-q-J+ a+.
';:'ffi to22l
ol +41= 7lH+ Tlzll.Jf E q
+Ee +=.Jg +Elutrl.
uulE
rH *zle+q +471 9=+= +g'J ,JHg +^l7l +Br+ '?=6rY
10.14q^JAH
4o14. tszt9 Szl9ol uul=r=ffi E^l7l +84 +qa E=6J 7l+Col +o}4l+. olag
4SZ 108 7t^11
qH 10.14
Graham t:]sl4t
E-"1 01fl^l ExlE ol+old 0l^lol 7liil7lEg-d EEoll,\l 02 Ex[7|. '2J= E= +Eol 0.355HH AE-e E=-grtl. Elrl 7li]lel EtraJ
E Zlt!6l'n, qE TlilloJ^l= "J6l^le.
zl4stmol
^,:?#:
Ll8 rgoll^1 galq EEts gE6l^l"J +tr171Ha[6|.7] Itl|E0ll, 0lAt Tlnl^.loJll1 oliE 4Z0l Hl'+lcloldi3il.?
F TlillEF Edel?EE
Ei6H E=6tse, TlqE
cE 7li1l7l rl +23 olB
7lillEtrl Eal E=Etrl.
=
23suFu Exrzr
a
a a a a ts=E 7lill
a a a o a a a a
-rg: a a a a a a o
uF68A l.o o a a a a ao a
#
aao a a a o oooo 23suF6
o a a
o
o a
a
a a a
o o a
a
a
a a
o a
-El,sEJ Tlill=^t7t
o a
- o o a a a
I 238gpu I 23sgp,
a.r.B 10.16 7lill +{t= ol8-d ++ts ts+ 7l.q3 "uuFuP'38uF6-E11' E] uule7]l 7lsEE E;6H E=Eq'.
E gfal^PlE== gqZtl. q7l HE Eg rtd ts=e ¤E= 9]6H tt^ zl8glfitl.
^lolel
Ag ¤e aaol^l + 7l^l Tlillel ^Jql q& +EHl= Graham E4(^l 10.22)1+ +^16I
4. :H 10. r3sl +¤+9=e+q tszl.9 &F 4sz} tr-'J6l +g "J + 9l+. q]= Eq d
gql^l N, Tlill Eul9 rms 4.=-t. 515 m/solr|. ol^lH +E7l ml"=qlE B76Ir, oJE .J
+ ¤ql^l 6J+Bg gH, ql+ q E 4E9 ^ltol 6E +qlot %IE trIE +ql^J 6J7lE E
e + 9l+. ole+ Aol zlillg qt +E= Ez[ +E trfl$ql +r]fl +EB+ ¤d :44..
.6J+7I %Ig Fr+61+ +E= +7i7[ gE TlgTlel ^iB9 9+" e .J6l] gE]+ 3 4q4 9l=rHl Bq 91si. olel$ nQJ
9 E*qlE 56In *g E"r+61+ rll|.rms +s.EJ_qe ql+6J aH+ gt eq aflr+.
454 to5l 7l^ll
olEl6J zl4l +zI +Eg ^J'J6l ^l+ "Jq+=Ell, ql7l"J tlEllql^l Ezl.el +E=+= ,Ha'J
* ro'094 ¤4. ol4 zJ9 SzI6E=3 {xll zlill #47194+ +4E z*zl ullE ll "Jqt+.
ol*l+ Ez| +E qlEql zlzll $zlsl +F ,.L.Jg 44 u1fl4. tr|+^l 6.J 9.liloll^J 4=
+lilEE B^IE qte +471+58 oll"tq +a^J+ HJF6Je_E *e 4d +Eol .Jq*
q(fal 10.17).
+E+ + trfg +Eol "J"l4zl $7lz\ $zle) ¤J olF 4?]= EEt rtp uE(mean free
path)4-r. dt=Ell, "l= .Jqql q+ EgI6I= $o14. +4zt dg+g
^l+rJ+r ^J^J"ll
Bz|. .t|6+ol Y+g++(a"J), EIE
^[*+ +q6l{ *r e + 9l: 44= Sg 4ol4(#
e ¤+ ^I.fr 4e). EJE a¤Eol .J&6[trtE(2.].J), rt= 9+-z. tr 44=
^]*4 +q6lzlq.e=
EH IAl Eil^{
a + ilg aol4(zJ ¤# zlf 45i). 6ll+Eql^J +71 ezlel ¤J zt# "J oo nm
015-.J lrll lal ol+. +zl "JE7I gd q *g E 100 km rtrql^l ¤# zlfr d.E= * ro cm-tr, olb zl
rE 10.17 7lill Erl-el q + sHql^Jel 4sE4 * uI"J ull q ,Jq.
^t E+6lxl Ll-EfL|1a]r,871 gr.
oil ?1= tl'= 7l^llE^l= LIEIL|I^I
gl9,trL +3a[ eP Ea[7[ 7li]l IE L}| E^1.9 -JE BE= 2loJ7l.2JL^14 2ioJ)1.
7joJ7l?
^tf, =71^14
olLlE of+al B:dE El^l^l "eZ
(a) ge (b) 8E
=7[ =zl'
o' : n llo.24l
RT
oltr zl4l r molgl 4* pylnr atg g= *qql^l lolc[. to.18q pvlRr= p zizl d
=aJ
rll zli{el I mololl 4E} ps.l 6J+s xll;.la}flrf. ,l^lel ++ql q4 +.e.a 6}zl"J, ullzll 10
atm ol.!-9 +g.Jqql^.i oltl4 zE(pvlRr:1)"tr+q r*.1 H.9t4. +^l "J6ll, {41
Tlrql= rsq^l olt4 0 e 7l*6}z1 9*=+. rqLI 10 atm ol6[e] *g sqq^lE ol^J
4 4Eql^l t*ol H,"l+zl ?*=+. q4^J 3 s-21 s.ol olt} ,l4l^lg ^l-e"6J + 91trI.
d^il zl4l7l ol,lJ.! zl:aog--agEl H,q+= ag gEqlE E=_+tr}. 4 &uty 4-^o6J+=.
^f.E.olrl RT
0.5
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
P (atm)
10.9 | !^ll zlxll: ol8+1 TlEoe+El flGlH 455
500 K
I
2
1
PV 1000 K
I
RT
o18 7l^ll
1
0-
0 300 600 900
P (atm)
lzll zlxllg ,l+e oldr zli{e} +^l-6l]Tlq(ral 10.1e). .JE}4etr olg{ zlge_e+q {
qBe 9ETI *g++ e7l6la-.561 --qgl6l= gEql zltl$|e e lTl ar+.
7/\
+3 6ql^1 -dE 7l^1171-0184 7lEo.-++E1 7l.8 .pJol XolLl-= ,3++?
^A
(a) 100 K, 1 atm (b) 100 K, 5 atm (c) 300 K, 2 atm
zlxll $z| +.:EEE zlts4 zI¤9lrl ¤zll zl4lzl ol,!l4 zlf{l^.1 H.q+= ol+= tEE
+ gtr]-. ol$ zl;ll EzlE +rJg zlz16}zl ?+j1 Ezl ^lolql "Jqol S.qr zlz$oJr|. :r+l
r+ ¤41 Exl+ "JC++irl= tlzlt_ g9.q, r.l-e oJ{oJ 4+++. :1910.20q1^.lz.lH ¤
zll zlxlle-l 4* Ezl-=ol olFts + 9l= Hl +rJe ¤-zl PEe4 ErJ q zI+. Hlr4 *g
"Jqql^l Tlal e4.g +rl:*zl Pq"ll Hl6ll +^lg csol4. ul+^-l ts4¤ol ols"Bi
9l= zI+ +vl= Ee4sE EE +7lel Pulol4. +e .Jqql^J zlzll $2ffi-ol zlz16l.r
9l= +q= ¤-zl9 +qql Elql q oltl +^l6J + sg dEE 44tr+.
TliltErPt Eill
dzlls tltll $zlzl zI+EAl ol]Eo6J + 9lE Hl +rJg ¤.zl9 +qH 71i.il Er[7[ Eill
+trlsl AtP +E= +Ele.l= +E=
+ q 4Ig ++r-ql Hq. q+^J olq'* eaql^l Tlille-l +rl= olt zl ^[x|-.JEf. ^t^l--Jtr[.
zll^lql E6ll qltlQ] + 9l= {ttrtr} ErJ 4t1r}.
r clql zlrll $2ffi-ol jl"J aaql,<Jq zJol Tlvlo) Eq fleB, +
z[ oJeol z]¤-tJ4. .Jq qlEql *zl H4 +ztg +E
^plql "l+l6J
g aioial ¤4. "JeI 7lillg szl.Jg +rJ azl^la+8, .f.rJ 10.21
o
I+ Hl+.J rflg eg + il$ 4o14. q4 +H71qE Ezt= ol*o-J
Bz|9 "Jqg +^lq !-vJq. olel Ag .Jqe BzLEol E4 +qzl o
Cg Ee+^l7lzl 9, e, "Jqg ol$ zlill$ A+Bq rl zlolzlzll
=
gr+. q+^J :.H ro. 18r+ 10. rsqlrle+ zJol pvlRrE olt4 oJ <i ot *t
J
4e 4^614l "JE+. rq+ "Jqol +E6l +eH, *ql^l ¤H+ + !"'
e I
c e e
4 e e
()
e
\-_
I
e
e c
oldl 7lill drll Tlill
.fB 10.21 !^11 7lillE 23+.8^t2J -'Joe ?.!611 018 TlillEtl galol 'Jtt.
A rts 1o.1ee.l Nz7[ 3oo atm olatlotl^j, old Tli.tlel Hl-il..tq ag gqsl zE itol= Hol
or+= dedt^re.
| =
naE ¤zll zlz)llzlzl Tizl+ "Ja=6tel +r1= s'¤'tl+(rH 10.20). dzll Tlill= nbtrJ
+E +irlE ilzl6}J, llo Er-tr ol{ zl;llz} ¤-zl.J + gl= zt+ +rlql 4oll rzb"J# ei'*
zl+ +vl$ r*=trt. a4 bY vanderWaals ^Jf(van der Waals constan|{r d+ql, ¤e
4etr +Cqb oJg alolq 7l7lql q+ r+7]|qe+. E 10.3q1^l a4 b 4I=o.JEI4es
Exlelol +7].'*ql nl;+, :r-4r gz]. $$rjol +ztErgl trI+ 4dtri. r olf+ tsxle&4
a7l7l a=ffi +rl= rJ zlzlr, EzlzJ .JqE c) zz) ull+ol4.
He 0.0341 0.02370
Ne 0.2rr 0.0171
Ar r.34 0.0322
Kr 2.32 0.0398
Xe 4.19 0.0510
H2 0.244 0.0266
N2 1.39 0.0391
o: r.36 0.0318
F2 l .06 0.0290
Clz 6.49 0.0562
Hzo 5.46 0.030s
NHr 4.17 0.0371
CH+ ))c 0.0428
Coz 3.59 0.0427
qBl 10.15
Van der Waals {.1 o1g
mol9 0l'3l7li]l= 0.0 "Coll,\l 22.41 L E7l0ll ill+E 10.00 atm9 "Jq='fEtrl. E 10.3r.[van der Waals
10.00 0l86l.q
^.lE
0.0 "C0ll^1 22.41 L}ll illE 10.00 mol Clzk)ol gajg Zllbt,\lg.
E6J qFI
F -+.ul'7llL{
o H -[E
A'Jet Tlill?! ,(pl0llt!(cyanogen)? C 46.2%. N 53.8%el trBlHle 0l+ol^1 9ltl. 25 "C, 751 torroll^l 1.05 s
=d ^l0l0|l{!
3 0.500 Lg +tr|= ilxl-dtf. (a)^l.ololltlelE^t^.l3 +qfl7t? E^t?^=
(b) q|46l^le. (c) l!$ ql=61'^le.
Net E+ : irr.r u*y(r*-H) : 3.84 mor N 9l Lewis +aq^l 4 gxl^= + 7|]E dxi ¤99 z*E4
?+?+9 er= + zll9 Hl="# dzHr4,* zl9 c.+ aBg
F fl19 gEl= 7lE4 o-tr 1 : lol,E, dE^lg CNoIEL ,*= ElE, +A=,* rl]E c.+ A*r+ 6J rl]E +"J aqlg
E}d.Eq E?"*g +6t71 +lEl rl ro.rrB ol+,*tr}. ,*=+). u+q^l 4 gz} ++lel dz} ¤qq zlal *aE d¤
.. dRT (l.0s g/0.500 Z)(0.08206 Z-atrri lmor-K)(298K) olq, dzll E{-= d¤ol+.
P ( 7s't 1760) afin
(c) r{tq Ez}E +Cg 44t;l7l +lot{ zi]H aq}E +Cr}
: 52.Oglmol +zlel dill4oJ zlat +aE r,E6llo} oJ+.
dE^l CNq $eelg 12.0 + 14.0 :26.0 glmotoltrl. E+*E Eol EzITt CEolo-e. +a-ai Aq+el +dql 96ll ^JC
9 EA+g dql^le*g-E ++E (52.0 slmot)lQ,a.o g/mol) 9 F zll9 )rt+^l7l ^lE ^J4qq +x}e-l +Cg fl4.
sE "J 6e tq
7li{le-lE¤(10.1$ dgql^J Tlille +4d+ Eeg gee}ol z} ql 7t^l H+("Jq(p), +rl(y), gE(r). zliil9 oJ(n))E B^lsllot
g EzI EdoJ A6Jol gl+. +E N2e| o2-a ol+q11 e,*gt * 6J+. +q= .JH]49E ?-lEl(L), gE= AHI(K), zlill9 oJg 5
7ly +471"J+E zlat g6J Tlglol+. 4. zlz]| aqille+ ilrllE (mol) E9l-tr+A"J+. gfl(pressure)¤ +9 E4'J 6J eE Cel
=7t
(vapor)e|-l 6l+ 7l^ll rlql-e + 91tr1-. TlillE "J+g + ?l ql, sI +91= trl4g(pascal, I Pa:1 N/m2)ol+. +¤ ++loJ Hl
=zltJ
-r., $zlpol 4e B4 894 gl" oe EE HI&E.SoJ+. (bar)t tOs Paol4. plolql^l E= rfl7lE(standard atmospheric
ga;(to.2tr) TlallE E= 4ag s.^l6171 916ll^l.= +E^l
pressure)$ 7lflJ(atmosphere, atm)4 torr(i9?9 mm Hg)E C
^Jql
+a Eq 459
99 trl
^l-S¤4.
17l"Jg rc132s kPa Et 760 torrel zJ4. zl"J g!+ dill "JqE E)e+ rJ4. f=e(molefraction. x)g gqlEE
4l= Ellrl"Jel +C{ ^l¤-6E. "JqAE eq 9l:7li-lle.l .Jq + dill Tlill g+ql 4"J "J ^dEE E+9 Elol+.
aql ^Fa.'J + 9i4. Tliil Er[ (10.7tr) ztitt#.=(kinetic-molecular theory
Tlill g=l(10.3tr) S+E Foil A+"J Tlill H45ol Blqflq. 'J
--E Cdg ol:.j zlzllzp.
rl8lel
=r]
zI46Iq ¤B"JtrI.
of sas)e
"l zl4
A6J gEql^l "JA=*E Tlill +i4E .Jqql Hlul4laJQ(Boyle E g rJ+61 "J:.18 q+r+ zJ4. tsxli #gs.ol +a^l6}7ll ¤+6J
4(Boyle's law)). "JCt "Jqql^J "JA=JE Tlill +qE ¤ql g 4. ezlg +irlE 8zl9
zl4l B9"ll Hl6Iq +^l6J aEE zI+.
Eql 4Hlql{}4(Charles's E=l(Charles's law)). E"J.J gEe+'J zlill ezl+
^l.e.
tql tq E= Hlgqol S.4. zl;.tl B^lE B+
{ az3q1,t.1 F"JEJ zlAl +rlE ,*: Tlxll= t'oJ6J Ezl.+e 6l .sE 9lulzli ¤4 SEql ulfllalE-e.. gETl oJad}zll ]?zl9E
'J4+ eEeI *
frqlE}(Avoga&q zl'll(Avogadro hypothesis)). H6Izl ?*=+.
q adq^l zlill +ul= Tlillel g+ql {ulflls}c}(Avogadro E4 zl;ll$ zllp +zlE=g qE * +Aql E+ 5.Jtl gE qlLJ
(Avogadro'slaw)). ol4,J3 ,l4l Hlg ol$ zlxllrl$ A ,*7]|?+=+. q4l EzIg +E= He HgE EE6Iq, f.
=++ ^1=
+q ql"J6JEl.
+E= TlillE Ee=}Jt gEql El+ H6J+. ElElTtEE(rms) *
018 7li1l^.l(10.4tr, 10.5tr) ol8 Tlill^t(ideal gas equation, PV : 5(root-mean-square speed, $gE llffiql ABI
u,-,)!- ¤4
nRT)* otg Ttilt(idear sas)ql qloJ tr4 BCal.l4. ol zlel Rg zl ql6tir, EAEJ9zll#ql HlHlql.J+. 4 u,^,:t/Tfrlfrol4.
i{lt}t(gas constant)olr}. ollt zl^{al$ 6}+ E: + 7lrl4 4rJ 7l* *? 4EE u-p :Afrlno1r|.
ol Hg tsg 4Ael H+E 21416l+ Ell
"l ^l-.e"$
f 914. ro atm Ertel E=rI q+l(10.8tr) tszI gFEe-eP4 zlzllzl
ol6IE.Jq4 213 Ks.Y r ol4IE gEql^J ql++g zlr,llE ol (effusion)ali-(zle +Bg g=6lt-) +E= SeelE ==
E6ll
^J
Tlrll^lg ^J'J6l p ltrl=tr+.273 K(0.C), I atmg sagE=t q HlEl4ltEl(Graham El4(Graham'slaw)). zlx1]q1 Edl ^ll;g
d+¤
5 ffi(standard temperature and pressure, STP)ol4n "JEJd 9l *A_g-E. qE Tlillzl- *l^-(diffusion)d+ ag +^t olF +Ee+ +
trI. olt Tlill^lg ol++ e.E ++q^J 8E= HIE^I ¤4 8s
d glE E 4= ¤tol4. Tlill Ezl-=r=g ^JE +E6t!-tr EEtr[P
(atl aE)E ++. UE(mean free path, +E ,J ¤t olf 44)zl $rf. gz1 ,'.1o19
^l-8:6llot
ol$ zlxllrl$ zl^]lE "JEeI EAelg +Hzlg + +Eg Tl4lEalE +4I+EE xllsl{}4.
^l-so614
9l+(/t: dRrlp). EEI +qt H}*^lql^'l HI+E E= d¤Ee
dr'fl 7lill: 0184 7]Eo.E+E1 Hol'J(10.9$ dzll 7l^1171ol.i4
4 7lAl7l +q6I= E4l9 a+qlE olt} Tlill^lg ol+tr + 4Eq^l {qLI= cEE =.71.=.J4ol ?z}i}91 q4, r?]n g
el+.
E7l a4'fl-ql 44 ?zl.J4. ellLF6.l-E (r) ¤xll 7l^,ll ts^t= "Ja
7li1l stlEE
dall Sqe E'J
"Jq(10.6tr) 7l^ll + +i4= tlz)q, Q) Ezl-==g ^Je +E=g EI .Jqg ae6}rl Ell
=-dErl+E 541a3 ql +41+= ?E oJ{(partial
6J aaql^l 4 zl4lzl ¤-e eol+. van der \{aals *l(van der Waals equation)3 ol$ zlilll-l
pressure)9] aJ4 zJ4(oalton9 EEI E=l(Dalton's law of partial oll {xjl zlxll$ Pyl$ Ez}zJ ES E{qL 4o14.
pressure)). gaJ$ql^] 4 d+ 7l^llE Y E g.HS p':X'P'(EE
. "Jqg 4&6fa torre| rllzloJ$ "Jq +91= B++trf(10.2¤). +¤ S+ E4l: lo.ss, lo.s7
e).
+¤ g+ E4: lo.ls,lo.l7, lo.l9,lo.2r . ,lSlstlEql^l ++ $q "t d4l sqg 4&6Jtrt(10.6e).
. ol.g zl;.llrlg ol+6}q p. v, n, r= Zl&6J+(10.49. +H ¤+ g4l: r0.7, 10.61, 10.63
+B 9+ +-41: 10.33, 10.39,10.43 . tszl ¤+Eg ol_Lo6J TliJlg "J44 &=, Tlill Bzl, E= +E,
. Tlill H4r+ o16r zl;llzlel +41= ol6ll6ir.. Tlill B4g oltl 7l q-41 $r{l
46}q dBql4(ro.z¤, 10.8e).
il^lql zl+6lq 4&++(10.3e, 10.4e). +H g+ E4l: 10.9, lo.7s, lo.79,lo.8s
+¤ 9+ +-41: lo.2s,1o.3e,lo.4l . roJ E: zlgql^J {x] zlxilz} ollt zli)loft 4E 7l¤¤ Bol
.TlAlE EE "l tsz}*¤ 4l4}+tr1-(10.se), ol+E +^lrJ.Jqr+ Ezt +iilE ¤E,ttrl-(l0.ed).
= g+
+{ g+ +.41: 10.47, ro.sl,lo.s3 +H ¤.41: lo.8e, lo.el, lo.1l4
.slqi Hi+q]^l SrJ¤ zl4l9 +tlE ,ll4iElE+(r0.s
^EqZ+
460 108 7l^ll
z o Hl-e- -il
OJ-r- L O
' PV: nRT Iro.s] ol{ zli{al
hvr Pzvz
Iro.sl eql 7l^ll Hzl, p, y, Ie+ g+ ,9 t4l
rt 7)
.d: P"t/L
[ro. ro] zl;ll9 EJE E= Ee*
RT
. Pt: \+ Pz+ P3+ [ro. rz] sB zl^ll9 dill "Jqr+ 4 +d CEq ++ "Jqr+e] +{
(oalton9
+E "Jq Bzl)
.Pr: ( llt Pt xi, [ro. ro] +E .Jq4 gEgE +Zl
ll1 )
'a-,: VBfr a,l.
Iro.zo] ,l4l gzlel ¤t <llE(rms)+EE eel
ra tfr;
12 !
l----a Iro.zz) + 7l^l 7]|414 E¤"J4 B¤ +EE ^JS+41
"tt,
oJf +41
tso.E-H= 7llLl (a) ¤3 f9 tsxl¤ s+6J aol+
l0.l cl^JE ¤+ 4zl'J9 o.ooz atmol4. sldql^l EqE F61l O) eHIg .Ezl-= s¤,6J aol+.
ge+E trId ql, zl+tlql^J uloll rJ dSzL cl "l4SzI? (c) + HllE Bzl-= s$g Aol+.
(d) B-6Irlql 11tr7f ?46ItrI.
¤B6I^le. [ro.z¤]
to.2 :floll Hol5 a4 Ag olE zl-tst q^Eol 9l= +7lql r0.4 HI* 2co(s) + oz(g) ZCoz@)7} "JAql &Eq^l 'J
7lxll ||f,71Eq 9lqr 6I^t. [10.34] qg ql. ¤.zl -
49 q^Eol "JaEI "Jqg +^1617l fl6ll g
(a) 9C oJq6}ql^l Tlillel gETl- 300 Kql^l s00 K-E +7I zloJqa tr-{r-ql tr^I. H}+ +rlel Pulz} ?ol Er} r1^o-=q-
6J A+, +zlE EoJg El^l r4^l9-. 6lHrlE, q¤ EI*E Ar+ql e-l+ at^l ¤H6f^le.
(b).J4 $=.op1,r.1 q^EE E+ Sqol 1.0 atmql^l 2.0 [ro.s¤, lo.4e]
atm9E +716J 4+, +7lel Eo.ig El^l 14^19. (a) s0% Pul 6zI (b) 33%o Psl 6zl- (c) "JCoJ Pul -,?ul
(c) .JC .Jq6}qd zlgl9 gE.zl300 Kql^l 200 K-tr +i (d) 33Yo +rl A4 (e) 507o +E +i
El a+, +7lel E-olg +^l rEl^le-(+, zlollrl "ls+q
lo.s .JA=*g ollJ. 7lAl7I gA +qs glElr 7IC6fl EzI. +q
^l
9*=+r. TIAt+). 7l gC6}rll ,?zl9= tEilq^l 7l4lel .Jqol F El]s ¤t7l
6lE gE:984 9Yzl? [ro.+?]
10.6 trI.S dQl zl+ql= Tl,qlz} a}]+lTlF zll9 *zl4 el-$zl t
zllzl 9l-e-4, olEe +ol BJ +¤ ¤A+ql ¤Aqq 9l+.
\.)
7l^ll7l "JA gEql^l 4lolrll B 41, 4 *zl
"Izll= 9q +
ql^l g^[e] EsE q$r,ll 94}zl-? (+, F +rlel +q=
EroJ6} ae-e. z].{a}1. ol- ¤a6l= gA+.el +q=
r0.3 E|g fH+ zJZ zl4l ^lEE {4611 trzt. "Jqg *e-e 6 +^16f4.) EITI]E g + qL 7vl171q ++ "JE¤ zlxl
olzl f.lall 7l4lE +E6l 8146J oll, +Ele+ gETl "JC6tq =
AyTl?;r0.0¤1
E:zBe q¤ E.+g ElzI? [ro.:d] a a
o o ao a
o o o a a
ooo o o
C o
EA Erll 461
to.z El-* reg 47]|qE. 4 7l.^l ,l^ilel g!+E-g 441J 4ol 10.12 ol-4 :H¤ t L +zl .J9 Tlill ^l.e l mol9 gE +7lql E|
EI. [10.6e] E Sqel Hq¤ Bq +q. ql ,||E 4de { zfl$ ol{r zl
(a) *B oJqol =o7l.6l+ +^lqE ^-ll 7I^l C¤¤ +g6i^le_. ille]. ,l|E dull zl;ll(co2, N2, Cl2)ql ql"J++. [ro.s¤]
^ll
0) gql rl4l9 drll oJqol 1.40 atmol uli. 4 71419 ++ (a) t¤9lrJ EE 81 419 dzll 7l8lE olt 7l^lltr+ *g
oJqg al4}6l^ls. $ES zt+14. dzll zlz,tl9 .Jqol q *olzl7ll qi g
oo o 6Jg += tszI zJ
'Jqql ql*61'= van der waals *i*
() o g o
a{71, boJTl?
(b) -S. 10.3E van der waals tiE ol+6lq zld e, s, c
o o(} 45
q 6]lB6l+ zlill(Cor, N2, Cl2)E s^l6l.^le.
E
rl A 300 350 400 450 500 550
ol 3E(K)
E
B 7lill ga{10.1E, 10.2tr)
=c,
10.13 rJ+ ¤B + Efl ag gg a.Jz|?
(a) zl:-115 aq4BEl "JszI B{ 44.
I
,(:-
e
(i)
.)
a o
(i0
fl
(iii)
!r c O:N, d4
(c) SEel .E.E qlTl.Jql^l
3 Fz, Brz, KzO 6 qg a'JzI?
zlxlt zlf,rjol tl* A 4
HCI
il $' *,r.
462 tg5t 7l^il
(b) rllzloJol T42torroJ rll *iPzI fH ol4 2l ftql flg zl 4lzl- ilzl6k +tl= 4l&a}^le.
4*. 4zl9lrl t++q Eql zlollzlb.JH¤ g,I.JzI? tozz al Amonton H4g.JqrI9e,.r.;o1e1 *4lE 44H4. p
Eu.r.rt +(2s.028 ft) At}el 4zl"J3 E 26s torroltrI. ol g- 4 r 4o1E El4 +41= +E6I7l 916ll^t= Hzl4 tr"J B
49 (a) atm, (b) mm Hg, (c) Pa, (d) bar, (e) psi E|91E i} 4¤. 0) 7s.Fql^J zl+il4olq $qol
-10J9,t}6i^le-. ^l¤:6}^ls. =c¤
32.0 lbs/in.2(psi)oll. +d +ql Qolol $sz| 120'Fe +
I
_T 4= + ge=J"l
h 7flql= E.4*ol :oql zl;llzl 9la, THql=
h
h -ro:r 60oJ zl4l7I llQL z14a1z1.. A "J43 x atmol
i )l^11 rL ={^rE
-r., ¤4^rqlEq 7l^llE gE
e%Lg 1.2 gol4. B ¤+^
:
rq $qg o.s.r armola. 5q fl= TlAlel a
h: 52cm h: 57 cm h 10.3 cm =+^rql EooJ zlzllE gB
q! ¤qr-3-7153=Jol
B.ol 1.2 ColEl.
(i) (ii) (iii) 6Ir. 9l:zl? rEr q- Eq4a7l Ee*ol 60t 7l!l=
10.24 ¤ol gil +e $qalr} zlg$ zlllel -$zl
qlzll r0.2ql -EE6li19lEzl?
ql ¤eqq fl4. trl-Sgl 4 *Elql^J BA4l zl4l9 'Jqe 10.32 + zll! $frl:zzf glErll, Eg SEql^l ol + + 419 +
torr-+. gEloJzP qE z roll, r+= {} 4el +q= 3 Loltr}. 2 L Eol
zlillq g?E ge.l gq il= =+
4.s g9 zlr{E sd-6}n ?lbcll, f. zl^ll9 oJHg x
(a) ++g 471(0.e85 atm)oll
aql^Jtr+ mm El ++.
15.4
^l= 3 L 5ol
atmolr|. o.:o 99 zlill$ E6}ap !l
(b) zl4q1 flag gE +eg qlTl(o.ee atm)oll gej 9l= .f 7l illg .Jq=4^r5
EEll, g 0. lx atmol 4. F 7l ill= 5'J"J Ee
gl=71? rc^l ?*trtE, q- E4^=71q 7
aql^1trtrt12.3 mm *tr}. "d¤ 7t^lr.
EJ
gxll 463
=*
Eg+g 717]|t_ o)+71? 10.41 100 Kq^l +El7f 4.0 LoJ $zloll 3s. r g r4l co2(=4olol-
r0r3 q-^J Tlillql ql6J +g sE $c6f^le ol:) rlEzf Eq 9l+. +71 oJg -E= Tlill= xllzlo|-r. Ej
P V T
Ho6J
F tg(r:2e8 K)os gEE g*.trlH, nill CozE
.J9 .J43 g"t.Jzl?
,1
E+ TlillE EI+1S.94? ¤:zl
2.00 atm 1.00 L 0.500 mol ?K
10.42 EI+ dQlql
^l-.&.J
fi4 mL dflrl"il n "CE 4t s.zzs g
0.250 L mol 27C
0.300 atm ? ol Eq 9lE|. oldr zl;ll ZH T}AoIHq ql, Sqol 7s atm
650 torr ?L 0.333 mol 350 K _e--e. eiqriH, q4E q *=qqo}
col al.bzl?
? atm 585 mL 0.250 mol 295 K roz: el= +FE A+e+ +gt EE Hal
^I+¤+.
895 torr, 24"Cql^l 5c Cl,
^+q
TlillE +ul7t 8.70 L4-7.
10.34 ol1l zlxllq E]]t trlgel 4 oJ¤ 4l&6|^le-. ^le
7l4i;l^1. (a) ,rlE ? ctr: H :-ts"Jzf? (b) sTpql^l clrE
(a) &E -6'cql^l oJqol l.2s atmoJ zl4l l.s0 mol9 P
PulE guI.JzI? (c) .J4ol s.76xto2 torrg ull f +ul7l
El(L ++le)
1s.00 LolE, egE gu}"J7l? @) SEzI se.C"J trll +q
(b) 3.33 x l0 3 molg zlillzl 750 torroll,rJ az8 mLE il^l
7l s.00 LolE, oJqg gEloJTI?
6Ij19Ig ,l^,ile] ¤qi gE
"I 10.44 Etg l"J *zl9l 4494. 23.Cql^l 16,500 kpa
(c) zlill o.ooz4s -o1ol 138'Cql^l 413 ,n1$ zlzlap !l 'l4lEg
g rll atm ++le ++u E .Jqetr oz 7l4lE gaJ6|-r. il= +q ss.oadel ,Je
"Jq
(d) 126.s L7I s4"Cql^l 11.25 kpa9 .J49
zl-¤ 4l mor E Bz=. ^J46ll trzf. (a) B=ql Eq fl= ors-l 4="+3 9ol
.JzI? (b) srpql^J Tlallzl zlal6l+ *Elb E"t.JzI? (c) 9
+le LI4B Tlillel "J
¤ gEql^l 839 .Jqol 150.0 atm4 erl q=71? (d)
+.6' &E 4zl4^I +lE BoI+q= Goodyear Hl4cg ql 24.Cql^l +q7I s5.0 L"J +7le 7li-ll7| olEo6lE. 7lillg
4 rzs,ooo ft'E AEg d-z ?l+. 23"c,1.0 atmglrl Hl4 oJ43 El+]tr gtrl-7} qA=71?
-ro-rsdql t<Pa
Eq ?i: gEg e=J'g gtrloJTP
+nI t+ql -u-rlg dBql^J +a HIilH4E, 4}l rulg
10.36 qH LJlg^IoJol, 4* xlEol 2.5 cmoli 2o121 s.s -oJ
+C6L= E9I44 +E +Ee e+ 7l+.J qgtlr-ot
+rl+gE. "JEqA4. ol Ql$,<|olol 3s'c, 1.78 torr9 oJ -roes(treadmil)oll,tl BqE+ 61fl+. ^B
1^lt EoJ 0.08 km/hr-E
q6}ql 9ltrIE. H r+9 !l$ol r-Jl$,r.|oJql
=xlld}=7|-? Bq= B+4t EtflE4l= 24"C. t atmq^J all+ I sEJ 0.8
(dilrl9 +q= rlhol+.)
mLE O2E 4Hl6JEl. (a) olelr'J 4re gz1o1- s.2 gel ul.
ro:z f"l ;ll$(:z "c). ns torrg oJ49l^J.
^IBol
t Hql ,Jrll +lgeil= l^lrJ Et ozE H g 4Hl6l+7p (b) olel Eg
Eol El-.tl 2.2s L4 +7lql +46l-= 82145. alt6l-^le. + Hl-llEell= *of t qt +^Fql ';fi.E|. g+61+ E'J HI
(b) + C+6J +E 74E ql+rlg s.0 x 103 1olu.|. Szlz|
flHqlrl5gg;7e_e zl+4.J gt¤ 6t4r. 7l-cdlH.
olt4 "e, 4E"++r z|{a}-L, 0.0.C, 1.00 atm9 adil r HfTEell= 48^lrJ E$ ol+ 7P"+ ozel2oo/o oltlg 4
i14el qlq sqlg +zlel +rll(E+ 53=J9 zs.se
^l +E Hlg + g)Zztl? (t, +7lE zto E *t7l +xl]{}trI.)
g/mol-tr 7lA 6J+)E 4l4}6t^l s-.
10.46 gF d+=e] 4l^ll4 4.JCg'=14 yo,'E ol
+416f= s+(oJql 96l] ^J7l= oJEol l.o x =AqiEJl,
10.38 (a) C+flq +6I eE(elE Eq Blts "14D rla F"J rr.q5 alrg
r0-3 atmoltr, e_g.7l2so K4E, qq'J 9= Ezlg += =
el tI4 +rlol+. ¤t4.J Bcq 4rI vo,Y 4s mLo2/kg
Erl-.JzI? (b) ol&s+ +iE ^l+ 4zl9 qI0.0a7oE 7d6f E-S4l/mino1r1. rq+ ¤+ d+EE 5l
n 9lq. trls^d ol- *(zz "c),.11+EE S4(r.oo atm)oll ^ll4lzl'J ++9
4 vo,i 88.0 mL ozlks#*A\lminol4.
2.0 L9
.r..1 i]lf*+H, 4oilts co, Ezl- H 7l| (a) ffizllz| l8s tboln 47.5 mL 44 Vo.7l ozlkg E-AAll
^lEE ^le
7I e4l6l+zp minoJ Bt4oJ H:rdol l^lrJ *oJ &^q +q
ro:s *++E tlEql= 23 L4 Puloll o.zs kg9 0rzf Eq 9l ^!.61+
5 mL$ +9e 4l&61^ls.
4. (a) s"cqlr] F.ll+E Tlal $qg 4l4}6l^le-. (b) 26'c. (b) ol tsrdol 20lbe.l E-+4lE u4n. ¤+¤ ¤l"ll al4 yo,
0.es atmql^] ol .lftz| ifzl6l+ +qE gEltTt? E os.o mL o2lkg $fzll/minotr +71^l?r+4, r^lrJ
10.40 2s0 mL *ul9 qlqs¤ ,Jg +d4e seqloJ Eq] &^= E mr,glzh?
^'E4ol ^qEl
zlxll(cgHJ z.zo g& -EEI6Ii gl4. (a) vlol23.cql ¤7}]6]. olg 7 li{l^.lsl +7t4?l 3E(10.5tr)
E, ,J.ll+g .JHg gol"Jzl? (b) srpql^l E+qloJ Tlill 10.47 1.00 atm. 298 Kql^l COr, N2O, Cl2 + q! 7l4l7l7l*EJ
7l- i}'{6t= tsslE gotoJz}? (c) r30.F ol*9 gEql^l} E7l +e7p ¤Bd}^le.
zJol el? + 9t+E E+7l +uJql 44 ?i4. ol $Eoll,rl
10.48 1.00 atm, 298 Kql^1, SO2, HBr, CO2 TlillE ITJETI TieL
d 4+9 $43 9"1'JzI?
Pga+El 7l*= aE +es+g6}^le.
464 103 7l^ll
10.49 El-s + ¤E zl4le iH9l4l E6J +col +71 6ql^l trle_e. EaE Eaelg E^ll lo.s3q^J ;jgal Dumas-bulb
10.s4 +lg:C
b ol+E 7l*4 ¤B.J ae? ,JBstr +A++. olxl f,zlsl ?=J3 o.s+6 g, bulb Pul
(a) ¤E-P +gzt 7li-lloJEll, 4a+ 4I^e+ Ag +715 +C E 354 cm3, oJ43 ZSZ torr, gE:' 100'Col+. ulzl f;zl
6I= Tlel EE +zl-= ol.A^l7lAlol4. 9 g.gelg 4l&61^le.
(b) gE 71819 B+ +58 +71 E^Ig B+ +E_H.4 f,q, u1:.H1f,3 4l=o+9 'zllrlGette.)'E, ulxluJgE tsg orc+
+Cq$el El +E +E l-+dg +]e tL4" 614l +4. Hls"g Ell .JHl4 os :1 ++E Ed
=
(c) BE g^I= ¤+ +71 Sz}tr4 +e a+3 7l7l7l vlB -.55EE r.lEq^l-8-¤4(trIrLl+g
d+= E6Iq 7tg+tr}). 27 "cql^] 0.4s2 L 4
ql gE zllll$ {zl!-ri "Jgzf H *+. trl-+^l gE +
++q^l oz9 *E gqol 3.s x 10-6 torrg EL EI^g EI*
d9 A*e d4 +ulr} *7lE qi'lg *deq arr1. 4ql qr+ E}9"61* trlrqlfE A"*g gtrioJTp
(d) E$$ E+ +71 Ezltr+ 4e Ee+$ zixlzl {l$ofl 2Mg(s)+oz(g)-2Mgo(s)
gE gzl-= q !Dle4 *zl.JtrI. olE BEE gETI +
zl 9s-E-4+EI= ag 9ul,{}4. qg Tlil+ rlee.E
10.s5 +^El rJf(caHJ3 Er+ Hl*6lq ii zl^llE B^J+EI.
CaH2(s) + 2H2O(I) Ca(OH)z@il + 2H2G)
a6}ol 91trI. ol +¤+ +E Er==- +E4E rll .''.f$s.l.irll, f{ol
EIe
El-* + Srp aa6l-ql^l 44 tlAlzl Xe-Er| 'J=z| 9g o1
10.50
+ ole+ +^I¤L aolE, HrE g^J^l7l= ,J+6In zle ,JB
-,?E zlat g ¤B6J ae? ol gg'J q 2l.Cql^l Hz9 "J4ol 825 torroJ ull,
Elgrd EJqLil= a6,Jol ^hsoaJ+.
(a) Xeg TlalolEre^ xe sxlzl
^l.e 14s LE Hz 7l4lE g^J^l7l7l +16ll ge+ CaHzt H :rH
Eat{, zlzll*qlql^] q ="J614 +g + 914.
"J7l?
(b) xe flzl* N, E^H-trI d=Jol rJ r+. sTP4ql^] F 7l
+q +ql^l= 4rI &q¤ F6|] co,
Al= +91 +sl'J Eg"J i9 E4-E zlzlss xe zlxll =+?/..(c6HrzoJ9
qlql^l TlalE rtle'JE+.
E
9 "JezI trl r-+. -rosz ^J4l6Iq
C6H12O6@q) + 6 O2@) .+ O COz(8) + 6 HzO(/)
(c) xe flxl* N2 Ext!-E+ a7l7l q E-e. 7l4l7| z|^16l
= (t) 37 "C, 0.970 atmoll,rJ 2a.s g4 9l H]-&ql^l
b +7Jol q r4. dEg ^JdqE a=+co,g +ElE 4l&a}^ls.
trll, =+?/-7I
(d) xe flxtb e*ol q = =-? ad6i +491
N, +zI-H-+ (b) 1.00 atm, 2e8 K9lrl so.o g9 EF=^E $d6l &p+^l
+. trl+^l olEg Tlal *zl"ll 4oll zI3 tf,49 zlal- 717l +16ll ge_6JtI^E +irlE 4l,t}6}^le_.
r, 7lal9 kzl -H-oJ+.
"Js.z111
10.58 Jacques Charlesr] )oseph Louis Guy-LussacS ¤zl**ol9
10.51 (a) 0.e70 atm, 35'cql^l No2 zli.ll$ El=$ 4lt6t^19.
|acques Charlesg rel a Eleql^l
trI. l783Hql oJ gt,tso
(b) 68s torr, 35 'Cql^J 2.s0 gol 0.875 LE itxl6h= 7l;qq
ge=+g 4l&6}^19..
LE +4E gEJ6.J gzl+E
^l-&619.+.
rE en+ g4IE
Hl+g ol+4q HzE Es^lfi.4.
10.52 (a) 7 07 ton, +9ile} {{suttur hexa-fluoride)
2l'Cq
^-l
q^Ls=
Fe(s) + zHcl(aq) FeClz(ae) + uz(S)
zlillel uls,$ 21416I^19. O) 12 .C, 743 torroll,tJ EjEzl- - B^J^l7lzl 9lolldY H kg
22.cq^J olBl6J +qE +dE
7.r3s glL9J 67lE Ee+9 4lt}6i^le. 9 aol gsdJTI?
10.s3 El^l "li{E gA=}g +A6h= Dumas-bulb 7l¤g olall o}¤g +tol Hlgo 6Iq +4 zlzllg ,354.
^l
trE E-6:Elql^l ,06 .6 ola|-tr #q +g^l7lr.. bulb(r? Zn(s) + H2SOa@fi .+ ZnSOr(ail + H2@)
+3)E xll$zl floll geal 6z19 e+g +AEIEI. rl.S zI -ross#zlzl 9lE H2 1s9 mLE 24"C. 238 torroll,<l +t} gdB
Etr+El 'lzl EalE Ee+g 4lt6}^le. Elzl +7lE a ql, H rBq Tnol 4ulr]i7l-? (EE 671 "Jqg ++ Bql
*3 r.orz g, butb F4t. tsa.^', "J43 242 torr, &E-Y 91trI.)
99 "Coltrl. ol^.llBfl Tlal(crHr(s)):
10.60 a+ TIElolEe| E9 Hlg"g_e zll
4,*4.
CaC2(s) + 2H2O(l) -- Ca(OH)2@d + C2H2@)
AHIEIE zlillg dill oJ-qol 7s3 torrg ull, 1.52a g! CaCz HI*91
ol^l=EB
itlflT]
9oll zl'cq^J +4- sdg + 9lE crnrq +sl= 41416I
^ls(EE +71 "Jqg ++
Dumas bulb Bq 9l+).
?= g+(10.6tr)
10.61 rl+ rHE de zlffi rjz-|a]l trzf.
o
(a) F *zl ,tlolel uj-E-$ EI tlAltl 6l-8, N2
Tlalzt +nl= gElL+ =ilqE+
H6]-E7I? E6J F Nz9
^I^16l+
EG E^lt 465
+E.Jgg g"toJzl-? to;o 32 'cql^l ea zl4l zeo torrzl zll?ld 75.0 mL + tql s.ls
(b) 7l4l# gE]6J oll oz 7l!19 +q= gtrl+ E6f=7|? g9 alsl g(Asro)ol Eq gla, +ol 320 "c-e. TlgqH
¤EJE 6 oz9 FE "Jqg gEI'J7f? p+ ee g-e.E Eilllg+. *9 Pulzl oJC6IElr. ^! 7I
(c) Tlal gq} + +7lel dill "JBg 9"l.Jzl? ^i4e+ 9u}.Jz|?
C6fE, +.J4¤
+6' zso ft o}4ollrlE *qg 8.ls atmol4. e-+¤- Tlill g.
qlE + 1I4q +E oJ4ol o.zt atm4 I atmoJ 41. ti&
-1s:nTl,llql^.i &dE g EEgg 4+ gtrloJ7lz
^le.
Zl4Ig 96|]
^|.s"e
TtAg 7l+6}^ls. qq EI6IE +^l'* AEol+.
ro"oz a=J.l s.s0 goJ r.ill E+olotol^(ar,ll oltEl +^) a4 (e) EE 714le^I=rEol E"Jslgrql341a34E 5"J
I70s torr, 24'Cq^J olEl +7]E EBd to.o L +7lql 'J 6J+E-e, olE"t4.
oltlEl e^zt Sd6l zlE+6J + z4"cq +71 Ll]ql^l wrug "Jq4j Tlall ¤ zy* F4g zli1lo14. :oo rql,rJ
=trt.
coz9 *E'Jq4 d4l oJ43 9uI'JzI? wFo9 S# zllE+ +E= gEE E+ zll#3 4s.5-4 I
10.68 s.00 mLE +olqlBqlEl(C2HsOCrHs, ,JE:0.7134 glmL) -rolz q -fl7}?
"I+
rlEE 0.oo Lel +7lq .+fi.:q, ol +7lqE olul N2e] oz 10.78 d=Jg 9r flE gA +qg d* *zl9l, 4e*9 "Jjl ql
9 gEISolSq 97, olEel ?E oJH*p*,:0.751atm, 7l^ll +E6J4. 9C Ss,ap1^l a4ql q
= ^lEE ^l,J
P6,:0.208 atmol4. egb ls.o.c_tr +xlqHn, 4olql E oJqg +C+ EL EBaIE'Jqe aAq B"ld4. zl
BqlEl= sd6l 7lslqfl4. (a) 4.lqlgqqE ++ "Jq illT} ill9lrl 8zl9 d=J9 +a6IE. 3e** zl4l4 *zlE
g 4l,t}6}^ls. O) +71 "Jel d^ll oJqg Alt6|^ls. clf, <tol qq+ 6Iq, 4*e A!+q q+ HEi6I
^lrJE
20o.Cql^J ++6J +zlql ol4l+ fi40] |fttlzl 3 : lel g zl ?+=+. olel++e Aq¤.¤B6I^ls.
Ele Eq fln, oltr]lE + "Jqol 2.00 atmg trll, +7lzI l0"C L9 Nz zli-ll gzlel s.-E7l 20.6oll.r-1 2s0 .cE- rttl
s.oo
-ro-osE
B4q9n ++7lY EF .-qslq94H, ol&p} Ea9 6}fl+. Bulz} oJCaI4l -?zl¤4E, olelq} Hplr} E|-$ql
.J43 go}.Jzl? (+, .lsiB EE +sl= +^l6l-ul.) -ro;g qBZl g6}9 ulxlizl Cd4eE ql+6}^le.
466 10d 7l^lt
(a) +zlE ¤+eE qlq^l E¤qE+ 4q+. a- 71^ll t.o L7l +¤61+ 4l rosazl
0) E4q rms *E E.J6J dil aaql^l 1.0 LE 02 TlrllTI ¤+
^sqflE+.
(c) ¤.zl Holl zlollxl= B+ EzlE +E
^-ll7l
4* 3r= e*q. ulzl zlxllsl Ee+9 4l4l6}^le(E
ql
(d) Ezlzl la'J qr+ +E=6lb + 9+ +E7t uBl¤+E- 1.0 L ts.eql gs+
= ^lrJg 5r.t4l+.
10.80 + t L E?+La7I 9ltrL 6J 4ql= Srp6l.qlrl N,E
7Il9 + +Ee+ ^l+g HlElfll +41+= ag 7lq4+).
E+I6l-r. gln, += 6J 7l]b STp6I-ql^l cH4E EQI6LI gl Hlolg4?.! zlill zlH10.9E)
4. olE 4lE tr]--gql 46lq Blr6l^le. r0.8e (a) zl4l= ol^J4 ZEql^J HqLIril 6l+ F zlzl {fl 3
(a) tsx}el+
dg +g6l^ls. 0) zl8lzl ol*4 4fql^l {q+4 6}
(b) "JE
: F TIzl ol-$$ u|$o|.r19.
(c)B^lel ¤J¤E glulzl
r0.e0 ECql qCg sE 8ETI 140 Koln, d*3 zl*9 :re
(d) z+g +Bg F6il 4lqL}zlb += +E E]]oltr|. +Cg -gH eETI600 Ke+ 766 x ,r.l.ololn, {E}
r0.8r Co zl4l= zs "Cql^J ¤t e^t
(a) Ne, HBr, SO2, NF3. ol o.ostsllolr+. qtr 4dql^J ilzlzf o1.g- rlal H
+E7l- ?7I6IE +^l4s Llg6f^ls_. (b) 2s.cql^J NF3
^l+9
49 cl * II}gAETI? ¤B6I^ls_.
9 rms 4EE 4ltl6l^le. (c) SEzI 270 KoJ d+flql^l ro.sl ,*
e+ ezlE 7l* *? +EE 4l4}6}^le.
der Waals tf
,4 bq ++ ¤Bgs *g ag?
(a) a4 zzlY tsx}g +E= +44E HlE. D= E^I
^Iol
10.82 (a) Co, HBr zlillE soo Kql^l
SF6, H2S, Clz, Bt
+^I E sHg +4U+.
+E7I67l6IE +^lqle +g6}^le_. (b) 300 11oll.! co a9
=zl= ez} ^Iole] EBg +4rllE HlE, b= ez}
(b)
4 ct, gzlE rms 4EE 4l+I6f^19-. (c) 300 Kql^l CoeI I +qE +Elu+.
cl, Ealel 7l* *+ +5,¤-4l4}6}^le. (c) ae} b9 r7l= +qql 9=+4.
* ¤B + Sg ag t Zl oltl rr = ^ls. (d) ae| bq aTlY gEql E++Et.
(a) oub Cl2-H-r+ mferll +¤t4.
t0.92 4rz|$ van der Waals tF+E TlEo e flg ql(E 10.3 +
-rosl (b) g=q +&g eg 4aq^J 4E 810t4.
a), * Sqq^l Arr+ co2zl ol^J zl^llql Tlzlal ¤FE+
6Jf ez}=ts=4CgErI'JdE 7+ qTVJL+.
(c)
aol+ ql^J6J i il&71?
(d) EJs.zlk9 zl8l.Ji+ Bt Aetl*4. ^|-ft ro.s3 q4 lo.r6ql^1,0'cql^J 22.4tLq=461+ I motg clz
U0.84loJC "Jqql^1, 7l1llg ¤# zI+
BE(^)E .gEql CHlql ol^J 4Fql^.1 44 Hq,++= Ag
"JgitrL 2s.cql^J
t4. .JA gEql^l sqql HlHl4++. F.J6J gEe| =
s.00 Lq 1.00 mol9 clrql 9"ll g^JElb Sqg
sqql^J + 4E E+=^= TlillE ul-u.;J4B, l= Tlill .B^f =416t=
4l+16}^le_.
zlEel H}Hl4t}r}. olBl6J Hlql t}
^{Eql ^PJg ="r}a}{ (a) Hxl old-7lill49
^l-s6f^le-.
i(ol^J ,l4l t[+e+ ?o] R-rpE BB)z] e*9 zl4l Ez] (b) trIe-- e-E van der Waals 419 Zltql ^F*6},rl9(van
E ¤+ xl-S 4e9l 4ql 49 ".IE:a, R*+5 494^le-. der waals Ag s. lo.3ql 914).
^J+
+AE z|g{e-e ^JC¤ + 7}^lg rHe+,H E+l fl}E (c) olt ,l4lql ql+ ¤44 van der Waals 49
^l-s"6lq
,*a gl+. g+tr xlgzl oe F T}zlg 3sclg 37cl 4l4I* An+gl ilol=, TlallTl5.00 LE xI6Jqflg EilTI
-loss t'gl g4E r*n gl4. trI4^l ^J^Jg
B+ili,H35o. 1H37cl. 22.4tj. 4l+9fl9 trltrEl q ay+. a ol+=+q.J7I?
=o+ EaI BqlE r*4 gtrt. olE Lll
2H3scl, 2H37clg ql
10.94 ccl4 1.00 molol 33.3 LE i}^l'g r+| 80 "cql^J ccLql e.l
TIzl ezL= E= +E9 +71+\e +g6}^ls. 4 g^Jq= Sqg 4l&6}r.le. olql EI.$e] F TfCg ^l
10.86 4l10.8eql^J +E a4 aol, *+ +?+bg uF69 Tlill +,6J+.
tI +4Iq el6ll ^lla6J + 9l+. qtr +Aol zl;.ll{ f:}!. (a) CClai oltt zlSlal9 ElEtrI.
flxt u(g)9 +4lg 619"6lE+ Tl]gqHqjl Tladl trz}. (b) CCl4* van der Waals 49 ulE4(van der Waals {Lf
23sue+ 238uel
+4I +EHIE Zlt}6ln, rag UF69 Hl¤. Ite _*. 10.3ql 9lE+).
!+ tsli6}^19. (c) olela3 4aql^l olt[ ZFql^.i q Hq+E 49 ctrp+
rosz ++ ul4(IIt)(arsenic(Ill) sulfide)E dal 4"+6IEql, d^l ccl4 + qr l"JzI? ol..'$$ {so}^19.
q= +Ed 320.C olqql^]E a"46J4. +El Hl^E ?71 Bf!- L/mol9 ++lE r*=
10.3q]^1, van der waals b
^J Ezl+
zig +Bg ¤l6fl F.J.J 4AE gEe+ .Jqql^J +. olE be+El gz}+B^lel r7l= al&B+ il4= a
galel -1ro.ls1-*.
Ar e= +Eql Hl6li 0.288]le +=61= aoe Eld I9"1.J4. Ag ol+6}q xe g^lE HI^IE
xeoll 46J b
d4. zlill*oll^l +sl ul^(rrr)9 tszlrlg *9,tz}? g 4l&6}.11, r
t}r+ 1.40 A(rB z.z)$ ulaalrls. +9
10.88 B^lelg -Ee.5 7l4l= .J4 .Jqql^.j zle +Bg E6Iq P4Y @lz)#99 zl9oI4.
+7lE# E^ll 467
10.96 s. l0.3ql^1. van der Waals b Hf* t-lmot9 El+lE r*b b H+E+q 4l&oJ van der Waals HlzlE3 7.33q1^l b
4. olE b H+tr+El gzlq Eafg rzlE 4lt+ + 9l E"J A+ EE *A6J H}zlEyi "Jd6}rtl E+qq *y7l?
4= 19 9,laJ4. zllz.3¤9 EqE +a6I?+. _E 10.39 ¤B5I^le.
xl. ({
7a.c. dflrlz} *zltr zl¤ z}8,
0.e80 atmoll,rl
4 Bdaz} {4}4: coz9 BqE 4l&6}^le-. (aaoJ +7lql^l oz9 8ts89
oz P Eol
(b) Cor= l0'C, 120 atmoll,rl EJE 1.2 g/cm39 olxllg =4d+7l?
zlatgl u-ts}4E, raol zt^l6l+ *qE gul-zl I
0.2oesolEl.) (b) olEl'+ 4IAql gsll caHre P r+ol g
,l L /7LO
Aq4E7I? oltrll co2e+ HroE ^8d61+
gd ¤4+r
'^)--: I:
7|C6JtrI.
zlille
(c) 30 "C, 70 atmoll.t.l
^l6fql
!-tel4E, :aol
10.107 qlzJol N, 74.8vo, oz t5.3vo, coz 3.7c/o, i
4d *7lE
^Iz16l+ P9i 9"IzI 9diz}?
rttl6.2%oz s.6J6}J ?14. (a) d4l oJHol o.sas
10.102 E_trEloJ(cruJg 4'J.J Sqql^J E+Elq "*g "Jg + 'lalg
atmol4n 6tE, e*Eql^J 4 CtsE *8.J43 9,1-
^J+B+ 9lrl ¤4.
Tlql
olxl zJ|{la}.rl9. O) qld +7l9l +El7} 455 mloll9
(a) 3.00 atm.27 "6oll.! ll0 L +7lql EqTI= E.tr.$lloJ
E7l 37'C4H, 4d corg EiE Brlt^l 41416I^l
,l!19 E+= 4l4}6i^le-.
.lill EtrqoJq E+= 4ltI6I e. (c) olqql "J9 corg {^J6}71 +l8ll^lE
O) ae +qql =+n^
(cuH,rou) H rtsol ql^lqqot 6l+zl Zltl6f^ls(p++
^Jtlq=
,<19. olql qil E_eqloJE "JEi o.sso g/mlol4.
HI¤¤ cus,rou9 ¤4 Hl+r+ 5"J61trt. 8l3.2er+ E4l
(c) 9xll9 E+e+ Tlill E+E EIE 4lt6l-^le. oltsl6J El
10.s7 +4).
S TlrllE^f ¤E"Eql zlao}ol
=6I^19_. r0.r08 tlgql^J gE grt ulzl d*9 orzp g+^fql
U0.1031t-lp zfBp(nickel carbonyl, Ni(Co)rg 4+E q^Jol ^lt 1.42oJ9*
gBg
4lq il+. +E +z.s torroltr. &^el ++
fl= a-qs.JBld Ee +q a}+oltrI. ¤xll ded *zl oJH9 rss torrol4. e"*g BoI.JzI?
ql 3lrlle -d+q= bE: +Eltr. 8^la E.J I ppbol4,
^IAE
469 10L| 7t^11
uo.l0el+i4= E--E= E +7lql 1.50 atmel old- TlillTt Eq EEE 7l4ql 7l+ Hq+= TlalE q!. lolz|f 1u) o1
9lq-. rBql^le+,Jol, ol43 ul4 4l+eE +Eqd tt zlr,ll9 TlEql 7I+ *B6J ae q! a.Jzl.? (c) io-l
0.800 L +Elel +E E* +rle+ ++ +zls tsAqq 9l { gEql^l rms E^f 4yzlzlzt xu}E Ag olg 1"Jz}?
trI. *+ +zl7l gqE 7l8l= Elol 9l= E $z] geE. (d) 7l,ll7l ilzl6lE *rJq
dal +zI9 Pulzl zl-6r
Hl6il
StL¤Ei. ol r+A Eq] gETI 946l-4l +^lqn trl^lE+ ae 9s a.Jzl? ¤# EzI +F qlHzlzl 7l* z
(e)
= q!
oJqol 6es torr{S, fl4 zlxllzi Eq 9l'J E +rlE ag a"J7l? (0 Nztr4 nlaz1 E¤al-E ag q!
Puli g"l"Jzl? 4"J71? (g) van der Waals *i bzl Tl* ag q! a
=
(' "J7l?
a l0.ll4 ++q a+ql Tlillel deq ++ Ezf oJqE ¤
a
'-Jol q ^IolE
a fefl zllz|, E 6_s-6llzlEzl?
(a) .JC gEql^J 7lx{7} q z}g +qe.J+E]fltr}.
O) "JA +i'lql^l zlxll9 SszI +7IqflEI.
10.n0 "l^l ge*q zl4l "JEE q¤. Eq^lilH 0 "Cq^l $q
l0.ll5 ElgC zlil + 4Etr+ ol^J4 4Fql^J ,lat dzl H.q
E EL+e (a) ol zlilloll .ilql Aqq} ge+3
=AE+.dlp pg :allo) (b) dlpy +: ag gs l.JzI? E 7.8e1 gs zlEE ^l-s6l-q B
ec6l.^le.(EJE.. 4 "Jq 6J ql ql+34 z|.EEBol^le_.
+ql 44 "JC6fZl#zl9xl ?+=r+. r olff L .+l.JzI? r}i bi
l0.l l6 van der Waals 7l1ll $z| t molol ifzl6l+ dill
Sel(atm) 1.00 0.666 0.500 0.333 0.250 +qE ql {ls+ A+E aol "JEjd 9l+. olq'6J +ilE ol
"JE(g,/L) 23074 r.5263 l.l40l 0.7571 0.5660 *aI4 *zlglr-l Ar flxJfol dxlle z|^16l+ +q E&
l0.l I I ++ +zl Be-zi gg #4 *zli tl+ T7.428 s
g El-*e.l 4aql^J al4}6}^le.
^lql
I e"+g TItlEI. ol Szl"ll Arol ill9l^lE, f- eelg (a) STP (b) 200 atm9 "J44 0 "C(t+61 6l-71 +.14 ol^J-
9 Nurgzl, += 6ILI= s.oo 99 HCI(s)zL Eq 9l+. 7l= aol+. 4+gg #=dol 6s.colE.+ B4 q ¤Al
Bezt 9H¤ trI, 6l-+7l.Sd6l 4!.9 Ellz-^l TlillEol g+g g + gtEL 4zloJ. zs.6oll.rJ 10.7 x roe ft39 Bl
Hls"++. (a) HI*ol $e¤ +ql 4ql tsE zlAl: q! ql"Jg 4tsge &e}^l{r}r 7l4i;14. (a) cH:oH9 E
4!zl? (b) HI+ol SA¤ +q 4E 4l+'J49 gst.J E7l0.7e1glml4E, ^Jdq= ,ll+gel BulE E"IoJ
,l? (5, $C!= gc}.JEtsg +ElE +^l++.) (c) d 7l? b) qlql.Jr+ ql+gol co2k)e+ H20(l)E 4}slq=
Cq= gE+'JEtsq e?*g gtrtoJTl-? HI*q rllt +B *= ELq Hi*4g 'iA^19-. 10.7 x loe ft3
qlEll"JE $d S^el, Ezll @ql^l Zl,tlg,lltsg
"JE Sd
gaq qE d,il elgq trsffitg 4l&6t^le-. (c) ,llEl.J
NH:(g) HCI(g)
g .-q+ElE ,,JETI 0.466 slmLTl g+. 2s'cql^l qlegE
"JsE 4el.J4 "-4iI ,il+gs.l +91
o.zgr s/mro1g}. .-4ill
o o q-g
5.00 t)
2.00 L
5.00 t)
2.00 L
+i'l'J ¤Aq flgrl HEI¤ Hli6}^lg. 9lHzl rJ+I
25 "C 25"C +eql^1, qts ESol +91 +i'l'J g^ tgqT}4 a_zl?
10.123 qel zlgoll flfl2|:(qlqe, cHrE+ [ 10. 126] SlE}E=+9-fl a]
ofole{(IF) zl ;.llb Lull o}ol9-Br+ +i
^offigEl+I.il
+6I= ql ^l-*84. srpql^l 6}+ql 2.7 x ro,, rg dfl +sflg Elgo ce+El xll=¤ + 9lEl.
zf:.z} **84. ol oJq ClEll.Jel ¤^q ql6J + tBq I2(s) + SFz(g) -+ 2lF5@)
I
7 l ;
l
J
\
T
7v
I I
r.illel Ert HIE B^I +
7li1l, o-4ill,
dq^-l :zxll, o-qiil, zlxllE Hljr'6J+.
gEe+ +zIrJ ilol -Eeq EEzl
^J
q= aA6L= ql 9lq^J +-sEI Egg
6JtrI.
Ei{ls} Er F
4 At}, olg-r*+xl {lql ql6}q .J
olB+.
.ffi ru t":
ttt-
< sEoJS E0ll g lrl ?J7l nfl.8oil, g +19 E3 g x,Ealel E=g E|^al6|-
7l ?l6ll^i oJE eglol Er[
471
4EE zliil ^JlA Ce4 ¤+qE E +E +s+ e_i= g4 Ee_l +zI6Col+. g
ol
-9 B4+4 tszlE 'J.l glq E +zlql *=trI. t 44, E tszl-E=g 4E 5 Ezl
=4zl
tr EElr+ol= 49 rl daoizll qq g EE]IE d+¤ al^+^la+.
g* E4E r+q}^l¤E 6lq+ aA+C eEg ¤Zl4q, zlxl ,J++
^lld r?4er.l+
5f "Jg= rll SzJ$ +fl+. S* E4e+ += E^lle+ r.xllTt +q6I= EtI$$ olallolzl
+l"li^l= ts4 ^Iolql oJt +xpf tJ(intermolecular force)$ ol6fl6llollrJ el4. ol
fl'J9 C44 rJlzlE.JoloI"J. Eeel a^d4 +^71ral E=.-4^ll ^Jqql^J r EAq
=461+
E4zl Cd!+ qBrll g+El=zlE g + 9l+.
'J+6Iq SzlE ill34. SzlE ,]]+71 96]] S+6I^l *zlE xll$zl *tl6l^l
.$lall
ol-LrL oLLrL
l5='1 . L6="1 .
ral Eieq ^ll zlzl tr-q]= tslI6[_]r. 9t+. EeE t]EI= Ea](gz], tsz], ole)
11.2=
E +E' "ilHzle+ oJzlzJ "JqE +Bql EI4 ¤4¤+. 9F glHzl5 gr.fl E=6Ir, oJ
z|$ r.JE g?-l Bq4 ¤.zlolz]l tI4. .JzlzJ.Jqg oJzFS solzl ,*+. tl-gql^J 7l
^lE
,ll"J Eeg tr-gql^l Exll"J Ede+ gzlrJ 'JEol 'JaI4. "-4ill"J Eee rSlt EeB
M olE EEol .-qi{ 8Efloil ?lg trflsl "JE= r EtrE aill _Ets 7lill 8Efiel gE 6 ol! +q q TvEDp
Erlz ?!4
=71.
F .i- \
C D
I l
\
,- .,/'
lI
I t. \
t' / \
.lts 11.2 7l^11, Eitl, -r.nl 84. tr+trJ. 0[0l9Eg -?+ 3+ Lf=GlT] 0lg^i E^[0ltl. rejL'f E^lZ Ce-l l1l717l'Ja[^l 88. +
gtaJqlll ill TlXlol tl= AEfl, Cl2= tlL)l.Brzi =-sree
s4^1| 12= -Z^ll,+ +IH-Lltf. ORvkamalovsmail.com/Shutterstock OluYaso/Shutterstock
= =
11,2 | +zlt 3
E3 ECoe E,\lE! H-Ctol Zal= HCt E ,rz
Eg EA9 a"#rI4 "JH+16|zll += ^ll7l= 7l^1^l
.$:|zl(intermolecular)
^tLH
H_ctst Zaletutr;;;,"i**=r,i olg e*, ="f, ¤6J, ++ a6Jr+ Ag gzlql(intramolecular) aJ-H-uli
"J,
aA E^[t1 oJal(A? 3-d) gd E6trI(raJ 11.3). tr|4^J ++ a*g #= aE+ .lxll= 7lo+^1v)41+
axll= +ol= ql q 4e glHzlzt gs6|+. qlE 5q "4zll Hclql^l HCt B
H zla "Jqg #9 zlslrl? ull Ezl 16 kflmolol g,q+ HlH, ucr ++ a6J
-C g #g ullE +:r k|/molol gs6l+. tr|4^l HCI zJg ¤zI Eeol -r.illql^J
._qzll q.= 7laltr
H6J trllE $z[ z[i]li rqlE $zl¤4.
otSt EtTtTt ota{
#=dg E'J6Iq, "-qiJlE qel TIzl E¤g +^l7J ts9 rjlzlE 3 +El-U
arH 11.3 E^lZdE r+EztErllti,8E 4t +. .-{^ll 'H+ql^l zlLzl ^Je "L "-4^ll= #=+. $zll $zl5ol E4qq +
.e.
o 7ls q4E EzlzJ.Jqg ++6l]ot'*+. ezlrJ oJqol ,Je+=,.-q4E #
olel+^l6}7il rillel +=dE +^l7J eol E
=de++.
11.2q1^l E= aAe, +o+ A+ql E6l]^l Ezlsol +q4 9l= EeE +=dr+ #=de
==7Ig++t+.
EzlzJ 6Jq E6]] +q4 il= Eeq Hl6ll gd ++.
EII2J fl
+4Iq ai(N, 63 77
H+ gd ++. qlE 5H ucr EztE .u;qzf s_Hlegl! +rs+ gA "J+ql +0. rza4 -
o.rzs9 d6}%Iol 9l+:/ +Ae+ f ?14(9lxll a.s *=). 49ol E{¤ 4?-l= EIE
^tolel
AQlql 96ll +oJ gzl-= 44Hrl trl gEt.
^le. ^l-olE
Ir--rla{
_ri_A
4j214" e +Cola ++C"J gz} E= $z| ,tlo1q15 442]|4 ttE zlSol +4]6t4 S:
rJ46Jzl EE+. rel+ 95, olE*, aie+ rJg ++^d Tl4lE.lclE ilzl oll f
=+n
Eql, olfl oJzI qE a.+E qlqol il4. ol4'J.Jqel rs:oE
^IolqlE =116I-r.
ql +"J41 trl+oJ E4qtz} Fritz Londonql e.l6ll =gg
zl¤-_q__q. zll"Jqqq. LondonS Ez[4 fl
Lilq gl= dztE szl"Jol 623 ffiz| EdE(instantaneous dipole momenoE #ts*
^l
+= ag.JlI+.
ql= EJE flzlE d'Etilql^l 4 gE e ++l dzlE ¤+ +sE:aJ 11.a(a)oll,rl lr
=q
a/fl 7¤ 44o14. gzl+ ++Colr, g+ tl+zi EHIE= Tlzljr_ glrl ?++. rfl
= +rJ dzt +E: ¤+ +Ee+ rl-= + 9lq. qE EE qtr +rJql gE gzt
't 49 dz}
+4"Jg C^l'*+n 7Id6fE, F zH dzlE qE q!.J+ql E"J + 9l+. Hltr:z +rJql
r g4+ rB 11.4(b)^.tH ++ 6r-=-z[ EHIEE 714q. il flz]9 dz] +Eg .Jd flz]
9 dz} +4"Jq g6}.3 qr+^l el fl4.9 +rJ^d+zl.= ol* gzlql Hl+oJ +?J4
r5l:z-4f +g6J + 9lr, =+.
rH 11.4(c)7lH ol* szl-E EqBT]E tlg zi+ol .Jq+
^lE
4. olc+ rJg .Jqg 514!fl(dispersion force, London E&q E= +g,dizt-.r?ts 4*
zl q]q)ol+r *4. olfl E3 Ezl-$ol "}|+ =d6J
Ell"J 6e6}q.
^le
E4lqE ^llzl= + Ez[ q]ql^l +A4oJ ,.5l-]2]-= +E6[= A6] tsEq E+.JC9 8.1
Eql el=.JtrI. EzI 49 dzl Eezl g"Iut drll +¤ol vl,A + glEzl6l= aE.E r E
zI9 E*=(polarizability)4r 6.Jq. EzlE E+EE Ezt dxt +Eq '9:4d',9 4E+
lL ^J46J + gltrl-. EzlE ¤+E7l q drll Ez[ dxl +=ol .JrE]rq 323 ffiz]
=++
E "J=+. EI4^l 4 Bol ¤+q= +zioJ+E E&qol rl rEl.
.JHI49E flz}4 Ezlq d49 fzt Bg++ ¤+E7I ,lrltrt. tr14^J E4Iq
^ll7lE
flzl4 Ezl.el a7)7144++ ?zlalE a.Jol 9lrt. $x| =zle| e%ig oJHI4 os ^lE
tr-++417[ tlz] ullE9l, +x]e]ol ="2[s[aq. E4]qe 4d+. E4}qol +"J.J Ez]rJ ql
I{I{flxl
ouz t- olai
ui
.e- e .e-
t {,-
t .¤
offi|z[ oJz]
Estl+ a-
o e O
ae-
a *o a-
e
o "' .e- o
e
o¤
¤+t+ o a o o o o
Ne K)
2
F (8s K)
Ar
3
c12 (239 K)
T
7l
KI
4
Brz (J-rz K)
Xe
5
12 (458 K)
rv "J
gEtlr+ ul$r6r zlzlle.l 4*, Ez}+rol f;z|$ffi #=de 7lA+(fH 11.s). BEdlrI
ul$.! zlzlloll^l= +Tlgsql^J oI4+e_E
'Hqa++ +zte} E= flzl"&ol 6zlaJ4. ts
^relol
t+E 49 ts+Iqol ,J6I+-r. ^J4g + 9lr, :L Aal g=dol to}4i Ar+=
L
o.l rL
Ii i-:"1 -
Y
r-EJlEll"J(CsHrz)
bp : 309.4 K
A ccla. cBr+, cH4= #=E0l 671.61= +,(lE H||g6l/.l9.
:
:'
{1)
Ss"....
I
It
6-
.J
+
6
14 ZiIICH3CN EiICH3CN
a.LH 11.7 8=Il.-8=rl.AtE 4r'E (a) ZE dellcHsct't,
'''
(b)o-4^llSEtlCHsCNslE=^l-8=^lSEAtB
_=71
=/q
g=xt--g+i &a-',t+z | t
^1ri =7
afH 11.8 H 7l.rl ZE-d +71 EEel =rEf, S=^1"EfllE, *=E
478 113 o-4illsf E^l'ZJ -'J
fA zStt
f.al 11.e= L4-t7=ag4e+ +i_a "JEq4l olCts e+EtEE #=dg ++8.+. 14+ gi
E egal5 EIaJE(cs+{l^J snH47f^1, E+ ++C)e.l #=de +g q+ 44zlg +4
4eE +7l6-J+. olag Ezl.=.tol +7l6Jql qE ¤+E, s&qol fizlalzl ullEql qltr
g + 9= a6}ol+. zllls, 16, t7+4 +49 g^5E gg =
A6Jg trIE+. -r.Bl+ NH3,
H2o, HF= q^Jsl= aH+ #=dol .Eld k+.
^I¤
ol= EHIEe Eli6.J Ezle&4
^ll
*
C9 zlzli El= Ee=4 +Erlts qq += CAg z$lt- 9l+. q= 5E Ee +e +
Ed, Elg, =o899 ?lAL+. olfl CeEg E9 tsztzJ ¤ol uldtr4 eE rJ6t+=
=
ag trq =
=+. .Jqe
'J6J +4+ +4 ABg.E+EI 49 ¤4.14. +4 AE'
HF, H2o, NH:9
(hydrogenbonding)* dzl *Cs.zI g^(oJHI:loE F, o, N)ql Eq 9= +A gzt
=
e+, q]=q +E exl+ Et+ 4*zl"ll 9l= d7l +cE4 g^ zJ9 .J4ol4. q4^l
+ EzlE H-F, H-o, H-N Aqle E += +zlq flE =r, o, Nr| +^ aqlg Bc6J
+ gl+. ql= 5H fH 11.10q1^J .Hq += azlH, +i aqle H2o Ezl-el H flxic+ qld
+ Hro EzlE o flxI ^Iolq ,+49 a+ql +A Aqlql flE u ilzlzl El="#
\ =4loJ+.
dzltl'4 tln zl¤¤ E-ql ++6I+.
+A '2lEiE Bd6t7l +16}l^1
b eEroll Elq6|'* Hl+A g +A aqlg 5E.J ="#g ,{-=z}_rg=_z}.Jqes g + gltr}. F, N, o flz}E dzl *
xl(N, o, F)b +xE 7f^lr 4E7l ull$ = ug, ol= gzle+ +a flxl-^|ol9 a6Jg +col ql$ =.-n +4 94 +ql
old6l-= trlrll .J+(,}H4. Erlel e-=4ql flts +sr.l= }8+z}el olaq¤ q= +g +
?010F 6lE7l-?
a+u-l +4 eEt,
4U+).
E^lr[ Ert?] + <------+ <-------+
N o A- o
I I
N-H
F-H O-H
+a flzl+ 4* dztzt s.+. trI4^l d+zlE oJ+ ++9, +^ g^Iqql 4E d6I7I r.
H H
N:
I
350
o 16+
o
I I
H H
15+
300
,s
E
HF
H E
xl 14= H2Te
H- N: H-O: K
250
sbH3
I I NHa HI
H H
SnHa
200 i
H
GeHa
H-O
I
H-N:
150
siH4
HH I
I
q 9l+. "Jd6l.= il= tszlE flzl $$uzt gzlel +a6}q ¤qal ¤4. dzl
zI E-a S,= +4= ,1]9 4zl qlEql, flil $$Etl= gzlql E\+ 711d4lr+7l7la-, :L
=ilql
4+ ?ti'J tlE z}+g.Jr+.
=
+a a6Jg CEqL4 +sCg zl4. 4** EJ6ll^l "*e slq4lq,<J fet q.Jg +
+. ql= +4 a6Jg +EeE Tlbq 6s'J alzl-?l +3= oJae+^l7lb Ell E¤¤
=H
=+.
+i a+3 EoJ DNAE +d4 7l+ql +soJ ol+ +d +aE BCotZl ,J+.
qH
F +a
11.1
,3sJg E^JEI+ g{ {7l
rtB Etr e +4 e--Jol Eal4 dEE n|l q-gE -g 4.,J? Etre q! A17l?
=E--J =e-.J
Dl I El I
oJ(C Hr, d l0 | E z|.[!(H2 N N Hz), EFsaJ a[ ql EJ(C
H3 F), =JEl. +A(HrS)
T[l'J HH HH
.84 ql TIzl iIEJEel plol^lol +q4 flr, :aEol +a a trtt
:N-N:.....H-N-N:
i+ql +q.J ol5 E=
4"J71, olHTl-= ql+61-= E^]loltrl. tt"l
HH H
iiE zlzlz 9lq. rel+ +a a6Je EE +4
zI N, o, F4 !"fr 4aJ.9-E ¤aE q"J .JqkI+. atr. "JHl4 o + fa9l r"fr Ell+ n, o, FE rQlalizlS
4 p++4g +46Iq +a7I N. o. r flzle+ 4e ad.
AtE] Eq-e 6Iq, +^ Aqlql +qd-= Eeg +Hts + 9l+. {-
g 6tr lltszl gotts+. +z}el Lewis 7tE:aflg oll .J E z}+q 4¤I Lewis +4= r4E aE ql+g dAd+ %I
+g Ezlql flE d7l ¤.tE7l gzK.JHI4 oe. N, o, r) Eol ¤4.
I Hl++ dzl4l-E +^ aqiql =9_eap1. > "H.* qlfil1
Eol N, o, Fql a.J+ +A= s.¤-6}zl ?*E cHop* nrs +* + rJgql^l ._q4.J ,Ie.^Jol7l..t Eeg?
ol H+ql^J 4lelsl+. Lewis *391^J +d c gzlE (a) *gqlatol E (Hrco) (b)
= oJ(cH3F)
=
rzH9 H flxle| rufl$ r flztE EEt CH3FE (c)
=+e-EEil4
+a(HCN) (d) r+&3rt +a(H2or)
^llel+tr}(+ ^|o1o3p1
a= aJ^J 4rll9 aqlg ^JC6II, +ie} ++sflg 44 *p}+^(HrS)
(e)
lzl]E eqlg ^JC6J4). ol +zl+ rzl]9 c-r A.Jg r*n, > s=qFil2
H-F e*g 17l]E SoEe +c A6Jg SC6Izl ?+=+. q+ Ee + +s+ +4 eqlg ,*E Eee?
:44 HrNNHz9 Z*, N-H AoJol 9i+. rglil Lewis * Ecl "ilEHl(cH2Cl2), +:-¤(pHJ, g+ olEJ(NHrct),
aq 4 N g4ql Hl++ azHrol E?l+. tr++^l +i e6J oi,rJlg(CH3CoCHJ
g dlol=ald $z[.r.[o]ql,rl 6J + 9l+.
=z]]6J+lt
a, t" .....4 o
1..3*
+ .....3 I .....A
\ -..-..'
Q, +-,..-.Q, e eg
21al
=g
I
u O -..4 G .....3
aral 11.11 gBoll^le.l+4 eEt g3 +40il ?l= HlGl ?,1= ErJ nflEoil, fill=0lo-qillEHr; 11 gdE +4= oJ=^l=-drf.
gB^l Eol "Jala]+ 4(=e 11.12)g B¤6I+r ¤2zl= "*3 z|¤ d{}g floJol
*
I
.:f 94. uJtlol Eql Er, Br^l7t +glzlE +E+ol Eld+. 9*.9 "Jszl Eel "JEql
El6ll 4L+= zl+^JE
^JBillql ^JB+ ¤olg
,lrl4. ++ Bql 9*ol EE E
^Idg
E q++g Hil Eq g i}+d+. "JE g+ol EH+ rj "Jgzt u+8, s+
_.,/
,i =Eg
q+Sq g+e Htqql 7[+g+ot Ef dx]lzl _zi]l gqe 4o14. ql++g ++ ^J I
Ee olfloJ adgldE ^J=.J + Hg 4o14.
w
a rB Eot gol gSEj
ol¤--.r!'+r,f
olt-g+r]
EJ
m
11.12
E4
!H efl Hzo9 s +Eiol Na* 013= B6lE7l?
6+
t!
Ii
1?Q
cl-
+ i.a*
gg ,r*+zlE gd6l
"J+ql gEr,
"J+q gflq. olg d6led,r} ^8+
¤.o1¤-3 old6}
x| efle.el a7l7l4e++ ol "J49 a7)Z 6ri++. ol$-ffi2| Ee E+q Naclol
+oI gl= +"_qr+ ?ol, *c ._4zll +ql olg Eeol EoI gl= +Eql^J ull_f feolQ .-,,=.,
(4.13).
o-{i{oil +ot
OH,NH, HF OH, NH, HF =c
flE o|e8.afll
flrl ++c E^l g.t7l7l s= +8 Er] .lt7l7l ll= +d Ert ql:Eoll+3
EII'J OJqq ffl: Ne, Ar ql: BF3, CH4 qI: HCI, CH3CN ql: H2O, NH3 NaCl
=+
EL/\tal
(0.1-30 kllmol) ,/ ,/ ./ ,/ ./
8=xF8+rtaa +E
(2-15 kJlmol)
./ ,/
+4 e-J
(10-40 kllmol) ,/
olE.{'+^t 8E AtE
(>50 kIlmol) ,/
fts 11.14 Erl2J oJaJE e!6|i iil=.a;r= clttJ tl"g-Lr E^l2J oJqol +E6lr ?t= + 91t1. EdqP E=
Eloll AfE-.Jtl= ,ioll +olblel.
=E0lLtE-stEoll= =+E
I
482 113 o_4lletE^lrJ -.J
4 E^lE ol?6t= 27fl9 E + +4 A'Jg.J + 9l'1. rqq o[.r]l-E4} Ez] +t[3 zz11E +] Aq]g 6J +
+a eEt= TtTlrf. il= cll HI6ll, l_E_a+g tszl t tle rzl]9 fi ¤*"J9 aJ f gl4(=al 11.15). r
p$ olr11e41E #=dol rl +El. olfl Er+= EHql qEl 4E 8+ztc+ +^ aql
g {+ 4*zlE 7l^l+. +EIe4 Ag aq.J i.d tsz}9l,tJ= E]]+ E$ol
=!s-6J
4. olfl Ezls=$ Q+e-l "Jq ql$ql +"1 tlqlql^l E+g Ctre ,J6IZ] ^lE +a
e + 91tr[.
0[^tlE1!{CH3COOH) EztzJ "JqE l}ql4 Hlig trll. 4+ ojq];.p3-o1 rEl9qoF +trl-.
^Jl7l=
MW: 50 amu
bp=ssrr 1. + ErtTl B^lE! sgEl ETFJEi TtrtE!, + EEoil^1 EEqe lsl ,JEl. olel6J
=Eel
tszl-591d tszlzJ "Jqg r7l ilol= r&*zi-rL}?z} .Jq ^l7l zlol rll+ol4.
4 Exlts 0l?6t= 17l|el
+4 ?j-Jg 7tctrt. EzI9 +Col ?7IE++ Ezl-+ eol ,J6l-t, +^ e6Jg 6J + 9l= +^l7l7l
tI rJ+ ^JE 41-¤¤ ei+.
2. + ErlaJol *lt"l6l qe;. +A egol AE u:ll, EdqE olE! ,"!E! ErPJ ?!
4 =E9
EIE 7E! e86tXl6l| Etrl. gHI4sE +^telol
=Eol
Ee'J++ EzlzJ "J
'tl
qol r+.=EErl= =
^1#=Eoltsol,drl.
F qHl
Erlt
1 1.2
oJaJeltq4 4Ple+ ++ qE
a Ee Exl*, +c, +^ Be
914. ExlzJS H,
a!+ql (b) CI, < CH3COOH < Ar < CHa
2 amt, CO 28 amu, HF 20 amu, Ne 20 amuol4. UrE f (c) CHn < Ar < Clz < CH3COOH
Elg 6t7l qlEq, ol ,rll zJ-zl +ql^l #=dol zI* +4. + > .!a* qlrll2
*9 coE, "+rJ +Cola Ezlelol 7l* aLl. ulzluJ9-E, (a) cl-s Ee=q EzlzJ .J49 ++6}7, (b) #
NeL **C Ezlol4. EIE^I rjl+ #=d"l TitL *"t"t,* TltI te =46.t=
Eeg dq4^le_.
+. ql+q= #=del +^J= +g+ a+. =aol CH3CH3, CH3OH, CHgCHZOH
11.3 I '-4^llsl=E-.J dtr 483
a{
E04
l tr
B"Jolq e]{ s-.Jr+ Ag "-qill= trl]+ L4rll EErt. H}Eql, Eol+ 7l¤fl ?g "-4^ll=
dr]l 6=+. '-4illE EEql Ell6J ,16}9 E¤E(viscosity)41 '*+. a4illg dCszl.
sIiI= q L4Zl 6=4. ddE: qE "J4"*E 9xJlz} zi= +g Fn+6I= =++
+A6t
q g=+(f=J11.16). dcE= arEI f,$$ol eqill= E"+6lq 4Ele= +E= +a6}ol ^l+g
44617\E- '*+. d^"rEzl lffl arql ++Eg q Aad tl4gq. 4.gs.oll 4lt sr +
I
9lE kg/m-soltrl.
dcE= 4 "-4ill tszl-5ol ^Jql4eE drll s4"J f ?lizl6[= ar+ sflol 9l+. tr] I
4^l dcE= EzI ^lolE .Jqr+ E4¤ ^le +q ¤ "JoJ +e(ql= a +zl= .:+
,llElzlH =E
ga f 914)zl-9lEzl, s.Ezlql gBJ 9l+. q4^l s rr.sql{4 rJol "J¤ SAE 40 SAE 10
^Jtr +^lg+= Ate +xl"J+=
=
9 Exl9l 4aI¤ dCs= Ezlelol 6zlaJ9l rlel *z}C4. Ed-tzl =;r, EdETt^ln,
ts861¤ott!trt. Eel+otdEt.
E 11.3 20'Cq^1 EJEt+a 4lolel X65 a f.H 11.16 EdE HIE !l+
3+^f
Eql(Society of
gxl
a= Exl^.1 EdE(ke/m-s) ^lE^f
Automotive Engineers, SAE)ts
olgt o4*{l
,t\ F \- t, [,-'i- F
C E^11= 6ts921 |*Y4)olzl rllE
ql El.Jsldg TIzl= a6}ol glI, E
LF 400"c gEql^JE Eijl tr-ql_E
1- +=-3- oll=o lo ltrt=E (bmim+) PFo BF,- 6J+. 4+EE +alC Eeg,l]+=zll *
o!nt-Q
3018 9ntq g gE, qlE Eq Be a+ql flq^J
100 "c E= r ol6lel gEq^'lEI o-qill
arB 11.17 013¤ Eilloll^1 gzqts rl|E4oJ olE
484 113 o-4^llelE^l'2J e
E 11.4 Lil 7lxl I-+EJ-3-0llEJolEIEt=.E(bmim+) gel +:E4 ol+. olg^J "_qll= ",*3 Eeg +g $uflolzl ullEql, 4.J
Eafl 8s + +s"4 +?.lql ^F&g + 9l+. ole+ ag ce qlEql, ol
gC +,]]= P+e tl$ r+Aql*] flBC *zl +,ll= 4t6I=
o!nl-q
O-lL EOIE +ts¤(c) E61l tEfc)
,llq4t qlal Eeol+. aF4.J fzl 8,ll9l Hl61] tqlzl_e_
bmim+ cl- 4l 254
tr olgc aqz]l= +q aA, q "Ja+ zl4, +13 zllrl-&9
bmim+ I_ _JL 265 z1;'Cg zll+e}+. ole+ ag ol+E, &84 +qL n+4
^.lel
bmim+ PFo- l0 349 q^l +aql trlzl= g6}9
=q =+.
+fl ¤+ +xll: u.31, tt.32,tt.B2
bmim+ BF,l -81 403
{.JU \-) UU!) gl: Ezl= E= tsJ6*ql^J +aol EgBzlE qlBql, g.E tszl¤
g.ll+tr E9BzlE e"J E=E}. olel eol oJ+e-E 6f"J E* s
E ts4¤ LH+E- gqBzlr, olq 4+ .EE4ol -EHql
g{¤ol zl4Al Eol|l g+. =qEq
9l=
+Bg +qd +i{q 4ol{ z]-at 4e sfl4g zlzlzl ql$ql,
EEJge +¤q zv\& -Eo&g 7l4L+. ¤*gol+ q^= .r.}]-tr ?
Lll+ol E^lE3 EtrU HJEoe ql zl+z} EE4 Aol ++C Ezls ol+q1l sBq^], Eol 'EJg
8^|1El7l n|1Eoll Gl! "Je =al:
fl=01
oeq ^lE
EJTIE E= 'L771^l P-dtrl. E*'g ol+Al q= A6J-g ol4ol ¤Eoll t4.
sqill EBzlg ts471 91611 ++6llot 6l+, L}]+E 6J* Eg EE
a:1H 11.18 Erl+Aql^1EEE 8aJ 8al0lr a3r|. EE! S,El(surfacetension)S EillE EEg ++l H
7l tt|Eoll 4=80|ts E0ll usl^lIl ?-fEtL =e]EE ^Jqol+n
Onuacno/shutterstock
E^11+ 1r'+
Hliql Ezl# 6J, + E9 +i a.J ae ag +dq(cohesive
^lE +q +b tszla
force)olela .Jq. qH EAg E.Eq +q ++ +z].rJ 'fl9 ++qGdhesive force)olap
11.4 I 8Etrl 485
uqr rJq LH+= E^e a=JEltlE, sel cllr_l.t7i,^.el "JHJ4E _Eglol EErTl? tSel slll-l^il^s| gEJ4oJ Eglol E-Er-rl.?
.-E
E r
I
H2O-gal
H^lan
a
o..
,"
-q^ tan _q^tal
11.4 l#JEl
+?-l&q +4& gqE il] +otE .-4^ll Eg +B6ll tstfl4. q*+
+olE gg oJ a %r-ql
4g E?-l ++. r.al co2(Er-|ololol-':-s +q]qgJ= tr-gq^l ^"q+4. 4 01131
ill ^J4ql^-l ule zlill ^J4E E.J+. "J+4e.E Eeg 4 d-Ell(r^ll, olill, zlzll)| r|g
+ ^Jq + oJ tI4-E EB + 914. =e 11.209 ol{ EE}ql u}E "lEg ++U4. olfl H
sl¤ tltlEt(phase change) E= tq He](change of state)4-L *4.
486 118 qilel-E^lZ e
80
70
tr -E
oe=
rc{
o50 tr
tr
),
J
so
il+o 81
oI
Sro
?o 47
58
20 36
4t
29 29
24 23
10
0
Hdlol trfololl= oilEl ..]-
(CaHro) (c2Hsoc2Hs) (Hzo) GIg)
afB 11.21 EEg, +itE
=gE,
11.4 l8Etrl 487
d=q EEor e*r,?r Etr H*g q gorLr= d*a', or=e +roJ7r-? or r*e
A zruuzl, =erEloJTl?
gE =
| =
z[o{ -!J\{
'lA-rU
g+g -zs"c, t atm $491^1 7tg6t{, i]+.1 g+E gE= 6zlg4. g-EE 0"c ol
6rE +zl6IE g$e r.il tlqltr 94. &sz}0.cq EE:ot
H g+g gzl ,r.121o3r1. ¤+g E:g rlcolse., o.collr.l
TfoJ ge g+g "lzll Ee HI+E rll .tl$ap, 9*ol 4 * ctr"lDtr qrg r|Eol goil.-ltsTl?
^t010il^i
I 4zlzl gE= "J46rrll #xl¤4. ggol \g +, gg q H2O(/)ol H2O(g)e
=g-E=
716ll +H EE gE= ^J+6}zll gEl.
"-qill tlE]]el
E nl]rlrlSE: E6lxl ?j=rt.
gEe+ 7l-6ll gE +41 Eg.E zl¤ *,IJ(heating curve) L25
ol+I.'*+. lH = ,t1.2y F
-2s"c g*(uro(s))9 rzs.c a
T6/ I
100
¤:71(Hro(s))vl^) TlEi;J 7Ig +dol+. 9ol "Jct +Ee E
.d
^la+. -25
)lg
DE: Tlgg"Cel "JA'J g.Eql^J g.E EsI S.ol
100
Hzo(/)9 H2o(g)-tr Hsl^l A+. LaA 11.22 Esl 7tg +,S 0l E_Ets E 1.00 motE "JE UaJ
(1 atm)oll,^] -25"Col HzO(s)E 125'Cel H2O(gDt^l7lg-g tttl
. d EF: 7l-gg Hro(g)9 gEE t2s"ce
^J+^lrJ+. gGlLlts E+= Hq rallf g= 4l+6H^.1 7l6GE + aol
rJlst _Eol^ilE/Eq,\lr =+.
Tlol QEE tl;LTl oJErL
,Ig +dq ,+ +rJql q'J Alel flE l EEI¤ 4lt6J + |=olvl|L\ilLl/.|l-|L-!LIv|/!|6L+|.
488 113 "-4^llelE^lZ e
zi+. 4Le zl&z)Y EE gE= t.c gg trll ?g.JE g+g 1.c 94= aB+ trJ Bg
E9 zlollot qi+= 49 9"1f,4.
d BCe+ DE: "J4ql gEq^J 6l+9 trol 4E ^Js.e H+g ag .Hq olfl
^J
=+.
HElzt "Jq+= E.J gE= "JC6.tZl .+xlg4. ell+.tE T}oll gol B+ EzI gE ql
qzlE +7!^lvl= lol otrl4 EzlzJ E9 ol44E cll .r.f$slflzl = ollEol4. g+ol EE
H6l+ !+Ag +4LI= d rcq a+ tlBvl H+= AH6,,E$rl 414}g f 91, d ore-1
?.+ AH,"pE ol+g + gl4.
trJqr 12s.Cql^l iGzl r motg gzJ,rlTlB, rH rr.zzglrl ts_Fol 9-Eu_ql^J g+e-s ol
Eo
B f 9lrl. 7l¤. HzO(g)9 gEE *+r,ll qE(r ----- r), 8¤9q(E ----- o) olill H2o(D7I
EE}.
EllE=EillE+q ¤9zJl4o[¤ a4l7l "J=qzl^l 9*et[4ql^J E4l=q-L.a o]6]E
+rJ4etr ^lg + girl.. olfl ¤tlg 4B4(supercooling)olzp ++. rlB4g ._qille+
rl 9ol ,]]+ +46}111 {4¤ ull .Jq+^J, E^l7l "J rqlE rllE e^J 9l= +aE BC
aJ;.lzjo1 sg trll g^J++. 4ts49
"lill= g.Jc6}q +"_qq flzl olzlz| 5qrt4+ E
617ll zlq+7]"J 6l]E +^lrJql rillelg+.
oJZl
SEq oJZl "JaJ
zl4l= 4¤+eEql^l .Jqg 7t4q Eril-6J+ 9l+. 100"c iGz\zl q^E"tr E=d 9l
E ¤ilcJql 9l+11 t;lzl. +-=ozl9le.l "Jqg +71^lvl4 zo0 torrgl^l Eillt E.l ^J^dg
Lo14. rflLI gETl n0'ColE, .-q^ll^Jg g-qol r07s torrT| $ 4lzl-zl ¤dlzl ?+g
Lo14. 374"cql^J E^ll^Jg l.6ssx rls torr(217.7 atm)oll,tJuj ¤Cg+. ol gs ol^Jql^l
zlaHE rJCHzl *=trt. ql4lql oJflol f;zloJffi z\t:llzl zl44-s--e. oJ
= "JqgE^ll^Jol "-!xllz} 9l= 3lJ. gEE Er{!tE(criticaltemperature)4r.6J+. g1l
+¤+. ^JCE +
ffi(criticalpressure)$ ol "J4l gEql^J "lqlz}'Jq+: ql ggEI ali "J4ol4.
.JAl gE= EillTt + 9l: all gro14. .J4l 9s ol^Jq^J= Eeg o|+?-l
=all6J 6llE
^ll4l "J+4q
E4# ?l1*A' Ezlel +E qlqzlTl zlrll# "lxJ ^JqE olrT= oJ
qtrq r+. +zla flol EeE .J4l e=21+7I++.
=++
Yq ql4l 11.3
E gE-e+ tl$rip{l Eil6J AHel 4ltJ
1 atm9 g8-d gralq|A -25 .cel E3 1.00 molE 125 .6o;ffi71-tr HEJdlts 7l¤"1 fll=Jril Etrl-= zlc6l. lg(g8, o-4i1lE.
45zlol Hlge 44 2.03 JIS-K.4.18 J/S-K,1.84 J/g-Kolr[. EelAHr,":6.01 kJlmol, LHuap--40.67 kUmololr[).
rll3
E4 -zs'cE gg I mol¤ tzs'c9 ailltr H+l6I= ql 4lEl !+CE SIB]'I EEI= 4ltl6l-7 r-
4 E+ 6J6lE.
gsoJ + geJg 21416l+ E4lol+. + elgrl EE+E AI4I6J f llc|(Hess Bzl, s.0$.
tr01 rB t.zz9 C A8ql^l gg9 gE= zs"Ctttl I tlgrl E+ 4l^lg g*9 Hlgg ol+6J + 9l+
g.4zl9l +E+ g=Jg ,Ilt+. zs.c9 3s. HpI= zs LH : r.oo mot) ( r8.o
AB: g I mot) (2.o3 I I g-K) (2s K)
: :
1
a4 t.224 d rcq1.rj5 0 "c ggol Ee B+Iq*q. q BC: A,H : (1.00 mol)(6.01 kJ/mol) : 6.01 kJ
7l^j g¤+gg zlB ol+B + 9l+.
d cp, or,, nrq qlgq H4+ ee *BsE 414}6J + CD: A,H : ( 1.00 mo1)( 18.0 g/mol) (4. 18 j/g-KX 100 K)
: 7s2oJ -- 7.szkl
91trI.
DE: LH : (1.00 mol)(40.67 kJ lmol) : 4o.7 kJ
: 830J : 0.83 kJ
d4 $gj4 Esl+ 4 +419 Eel¤ E+ 6Ja aolq AH:0.91kJ + 6.01kl + 7.52k1+ 4O.7kJ + 0.83kJ:56.0kJ
Atr :lH l.zz41trol: +¤dg aole+ Blig Ell, dxll (a) Tdl¤ (b) +gg (c) 6994 H,o(s)E Elg
9lHzl HEI9 4 t+9 t44 zzlE El44oltrt. 7l* (d) 6994 Hzo(/)9 ulg (e) +6l]gr+ H2o(/)E Elg
=
CEe ++6IeI. > H.6 qlril2
=gggg
F E* qlr1l1 s0.0 "c E roo.o gg -30.0 "c gggE B46l= +4ql
6 r00 "c H2o(g) l molol 80 "c H2o(D-tr H:*B trllg
trl-s qlBul {a}= $u}olr}? (ql4 1r.3ql +qd tr-Es+el
^J
tlgq E3rI Al&ql ge6J Eql 4+ A.E.= q - A"J7l? qlgqe+ Hlgg 0l+614.)
9.zlzl geq
gsc+ "Jqol E1l.sq
941 +gqq 9lq. E^IrJ.JHol sF*, ++Col
-r. $zlsol 4ig Eeol, +colr tszlelol Eetrq gEcl .Jqg *+ 4
*g .J4l
oJeqol' zlt =
ql ++6I+. e.oJ Eol+ EzlzJ +4 A6J qlEql qlq4es * .J4l
gEel "Jqg 7l4Ll.
eH HzOsl gZl SE9 gZl gtajol, +Al-d EE?l H2Sol oJZl PEelgaj-?tl Et!+P
7t? (E 11.s)
x. 1 1.5 El 7t^l
E¤et oJ4t
&_e.el
oJ4t oJaJ
ar(N, 126.1 11 5
+e(co,
ol4}3r} 304.3 73.0
P e)l
P:0 D 471 Olal
dIEIE
wlue= 4l7l EEql
-Eg:dtr1.
--------------->
rl \ >
{
f
¤ql +q flg q, +7loll el6}q ¤Cg .JHol4.
I
r.l .t'-q 9E
I
E
gq:
Gzl "Jqg zlrl E{(eld s"Jr+ A$)E+ gfl +tsJ
+E^{ L+e EE0ll^l
*? + ?t= oltLl^l=
q. ¤Al +ga}= "+ill$ flHJ¤(volatils)ol glQl +4. ="J--J
TlTl Erl+ =E-d
A
trlololl=J
!'ooo
9 oilEl
25 "C0tl^1 Ccl4elCBra $ cl. Etrol ti +lg.50l EI 0llE g?g
=71'? o! (0llEJg) E
po +oo
-=.71 ola{"1f1_'--al
o'I tl --l EL E
q
"Jqol #=d9l "lzlE g6}e, aETl kg zlgol Et*7i_H_+er-l .rlz3o1 + aflq
¤H6ll a4. tuzl +g *3 4zloJ"l qo| r00'c-H-+ *g gEql^l Eol #
= ^ldE
trl+^l glg sflotE ql gHI4eE eq aflq.
=+.
Clausius-Clapeyron {.1
449 Eee 9ETI f;z|$ffi ?zl 'J4 +dol +4q + +¤ ¤+ ¤i4l: 11.84-11.86
TI'J+. +71 'Jqr+ gEel +41= clausius-clapeyron { 7
ee +qd+.
# 1-
mp: 11"0*c j. 7lz7l : - LH,up/R
t11.11
RT 6 +--+---f j
zld gql zlezl. 44*-r., zldE 7l&7l= ¤-(-)o14. zl 0.0028 0.0030 0.0032 0.0034
1./T (1/K)
d9 zlgzl9l^'l qegg AH""pE TalE:a.se kf/molol $
+. E 4dg ey$6[E xte-e io]d eE H9l +tql^lE ql a .f H 1 1.2 6 0ll EJgoll rH-d + -r o
I I galTt 1 /rel rell E
^lE =7
qH 11.4
7F *bari trl 'Jq *41
ral 11.25= 0lE6tq q+ gajol 0.80 atmoJ trll tlolollEJ ollEl(diethyt ether)9 #=E= 4l{lo1^19.
E +7\.Jq +deE olstJ ffi, +zlee Lilq7}tr 8E (d) ++ aqlol Bqa + flg cEs +E+ qlLl4TI *
+g + 91trt. #¤ trl]
= (e) 99 q,- a+E olH.
Eol oJqg (O.SO atmxzO0 torr/atm):010 torrol4. lB
tr.2s= HH oro torroJ rll #=dg dg"ll zlzl9, o+ 27.c > H"E qlr1l2
ol4. r.B 11.2s= ol+6}q 9lE9ol 60'cq^] #g trIE 9+
oJqg +6}^19-.
dB d+ EE¤ ^l-8:6tq +olqlB qEl "q4 +lE 'Jqg
11.6 aEE 493
11.6 | ^JEL
.:44le+ :7 +7]|^Iolel ¤Be EaE ^JEH +ql + 9l= +.J+ E4 ¤Bol otL-14.
qE 4¤+ eEe+ SqE azJal{rJ rall= =4g
tA4 a4itl t}4e}, dzl9= ?rl
^JEIe+
E BBg olEi 9lq. rilltlr+ "-4illtol ¤eg ol+q =o+6}= *uzy rillg +Ed
(melting point) E: .-qillel q=A(freezingpoinool4. rillE zlffi i *zl4lE"ll ?zl
ol-d o TlLrL
H i= l<L-l .
r. s34 +de .lzll9 6z1 g.q +dol+. olaS .-4alt}4 7l^ll^J ^Iolel ¤Bg r++
utrI. ol +d +lql^J ?zl "JEol I atmoJ ullzt E49 c^J #=dol4. *zl "Jq +
dg e4E(c)ql^l ¤Hrl. ol ae 5e9l "J4l ssc+ .J4l "Jqg "Jd+. 94ld ol
^Jql^l "_4ille+
Tlilltr-g +H6J + ssq, oltrllel Eag a.J4l +al4r .J+.
^1tr
2.
=+^4
+d.J 4" Er +dg 714t}q^l rillt}-e--E EE¤ trll= trq +q, ?frf += g
Eql^J +3rl6J ql a^ll +rl "Jqe.l HEIE ol +dq 4 de rillel 7lzll9
'tqu+.
¤B ^JEIE +4U+.
3. +E4 +d'J +4 +de rill^J+'l4l d-g ts46ll +4, "Jq ?z|"ll qE rillel
+Ed E+= Ll4UtrI. ol dg 4zl] *4ol ?71-*q q+ ErJ sE.u__qE 7l&Ll.
olag q++q Eeq^l ull B4zi .-qill ¤qlB+ "JszI ull$olr|. q+^J "J
=zl
4 6zlE trJ ago.J rill^Jg dE'JEl. r4^l +g "Jqql^l r^llE +"J Ell tg g
E7I 9,S-6Ir+. I atmoll.lsl +Edg Eg*E(normalmeltingpoint)olep ajr;.
m rgoll^i r1^ll8el galol g8-d 3Eotl^J ,JAEltiI 8tl6t^le. adl7l4?' AEtElE, 8E0tl rt|atl^its +301
^l.dE7n
Y, Y. V. Y. V
lllla
V. Y, Y, Y. Y. Y
llllll
Y. Y. Y. Y, V, Y EgZl+ill
lallll Y.
Y. Y. Y.Y
lllla
Ei{l
-^.
6ir C
ot Lill
ai
-4Ht
OE
T
lt5xl )lrll
'i=
3s
qE ++-dEEe.l"JU4?1.sE_E *E^l Ne+qt+d. +E^q N=EE+d,5¤^4 Ce6Tlgq LfElLJri.
^agfi.zl =CE
494 113 al^llel E^lZ d
se 5ag Bq
=+.
"J.J "Jqol I atme.P lldg+fl.
,(olseq.q lr.xll*q^J Eill
103
Exll
ng4t.?ilt
tlg 4a zlill,<]ee olE"6IE 43 9r9 Eslq Eql 7l+6}q,
*4zl .J^Jql^l E-g d6lE^J ,lqq= ¤4o14. Hzo9 ++A
lo2 ?ill g Hli/4 *g Sqe 0.00603 atmoE Eqd+. ol oJq6lql^J o-4
ot trt.It
gol +q^lE g¤-ol 7l4l /Jqe
o
e
210 (31.1 'C,73.0 atm) ^] ^J49 Eg "JA6Izl ?+sq,
tr +Elg4. oleloJ Eq CAg '84.-42(*eeze-dry)' *44 ge
ql ol+++. g^lol+ gE+= s.6 olaloll.q tsFgr}. -f. +g +
(d
IEAI
| (a) flZlE0l^lel SEet gr'ale.l PJ= +6t^le. (c) 1 atm. 0'cg ttl| DllElloJg
qL =^PJ= =
I -r,^ll. o4i1l, 7lill 6 SElloJT|? (o 'Jqt 1 atm0il^19 a8E galoil^1, r.ill SEllE 0ilEilEoil gE 716|.zl EIE trllEll?]e +A EJnl,
I 0lLlE ;aE,nl? (e) 1 atm,0"Cel ollEllfloll 'SEll7l Eif:g qzt^l
o-t9t oJ4E 7l-dtlE, oltr SEtlsl DllEllflol 'J=olErt?
l-
Bllff +¤6|= E^llol+.
=zl$
E{ t}Es= ++¤ +46tr., a*g
TtzljL +s6'J zllel tr=.eq,! ++dr+"Jaldg*o|4olaJ4. E6J+C g
q 54 "J44 9s H*zi 9{$ ufl, qH rl{plzt ^l-S6t
g^J6I Ee+.Jqql^l qE tlqlrl ¤^l]6l+4= .JotU+.
11.7 I sI8 495
Eol (a) .J4de sq^ll, 7lill, a.J4l +4 {lqTI E^lql (a) e+ -zoo"Cql^J
^oEl-6J+. O) E -200"Cq1^l ++.
4lolE dg "JqL+. oli rlEs.qr] d toll s^lqq fle
= (c) E -200'cql^l #=+. (d) E -200'cql^l ffi;j4.
q, 4+ -80"c, 50 atmgl +li.l6E 91trI. (e) oJ "cql^l
-zoo i}+dql
EB'Jr+.
(b) A+dg r.ill, o-4ill, zlz11to1 5r^lq dg "J6J > H.¤ filrll2
ol= =461+ qlqlqlE tlEE= ol+6}q ++ Egql B-6I^1e..
+. tlEsql^"] B lql s.^lgq fleq, E -r80.c,
0.1 atmoll flilo}_jt glq. (a) rllell.J9 AtF#=Ag ¤rtoJz}?
(c) 0 "C, I atm$ als= d 2ql E^lqq il4. ol dg tE (b) qL.Jq H+lE H"lzl"F n8l ,ilEll.Jol z,offiitl?
sql^l 7l^ll gqql=qaq. (c) 9s gE oltlq^l .-4zll qlqltol ¤^]]6}zl ?*Ezl?
11.7 lo4t
1888LJql 9-^E4oI9 4E+rI.J Frederick ReinitzerE ¤+ +ql H]aqo1e
(cholesteryl benzoate)4E:, *ol+l .ol'q} +¤g zlzl:L 9l: =ql^qlg
p+.J+g gA6}S+
+71
¤9 zl.ltg trll, a^ll ^JEllE ol Eeg 14s'cql^J ddol qlE
(=g tt.et). Eillg
.-4^ll= =3qL
l7e "Cql^-l +^l7l glol^14, rzs "C ol^Jq ¤.sq,<] ol
¤4tr +=4. +g ^JqlE
+^l++. Eeol 4sE "Jottl "_4zll= 17e "cql^l d^Jg tlzla_ +iqeE H6I= qr+
016 oJ6H
l?6ttl flltlra15 E^lEol fll|
=EteE gg + ?1E= 6ll=trf.
H
:N C+H 21-47 "C
/\i ------t I
+d7lE3 8+^l
EOllEe 6l/\lslr!
ru-a oouLt,
tir
il-
I
cH3(cHr7-o C- OH 1.08-1.47'C
1
a rH 11.33 + s48 EEoil rH-d Exl +6el- E8 EE Egl
=+ol
)
J
gE Hn+= +d6J + S= *9 gE EslE A716l+ EJI
^l-8.qq *r|.
qlE 5q
dz} ElEql^J gol += ++g azl6}q Ezll $-gg .Je + 9ltrL E= tl^Jo}g
ul-? 3s= +4617]191p gr4lollE =
gq1l4l4 .-4C q^Eqlol:
^l-*g + ?14. ArE 11.34 drl'5ol(epaper)q )14
,l]+ +g dglg .r.l-eo 6}E$ "J5 + ?lzl ullE9l, dzl. +olql ol+q= *Bol fl7 o4E 7l=0lr|.. I^l60l
= =e1l^Eil4l
9l 914(:A 11.34). oltsl6.J ++59 7I6H^l= dzl*ol gr.r EzI9 ,Jo;-g ul#1, ts
E5
(4!0lLl
grol
Ar^lol trllol^l^-laJ) 501 glsl
oJtH -dEH= LfEfLJrf. 0lri3
olql 4+ szlE +E4 SCql ¤6&,9 +zl trllEql zhb6ltrl.
q=01:.J tl/.=all0l, 5^f afB. ralr
dllE,\l trJE7l- E-sf-s} tlg-Lf $I||
xl -9Q rLl,\lnlolrL
o-,loovl M"l.
-
qFil
F ollr(lol
11.6
Alnl
i ci-l ci e
CHs-
t" o
il
-cH2-cH3 CHz- C
-O-Na+
(r) (ii) (iii)
-=4^qq ._stg 4 Eql *= E l-Eol LllEtq "-qar+ +^l+ Eligg 617l EllEql T}olg ullu|fl(chiral nematic) tlol?+n
s. aJ4.
498 113 q^llef E^l'2J A
+zl+ Erll 5.o$$ zl-xl{, ol+ aEF+ {d lelz1 aag (d) Qzlzlzl Y*g Ez|
g +e, *CoJ coocH:7li ld+z| EHIE= 7l4Ll. (e) "-14 E*E +zI
> _Er.= qlrlll > .H.= qlrll2
E6"I4lr1l
o tl -?HL{
-4.8t ll E
s"J "J 6e tq
7li1l,Eill, nillel Erl HIE(^1E, 11.1E) ^Jgql^] 7li,ll+ o-4i,lloJ "l +7I+q rl4 Ezf9 EF-E(polarizability)z| f;zlafiQl, r p
EeEg 4Y E +zl.tr ol+q! 914. zl^ll ^Jqlql^J ez}rJ "Jq r+ E4}qol +7I'J+. Szf$ EoJE ?eal elzi ¤El. .HzI-
3 tszt9 ¤+ {Llzlql Hldl +^]ts nJ6l.El. tr}4^l E^l¤g Eq
gq4 9lr, #"JS= +A^l g¤¤.J+. "-qil ttEHql^l ErEtg ¤6J3 o-H. N-H, F-H allg s6J"I= sl!+Eql^l +Elki+.
(intermolecular force)$ E^l-=ol T|zfol EJA611 9141 6J
"J+ + +4 aqlg .JH]4ee 4+zl-r6.E^I a;o1u| $.1!fl_H-trI ,JdlE+.
tsdl rEi. rHqE E+6Er. ts+=g += E^19 g6j o}4lql^J ole-gE-4B(ion-dipoleforce)$ +C +4q olg er'J rlEtEol
zI+EAl ¤.zl.Jtrt. r.ill *qlql^-l Ezlz3 o3qg E^lE g4"Jg +5Hq q fl.= +.-4 ql^l +s6l-7]1 zls" 6J4.
xllaJaln, oJzl-=ol +ilg dlgql^J 5a +l^l= iI^l6IE+ g a o4illel ¤tr(11.3tr) tsztrJ oJol q ,Jg++ E¤.E
Etr. +Bdl r+. =E:d
(viscosity),+ "-qalE sEql rI+ zlajflol q 4d4. ".lallg
ErtrJ e(11.2tr) 6C +zt ^plql= ^ll Tfzl Bqlg SzlzJ'J. I EE tr-qE g^lt aJg 4lzlzl rttf$f* 6zlaJ4. EE! 84
54q(dispersion force), g=+ g=rl E(dipole-dipole force). * (surface tension)¤ 4l46Jg EE4g +zl6leJts +"lE A'Jql
4 ¤xll{}4. +4}qg EE E^}(E6J ql6J zlEolE|. E^-ll+ qql EH'J
EB(hydrogen bonding)ol "-qillE dz+q4 "-lillg +dqe
He, Ne, Ar4 rJ$ EflzI849 Sxl¤) ^Iolql 4L+6Jr+. Ezltt E{Et Elt(capillary action)$ ¤8611
=E}.
E6 499
=^l
88a[(11.4tr) Eeg + z|^l oltLE Ee E:'r.rs-e. ¤:4lB i + ^J ^lolg BBg +4u4. gH}4etr nillTl o-l1lltrtrl "JE7f
914. HlEl(phasechange)] + ^]eE+q +g ^]-q-e.q Hol¤ q r7l qEql, +=eg LI4.llE Cg "Jqol ?zloJ9l tri+ EIl:
9olel4. r.illql^J qalleE trs+(-&5l]), :il.,llql^J zlzll-e.9 Hp] 9E4o + TlgqTlq. I atmoJ ulel \5f;o1 6t$$fl(normal
(^"e+), "lalql^l 7l!1tr9 Eel(+"J)= E+ sg 4col4. r}4rl melting point)o]{. {lEsq^l Bltg trll, ¤¤ t}$ql^l
^il
71]
EallE(heat of fusion), *EtE(heat of sublimation), EEJE(heat of E tlol E+ +461+ d9 ¤Et(triple point)olefa "Jq. gXtE
vaporization)e .tr+ "JE ,Jol+. r E+C(+n, 4e, ffi)g (criticalpoint)g'J4l gEe+'J4 Sqql dr-+.J+. "JZlEg He
gg rlA"l4. E, Eee aoJ4l +all7} gtrI.
gEzI gll-eE(criticaltemperature) oltolE 7lr,ll= "Jqg ,l o4E(liquid crystal)* nzllE E:d oltr$ $sollr.l
qlE o-qq¤ + s'I. oJal gEq^l 7l^llE aqsl^l7li rll peaJ "48(11.7tr)
ai4 olt9 tE"l ul]99q gl: Eaol+. L{lu}ef o_{[(nematic
oJqg grfl ElPl(critical pressure)ol{il ++. gE7} oJAl gE-
liquid crystal)ql^l} +zt$"i +Fg %l6Jg tr+4 'JBtr 8E
E Hn, .Jqol "Jqg .Jg trI, .lal^F+ Tlzlld-g jEg4tSi{t
"J4l 611 9lzlE} +^f9 ¤ol c¤qq flzl: ?*tr}. 4EtEf o-{8(smectic
(supercritical fluid)E ¤Calzl 9ldl qlA{E}. liquidcrystal)ql^lE E{¤ol +9 BC6I7l 916ll r ¤ol "JBtr
| gal(1 1.5tr) .l ill
E 5zl tfEl(vapor pressure)f +zl zf q ill e+ Agqq 9lq. AEIEJ A o4B(smectic A liquid crystal)oll.rl| $xl-
=7
5{ t!fl(dynamic equilibrium) ^}{ql ql$ ull ?zl9 ++ "Jqg el a +ol ="r} fzloE aEElq fl4. ^utc c e48(smectic c
Ll4u+. ¤¤ tlqql^l olxllzf f,zltr HaI= +E= +7171q4l liquidcrystal)ql^l= +zI9 zJ +ol *¤ rl4 zl¤"14 914.
=4t
_e. H6|= +Eel aE|. qallE +71 oJqol t-qe++ sla{= q fl Aell4 s4E(cholesteric liquid crystal)g +xl¤ol Lllrlq sqA*ql
4l ="96}.l., rfl Eee fl"J8(volatile)ol rr+. ?zl "J49 9s ^l 9l= tol. +
7) qlq4 Hllgqq flE +xl¤tr
^Je B63614l
7l-+7f6Jql u|4 6zHl4. +71 "Jqol el+ "Jqr+ ,Jg Ell ._qill ol+q4 9El. r;l+ +dB +4= BC6I7] 96H^l EzlE A +
7l #=rI. Irl-4^l "_q^llE #E(boitingpoint)9 "Jqql q4 qe ol ulgqq il: Ell6}g t:"ee+q r gE 4E ?eE qd6|
4. AS S#(normalboilingpoint)3 6zl "J4ol 1 atmoJ 419 Fol +xll6J+. "lag "JE= Eeg +dTlEol .ntlzl.-ffi2l. {r
9-tr olrL g zI¤¤ 5u1l ¤zlzl ++61 cgg + 9lE+ Ee+6 s olq4.
rll+*6t-r a ¤49 Ezle o15q4 1q-.
8EE(11.6tr) gEe+ Sqq ++e^.1 Ee9 nill, olill. 7li'll.!-
^l.olE E¤ S4lE ts*lphase diagram)q +4U4. dg qH
oJ+ E4l
tse.E H.= TllLJ
800
700
600
=
!
ot
soo
fi +oo
?
tt.2 (a) rf$ age 44 qH ¤i+el ezla .Jqg +Elu a.J 96 soo
200
7l?
100
H
0 -S..... [] (ttile""'g fr 0
-30 -10 10 30 50
EE('c)
O *u*
(tt)O.....O,rD...4 fo I 1.6 trl-s F E4+ ag E^l^l(C3IrsOE z*zlq} #E¤ol +e+
Y Itt.z4, rr.s¤l
tr.7 Elzlg Eaql ql,* d.E.s7l trl-*4 aq. [rr.0¤]
L-Ee-rqg
=allll=
1.0
tt.A 1 atm, _170.Cq|^l EAI qlql"J r2.0 ggl 42.0 kI9
^lE
gol zl-tl4l4E, 4lzl BB9l .Egllg ql qlql.JE 3l+ tl
44 ¤s= +8fl71-? (++1tr ¤ol ¤d9zl ?*914.2 zIC ol
al
+q. q4"JE A^J #=dg -161.5'coltr. qEI.J .lal ? 0.5
e| zl 9 El gg 44 3.4s I / s-K. 2.22 | I g-Kolr]. ) [r r. a¤] (g
^ll
P : 1.00 atm
0
0 100 200 300 400
eE(K)
(a) E?9 #=dr+ AtI qEdg +A6f^l_e-.
CtL
42.0kJ
(b) El^s ad6}q^l gag E44t
^J4b *t"JzI?
(il r: rso K, P:0.2 atm
(iil r:1oo K, P:0.8 atm
32.0 g CFIa (iiil T: 3oo K. P : l.o atm
:
AII,", 8.20 kJlmol E¤9 ++dg gEtoJTI?
(c)
- T: -170"C
ll.s cs, ^l-.E.E r4s= ol$all,rJ, (a) 30.Cglr-l csr$ f;zl oJ
ll.8 ,r.ll zlzl +E gE Tr, T2, T3ql^J "-q8lt}9 +zl+ q-sFr+ a
g *4sE a¤t+. [rr.z¤]
q, O) +71 oJ{ol :oo torrp rll9 9E, (c) Csz9 4{l #
lrr.sdJ
=Bg+6f^le-.
501
== =r1l
E^til e(11.2tr)
($
6|r. 9l= +a gz}e} *zlql fl^l6l+ d7l gdETI zfg
g^f qH Bqg tsztzJ .Jqol 4+61+7p
,ilt ^plqlb
u.l0 (a) -nall, Eill, Tlillq^l ealE B+ ¤+ qlqalE tszl ^f 71 amuoJ C12:.238 Kql^.1 #E+.
olE B# qlq qlLlxle+ ol${ u1;1a3 f ?lEzl? o) gE (d) ol.,r1gg s6.cql^l #-a, 2-EllBg.gql"Jg -12.cql^l
7l +7l1+_ ql ilalql^J ol4l, 7lilltr n'll geol HslElb ol #=c|.
f.b Fflqlzl? (c) ,ll9 +g.Jqql^J gE= 7I6fH TlillTl- o
il
"lB2l ¤zt? CH:- c-cH3 -CHa
rr-rr *+ ag ++ol +eE, (a) gzl-=E ¤+ gE glulzlE 0t^llE 2-o1l=EeqloJ
qB4 qi1. (b) gzl-= rJE BE
"l¤zll ¤zt?
zl4i I 1.19 (a) 9¤ E^l¤ ¤+E7I ?zlaf= +^JE +¤6}^le.
ll.l2 ¤gql^l si= ni-ll, ccl4E o_qiil rp-l-lt Are zlillolu,f. ol GeCla, CHa, SiCla, SiHa, GeBra
E Eeg (a) E^lt "JH qlulxl9 +71 (b) #bdE 67f 0) (a)ql^l Eeq #=eq +^l= ql+61^le.
E +^lql q-4 +g6h^le. I1.20 ffi Lll$ol &.Jzl. zl1lq,lzlg $a|.rle.
e.+ gEe+ *= "Jqql^l cl2e} NH3 ,lillg g+q= 44 (a) $zlefol Hl+6J ts^Ie] a+, ¤4}qe +zl¤ol q E+
-rr.rr(a) f
22.06 L, zz.+o rol4. ¤i4 cl ,J"]lrl+.
zlzll$ tsxf*, ,,F1I E.HIE, E^l Eolg +E4, cl] (b) +TlgEql^J +E ol.=lls rllflzJffi Elgd 7l4lE #
g+q= 49,J?zl? +t}q3 rJ^oJ+.
?z}6}ts HlE,
LJ4^lag EI + Ee EF r.ill eag B^J6J
(b) 160 Ktr =dg
(c) d^ll ?lqq +Hq^1, $lz].-nt-izl *E zI¤+
"J^J
4. too Ktr B4ElS.g ql, EBolzI TJrdJ^1, +716J E4}qtr+ q aEl.
zlg fl$alr.le. (d) 4E -EE s.^71eg ql, dB E^l
^IolE E4lqe a
(c) 160 Kollrl cl2el NH3 EC9 "Js= 44 z.oz slcm3, e.l +¤g ol,= b E^I,r.l-ol$ $,11fl-H_4 cl =4.
0.8+ g/cm3ol4. olEel g+El= +61^19-. (e) flzlzl- q trl ¤+s+¤trL
=++
^Jqlq^'lE E.+q*
(d) adl 714 tlqlql^]q E+Ee+ Hl
I l.2l +g 4 trql^l qtr Eeol q ¤4iqg 7v\Y712
io}TI? ¤B6f^le. =
(a) HzOq H2S (b) CO2el CO
(c) SiH4el GeH4
(e) 9i-ll
^J4ql^l E+El= nill ^Jqle+
rlill ^JEllel g+ul
11.22 Ll+4 ttq^l qH xol q 7l^1y71?
6 qL \oll zlTl$zl q{}6J + 9=7}? (a) Brz9l Oz
=E^l-rJts4lqg
tt.t+ d4&(benzoic acid, C6HsCoOH)g tzz'Collrl +E+. (b) CH3CH2CH2CH2SHg} CH3CH2CH2CH2CH2SH
t30.Cql^l ._qill {}49 EgE r.os g/cm3ol4. ls.Cql^J (c) cH3cH2cH2cl4 (cH3)2cHC1
J.xll HI44l9 "JE= 1.266 g/cm3ol4.
tr.n +7J il]¤. EBql^l zJol.
#ell.J4 2_Eliegsql
-H_= Ete+
(a) ol F lJ.El] + $z| ,r1o1E 4t A47l EJ ag q! .Jg E r+ ++dolj1, ag E^I^l(crH,o)9 ,*EEI. rq
=
*iltl? + +ql.Jol q +g #=dg ,*=El(_o.s.c= _11.7 "c
(b) E8l 941o1 rill-e d+qB, aal= g4 "lillB4 +q
el Hlng+). ol$ {$af.rle.
7lq A^lA}-7l, AqEAYT|?
502 118 qitetE^te a
\il 11.30
^igEI
E^(ccl4)el
=-ee+{cHcl3)g
g6J $zl $u11o1
+. ^IgEl +4e+ Eee+EE A^J #=dg 44 zz "c*
6l.colE|. 4+ + ola$ql qfl zltl 4Af, d{e?
r (a) E-E-EE9 +^ eqlg g + 9l= +H, ^Ig+ e^=
.r-+zl ?+4.
vl +i=
=-e-+9.!-+,'Hzf
EHIETI trl 14.
(b)
^Igp+
^I¤sl +i= +Es+HrI ¤*pI¤4.
(c) rl
+Ell?.l 2-ollEs-e4l?.1
HaC
(i)
E# E^{ 503
.49(11.7tr)
:E"J4l
il.6s +xI eEE zl-+Ee+ Hl]Eq +Eql^J, qtrlq .-!c^FI
1o' +i.11
zl
Cfl eq4tlg gEf{+^I+7|? qB4 +E7I?
10'
ot
al 10 o lall{
zill rr.66 Reinitzerzl E4l^HlB daqlolEql^l Ba.J +e 44 +
E1
6
-10'
ll4xl 7lfll +9,o1 ol Eeol "ldtq 9l+b 19 u|44=z|?
10' *. E+E +, A4g +E6I^le.
10' 20 40 60 80 (a) 9C^}3 nx,il,
"qill, TlillilH EAq E += ^Jol+.
EE.K)
100
-rru,O) Ezl* 4r,le +B Eo}-$ r*.}{.
"-qA
t'-EsE ol+6lq r+g 4Eq B-6f^le (c) eq{t$ 5lol= E^I= $C.J gEe+ oJqdiql^l rq
(a) Ct +Edel rllq4ql *g +9."J71? t deg -E-oJtrl.
(b) qB gE H+l ol^Jql^l ral qlgola"Ef6Ji 9\Y7l? (d) "-ldtlg -trol= +4-b qltltrE+ $z[z,l Q]ol o]a[Q.
(c) ¤9(r:zs"C)ql^l LJlgg "J+6Jeer^l o-qE+^la + 9l (e) t^4 +tEJe.-e ol+qd e4+ eqa^Jg BdB a
u zLO
-i:, o_e. HoJtrt.
I!
rr^el
^1719111
Eol ,r1l zlzl ^Jql(rill, Eill, Tliil)tr dal g
ag + 9l= ^Idg ^l+Jql^l gag= eEe+.Jqel H 9.
E.
9l "Jql EE +6d(T:0.01'c, P:0.006 atm)ol azl]ql
4= er+E {} ? Eol+. .trCel 7f^} +ldql 4ol+g ql
=
7l +ql *"Jt.Jel
'ilql.Jg 7l4l+. 4ol+E s.H 4ag
P:1.6 atm, T: -178 "Cs +C84. 4Eil'JE tlE-s.(r
B rr.:o)E tr9lg trll, ole| ag =ag 4ol+ql^l rill,
.-4i]l, 7l8l^}el qlqlqlol sdB + 9E z}b^dg +44= TtEl g
4l6dr+b q+ gE+.
,lEll.Je.l A
(a) 4olg s$ql^l qE tElle gag + 9l+a
"ilEilqle
ql4-61+71?
(b) rllzloJol g+ee ¤.zlolH, "Jqol ,Ja'J aolr+. gE
7l-H6lr^l ?+=4r rt{ilg EEsE+E gqdE} Ell,
I il (a)
7l-d
B
2o3o1 l_oJ4. : ol*E? q flE LllElq o-qat}-e-E Hpl6l+ a6}ol gl+. olel,*'¤
rr.zo E4l^rllq "late ql"tq "+at4 olBzll 4Ezl ¤BoI tE ¤B6t^le.
BEll=
11.72 )'E44 e4atte qtrIq EC,tE4 rl t*ol aEqq glqil
^ls.
rrn +=a EItr 9lE 7I^l= Eee * eE "Jg + ilq. qH dql^J olaol rI¤.JzI?
^4q "lAtlg
?f 'J+ +41
rr.zt EzlzJ ql43
=zlgl
ri4 ?zl*4a 6J q, +.s 449. z (a) .f olrJ{ill + qL 4.ol cl 3 6t-=-z}-6rlz} 6Jg r*=
zl"ll aI4 rttlalzl. zJaa3x15 q^J-61^19_.
(a) 671 +gg'Jq O) (c) #bd (d) q=d (b) zlxl oltei.il= #=dol 60.3 "colz, 4= 6I+=
^"Jvl?
6-f,
=trt.
(e) -8a'Cql^J + "lrll E+ 760 mmHgA 6zl.Jq¤ ,* c6Hscl(=Ee.u{1) t32
=+.
u.76 BE clElE t,z-4ol=-a-eqgqlE + 7l^1ol^deiI= EI
Br
+4 Aq.
H
\.
c6H5Br(H +EHldl)
d 156
a/ c6HsoH(Ell5) 182
cls ol.SEill trans olEA^1|
+7lE+ F^11 507
(a) ol5 +ql^l +&qol z}+61-b ae H 4,"J71? 4. :43 ol$r.J olillz| EgCg't+,JE+ "]+ A+g
(b) olE +ql^J ,5.qz}-,td*+zf t}E zl*"1 4+6k Ag 7fxl4 +4. ol$.! e{;llz} ql+eel tLg t'-Efle.l 9zll Ext
H zll9-lz}? ql *Z ¤zl.JHg zlzli olf* Fl.Jzl?
Hl6H
(c) olE 6ql^l +4 a6Jol zl.8:61= ag P 4"J71? I1.83 (a) 4¤alzil g¤¤ 6tH Bol qE4. olaS +9
HtrE{d]g g=dol ^lg6IE
(d) El
=E-e.HldE+t+7f? + 6l+ q qB4 Effi f.izlr O) Eol 5q fl= E4^
(e) 91 4lE9 gtseol olE 6q^l 7l* !--g71? r= {+ gEe} geqq il+. EgTt 486}n 4H Eol
t1.79 gz} ++ql^.] oNa o16 +d(rH za.:o)g r.oJ #71 P E +E Eol g7l ^lz}+4. ol 4Col "J
^i+r.li] ^14.J+.
H tr?]trI. E+ '+e +4 +^ a6Jg olf ll 9l q+= ol+= ¤E8l^le.
^I+?-lE
..r4
Ezls +CBE}. "J&zl= ^t44E +89.1E4. rr.84 trl--g s.= gEq III= a1;.1-==g9trHlti(C6FJe.l 671 .Jq
=
.14 ql otql H-4o1 ul(er) +aq' g 7l tl. q- +ol'd -^Iol E
I44d X"14.
¤ zl"dg +EILil fl+.
^l(GC)q 8E(K) 6u lS4(torr)
.....H
- 280.0 32.42
300.0 92.47
-H..... 320.0 225.t
330.0 334.4
340.0 482.9
Etol"J 0lrll'J
(a) 4BaJ %LBe-e ol zlEE E^16}I, Clausius-Clapeyron
H zl(rl rr.r)g qeb^1, otHzl AC6I^ls. trIEqE qBl
N-H..... Eol :-fl f.Bg CoHo9 AHu"pE aA6I^19_.
) (b) ol
^l-S6].q
ol*6iq, +d.E.elBbdg a46f^le.
N.....H - ^IEE
rr.as *EeE 671 .Jqg+ TIzl E}EgEql^.1+a.J+ 9l+
O) qts e}'*Eol q +e #=eg 7I^l= AoE ql^Jq= 4. rcotl *g gEql^l zlf$ zllrllE 6}zl .X6l+ olrq¤
zl? CnC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics9j ,J+ + ¤B6I^le.
q^l B'g q-oJ6l-^le.
-lt E^l ll.8e 5E6J EA Eee r+g rg+ Ag ^JEEE 7IdEl. El._q
(c) gEzI6TIElql qq ol F p+d.E.g +l"J^J +^J= H6J
c E.eq tlE_tr= fi idl trn, 4 +Eql^J LIEI+E
qi6J
4. ol4 ag B^Jol 9"lulzl 96ll + Eaq^J Eof "J t}g +oJ6}^ls.
+9 .JE ^tol7} 9lqo} 6l+7I?
(o G)q qlql4E6Jr4ue r4 !-n, Bg+B6llH^le.
11.87 +EBHI(C,6HJ$ df4ql o}+zllg
fltrolr+. olael is
at +EEg 8l'colq, a^J #=dg zrs'coll. 4I6d P
3 rooo paglrl 80.col+. ol EllolEl= ol+6].q, +sBHl
E ^JEs=+^"i6}a, rHel 4+Eg B^l6}^le.
I1.88 EC q.Sqlol(LCD)E: TIzlE ^l4l= ts+ qlqg qe6}
5.J *g gEql r.eg ql :a 7l*= zllqitr 6}zl *6J T
=
I
12.1 > r.flelE+ flzl¤¤ ^ls ¤¤-n 9l:
eB tla 4+e] ¤4q1 qE n4l9
E+E +EI.H-,EL ol E+.b aiiE 5C
Eql ql+ "JHl4 q+gEg aol+.
12.2 +r
-r.illsl acc rilql^l= gzl¤
ol +zl4olj1 HI+4 o-E ul]gqq 9l
eq, Ela4c r4ql^JE s4¤ol #
4Col4 HI+Col S4b ag HI]+EI.
I.iIIgI CAIH 12.3
aa^J niilg 5e.J Ei+4"J qlHg
cE6f= 4z}e+ ++l ^llEE HlleEl.
E+8 rill ++E qcr++aq 46I
q +EEl. "*e ++q^l flxl-=e 4l
a"J *.J T=e ulgg;1-5 ag El]+
il, +oJoJ a"+E !t;:ql ql6}q +E
Z+E1L!. +EH dtrtq ae a^l )t7t=? 0lB --?r Eat4 dEE +. 6J::.g F z]| oltr9 giE s+6}
?*tsrillE+El EJEqTlq.. qlE Eol ";3 E^t )lilA CB q--JE 6t: d4 n, ++ n+9 +Cg q44= EA
ol+.
trlE= + el. e= BJEill, Talq ee B+, t6l'dtEEnl eg trE^lle+El
12.4 ++ e*q 44q CE 9l
'JEqTlrl.. =+ =-cr' dzl tsI4 -E_¤r+ gx} eEl
,ll 4+q,
E gB o-s ^J*6I= #+E ql
6l ql44-s=E ¤¤61-E %IHg=dq
E]]$trI.
4qrx1q =oql^l:=$ z}4r+ ulflzl EHIS ffi(alloy), 4oJ dzlc+ Azl 9HIEE aaee. "Jq+= ++
g'J +ol9=* Hls4lGemiconductor),st}+r+ 9+qL4 +8¤ ql^J trlel BC +Aq 4oil ull+4.
+l+ +Ef4(polymer)e| ee, Y+e 7l+ Sotql^J 4E d4 "E r 12.5 ol8d -r.i]l oJolg+ golg
^holel
d-
ill Eag .E oJqql q"l EEq 9l= -1!19 +
+16[q
^F8-6171
d+6]r 9l+. E]qrzF=e Ez.rp] dz\
ae+ 5dq 46}] trIE+. olge-l d-ql
4, tlzl4, "Jo|4 u+ zlAl4 ,*= Eeg 96lq
=Cg ^1lzi'l7l 4oJ zzls+ olge-l pl+"JEql q4 ol
^l].E+
Eeg gB6}rl+ El olul
^IEql =46I=
Eeql 4+ ^ll gC nill9 +37l.qBzll B4zlixl
,JHg gar+ ,Hgq E HHE+.
-pg 7l-+
'llg:.I= F, 4lEe9 '}l* r*9 zl
q= 6ll *4. ol *ql^J= r;llel +ael ql6}q tuJpq. r 12.6 Ert¤ r.ill tszlz} s++ EztrJ'Jql
=Cql 96ll ¤=q glg ull BcEl= il
e4l 6171 91"|9 f,z}l dt zl¤"ll ^l-&qr 9l= q zlzl ull ${ ^JE ,J+6I4
illql ql4q tsJ$tt.
ql q6}q +E+.
12,7 8Pd r= +r ?ill ++ e*9 +
+g rE +=q Edl $zlz| r..l-tr. E
Erj 9l: niiql ql4 ull*r., HlE-4
el dal +4el .+col ++nI qBal
+g^lE ull+trI.
12.8 E--Jill 4lgEzfT].E*ol HJ49"l "lil
a ^l¤!fl {rJ Ez|oJ 6*{E gul
e+. +qlillg soJ4 +6Jall ^l-= ^I
olel
^JE 4+ol ?t}^llE 844.J =
c9l "lxli g6&3 tqB+.
12.9 > Ll.kEtr ¤rJol ,ll* zlolzlzl B rll
'JqL+= E49 Eq4. +q!4
H+ql 46Iq +q$q. p.49 zz\zl =d
l-100 nm CE9 azloJ EI olel Ag
Er+71LlElUEl. xJilg *4 EiilloJ
¤*]fl], Ea ut:.Fu, r4¤ Fq 4
< SxlE trl^=*ilo| g+ HDrv _"g0ll,\l rl^EHlol alEg Eg01l 91b g 6llAslEtI.
Ll-st ?1: 7|aolrL 0|9t eP q/.EailoPl B-*4 883
^l-83
01tr ^t80il ^He3
tl^=ellolelHlr6tq THdEl*tL l-10 nm 37l0ll
"J^lE8
^lltfle.ls43 HJEitl L[l.e80lr.L
nt= EdE 7[^l=
^1.371011
511
12.1 lrillsl t+
r^{: 4olo}E=4H ++6}4+ E^aH +g6J + 91tr}. 4zl¤ A F6l+ Eeol 9l=
ElH, r+zl Eql aE fl+. qH ri]: dril r E"Jol H¤qzl"J, q= rill= s6lel
t\zlzl dfl EoJq HBol qH+. r^llsl +e= EE EE]4.J 5Ce +rJql^l Szl#
+5r 9lE eqlE ¤EIq E6l] 7l+g+. rel eg 6Jql q4 ri]lE ++'J + 9l+(fH
12.1).
512
12.2 I r^llsl+^ 513
ol H+ql +LEeel +4.llEE, aTla++ "J+491 +q qlll,
=H
z}flol4ts +qE -+ =^Jg
a.J). *etr ¤EJBllzl"J, ?Col ol {E_+ zlotzlz,ll g
^F.8-6-J
E g+4.J Eeq H++.
=dol
12.2 | _?.i1lel +a
t
,j¤¤ r_{lel ulzj{rJ _r_ill
ilal= t** 94-3 E6J6J+. qlE Eq l7l]H.el 4ololEg= Pulzi s7 mm3oli, E
A gzl r.o x ro22zlz\ E+qq il4. ols+ ,Jol Br3 f9 flzI d+g gBzll zl¤6J
,395 7i111gp4(FeS))
+ glg A"J7l? +4^BrllE, "*9 _r,^19 +a: d,iig4se ++61 Hl+q= iIH O PH0T0 FUNiShutterstock
$ zlzla_ 9l+. +ae HE¤ol +q4 dE9 Hol "J=qTl {$ u}4lz}zls, 4E1
I
+4zlol7 HI+4.J flzl-59 tsIg 4lHg ,*= rill= Ttgg ri{l(crystalline solid)
4r, +4. gHI4eE olel ee rill= ^le gA6J 49 oliL BB.J EE.J tr ,l
{."-ku
l
(face)9 r*=+. ole+ ae E9
4tJ e"Jg A=q(rs 12.2).
"Jg= 9zI9 +44t ul]¤e
gEl4E1,
oJ6ll rill='l]+
H!=!E¤ zlll(amorphous solid, rel'-q.tr. 'BEll Sg'gE+q +;{)ql^J: 44d Hta¤d nilt(=eA( 70% sio2)
re
:il.illql^l tsaq= +4col +^}]6t^l 9*=+. gzl +=q^l Ela4^J aallel +a= O mahirart/Shutterstock
LazJ 12.2 e88 rillel Hle88 n
EillE +ae| +^t6t+. rq+ Hleac r4lql^.i Bzt, g^L olge Eillg oll z[z] illq ql _rilloil^-1= fl^lEol +
,ll q= eEql ql6J zt+E7l aqqq 9lq. HIa4^J riil= g aHg ecEol+ =gd
+7l5oJ EEI|E EJ=ELI. nl
^l40lr
aa EoJol s+. a++ Elacc r.iil_eE r+, +4, +e4(s}&,?4)E"l gl4. af 7l^t49 +=0il^-1 g gflEl E=
e= El=!d r^11
trJ+l ,J4 ^ll*-stt[.
011^l= olef=e4r[
eS +4dol g.rl.
^11+ef
4^l
acc ral Lllql= Efl {ts(unit ceu)4j1 6}= ^}El]4ee 4g e}4 *9lz} 9l+. +91 ^ll
s= gzl¤q 556J tsIgql E6ll "J5qzlq, r^llE += ¤'llE't+E+. ol sfl;llz|
dli;?lE ,rll uJa;'eE is.ol +q a{E +471"J$qd+. trI+^l aa^J jlallel +a=
(u) EI9l aTlel !_oJ, 6) +91 qlql 9l= flZl¤E +lilql E6I a4g+.
^JIEE ^llE
tgl rllezt El]gsl= dEE ,I6IEI4 rIHg 3g 4x[(crystallattice)4]'*4. ¤xJls
44 4z].: AC +aql 4ql zlt9 Eol4. +d 59 oJ]q=tr, Ag g^i+ ?lzlt_qtr 4
4q ++l ^llEE il]¤.e_trA] gd'* 44 +z= qiE + 9l+.
r^llel +48 7l+617]| dql, aa 4zI9 Ecg ol6llB gsz} 9l+. E¤dlzlzl Q z1
ol"lEolE 4z] E¤ E4E A.lH 12.3 olx|fl eE 71^l ):^l qlEl ael b
^lls= dg.J+. olz[flo]1,<-l ++l
^llE=¤. "lrlal tl-afoeil1+-LtEsl HllEoI trJ=
$,ol $dal Hg + 9lqot't}trI. dliigqj^l= +rJg ill-$zl $lall gg ,tllEE = ^le LJ91
clTlll. =^ftr
4^l EEle 8elElts E:"J
^llE=
9lolrllE $olo| oJr|.
^fE:doltf.
.Eq: %IrJr+ f7l= 4= Eq*"l+. rB 12.3q1^l Eqg r7l:. +gsg ,Jols ++4r. EEIE %I6Jg q+sel *
6Jsq E^l6Jq.
5'14 128 r^llslU^^il
a a a a
a a a a
b
a
w -1 a
,L
a
w\
oI_
a
a __.1 a
o __l a
B6J^[HE 4\l(a + b,y:"Ja) 8^l+E 4xl(a: b,y :90') 4^p+E 44@ + b,y :90')
ol^l'fl ¤^l4B 4^F= edd|.= EE] a, b= 0lE6|q Atilg 4xl'= trJE= a= 8,f6|] E
x[. 0lr]l '2Jol7l +Er. a, bOl fr.loJ EOI ulEl c= +7l6l"xL 'Jl[4oe EclT] 4^l= 77lxlE
^ll
d^l-fl 4^l=0ll^l olE 4oJ7l?
.c+4¤ +g Eolol cq4¤ol +u aql + Eot^qg +E "^l+. ¤Eql E6I ++l o4 bql g
^llE: 4^I
BlEl
^llsel
dl AelqE, zTlel Eootg z*E S{r}HB(paralleogram)ole};. 7lq6}+.
^}¤g
't2.2 lxllelT4 515
p
b olHt x{Hl
v
a:b:c a:b+c a*b*c
^I.HJ
lHt -gHt
50 trJ,\| 8^t
a:b:c a=b*c a*b*c a*b*c
ot: p:y*90" d: p:90",y:129" a:l:90",8+90" a*B*y
AfH 12.6 7=+"lAr^tfl fl,l.l4xl
Lt+l^jls iH-g
+IlEalillcoll
gil:d 4rtE
44 ^l4l7l 44 +z= 496l-= 49 olrl4. 44 +z= uJ$zl 91a1.<1ts 4 4zld9l fl
zI+ gz}+g +lzl^lA BszI ?14. ztar ,J+* a+tr, 44 +^y He g4¤E +C
qq flr, 7+ fl^l7l4ztd9l zld +q ilts 4*o14. olEll Ad +ee+ 4zld3E++ ql
Eg ,*:+. z1rz.:¤91 LI4d aal rJol, Be ++ fl^zt ol i[aE r*=rt. g^"Jol ol a
r
=1116l':
+ +
XT EIE
H9 ul*ol ¤*g 4'+A uL ElEe g4zl=ol tl r.iil Adql^l flzl¤9 + rJ 44= qq x z-20 Aol4.
=.e
+8tr1. ole+ eg Eq4.J dtlg qtl(diffraction)o14 dg u+*E ol E9lql ++trI. r4oe. ?c3 xdq 4qI
r. 6J4. qol C6l]A ,J4g ,*= "*g ¤.9 +{(qeg., a44"J qag qtrg g + 9l+. xd cl¤e szl, Exl-,
g trtrl, t}*g qF=g
diffraction grating)9 zlLlrll olee.l +zl4.J u1]¤91 EoJ xC 4I+eE eqd+. aa
^lE ^J
E +¤¤ "Iq q¤ 4Hol+ll.Jqtl. "JAe-l E]-e qe} q +aql 46Iq *4zI .Jn 9l= ql++e xc ¤cEt(x-ray
++ trlE B^"r+E+. {s.l ul55o1 -BrJ Aag 6}E Elg ul crystallography)ol+r "JBld TlHg ol+6}q, xdol aa
7I eq4r., p$ ulf,5o1 q5$ q7l e g ,lLla 4l e"lzlE qe gqa+.
^J4l Aag +E 'ilHg r3e,-e.tr]1
qd+,,',,, (e.8{ el 'gzl -a-ulEirf +^} 9-ElEisl ql^J' + f.al 12.eql Ll+u a4 zJol, tr4s+9 xd gol ¤d9 zl4
.i). qg EIa-4 +qE q.ol ,r.]tr +^Itr trll, 7[g E44.J 7Jc+. _a E4-a+q g"lzlE 4¤ ulHol 7l+B+. s4E
g
i
t
I xd
10,000-
40,000 v
rll
=Ed
"J,{l+l
gIEE Xd
ArH 12.9 Xd ¤(beamp zlSg
=Eollel-dXCslElE
xde altrE]q. =8qfql^]LJ^qqXd
e440+ EGI^I: 7Jd trflEJol 7l=Erl. alE^l
xd e=7t ^lL[7Jrf.
Z !E tfEeltr trtlEE 7l+-stt[. L]3 sltr trt|EJsl E^19 56H, =8=
LHoll
l23l;+t{Iill
A+4rll *4(metat)ol4 E4: ta-8 zill(metallic solid)t d4ss ++ grteuJ +C
Elq 9l+. ++ql^l fl4¤
^IolE AEle +&q"JeE= ¤H6J + Hg CEE
uflg
=.zl
gzlE ="f, 4d'9 ¤c6t= ql gs.J fl^l7l dzl+ ++6}zl ?j:tr|. ++ql^l
"J, ^Iolql
gzITI 4zlzl r.zll dxllq ul$zllE|(delocalized)9ol 9lq ++ d*(metallic bonding)
=
ol4a al+ paJol
^Ja+. 4 fl^l7l dxtts 54ql flxl.* aqlql B=4 ¤4p}gg ?lb
4.ol ot,l4, i1^llE Eqq H4 qri ?14. dxlle ++g ulEzl]E}g flxlzl dz]9 'ut4
q +a oJolgEg ulEe, +EE + 9l+.
++9 e+ql AtJg rEq ^dAql Higg+. olulE 74dol4 tszll EeE +ql +lqE
4ol ll9 4o14. E+ 4E +++ er+ azJeE zl-= trllE +Hg E 4ol 99 4olrf.
ole+ ag EaEe
^JE
+Eq= 5dg 7l^lir- gl+. d}zlEl olE E+= #4c " e ¤+
g + 9l= qH +^[cg *EoeE 7l^)L ?14. 4l*a]ril afl ++q +He 544
.J %Iqg +4U+. E+ EJ+e-E ++-g
"JzlE :=4& *=ql, ra
e ++q ¤dss.z} r7l qEql =+q ^l7l+
^JzlE 5^dol+. ++e d6l-= E ++g
.JzJ.7t
I
E6Iq dr]l sE i 9)zl trllEql *-3 dzl dEE= ,*=+. "J+4sE ++9 gd "/
EEeI dzl dEEE .!e. ?9 aolg ,*=+. qlE Eq g^ +ql^l zlzJ *3 dzl
aEE= +El.ll: 94 +47| TI^L tg gdEE= r*E+.
gs- g-g.E "JE + 9,lE dC(malleability)g 7]ts=A1 4
'I++E ++g +EEJ^J
eE S¤ + 9l= {C(ductility)g ,*=+(rA 12.10). ++ql^J flzl-E"l ,tJe ul:zel A:1H I2.'I() E¤I-} Ed BEJS B+
4 7lqrJ f 9lzl ql$ql ole+ eg Scol +Ett+. ol$rJ ulle| ++c aE +z =+o_l
Ed= LlElLl1q, ?alc3
o ol od.l.lg r Ltr Lll.lr =+ =
rill= ole+ eg 4#- 444x1 *68r, "JHl4etr dal +^lzlr. v\4tr+. L
ffi cd
7lturutul
ruffiffinffi
TUUII
IAAI
tA^a^#Lrtl, t" :d
518 128 r^llelU^xfl
o1
e¤ 4It
=E
t +r
(a) 3,rl "J,J B4 (b) iltc "Jg (c) EC EB 34 (d) 87Hsl trJ9l
=+ 6C ^iltrql
3^t
=?sJ
_18 12.11 (d fl,rl gg, (b)illc "JU, (c) Ed gHJ +4. ': ?^= tfl^l- e^414tr-d 4xfol ^cfo.e EJEGldrl
(d) qlEoil 9l^ -zt 8^l-(53^! o p LIEILJE 87Hsl 0 =+el
I
.J"J EPI li E?Erl.
^1lsoll
++B niilsl+a
zf 4zl44l6J 7l]9 gzl-= ullzla|{ +471"JEqe cF+, ql++g ++ eag +a=
,JE6r+. a"+9 "J%r 4xill ql,il +a= reJ 12.11q1 +4H+. tl^l E%r- +zA r*Y
^ll
++e ezl ¤-e+"ol oi+ sl+l6J ql +E ol4"l4. e, ==aE-, aE,
9+9ull, %I^l-C fld
B4¤l Ee 4C "J%I ++olEl. 'JFults, B, +?-1, e, + Fe HC 'JEJ ++olr+.
a4 n.rE 7l* oI4 *= rHql +q-44. ++l ^llse-l +]ldn+ Eql 9lzl.J g
zlE=g gd6l ,J +91 =ql EElq= 4ol o}.l4. +rldr+ Eql gzl.J fl4E=e oJd
^JlEql"J
6J E +-e gg ,,qle9l 96I ++9tr1. +E^ll= s4lE +]!d $ zlzla- 1l o I,.+. azJ Q.12(d
(a) frt Eg
=+
(b) i{tc gg E+ (c) Elc flEJ El*
E+l ?It 1711 E.?.1 g^[ 27l'l E+] flrt 47ll
^]lE'J ^1lEJ ^llE'J
La"a12.12 gHJ ?4E.'f= rH-d cJPl gz ill8 4 fl^loll L|l6G ?Pl EC|E ?EtrJE Lfeflllflrl
=+oil ^llEel ^llEoll
12.3 7^ll 519
=+d
8 12.1 trJgl
^fl_c.
7d4lqt g^tdtts 4 fl^tel 88.
flrt flil flxt= B+6lE E+l
^llsel+ E+l 91ts flxlel EE
^llgEoll
fl717.)
E 8 rls, r2.sEo
-
=
E^.14 4 tls,4 zsqo
E 2 rlz,4 soq,
+= +lzl I t, a rcoqo
.6s6J ag *4 ga]- +dE 9lzlolE| t+l azl=ilql 9leE^J +r.d, E^Jq E: Eql ilrl ?];g g4-E=g +
^JlrEel
+l
^llsql
roo% +dl il: ase rJ+619+.
7l] gzle+ ++l ^llsE 6dql 1Zl gzt)= E6J6l-r. 914. E,J Ertr-++ql^Js+ rJol, t+l
7l]E g9-1 ,qle91 g"l] *-,?gzl trilEq *zl rlz flzl""J
^llirg Hql +q il= flzl-E=e +
^{s(rA n.n (c))91 eE}E dal flz}
ol 4 ++l ,rllEgl sBE+. EI+^J Ed .J,J +fl
fE eol4(4lldeE+q (t/s) >< 8:
flzlc+ Ee-egq 0h) x 6:3zll flzD.
17H
++l ^llE 49lrJ flz}9 9lilql tr+4 +91 ,qle "Jg1 4 flzI z7+q +gol q
=z16l+
Bzll B4zlETlA E12.1oll s-oJ:ot94.
ag $"J
++q^l flzls=e flzlz} 4zlzl ++6lr flzltl dzl-= dill4_e-E ++"Hot 617l trllEql
arrJdlTll +al g+. flz}¤3 + EoJE E4lolIrE, +5q a"J +.Jg ¤qE-_qe4
^lE
++E +a= ol6l]6J + gltrL 5.J* a7l4 aoeE + +g "JE trll 7I+ .Eg4.J %r-Bg,
q++ql +4u ,.a+ ,Jo), ozJl$ =" ee eI zl]g tg E;lr{+ *Bol4. szt
=g rz.rs9
g +eE BC6t7l +l4q ol 71ts 6E q++ql +7l4oE +g +olo}6JtrI. +g Eg
g +4s+6I71 fl6}q + HZl] +g ol+= +E=e a H4l +g ol+= +Eql el6ll
^Ja +
ql flil6l]ol qI+. F Eal] +* t * d o-e E^lg +ql +rl+ sg detr s^lg ¤-ql +
g + 9l+(+ol ++61 r7l qlEql * +ql^l + ="+E g- EFE F^lql ifig += H+.
4+q= EelE +l6lq, F H4l +g .JEE r.* deE s^lg ¤.ql +g F9l4-r. alzt.
H4l +g "JE7l +16[q +g H + 9l= %]He F z[zlo1r1. 6J 7]zl ,]Hg H
^ll ^ll
4l +ol a E4l +9 HtE g
+lq + 9lE+ Ellil6l= 1,o14. ol 4cg:H rz.rsg
g+q +4*eq, rB EJ o[4q gql^J ts=¤ E+q]^J B3 ddo-e ++u ar+ eol,
^Jl
Hxl +g a E4l ?9 HtE gql 9l+. 4l+6fl^l +g +9-H ril Hz|| 6e + ErU 6 Hte
gl.il Folzll qr...., ole+ag uilHol 4l*gg, :H g+q +Elu Aa+rJol eses...B
"Jol 99t14. ole+ Ag S"JE Bq= ErrJE"J pJ(hexagonalclosepacking, hcp)olrlz
oJ+. E EIE EI TIzl EJHg, HZt +E +5ol a H4 +ql^J Sg AsE +4U ¤:E
^ll
Httr +lq g + glE+ uflzlalf 1o14. ole+ ag EHgql^l Hzll +ql g= +E=e rH
^ll
rz.r:9 e_=+ o[4 gql^J E E+ql^J s3 ddge +4u 44 ?Jol, zlg + +E ts[
E $ql fjilo}zl *=+. Arlzlse ge r+Ag Hlqa}q $"lzlE +E=9, re e
ole+
+4d 14 rJol ABCABC... +.J 'lHg Hq ole+ ae s"Jg eqlE EU
=+q
5"J tPJ(cubic close packing, ccp)olzp .Jtr}. +%i =+. a"J S"J E+q^l
="J +"J4 EHJ
4 ="3 +.J.J 4Eql "Jd.J t27llE +g r*:rl. ee +ql 67H, +lql gl: +ql 37H, ot4
ql il= ?91 :2115 u1g;a(coordinationnumber)E l2olr+. Hl]+l+: Ad
'Z*E+. 4 +E
520 123 Illel C^rll
7l'8 g?l fl^lEel El ?zEE ¤g-g + 9/= olil'g 4^l= olE )ioJ7l?
^ga.lll =e-l
'r
f\# #Y\#
r x f\ft#
ffi
# IEflI=
(+loil^l E s^J f\r\#
Y .t
I
t V
n
\
+
I fr f r:1
Ef" w I
F flrll=
Y, Y # (910il^l E E6) V
I Y Y 'q f, \
-!
{
L
{
rt
I
ts
'{
^{
sfll=
(?l0ll^l
=
E^J
I a
Y Y
a a
v
I
, \
a a
\
L
ABAB...goJoe. I Unll E=3 53 Eoe E^lE
=Eg
B=el= HIE +loil Etrlt=oil ?,1= =011 il3
=oJrl.
=Eq. ^il
F =Ee]=c3 Hlzrl
?l= gEelEcae+El
=oll
?lrl. ABCABC...¤loJ.
g0ll& E s*
A C \ \
I H
B B
}l
M
L r
: ,# :
A
A A I s
Iil n
Afg 12.13 Eg-sf f7l= '*= EE9 6"J EoJ 8oJ g'J(g+)+ goJ 4"J 4+-oJ(9E+E -"F EE g: Erl4?] 'Jgoltl.
Ert_rLr^! Ee g^|E g= LIElHrf. ^g ^g6t1l
=¤^! ^l0ls.l
12.3 | r^il 521
=+d
B A I I <
=+,
E+l
rB 12.14 (d ArJ 4"J E"J
(b) gg 4"J g"J
tc8 Eet
=+el
e
A C Zl= ^llE
LlEIfHtf. ^llEel
4 eE +
^!FP
gdl= tll^l8Etl.
til,r
B B
A A
Eoll^J E PA 90il^l E6
=
2/
^llEe} =,E"6J
+9 ^flE= *i4(:zH 12.11(c)). ABC... +E +.J4 Ed .Jot ++l ^lls
^iolE +4lE
a4 n.r4G)ql +4H+. EEJ ++l ^JlEel i{ql4dql +4eE 6Eol +
ol= ag reql^J g + 9l+.
qnl 12.1
g"J 3gE 4lt
I g7l= -'J ttll. ErlS HJ
8,J01 g.0l BE g= ag E7lE6ltt. S"J EE(packing efficiency)e eE Ll1oll^j 3^lE0l d
^tololl
ilrl6|.= Eaol Hlgolrl-. Ed g,J e+ql q6|.q g"J E¤¤ zltr6l-^le.
^lle
EtlU
E4 +9 ^Isql 9zl¤ol '+z16l+ +q= altl+ +E= trl-SrlB4.
=xI6l=
+. :1Alg Eg ^llsE +qE ++olot oJ4.
4q ++l ^JIEB-gztE +ql + 6J zlel Pq'J anflt* *
Ed E%I
d++E:
++ql^l
^"(+):Y
g4-E=g ++lEE ql4dg tr14
6rE, dill flztq 9oll d+g +q= 41&g + 9l+. +91 ^llEE
^le "*Bol914.
^llsq +vl= +6}rl f-l6}q *C Szl-5ol ^lE **ot 9l=
BoJg *otot aJ4. :fl +ql 716I +4= ol+6tq E%L +
s^l?.] aol=.gzlE Hlzl=.-s_E +48 + 914. 4r
+l
^jlsE
E^lE aol aE 9E +9
^,llEE
+rl= rJ*61 a3ol4.
Eot rB D:pql +4t a!+ zJol, Ed .J%} #+ql= B
9l ^llEq 444 il4719l+. tri+^l fl4-Sq E"I d+g
522 123 -,I^llef tl^^l]
A =+ +^0, r,6,.q fl^t +80, 7E] )r7)r? *or?t= EEE, g^rer +(H,,?r+)7,=E Eg
I a== e7a;E7l.,J4apz171qtfit 12.1 d^)
6J+
ttE(all"rg + 7l7l ol{}E gA= Ee'6]-lr. 9l:4, ++el r+6J r*= Eeol+. +
=Cg
+E g;.g "JE= ag, ++6J ++ g^sl ra-S6J + 9l= +s6J EIH +9 6I+
=Cg
olTl qlEql ,ll+ ulg6IEI. qE Eq eel 4E E= .JH]4 eoEE 6tso¤ a^Jqi {ol
4(qlE
=E ^qlql4 ^ +).,JE(bronze)g +r-le} +49 6J=-olq, a"+E(brass)* +4e+
olgE oJ=|ol+. ++6J +e q+ +e7l qlEql E4 oE .r.f$alzl qBzl"J, ++E 6J¤.
g gd q ++6|r+(s24+"+g qH|" +a). .JHI4.J 6ts9 E1z.2q1+4H+.
qFg !l P+e ++8, xl+l68, E^I ffi, #"J !H, ++rJ el6JEol+. il+ t+
+r+ E^ll E}=:e *d ctsol +4^16l"_r. +"J6.|7ll El4 glE +"J gqlEolEl(fEr 12.15,
<za: t.lp). +.J ¤.6J+9 ol== jrillE¤. r.ill +olol+r qI+. aill +Eq^J .JElzlg-
812.2 0JY!40J
*?
d*.1 +fl^ gEI4?l4¤(Eg'l.) E/\1
-O
.Q.E
o+
gE 6Lr-
l- EE Hl^+E Bi 50Vo, Pb 25Vo, Sn l2.5%o, +=d(70'c)ol *g +3 zl-F
Cd l2.5%o
=Bl:a, ^gB=q
%I+ +4 Cu 677o, Zn 33Vo ¤C. "Jqol :l* 6l-E?llq ++
a+ +r] Ctt 88Vo, Sn l2Vo 4+Col iliL4^*7\ i7l EB(aF7l)ql 4+ +s
+ql^1 ++4 0-+- ?laEL 6J.E
^rllolzl;.zj e Fe 80.67o. C 0.47o. Cr l8Vo, +^lql e aE !zl. $ffi zlf
Ni l7o
trllL+
dll
L+
Il Pb 67Vo, Sn 33Vo +YAQ7s"c)ol *g. ol.$ull {aJzN
OzI
Lil
O
Ag92.5Vo, Ct7.5% EEql *eol .Jg 4zl
;1ffi oluJzl- g Lg707o, Sn 187o, CullVo, dTll 7E6J + 9l+ zlffi f{xll
Hg27o
HHeI 7A)
t- Sn 92Vo, Sb 6Vo, Cu 2Vo +Ed(zao"c)ol *+ e^1, B4 ^-il+
12.3 -+d r^11 523
Au Fe
Ag 7 C
3=t
-Je
ils dB
14K= =dAE
r,at 12.15 g=l} E^tl Er"=oll^l EE fl^lel'Eot| flrl"e.l E4' + 6+9 B=3 rill Eo-4(ilE
-cfE)0lrl.
^lE =
Eqzlr, ¤.d flzlz}8,ll flzt ^IolE '+B'oJ E-^l] glzlE E^l| SEt(interstitial
gq{+(rH
arlloy)o1 12. ts).
=q7IH
+ zlE *4 cBol Hl+oJ flzl *zl+rt slE aE. 5^dg 7la ql 7l+ 6J=!ol Eq{
+. q= Eq er+ ;.9 9z| HlzlEol 4E ?Jol, dill rc H9lql^J il+ t-J.=..g ^8c6J
+. oJE+ ++E ilz| {lzlfi.ol E 1s7o ol{r z}olz} +H, "JH}49E +6}lE= "*3 zll'*
g ts=4.
E^I 6F.g "JsejE, ¤-d flzlE ¤-,ll flztgl Hl"ll g{ z}e aB gz} q}zlfi-$ z}!
ot'*trt. "JHI4s.e E4
^Iol-tr
a.J6I= gi= "JdaJ ++ gzlql =o# ¤6JS B + 9l
Hl-o+ giolrl. ++ aa 4ziE Erll dtsg-r .J6Iq qBg e6J qEql, ++
= ^JrJ
6Hzln zlallzlQ scol qfoiltlq. qlE 59 #B(pure iron)-E_r| gd ++6tr ,;* +4
(steel)9 td= 3vo Sullzl ++61-= B9 EFol4. g;rz](alloy steel)$ zJlaalzl +16ll^l
E '|E fliE¤ EzlE + gl'I. qlE HlLl-EolL+
=.eE¤ BzlalH aETl tol-
=
zll, ul-+.e| +^lq E aE + 91trI.
=q
qAg '*+.J
zl-1i ?,q'* e 6J+ + 6I+b 0.4o/o4 +r, t8%el 3.EE, 1./.E
;.lr.a(stainless steel)ol+. ,Jeql flis.l a,i3ulzl rll* ^qlql
trllE
=4161-=
"*H+l6lAl H6Izl
ql, rE+q golzlY Eeg Er.l Eloizl Scol ql+ trI"J6I+.
5a+ .
Fe
I
<
A +-Ee /.lElE|-o E(cementite,
I
Fe3C FeeC)olrf.
524 123 r^llelu+l]
9*0ll gtts,
de^lol SmCos?!tr|*dEsl E+l -18 titl, efl azgel Sm g^lei eTHsl
^lls=
Co flxlE LtEflllol6E)l?
Ni AI Nb Sn Sm Co
+g oI+ sq d+q tI41+, ,84+, Elq+ql ^F+¤ + {+= +E 4e} u4B&ol Ai6J+. E4 oe.
+ol+. +g ++es^l +.J.J slq HI+ql ,ItI g6tzl o#:g=q5++
l4KeI l8KqlQl, rarollr] ;i
.ll"J zl6JC, drll 7l-t6J ==tI
^4a., E"eE .J6ll ^I+q= :58%oola,
+ 9l= Cd E|]+4 el "J=Jg O4,lz4,) x 100 rar9lrl +9 EI*g
.J .JzlE Erll qfl+. afzl"J tr*bure sold)* Ll+ +s Oalzs) x roo: 75o/ool4.
7l qlEql 844 Ae "*e ¤+ Eotql + flq, 4 +9 4Ae otsog olE ++q EI4 B4tl+. 'JH]4e
^Foo6J
*g EI+AL+ rlEe+ {r5 go1z1 +l4q ++ += #+ e, ;.3 g E= +"-le},6J.J-.g ¤C6J4. gA= E+ E
^,ll
r+.H"g "JE4. -H_4
^ltlq^l t*3 z+re, E¤g+. 7l] d EEJ +aq a4g ¤c++. ^il g^ E+ ag +4E 4
12.41=+ ?::* 525
^s
(o
ElAfl
20 40 60 80
:ct=sl +alslEg E4EE
>.LE 12.18 adoll ttf= Au-Ag-Cu
^4
a#at o
E +al
a = 4.085 A a : 3.615 ^4,
AI Si P4 s8
H Clz
127fle1a?lE ?^t flrt7l-d^t 47|l fl^t7f d^t 57fl E^Pl E^t 67fl fl^l7l i^tntl
fl^tB fl^t.J fl^t'J g^t'J
8-4-- 4TlleleB 8_5:37Hel eg 8-6:Dll$'3EJ 8-7:17Hq eil
e+ Z-Bt
ao 27al
e+ 013(o4 + L|l+ E^t) qlg BC6J+. gdal +49 zl+arfl ole+ ag |f,$ flzll o1o11;3 + 9i+.
+7lgEE ?J+ +7l?+rl)q^J g+es 7IH^l 8-N {o}o1 aH¤+B, "J
+trlE(37|el flzlzl dzl¤,*=)g sTlE a6Jg B^jBJ asE qltr-g+. r+l
+ Bg += ++4 u|gzlzlE, 9*olts3 r24E.Jd+ flzl-E ,*= a"J +
.J +a= ¤C++. u[:u]lf,$ aEE ++^J +aE BC.J+. ol4 zJol Ca
6l= aq+'llaq+ol +4614 EI+l= ol+= +E q]Egzt? r Be, *ql^J fl
#d Eie+ zJol, *49 flzlzl 4^l7l Ezlls*$ dzlt a$g BCg f 9l¤ "J
+ +B6I{ *6|71 4l$ol4. olel ag fl^l7l {z}E }-$gg -H.t}6}zl 916].q
flzlzl dzl-5 d{l4etr =",?6f41 94. flzl-pol au3 +"J +a= 6tr 9lq
ole+ ag ul¤xls*¤ dz}g ++7I dril
"Jq++.
tzl sg
Hltrl
35501 ?l=
fl^l7f d^19 Hftrt ++E zlet 6s* A zlzl ECg ¤E6J + 9l+ ol]+ ,J+.J EB o e. Er] Httrl
.Ets(electron sea model)ol 9l+(rH 12.20). ol EBql^l= ++g fl471 dztq
LaB12.20 E+ lrl ultl EE fl
8^f= +aE a+ =-ctsl
ol8 Bl]gg +910il^1 'EI4ql fl= ++ oJolgE ul]¤e 7l+*+. d4s=* oJolgr+g cdzl4 .J4
^l7f
-Br4l orr. +8501 ?]ts l^tgl Hl ql 96I ++q +Eqq 9lr, +a diJlq .Jaolril EsElEl. rq+ dzl¤g
=:-J6lr q6G HIE^HofEJrf.
rE -d.56171
dal azl.J i ilzl qlEql qrlal zl.p {z}E ++ olgql +4q9 ?lzl
=c
?*+. ++ Edql d"Jg AH, gd6l-= E d4+ "Jd6l¤ E EdE 4E +zl
+str 6=tr1..
3500
I
Ai I
+zl sHlg s¤
ti l
dz} uf4 E¤ol ++6Iq "JB dEE g 4g¤zl4s, ++E "te E^d
3000
2500 li
I
t1
\ g ++61 ¤B6rzl= *.J+. =gqE 5q dzl uI4 E¤ql EdtE, ++ gzl- ,J
\ \
I
E
xl 2000
¤Et9 ,rJlzlE flxtzt dz}9 fzt ?zl.6Jgl 44 +zla}]ot 6Ii1, :a 4a+ +=d
I
5 rsoo E +7[6Ho] .JE]. rq+ ++ +7]|4 dol *4 algql^J +.Jql 9l: gcEol
1000 4+71e+
I
s6lal 4 Eql fl= g^ql ulall $i.{ol zl.ar k4(:al12.21). ole+ ?g a6}
I I
500
a \ ol e_lulof!. ae, ++ 41y9 tllzlzt zlgq= i)zlzl d4f9 Gzl4l trl+ +
i
I
I
gl* flxl+7} 671.8f0fl rtlal Exl eHlH 0flH^l a4e ol.gzl El?^,1*71?
^l-90il ^l0lol
E3 fl^lel =4= LfElLHr,
itaE= d^1.=
u+Elal
// r LII
LlEfL,!trf=ag 7lq6Et. // a
!=Hd
F7i=11{
---J
Hl
Gl
1:"@@@@ ot
E
aa
MO E
0tl
Ll
1( ^f
I
o
Hl
E}
P
^l 1t
ffiffi
nl
O
{]
I
1t MO
f Lxl
7i a l1{
aAC r^lle+ 49 +zI7I ,*Y 44 +a= +^[dS"J otq+ 7]olEE E^lql ,*+Ll.
ol$ {$a}zl gl6}q 7Jol7l +716J trll 4E flx}9 4il Ez} _sElg tr+7}
^l+
gBzll E4zlEzlE +qBzI(:laJ 12.2). 4 4E gzl= ^l¤q
fl^l7l eeql Hlol il]gl+l zs _q
ElBg Ee-6Ir. 914. r,z9 ?*, EzI -qElg EE= H, ExI9l Ell6.J Ese+ +^IdI4. pl
4l= ifl+l{ ?E}d Ezt eulgolq, q= + ,ll: flz].e+ flz}.t1o1q1 tr].q ¤Eg ,*= Hl
q 9l= EIAEJC $z| eulpol+ .@r (s.t4). Li+9 4*. -sulg tE z}Sol Sd.J ¤EL
d("I4 ¤E o).L tl* 4lqzlzt *g sHlgE+q sElg rJE 4801 HlaEtc(,lq ¤E
37iloJ7l* 9lHxlzl ++ sHlgz-zl +zI sHlE 44)71olr+.
7Jol7l ?zl-¤f+ Ezl sHlgE ib ?ziEI4. aolql rlss.ol ollvlzlzl zl
^l+ ^l¤
a. *g sHlgg al.!. ¤,*dol z|1t zfap, qlLJzlTI Tltl +g e_Hlgg 6J^J Hla6Jcol
7l* rl6lq.44ol 4 4E gzl-= E t2119 flzlzl44 flzI sHlgg z*zl ullEql Ezl
?]E gzlE +e+ a+. 4 4E gz}.= flzlzl 4^l7l lzlolE
^I+ql fl=
sHlgE += ,+
sulgE Hlg Sd6l d+qa, 4"lzl eI$ HlTll g+.*
^l+ ?.191 t*Sol EzI
tr,
dzt ul*a "JE ^l¤9 z)olzl,]]+ ,Jzll 98, tszI _sulB zJ9 qluJzl 7lol7} +^l+ e
EE zlg Ezt suleol ,l* f*ol gq. z)olzl +6JqlE qE, 6l+¤ ql
=rl6lal ^]fel
^Jql= E+4ql 46and)zl-g+. b(E= *4 ¤"1?)oe Ezloll ++61 = edql
Llzl
BP flxlzl-9lq. A44se ¤C9 4z| faE tA tz.zz4 e_=qql qElU a
=,H+
4 rJol, tr]tr ol+q{ +q} aol= ,*= ^l+el dz} 7a4 erll gr}.
4 flz}9l ql6}ol oJ ++ ol^JE g^i eElBg ]lq6llot 617l qlEql, ql+Eq
dz} +a= tfl tz.zz4l+4U aHq q +t}6l+. 4 sHlgg zI+lE qE xll*E"+E i ql
,l qlEq, J.iilE xz[ faE gH]4sE gEg trlE ol+q4 91trt. q?+^J 4^l ++e]
-Lz,ll6ulk solid)9 dzl +3= ul?lE(bandstructure)E +4Btl.
e+01 Llg t}It! sEl60lalE, +s, 4p.3d rq 6 olL zl0l p$i{o+ itl.?lxl 91=71?
4p nl
(g^tEJ 67|]e-l
Erl-= 7l-E) MOel
HtTltl^lnl
d=E6vl
x]^l
EE
4p gal=J =7rdq.
dB4 ++q q,* q+aE rs 12.23q1 zllqt{etr +4H+. L-lA ++ql ql+ dz} il]
+g ¤E?'Ia gzl"J, tr}= ++EE 7lt4"J +^[6]+. rHg g+ql +E}U H]e]
=Ce
zJol, ul4 flzt9 {z} ullzl} [Ar]4s23d8olr[. ol eul$ 44es+q Bt¤
"llHzlr]E
rHel s#ql +4HEl. 4s, 4p,3d sElBg 584-qE ++qaoq, 449 Ezi
^lE
_qElgg qE zll*E}4. ole+ Aol 444 q=e rlE. gdal EB4"J f $.zl"J,
^|d^J,
¤Bg ++6}rjl 6171 96J +4ql= 6J44_e-E +qlg4.
4s, 4p,3d qEg rSol ilzld}r fl= qlLJzl B9lzl- qar.(r4 n.zzq s#
^JE
ql il= 4^I4¤g tole EEE), r=ol 714 + 9l= dxtE fzt 4sut(4^I4¤g ,"J
ole .trBE). pauli Hll4 94 * (6.7¤)ql 9.lt zl¤¤ azlH, sHlg'J zzfl{olEE es,
+p, td9 q= gr['J 44 2,6, 104]9 dzl-E ?14 + "44. za sHlBg z]o]^l edq] g
zlel eul$$9 ddol
^J44ee a$!olz1 *6t71
EllEql, 3d vlTl qlLJzl H
^I^16l+.
9li as, sp 4zl zlz16l+'qlulzl Sflgtrl rtr|.
a4 n.z3etr+q ++el gg 5cg oluuB + 9l+. qlqzltrl= 4^l7l p4ee 4l
9ltl Szle rJ+e + 9l+. E$d6l.rll 1l+l4l qlqzlqE .J6li ++ r+9 SCol +Elt
+. d+¤ 8$ z|4o1q1 ?l: sElBg dz}9l oI+ zlg "il.,lzlE 716l-8, dzl¤
=9lE
¤ rl b3 9luJzl5 r*= EIA+$ sHlge Erl S4zJ4. dflE 4i n_tl gqlLlzlE
716l-= F azF= e=E7ll g + gl= aaq^1, dzl¤3 *^J Hlq il= 9lHzl o1*i6l
=+lE
,ll Elr, !z|,t1o15 zl+E7ll+4.J + glrll EIEE d7l dEi.e+ ¤dr:r5 r*rll g+.
qlLJzltrl=el dd.l $.48, ++E ?zl4 Cee ¤Eg + frtr}. a 44 p ulzl SE .J
zJ4 a+= s ulg *ol ill+le 4.o e qtr-qq, "JaE E++(24)g a+=
"4(r+)g
s ulzi.g{al il]+la asE qlt}gtr}. "JE raol r}dol4B, trtrql+, ++,
?g ++==g *9 dzl dEill+ ¤dsxllzl Elzl *g 4o14. ol= dE4 +ArI: ^EEEI+
"Jzl
6}zl ?*=r+.
++E dEE= azl Ei+ EBol+ Ez] sHlB EBg ^l*s6]q ac4eE ¤HE +
1z.s ol3d r1^ll 529
gl= ElH, :14 rz.zrql LIEI'J +=a!+ gol, dol ++9 "*g E?-lzj"J ^Je N
e +4 s_HlB EBrrJe_s ¤Bg + gl+. +d gzIT| 4^l7l +7l6lir_ a6Jc q o|..d Etrnl7te. s^lo+ s
sulgql 4zlzl ifl$le ql Aq+^de zlaN{lQ-r. Ez} sHlg E¤g ql+6}fl+. =+e
TllrlxltsETl?
dol #4 zlgql^J ++q gzl"J g^= zl+E^l Hle6Jc stslgql {z}zl-ill
9lzlE^l a.Je dd E6llTlrI. o|8d 380il tE Salol 7l6flTlrl.
"J018
I a0l
=:E0l ++a1
aal+
t2.s I ol*al .aiJl
flrtEol Szloil 4al DlnalTlrl
_E BSrl !lr{.,-,., (8 2¤). olg ats a}E}Eg olg e!}E 4lzlzl El]+ r
^Jtr r.+1"+
zl ql$ql +=dq #=dol ++. olg 4r;e1 ,(lzli olgE d6IeI rTlql el
+6.Jr+. 4l8x}4 lltlql^l Eg6.J EIe+ eol, ol$$ {a}z} 4e++ oJolg4 +
olg
^IolE trs
z}*ol 44L+. trI4^J r+e] r-e] d6l¤ ,*= olges ol+
qd NaCr9 a+ +:de 801"CoJ ElH, z+str 2-E d6l-= r,l= olgss ol
t+;+
+qa Mgo9 +=de 28s2"colq. E 2.3q1 9= .J+4 ++ ge4l3r1¤9 e3 E6l'=
o+ E6[q '2*= ol8=
^tolE
HJgal
+:deE+El "J + 9l=ol, ol$ol $ofxlH ololg4 *ol9 ^tolel ^JE ++ =0lEalE+.
I6zlaJ4. ole+ Ag a6*g s.z¤9lrJ Ee]6J 4z| 9lHzl9 At:lg Hlg'J+.
x. 12.3 oJe4 ++ oJe.TlEtE-et
+,8
|+a+
AIEIE
LiF
goE-¤ol..
2.01
4al(A) 4r[ oilLlrl(ktlmol)
1030
*tsE(c)
845
ttt
NaCI )R1 788 801
(a)
KBr 3.30 67t 734
ol$rJ ulle] ++^d rxjl= E.F #=dol ,]]+ +zl"J, rEE EEI r*!
zl ++Lll= ilol: =+d4
olg A,Et4 ++ A.JE ilol-tr ¤Eg + 9t
=Cg =!s6J g^l7l 4zlzl ul$zl:*99 9l7l g*r ¤-o19"il el
4. ol9 AEI sl6JEE 4+, \"A,
tqq glzl qlEql. "JHI4ss olg aal s+6JEg {zl flrx11ol4. ol9 doJ
sl.JEe n\zlzl N$ a6&g ,*Eql, ol4e g3 dd]-= z*ts olgE HI
gqeE ¤Eg + 9lr[. aal1P,.24ql +E+u 1al rJol. o]$rJ ailloll ^tolE
84ol z[ \
zlallz]'zl dq .Jolg4 oJddlEB ul]¤E flzl E
"ll7lH, *4ol *olgol ^]-+
ol, oJolg_ololg, +olg_+olgE tsllgE HltlE+. a44eE, Eigqql 96lt (b)
flzI E==.g
^ls ¤q4 42141q*ull, oleloJ Cee tr4 g4 ^ll+q ol+g Lag12.24 olE'JEoil^l 77l|old"[ tre
+(+Hl g4el +^J+e Al2030lE|). Eg ed (a) olSd -ulloll Tl.J Saj(+E
al¤E)o1 7f6HE riu, q7l0ll LfEl
ol+al t_illel +a ^q
L,l =5e(b) olel a3
fl^l E= tt|alE4E*.
ol=8
++^d r^lle+ u|4lzlzlE, olg^d ral: gzl¤ol 44zloll =g +"J El]gg ,JA glel
=go_l =5ed
E6H +Ht(Eg)ef
g= + ?1r1.
trEE=
6l-= +aE r*=+. rq+ ol$rJ :ziJloll^J= rt= +zlEr+ HlEils.l dq-=
^lE
530 123 -,z^llelC^r|]
,*= +E¤ Elzl +"I.t d+ aol zlolol+. qlale "J"lgg ¤.ol9gl Hl6l] ^JB
=!_s-6J
al zlzl trllEql (z.rd), ol9 ?aJE|6JEq^lE E]l+li= 4"J +.J ++ql^lel ull?lf
-
Brl zI+. El+ *.olgr+ "Jolgol a7l7l eq4E, eg d6l¤ z*E olg5g d+
^lE
6t7ll 617l ?*n^l= ++ql^l ¤H.J a"J *oJ HIgg g + H+. r4e ullgg d6l¤
^I
ol9 qlgqs-e qjoH Hlg-46lzl e+4. zltl Ht*4+ +a= oJolg-+olg a=l=
ol$ $zl$ol 4s"q* t zlal zl*t,¤.ol9-¤.ol9
^I"lE
,l".le+ oJ:ole--oJolg
^Iole.l ^iol
E 4il: al4z}9E ullgol4.
7l^l+4 6 0i! aoll^j B0l8E0l d+61-=71? fg^l ?JrlE olE 0l8E0l d+6F=71-?
^ll ^18 ^1.+.
Cl Cs Cl Na SZn
.e.^,
Oo
+
E8 4I}
t
e8 +r
d
H**-'
\
.\
Na
g0t8 HlI+l+ 8 6 4
3013 Bfl+l+ I 6 4
71 47Jq. gEl AEE 4+. 4 grol94 *"1¤¤ 6rllel Hlql d6l-= 'Z*= olgql E6ll E
el,r+q 9lq^l 6Hllfl +aol ¤4. dot¤*q a+, 4 oJolg+ *"1¤+ 47llel Hlql d6I
E r*= olgql E6]l EElr+q glq^J 4tsIgl +Aol g+. "Jolg9 ul]?l +Ag ral r2.26ql
+EH+.
+q4l olg aq} Elq+Eql 46ll q¤ eEtig +a7l7Ic- 46J6Jzl e+g f fl4. :74
ql g6&9 glrl"J, olgel tr-q4e aTle+ sl+r+Eol zffi ieal oJ
"lzl= "*g 9l7i7l
zlolr+. +C olgq a7l= llel"|] !.2[. rH n.z6q1++U ai]H, Cscloll^J NaCt-E zJ
oll,u19li= soll.! 69-? Hl+|j1, CsCloll^J ZnSE TJ oll, ufi9lfL,sql^l 4s H6I= aql
+q6I4. ol ^ll s+'JEq a+, csclgl^l znsE-- ztj). *olgg tlzlES olf afr ga[
ElH, oJ"lgq Hlzl$ol AiI ole+ eg 46&3 ++4e_E ¤EB +
= =q=+= ^lde
gl+. "Jolgq ¤.olg9 zzlzl tsl*6J trll= ullglfzl dsqq. cscl 74zt Bcg4.
=
"Jolgg ^J44e aTVl +otzlE, a+ql= "Jolg-¤.olgol flfrafr. gl: E^lql gol
gEol 6l+ aol H olt 7l+.6t^l g*4. ol4 ag .Jol gqB ql,
^Js d+6[^] 9*E+
tsll+lt= sql^l 6e-E gs} +z7l dEg+. oJolgg a7l7l rl 4olzl
=qsq, 4o14,
E, ull?lf= +^l 6q^J 4-e
^EE doI¤"J9 +z7l cEg4. olgd aaql^J
Hlq a6L= r*E olgEg
=q= olgsg d+6|zl
^lE d+6}r, 9l9o}6|q, ag d6l-= *E
t*oI"I6J+= ag Ed6t4.
^Jql4e is zl*
ololgq ¤-o199 .Jt6J +6 Bql= ACq+ EJI +q+q. rH
n.z6ql +4U -e-E *aE "Jolg+ *o189 izl zJ4. ole+ eg ¤49 +a(gs+
^il
+, gsl aE, do}¤J*)= "J"lgr+ ¤-o189 +71 ,JZ "lg AEI ElqlEq^l"J 7k6I+.
ole+ eg 4*zl otH trll= q= ac +4= 714 a"lq. ql= NaF, MgF2, ScFaE
¤ElHzKf.g 2.n). *+eilE+ AEg oJolgr+ golgol =q
E+ 6HllflE ,*= gsl4E +
aE r*=+. r3l+ 55efl4 trlrql+g "Jolg oJ 7l]B zzflel $o1gg zlzlE-e., F4
"Jolgel ullgi= {{ol 6ol
ol J4.(rutile structure)E-|tr 6l+ 4* 44 +Z# ?*+L+.
zl"J, ¤-olg9 tsllg+= olz,ll 3 oE qflq. 4 "Jolgol 37llsl golgg 7l^l+
=+sflE]
E+eflE+.+E +aol^l "J"lgE ull+l+= qd6l 6olzlql=+e_ilq olge.l tsltgl+:
2oltrl. oJolg/golgq ulz| zlolzl$, 4 *.olg +fl= Eq,&+i1 gl= ololgE += ¤q
532 128 .l.illel^]lrt1
m 4 +aqN El+l
^1lsB
H 7ils.1 g0l8?[g0l80l E^tloits7l?
gotEoil EH-d 3ol8el ul
=7t
Na
Mg
g013 Bfl9l+ 6 6 6
30t8 uflfl+ 6 3 2
LazJ12.27 utl+lt= et-etaJEoll qalgal.{.1trt HH?l EAg Eq6l LIEfLHTl 916[q 0lee.] 17lts
L[E[L|1?rf. =q
^]
Eq, ar+z1e_+. $ols-E ul]gfz} ¤q=+. trl+^J q+q- ae +zl^ls-tr ol= c=Jsl
6J + ?l+.
A o,et ee6q eE +40tt^1, tEt ot== 87,et sEtt oltc-p H,lfl',q 9tEl.. trEf*E H,1
I **
gEtoJTl?
qH 12.2
op*rJ iLr{lg gJt 4ltl
0plee+ +Hlfif Etrl.AEr[ee +^e ,l!sl-EJtt. (a) Eg H 7|e.l 0t0lgE:JE[0l80l o^)=)l? (b) EPI E THol
^lls.J HJxl=al.EtraJ(l.66 ^1lEB
+HlE olSol "^)=71? (c) otoleael-+HlEel "JEE g/cm3e zl^lalzl +l6tq Rb*el o18 A, as.+z g/mot)
a[, r-o1 o18 HJ^l=If A, rzo.so g/mot)E ,/.l.E6l-119.
=EB{2.60
6tlU et4.
5{ ?J 4le! (c) "JsE,tllzl rJpolzl trllEql, +fl ^llsE "JE= eag
{sq +aE, E4el, Hq flil+ olg$ol ++l ^lls'J flzlE9 e*g +
(a) Elfl gEe+ E"J6ltrt. "JE= *+l
^jlEE 4 +lldr+
L2.26ql9lE Nact +atr+El B9l +r]: x 10-8cm)3:4.t2x 16-22.-3
(7.44
4 EE +dq EI zfl$ $o1go1 fl+= ag .J + 9l+. (a)e+ (b).E+El ++l ql Tllel +HlE olgr+ q ,ll9
E 12.lE+q +aaql +"J .lgE.e 87H9 +fl ^JIEB
^llEql
f,f,6}r]l ++qa(+fl ^Jle'"l+rl]E ol9, Eq +.J ol
ololeEe+ olgol gl+= 49
"5 :14. ol4* Ar+e+ E
g=g + 49 +fl e#g ^FS6IE
*+l
^,]le* A+g 4l&.J+ 91trI.
^lsql FrooIAl *+g+(+91 ^lls ,un_a(8s.a7slmot) + a_1126.99slmo1)
:
Er-+4E olg). "JElzllE 8rH9 +11d4 67H9 Eg TIzl eo t.4t7x 10 zlg
6.022 X lO23 moy+
E-E ++l & + olgE += 8(1/8)+6(+):4ol+.
^llrE "JE: ++l ^llsr* e*g +ultr Ll+q E=+.
(b) +ElE ololgqlE E.J+
'J^lg 4+6IH 4 E^l4e+ ,,. 4* _.1.417x lo-21g: 3.43
s+l ^llsg +dql 6J 7l]9 +HlE olgol gilql+= a "JL :_ ^ .^ g/cm3
+q
g g + ?ItrI. *, 12.1E+q 4 E^]?-lq +"J olgg
aE 4++E rriiE "JE= qEg "JE(0.s g/cm3)si ol4
ql ,ilE 991 ,<flEgl 96ll f,="617ll
""+qa(*fl ^jls%I E9 "Js(22.6 g/cm3) ,tlololl llzl qgq gq41 Ag +'*
rl44E ol9, +fl ^llsE +dql +oJ oloi¤e:2"+q 614.
xl *=+. .J%loll=
l2zlE s^]elE z1zlus + +ElE
olgE +: rzQ;+r:4oltrI. d6[ +eg "*+zl g]a]¤ > E= qlr1l1
sc3+(0.88 A, +s.o g/mot)el F-(1.19 A, rs.o g/mol)9 ol
Rb* olgr+ I- olgE f Aolot 6t7l qlEql 99 An+
= g HlzlEr+ Ee"Jg ol+6lq scF3g EJE= 4l4I6I^1s..
=.}zl4oltrI. scF3el+a= :a4 D.27+= +n6l^19_.
(c) olg a.J sI.JSql^J ololgr.t ¤.olgg ,rle {qa}-L
(a) s.99 g/cm3 (b) 1.44xt024 g/mol (c) t9.t glcm3
9l+. Rbrq^l oJolgr+ ¤.olgg ot4 rHql^1q zJol (d) 2.39 g/cm3 (e) 5.72 glcm3
+9 ^liEE -E^J4= trI4 d+6}r 9l+.
> HEqFJl2
CsCl(:H 12.2s)ql^.1 Cs$ olc- qfzl$(t.at A)4 ¤p].1
gg Hlzl+(1.674)o-E+8, cscrg E%I ++1 .!|eel E'
,Jolef "JE= al4l6t^llt(fle: CsCI9 olgEg oJ
^.ln-l
HlzllE 6J +ldql^] illdg zlLt tI4 +ldztzl ololzl
EEI"J illql4dg tt++ d+6}r 9t+. +4.J+Hq "+
=
+ .JBr-illg z]44dol -E^Jeltr+ \,6HHEI+ a+= ag
2rRbt
"J + 91+).
++l ^llEel E^]4E 'Jol= (r-)+zr(Rb+)+r(r-): zr(t-)
+2r(Rb+)ol+. 4 ol3 HI^IE¤ qlE6[E z(z.oe ]i+z\.ee
tr u!{!al'E+gle o|L aol E^t?Jeol q aEt7l"? Erl5ol rl EE4o.tr go|= a,3 ol!
40J)l?
OH
E=Oll trll5
Elt!
+E(.C) 5 -95 43
80 111 182
==E("C)
flld, trlltsE +=E4B=E
^aa12.28 =+gl,
og golzl g6l1^J= BzI E.oJ E^l +-e-6J qlzlol+. qlE Hld(cuuu)g nEE qla
=q
cg r*= BEB Ezlol4,.. (8 6¤). E+fle {dql^l +4 gz} 6J 4l7l cH37ls zl{+
B ql.JE(raJ 2.28)olull, Hlr$19 $i{ol E+qlE +=d!-+ ++. E+fl tsz}E 4d
Col zlzl qlEql, Hl4l +rlql^.i4H E44ql S"Jol "Jq+zl S=+. a44sE a"JoJ
d+ql 9=6[= tsz]zJ ¤ol Ee a$!olz1 *6]q \"i{ol ^}q4ee *+. Hitrql E
+flel #=de fl4lsl #=dB4 t+. olae .-qill 5+flql^lel EzIrJ .Jqol 9;ll {l
4lql^lE "JqH+ 771 trilEol+. aH D.z8ql +4U Hl4le-l E r+= zl+lill.J qtsql^J=
oHtlzl +i a6Jg.J f ?lzl qlEql, qltsg #=d4 \i{ol E+ HIdIB+ ++.
Etalq el6fl sJ
=ol,(le
?,ltrt.
-al
3.3s A
J
(a) Et0lottE (b) eE
12.7 I r= +4 r^ll 535
=+d
Eg + 9l+. *e gzp5g sp'EColE, 'ZJ* +4-+^ E"J ++ aaJe--E B=
=
e glq. qololsg.E olE rllzl4 glalol xlf,zlzl
^JE
"JEla E4 +ql^l
a6Jg riJ-6},ts_q--E
?ld eHlg4 x}l+lzlzl ?+g sHlB ^l-olE "llrJzl zJ4ol ¤q} eul94 HleB- sHlB
olel qlqal ,J444 g^J+tr},.,^-, (e.61j). E,*d Ezl sHlBs+El ¤dg 4E arlzrq
^t
(valence band)41 6lq, qlAaJ^d gulgE+q ¤^dg rlE Esrl(conduction band)4r.
qlq(f=J rz.so). Hlsi;1q1,...1 flzlzlqE dzl¤e i]]9l4 9la, dEq= Hlq fl+. ol F
trl ollrlzl 21015 .llL,lzl qza(bandgap, rr)ol4l *+. ElEill= EB ull glHxl
^Iolg
el +9= eVol4 a- aTlY I eV: r.6O2xro-1e Jo14. q?J4ol3.5 eV ol^JoJ EAg Hl
Ez)lzl olll+ Egli{l(insulator)olq $zl$ ds.a1z1 *=+.
ElEiJl= gi HlEille+ 3[I'JE HlEillE + ++E ++q{q-. g} H}EillE + Ttzl g
536 128 l1^llelU
^l.
dEIII
EPEI^I ?i3 uJ=-cld
E^l9ul=
Si, Ge, Sn
1 1 1 1
oil ttlrJ4
Ll p g-Hl=J 4
(E-)
). p o H lEl'
I
^l
1t t
I
lt
s gHIEJ \ \ s OH EI
=
Elrt7]nl
x{ocl 7l;tll
dr-d
=Bd
E^r 9Blg
HJs.i1ls.trJ
Hls,41q E+E flzlzl E,ElqE 47) .J.EE7} B4tlr+. xlqg E+E gzt "Je-l
E EAql ^*E
Szlal-b +dS.EEJ(doping)ol+I +i
6Jrt. AAql^J +a gzr .J*zI .J(s
$xll(dopant)tr .JEltDss il+lEl*.9 trIE ^J46]]
Bzl. rEl 12.31(a)91 +4d 1al rJol,
538 123 r^ltet u^^||
E
E
nl
HIGI OJ= MO
oil
L1
tl2Jr:(Ec)
^l Mo
^ll9lTl
fl
rl
7l
nl
++EI si HlEalql^l t_! flzlzlrl tszI sHlBg ,l]+14 9la, EE dsrl Ezl stslge
Hlq 914. + +tl! flzlzl dzl-E 7)7)trJ, 'J3 sz11E flzlzl dzl-= z*zl ull59l s¤
=
xllgl flzle$El +e'qts'E szlzl dzl* dEtrlE iH+41 gq(rB 12.31(b)). E+E
I egtal-ts. E¤g Eag nB(n-trpe) +E^ll+-il 6J+. nol+ dEqql *dd-= ts dz}
9 fz| ?zI9S.*9 9olaJ4. ol qEE d{-L dzll dsrlq^J SzloJ + 9l+. tr14^J
f pp*9 qlol #491 ?z[98, +iE l.+ dzl dEEE ulr] u]l 4u7zyt1z2 + 9l+.
Egr,ll dzlE- "J6lq EeE szl .]EEzl olxlH Eg "J5[a] H6[7] n]lE
^%i9
9l *s:ilql.<l= E+Efl oJg ae6l.71 +l6}q g4oJ Fr]TI ol+qlot"J 6J4. qls
41 4}Eql^l= Sq.J slE= "JEzl +16|q 'nine-nines'9 +i= o14.9 siol
^I-o"o-J+.
ee.eeeeeeeeeTo-tr ++6l]ot 6-J+= 4¤ 9rlaJ4. oli E$zllE ¤!+e+ +E= d"J6I4l
,Iq4q Eeq dzl ds.s.E a¤B + 9l¤¤ 9"1.J4.
Hls.^1e1 +CE EA.E-4 4e +E fl^l7l dzl-= ,*= gxtE HI=.i15 EB^IA + 9l
+. +i Adq^l + gzl .JPzI Ae}g oJF"lts"e il++qflg ql$ d46]] Bzt. +
a= +z}]9 ilzlzl dzlE ,*= aql uldl, sF"ltsg :2fl$ flxlz[ dzl¤ ,*=tr]. tr]4^J
+471g+trlEoE E¤g u]l, flzlzlul"ll ¤,Et(hole)o-E.JElTl azrgl HlzlzlTl ^B7Jr+
(:H rz.sr(c)). r zlelql +d6l-= ts d^t7} Szl ultE"ll d=o9 oJd6l-= zliQtzf,ft
g + 9l+. .Jd+ 1jzlzl d=oeE #ArJ u1 ,r]1-ES 4+g ^JCiltrt. q+^J oldd-= q
4+e 4zlql^l EITI oJ4^le +zloJ+.. ole+ eg Eeg p$b-typ") Hlsal{r aJ
= p* Eeql oJd6L= t4= d+E izl="tly49i*9 9olaJ4.
'1.
nB HI=,219 d7l dEEeI +^16l-41, f pp-9 pB E.B^ll7| Hlri11 Eeq dz}qE *
E4lel .J,71 4E.E7l Eq"J Hll AE ?zlaJ4. rq+ ol a+ql= gzrTlqql q= d+ol
d7l dtrtrql +q.J+(rH 12.31(c)).
p¤ qlEale+ n¤ Elsxil9 d6Jg +ola =, E{zl^q, ElloJ dzl "t += *llq 714
7194.
-ole+
ag ol5.g Dlil idq^J q^JEol ^JE- xlel El-+71 6l+ ag ++61-= 1+,Jcl. +^J5(dal¤)ol olExlE 4g
zfel(fl2|)E 01:16l"= ac ++B + ilrl+, .IqE Hlzl4(4+)7]-'gzlol=' a9 ++B + ?tEt.
12J 3+d rE +a r^ll 539
qH 12.4
HJEall++ tftrJ"lrl
-?"allttE}| aEJ
ql+4Bg.J4 tr+gq 9lq^l olxll +4qzl "&¤f, azl LED9 qdg n¤ qlsiJc+ p¤ tlszllzt dq]dlq
^l-E
H ^J4g+. Eg5¤ g,J 4ols=(LED)e. ialld,_e-Er^l 4{ p-n r-;o1ec(p-n diode)olr}. rSol "JL+= d6Jq=
d4lE El]+ gg qLlzl= e.+e + 914. rso= HlE4le {al$ f5g dzte+ C+ol ,l]+ zlq dEs,z} A}.Jtr}.
ql6}q ds} ++g 6} -
4e6J d"Jol 7f6llzlE, {zli n_E$g +9 dEtqe+El
"JEzl ullE9l, {zlrl LED9 zfFql
ae 4e6|4. d++E olEo*4. dq++qd dzl^E p-s¤g +q gztTl
= trlE+q "Ja1l 4="rI qI*+. d
Ilot
!B :E
OH I[+l
6/\t
zl+ Hlq fl= 4*ee Solzla.
: olluJzlg qotr. d+g+. H9
cl+ Egol nE 4oe#e1
oJxla, pE
$zlzl r*= qlq4= Eee] ttlrJ
EA+e drlE
+oe+E1 trg+e g8g 44 F"JoItrI(feJ 12.32). olel e
"Jtltrt. I H}^l9.e {zl ollLJzlz} *q} ql
t-=r1 qzls d+|gtrL
Iltrnl EJ¤qts qel Eltle Hlr;1E
qrJ4ql r|4 B4zlzl trIEql, 4
E^l= Hlq 9l= ¤3-e.-E
HI UI* tq144 ¤+ HlEillE dq-g-.tr. LEDqI E
qlqrE,J= BrlTl=get
=cl7tr.
^JC¤ 4E 4eg aeB + 9l
0ll
611
Ll
HJEEItrI.
^l +. ql++ Bg4 LED= GaPel
GaAs9 gqlEE q}=qt4. cuP
ooooo E qt4g 2.26 eYA.62x to 'e I)
o#c^[e )
olq, ol: 54e nm9 irltlg ,*
flrtTlnl
grPltr| o *E 83h+) b a+^4 +rz}9l 6il'&gE}. +
E caes$ trl,J4e r.43 eY
P-'J UE^ll ol=
(z.zsx to-te 1;o14, 867 nm
Ed+ nE HJEill
el +tlg ,*= 4eld r}4q
"ll%I
LJHIZ.BZ 'JB rlolcc BJef +0laEe.l -4dP p--n EErolrt sl+ d"Jol 7l6ll^lE, flr| .,.' (6. I ! . 6.2 rl ;. GaPl ,As,
E-cf+011^l I^lef 830l 'J:gE|G "!E g8-zrtl. I adg r*= + gI.JE9 rh.ll +
540 123 r^llef U44
12.8 | fEFill
tol. glb cEg 7l+4 a4 5¤ ol+r flE Ee +ql +E"J amu9 'll+
e4+g ,*= Ee5ol E+ol gag4. g. zlzl qtr^1, 4Eq r*ol gl= +"J4 gEEr-,=
^IEql^J
E^lE E+ql^J *g + gl= +Ea Fol gir+. 1827Hql |<ins fakob Berzetiusb exlelol
zl¤ E9H|(monomer)el 6*(polymerization, Ei4l Aq+6}q)ql E6ll ¤Cg +z}*ol
Eag 44421 9lal] #Ir{l(polymer, r4^qE polyE'$$', meros='? E'ol+= *ol =
+)+: "Jg "J=*.+.
.JrJg e*E"J 4.. zG, ul+, d¤l+s+ Ag ag +6JrllE Sso6J zll-E.E 7l-*619
4. zlts 70q tr ¤lq}, plqr4s=g 4qg irlE} HI*q^l ++l^]9 +6J HI¤:q 96lq 6Jc
?.J^llzt ^dcq: 49 g+611 *4. ol4al E.c +.Jiil 4+Ee +i-Ei a6JE
$ zlzlL gl=ql, ol= +i flzl¤ rJql ,ll+ zfo|-L.JC6J A6.Jg ol$zl rllf,iolr|. =4
EeFr4(plastic)o1g "J+4es 94 Sqg zl.6l] +"J"J ¤4E. "JE + 9l: rill
olEl. qq 7Vl ++E E+^qol 9l+. ==6J
x. 12.5 0t+q^.t
^t+sti 4tsJt eE4 EEq
rllg g*
*rt EII
=gr"ill
1 PET E= PETE g?-lqlpfl qlqlEgsllolE
2 HDPE a"JE gelqlgfl
3 PVC +.elgE+ ulolH(PVC)
4 LDPE zl"JE gqqg{1
5 PP 5r_lE.tr'gHl
6 PS
=4^ElolHI
7 o.l o TlEl
ts E
nCH2:CH'-
rTl
C-C+
T T],
{zlr.l 13 6}+el 6Bzll Ezl. BCg 916}q Hls" 6}= +Eql^l +aql olsE t+lill +z}
ol A+ qlEHl)E += +4U+. +*^ll .ll9 ++ Sfl(repeat unit,
(monomer molecule,
glE H1g^lql^l qgE .Jql ++U +g)= di] tr-i+ H]+4se Zl+ +qU+.
^l+g
?Erolq += a6Jq-e ol+q4 9lrl.. trI+^J gtE e^=
e^-t^
^l+E ¤+Ee
47H9 A6Jg r*:+.
/fi:\/A
\^ ^/
HHHHHH
ttttrr
Hl
L:L
\H H/ H/
... + ...
-c-c-c-c-c-c-...
tttttr
HHHHHH
oil=aJl
=4ql=zJl
&+&+& T
?a .QE
=giil
E7t=eE{l
t1
E?]qEflg +s+ Eeol+. ,l]E ola.ilrl 1e00q ir}*= oltol ^J^Ig+. a+6-J 3
C'JqlE B76Ir +Elill= "J=71= qB4. q ¤ E"JE ¤+ gql^Jo} dlB4 oe +&
6J +ql4l9 4laql gsql 44g=- -*g + 91fl+. e=B +oJ* E4zi 5^Jg r*=
"*e
=oF9
.Je4 9l+.
=4qlgqlol
El44 adel ,*b 66J^ll= eg
+qlillel H+= F4q qoJ"J 844, e+q}4
=Cg
+ 91tr1. ?zI6aJ HI*q Eql 6JCg gEl4.J +qli]l5el ql= E 12.6q1 +4*+.
^JE49E +9-+ +6J4lE E]^"i6I7l +l.ll ^t+51= E EIE HI+e +g =E
EJE
H o Ho <.Le12.36 +-cte-ctHJ8
I .--------lllll
N -,4 -------+ + H2O
1E-O--I-C- -\J-C-
+ --------> +
F
tN(CHrAi-C(CHr)nCt
+o lo ;trJ 0ltlEt Ll?= 6,6
+6J +6J El+ql E6l] 'Jdg +"JE 6,6 "l += "JHI4"J +6Jill9 95 s 12.6q1 +EI
H.rI. ole+ Ag +'J,J=q *4q=, c 94+ EE N flxlq o g4E EI4 E+qq 9l
!-g +E_6l.4.
EHEEEEEN
d ^llalq lq ql7[ H= 4+7]7] ¤zHaJ4. izl]g +ae] Esqq 9l+. ^114";e. *?4(MgzAl4sisol8)ql olgc a
ol"]]9 ,Hdql IIl4 q "Jd47 gE illgl .JF"l4(error;21 "J-d^l il'i. lle;ll {}ffi$ ullzl
=cq =84.J "Iqr+
1t.$ol +e 4-Fztel zll$ol zl-i'al.4] qflq. .lrl+ A+ zl4l4 *zllfltr BlE +4i;17\ 9"J t}^ d^iql
^[+q=
EJl, ol= o"f ?6J _LE +4 j14l"J +iql zlllall. fl= ql
i4= d-^l gulBTlE afzl.(=al 12.38).
++r+ ++ qHg zl-F7[9 qq +gql E.Jg+. ql= 4 z4 ?+Elql gEl =a¤+. +6Jill=E zl-Erorlql^-l ga
Eq "J+ultsS trgzl, E7l+, ql{5q +E ++ol+. ,J q=ql, Ext 4Hle+ z[91"e gq-4 ql.r[!l-e
=?-]ql^El,
e4=gpqlol ,r.}$
ag 4zllel ^I+9tr1.
tr5i tt ul]zl ¤r-lzleq1o1e, Hulc+ ule"z]. {zloll
zl. H]]T] r+=4ql
qz{7le} +,fl E+7lql^qloJ4/-rJg
.l*¤4. +,H E¤}zl g+.
9 ,]]+ql= E+ Zlgel #4Eol Hd E.Jel ^ll+E flql
544 123 z^llsf U^^|l
;,-r-
TA
(uJsi111
g+Elts
5lJ
^Ell?.!al4e
/El=\
=qdlAEl,
Eal7EtL1l0lE,
EAIEEEJfl!
(=Etilt) g+ElL[,
fi{.,\1
a1i.,
(01=d rill)
o= EHf
,=]=\ ao
(=+)
a
EJd
=Ai{l
(EEhil)
!
t
arB 12.38 {EIEJ EEAilslIl.5^1.+.8E
H/ \*, il
o
q=aJ] 0flllEtl Hf0lLJ
(
+qlillE rl ++617ll "J5 + gl= %IH3 ^l+ ^plql alql ed.g E.E^l7l= 4o14.
Ei],Jg(cross linking)ol+l' ++(riJ12.41). Lzl. p1|o1 gg
^l¤. ^Iol9 A.J ¤^dg
+E +6Jill= q ++6}trt. ¤zIiC 6a;-x1lz[ +B4e ,}|E ?oJi]l ^13=E ol+qd +8,
gAs+^d +6J!l= ¤9 zlalfl -ili} e6Jg 4q, riil A6J ql$ql +ql^ll= oJC6J E"Jg
L azJ 12.40 6:sr.i1l 1l= 'Jel
*zlalzll ¤4. 8E AtE flee +.r1p gqql
r.z} AoJel +,q,* 9li, ts:sEoll Charles Goodyearz| gAe dS r+9 7t+ ElE L|EILJ ,i^laJ, oJEdl= ur|} ,J
(vulcanizatio")o14. A¤ .7.5-= Hevea brasilierzsis ul*9 .Jq e4ql^l +g= .-4;ll fzl oil Art6l.= coe ?.16t| +$i5
oJ 8=01 8zrl.
rlE ^l¤e.l
;(1alol I]-rl
qlLo=laL,|=9|/\|Li'= =88
Ef =LTlol 7l
/\l^l
OE 2t\-lE
=o+
55"/o 62"/o 70o/" 85o/o
(a)
CHs H
(n+2)
tarr*
n
0[0[+u91 !T
(b)
CHa
S
S
S
LaA12.42 tsE n+E TlEt HJB (a)o[o;+ng1 E+l^]l-++El EE r+ 6--J^1l7l85Eltl. (b) r+0ll g
7l6l-E El^-g 871r,I fl^l=o1^l¤4^f=¤ E=d|]
= =sfol =tl-.
12.e IL|g¤4
d+^t'r-|L(nano)'= to-ng 9"le!4.:,,: (1.+¤). r}*Eol 9.6l "Jd|='4t zl¤
(nanotechnology)'olg, l-100 nm 371-tr 4'zl-= "JE= 19 9"laJ4. Hls.^1s1 **
E ^dae 4u =zl9 H9lql^l H*+11 .JEj4 9I+. l-100 nmel zzlg z*= LttEE
(nanomaterial)$o1 d
^Jl4l
s+¤ql^J d+4etr s+qj1 glr, p+o+g +LE4 g+ql
^J
+d4.J q6Jg atr gl4.
LE3Tlol u'-jErll
EL\2J4
g^tel r.7l ,JA ollLl^l
=71
548 123 -r^lle[.U4^|l
rrrlr
CdSe "_r^|"Eel
2nm 7nm
dzl-=ol *zl¤ dEtrls EEZI g+. ol E= Az|zl g
=+6}0l
zlzluloll Bot 9l= A3o eE +^l Eqzlfl, qrJ4
"ilHzls+ 59
E
,q} qlqzlE ,*+r*^l7l rJ=gtr}. oJ4.dg
4+,44 rTlql q+
tr)?J\g e¤6J + 9l'|. trl-+^J fA 12.,t5q CdSeoll 4"}l +4U
a 44 zJol. 6-J zlzl EeEJe=eE +zl7H 4 E+= gg + 91tr1.
rl t',.] Z |\
= =E
ZnSE B"J3JE -Eq 48 340 nmol qA4
=+. = HJ=EJrl". qr=89
ollLl^lelElgptolll-]^l= += B^t7f 3
^l-eld
2.7 eY 2.0 eV 7l= 4trdlZl^tr61.= UEe-+, ,J=E aJx|.717[^lBd Bqol EIE
nlrJ4 0llLl^l(Es)
+ "JB= ol5^l7l= 4ol)|.g.-!)tl?
arB tcel B"JTJA oJ^l 17l0ll el=-drt. Ll
12.45 Ll.E
_rg^l-= E:Br6l.1 ?= 8.-{0ll "!= nlrJ4 oll
Ll^tolt .33Et= "!ot gr=Ert.^lslc
gr=Et= g3^,\ld[E
4 tEoil oJ4dg rll* g}I .Je4q,
^J^ll 46JC BzlE
sH+g ilrl
=^l1oJ
ofts cdSe LtLg^lslr7l01l ttlal
=alT]rl. +qlE ,rllEoll 5qa + glg "J+ ziTl ql+ql dzl*q], 4lol
zl, 9E ¤{t Eot9l oJzldg +*6171 glal ¤72| gg6t+.
E+E +rrr7lE +4^la g9-= S.trI.
^]]Ee $^dg 44421 fl6}ol HlEillg +7Ig
zl$$ ul:l{ H9 olztfl Eg q}Ezlle EEg + 9leq. o}z} +E(quantum well)B uJ
E7l 96l]^l: f 'l:."lel +4l"Jol gs6|+. HlEzll d9 zlBg frluulqolzl"J, eol
z[ rH* Z o]z]d(quantum wire) $;.1 +oor* e+q]4 ,JB9E "JEq{q. *z} +84'J
zldql^J Ll:-a7l ilgg %r-6Jlg trt4 +d.J Er-l=6}g "JzI 4E¤ BolzlEJ, a zlgs.l %I
'Fg u++ eqrl 5Ce ,l^l EeE =Cq +e+.
LE=_7|E;+
++E q^1, 1-100 nm =,7lql^J olql4.J Ll4u+. ole+ ag ¤tI
=cg
ol +4+= ag,=.+ql fl= dzlE d¤4.J B+ ,l+ BE. =84etr,
(10.8¤)71 dgql^J E
1-100 nmolTl trllEol+. trI4^l ++ ol^19 a717I roo nm olalz| - 9E 'dzl u}4'zl'dl
H(92I9 -EH)'g "J+= Azle olel4 sr+7| ++B + 9ltrl-.
4le-4olE= +r-E¤ ^t^l6l-= E6}rll A.Jg olgEr+ * q+= ,1lg4olE9 _E5sE +"J¤tri. E += ql= ar-" E
4l .J^"ig + gl+. rll+ s{r+ trl ,J6L7ll rlE zfaod; o1 E A+, Etrql+, e olgg .J+{+'a+'= EoJ6t= +
gql ]t=qflg ql ,J6trll ol$oll rI+ da+ +89 i.l?-lol4. zf¤¤ A+= +E+ ,.ilq] adg ¤d6l.l
^Js ++61+
7I q .ts+. olae olgc g + 9l= E4g ILrl EE¤ %r-6ll6tE-tr ETll= "Jg.a + gi
^szl4 ^laol ar+6Jq1 "I4
zl os
"J=+. ol+l+ ,tt¤ * trq += 9lE zorrE zl{ +. a+: a+ql fl: e+g qlil^la + il= i# EEL+
4 "H"Jql 96l] +tI¤ .JEel ++^lu[ rfolz] tsd1791q1 x-ll-o={olE$ E"4^14 '¤¤+^la+. i1bE9 aE olgg
9gg *^l-b 8lf("'Crc+ "'Cr)g 41216l= rll ,tl^-$$ aS EBd ++"-qee fzlzl o e rll$rlole$ E4^14 +E g
4lg4olEol+. ^ll+ olgol olg r.+(Nan 4tl cr*;o1 "3 6 0199 zll4d-q xllerlols$ trl-sHql zll^l-so 6IE+ 6J+.
(b)
T I
(c)
-5(X) nm
@c
of uf $$_H_i|*ol, +d= *r:l rl]+ "*g fl4o14. sp3 Ecg r*= rill t4 EorillE
4olotgEola_, gcg ,*= aill ^Jql 5^ill: +gol+. zl\t 30LJ FoJ 4qt4-E=g
'p,
EC +4-e ol+qA 'Jil-g Ftr+ olil-g S4 ee Bz11 tszl¤ gaarflEl. ole+ A
Arg 'p'
12.48 16soLJrfloll g +^E EiiUEg o,19 gulEg +Cg LI4U+.
Faradapl oJ= Ll'l.
Michael
oJx[ =
to-4 ilE9 Fara-
res0LJql ++vl^\, +++ ff{
t}qlel +4b ++C rE +aE ,*= rill.J 4olol.
=eolc
day o-]"E$oll &^lEl0l ?ltf. EEe+ +E + zlzl rlQl-=trJ 7.ee ^J46t9+. rel+ lessEql Rice4qr:l9
=4161+ g^
Ecoooll ?]ts 4 Ela gxl'=
=
Richard Smalleygl Robert Curl, ¤=t9 Sussex 4qli9 Harry Kroto ¤+dg
=J E4zl
'ZJ*
E qlolzl HoE 6.9 ^lEEr Tlql^la +, gE Tlill=g+ TlxllE a}q zlqlg +aE n
:=:,= ().!zj)e E46IB+. e* l4EHql +d flz| 4*gl 6llB6l+ ++47I
7flq esrg 6|i7l? 0El eP Ll-+Hrt. oI+ .rllzl9 ++;lE, olae tsa gz} 6ozHE ol+q4l Ezl-(cod9l qlBq
Sgg oJ'Jg ttll. C6o a"l+. =
q =ZeqololEEet EE =
?E coo g+{e
4tsol ^JCHS.zl qlEql, ts^E E += Bqe 4E
=A¤ =tszls.e
6q!aqlL17lnEJzfl * so}-g z*= cuo Ezl-= ^ll.J6}fl+. rEg coog Er flxtzl 3241E E, rzzI9 s-4
¤4 zoz119 +4¤g ,*= ++4 qee '+'g "J=+r xfloJalfr|(:H 12.as). o1 g
zlel Eole
"l+E +o+zlolz| lSzlol R. Buckminster FullerT|
gBt +xld E(+4
¤9 4xl-3 4I "*+l EIE a=J E)g ¤tI^lA+. EI4^l coo9 E4etr 'E"J.ElE+l{l
(buckminsterfullerene)', E= 'plzl$Guckyball)'ol+I ++tr}. Coo9 tsd ol4E
=q^l
+^IoJ += +A EzISol gAqB+. ole+ a.g Ezl-E¤ 5¤q^l E4ql(fulterene)ol+
;l 6}r]
*ut.
rJE zl;il aaql^J 4z)4"8 +Sg +B^14 tlB*q ulzlg¤ Eg + fl+. Eqa
AE +"ll^J "j tevouJol C6s4 Crro e +dqq flirll, Czog cooB4 + q ,J+"ll4l +
^I
ezlol+. +r= oulol eolali Tlill^J4 ¤+tr-qE += ¤Eilg s4qlol EE}qq gl
q++ cooE4 q Ele tsr gzp=.tr6Jdl= czool4 ca+q A3 EzlEol4. 7l* 4
=q,
e ¤qlE czoS zoooEql a=Elfl+. olzlH zlr + -E.oJ.etr rJzJ ts4* 44
=qql.J
gd q EI+Col zHEzl"J tszle +¤qq 9lzl ullE9l #zl
+ EEIHIH+ =-+. Eqflg
+4ql * ++. +ololgE+ +Eg Szl 8,ll"ll +zl ?*zl"J, ole+ ag +6]]E-+ oJ6ll
AEE += CE= E= += ="F9 E4flee-*q 54 ¤ElHlg E4B + 9l+. ¤Elql
a.fg 12.49 4ure154p1, E +a4q]^JE HI*ql qloJ ¤+E ol q+ql 7Lb6I+.
E^lE DH+ rH84oJ +
coo Coool Bd¤ zl $uI F9l, s}4zl¤$ tsr {:.5u(carbon nanotube)E Bda}H4(=
4= +=rL 607Hql EJ^ 3^l
883 BEe-e 2oE
aJ 12.s0).
Ei +r=+E= g¤q sg "JoI FEE "J= +ql 'J+ ¤ol+ "J+ gg coo E
=
rllsl 4 4llE01l ^[= flq. ol zI9 tlp_a Eg aoe ^J4g + 9l+. coo$ "JE trll %IE4 +^toJ HJB "8, E
^l-.+o.J
a]] reqlts Er^=qflrlE +:.FE= + fl4. ea +LFE= ffi$(multiwall) Ei E9H(single-wall) B
"JE
el ,J--JU= LIEILJrI. ^l.ol
^qltr ElEqTl+. ++q *^ +r.Ftr= Ftr +ql E +e Ftr7}5q il= HlE, +ge
12.9 I Llt-=¤ 551
(c) 0l^ll=aJe tSe-l g+(2s8 K, 1.007|oJ)oll^l 7li1l0ltl. ¤eq gtajql^l 5.00 L E7l0ll 9t= 0l^ll=aJl 7l^.tlB+El H reJel
=ol
Ealol^1|=aJlg ,J= + o,,(=Tl? (01.^11=JaJP olCl 7lrllE zlE-drl-L 7l-¤dtr, 6-cr HJBsl +-g 100%=_ 7l-¤61-al-.)
(d)E 8.49 EE El=tr|= 0l^11=al]o++El Sddl'= U30l gg HJ3?.!^1, USoJ^l= trJ.&|"^le-
=-cr ^|"a-6|.q,
(e) Ealof,tJlEJaJle 300 nm-650 nmol Hre
=alol^ll=eJ=
LLlTJrl?
=E
H evoJu |.?
=+6Jtf.
8}iH rEot.J+. 6)= +16ll^l= s++ H}+^lol 44441 +
=71
B{ (a)E erl6[^l= sp. sp2, sp'Ed4 zla}o}zl fagl Bol "*?tEzl q"Jg 9_0-21 914. (c)E ¤zl fl6]]^l= ol
ql6]l tsll+ =71 49 trzlg gsTI 9l+ e,
(e.5p). (b)= -$ zlill!(rv:nRr)$ olgoal¤ ,lxll$ +E= zlzllE
+l6fl^l= +¤ "*= +ql Hl+^lg SCo]]ot d4. (c)E Ezl
=71 E Hl-+lot 6J+. (b)ql^l ge HI+4q+$Q o|,r11gql =+7l4l
+16l]^l= oltr zlA49 ++ ._ (ro.+¤). (d)= E +i+= ^JCg gElot4BHlE E+tr Hl-E +9,
^l-8-6l]ot
71 916ll^l= Bg Hls"4 +g +AE CEE {1716}l., dall
= =4ol^ll
gfllE r++tr +^If,E+. (d)E Ezl 9ldl^l= AH.*:>(#
HI* qlBrl= ql+6t= ql a* $grl= qB4 qd a.Jg a.J 9lgrl) ->(^Jcg eq+g a.J flgq).Jg
trzlal $,cz[ 914. (e)9lr] E¤ql 9+q g*f¤ z]ar *3
^l+:611016t
d-7lE 9ez1 91c1. - (8.82r). (e)oll^l q9 g+=
=zl=
EAE z}]+ld -sElpr+ Hlq *= sulg ^lole.l 9lHzl 691 9lHxlzf El7J4 E'EY ag ol6|6|ot el4(tls.;1 E= ¤g
I zlole+ +¤^l4ot +trt,e'o (6 3¤). illql ql{q). zal.l- E*E Ezl ?la}{ E:hv* c:tv* 4
6JaI4(r:hcli).
4l& (a)E 9d]]^.1= +AE+ ^JCEE plq4 +a=
=71
¤01
(a) Bats 6}{-ql ,l]E AElg ¤C6J+. 4+^l o}^llgHlql^l 4 *
g4+ +^e+ +.J AElg ol+qo| op, trl= E^el ++ 4
^{}9 ol1{o} 6J+. :a 44 4 +i= + 49 dz} ¤9¤ z}zl
4, sp ¤Col 9qot* oJ+. ole+ 7J9. sp g^dqE olaf{ of,r'll
Bflql^'l H-c-cE aEt4g 180'ola, Ezl= d¤ol+. g.rl
oI^]EHlg ++4 +aE +44H +s-+ A+.
H
E4ol^llBHlq fl= 4 +i= E+ F="6l+. rq+ 4 *^E
H
I I
:L4= 7]l:rl H H
o}^llgH]g ¤-eetg 26.0 g/mololEg 0.204 mol$ {=6r.$ ffi (o.2oam<i)(26.0 glry,riot) : s.32 g oI^'llEHl
r+ rJ4.
eE "J 6s tq
r.i1le] E+(^lE, 12.1tr) na] Lllql^l g^IEg E+C rill(12.39 e+C rill(metallic solid)i 'JHl4 o.a dTle+
^lE Ed-n. 9l
dql 4+ llillE +ae+ E^.ig e+63 + 9lE.l. zi1 gql q"J =a¤ dr;1014. ++g s.q} FEq^J s9 see
"35
= =4-¤
(metallic solid)oll,t'1 9z|E=3 dill4-s--E *f¤ flxlzl dx19 ul + 9l= de"J adr+ detr B¤ + 9l= ^Ja.J gcg r*=4.
Sxlcl¤ dz} +Eq 9"}] EEEj 9lE+. o|t$ l.i{l(ionic solid){] ++ql^l gzL=g 4"J +g +=E E^J6J+. EU iE"J tlfl(cubic
oJolg4 +olg oJqql 96ll B=q 9lq. close packing) q +J EE tlfl(hexagonal close packinC)+ gol,
^lL ^IolE ^Jc. ^l-e.
E*¤:18 74 zill(covalent-network solid)i q*g ++ eB F zlzl B4e-l ag $oJol zffia|4. A zlzl a+ E+, 4 *g
I rE +=ql EEll .'.1e, E54 ?14. =rru li{l(molecularsolid) l27ll I Ell?lt(coordination number)¤ r*t.+.
.+"J BaIrJ elql q4 E=El 91trI. EEti{t(polymer)} * ErEl(alloy)$ ++E SCg r*: EeE, E .ltr9 g^+ ol+
= A.Jql ^1tr
+ 96ll ^JE BSrl 9lE gzl¤ql E6ll BCE ,ll+ a ^I q4 914. qHql^l giE t.J6}rll E= #"J6lrI geg + gl
¤¤ EE-61-n 9l+. 'JHI49-*.. ol ^]¤r==3 "+6J +zIrJ 6Jql E trI. +.J.J gig gq++3 E*6lE 6J=!g 6J
^l+Bol+ E^llB
p{el zfflol +ol ¤ + 9itr].. iltlE EEl(substitutional alloy)oll.!3 A+E g
^lE B=4
6ll 9lE+. LEEE(nanomaterial)* zfl$
l-100 nm Ctr e EAolq. }'B B flzlzl 4i 949 g^I9 ^ti-lE z|^lt+. t{lEt EEI
=qE (interstitial alloy)oll,!| gAE H flzlzl 4+9 +gi
rillel +E(12.2tr) 'JAC Eill(crystalline solid)ql^l: "Jal¤ol + ^+9
zl4e HI+ B4E HllgElq fl4. HlEe¤ !fl1(a661p6ous solid) E g^l¤ ^Flql 9l='+B'.J E^ll ^tr.l= xl-zloJtrI. ffiet EEI
(heterogeneous alloy)olli.l ?l.c5s +'J6}rll E+s12.1 *E4. r
+ oJal-=ol ole+ Ag +zl^Jg 444x1 ?*E -r.,1o1s1. eCC ri
zlet zlg H]+ +9= E+t 441 5C4e e^Jg ,*= + Zl ol^JE +{6J t}ol +zll.t}trf.
cell)olEl. ecql^l EE =+
^ll9 ^ltE(unit il tlElE(intermetallic compound)3 'JC'tL 4Cr+ 'JCtL ^jeg
B9l ^llE: E+l6J ga} Ellgg r*=E|. E+l ^llE7t Ellgqq fl=
,*= aJ+oltrI.
AEg 716144 4lBg eE {rJ(crystallattice)4I.J4. eC +
aE BC6Izl +16].q g^I+ flx|$e-tr ol+qd e+(motif)E E E+ eg(12.4tr) dzlz| ?+ +4 dillE E6lq zt+Er)l *4
$ {r}tr(lattice point)ll r.JE Qlf,-slolo} aJr}. "JEtiri
,J+d EI] HtEt Ets(electron-sea model)9E ++9
olxffloll,! ++l F zl]9 4rt Etet(lattice vector. a, b)91 g AC49E ¤Bel + 9l+. Ezl sHlE EBq^], ;.+ =¤ gz}
^JlE=
Edl Aqg =.71e| Eo"Eg += ¤4^IHeolr|. olzfflollE C^I q 9= flzfz[ {z}e] g^t eHlB=iol .rlE t}s ++6}q qlq
48, A+4¤, zl^14¤. B4^IH¤, u|$e !ufe| ,Jol r+\71 zl:rl(band)E ol qlq^lqE $zlz| {zlfql E6]] ++
^J¤ELtrI.
fl^l 4r](primitive lattice)zf 9ll, 4zld9 E9l
^lleel +71 4e_e 491X4. Ar+zlee A^l rlle.l {z} f=b rt?lE(band
^lE
eq,J +lilql+. .szlgql^l E+l ^llE: ^jl 7ll9 ltl flQQ. b, structure)E BCql4. ++ql^J: s, p, d 9HIBE gzITI4es
dq gql 398 azls+ E"&g +: Bq+EillolEl. .J,J, a%I, +q Bc¤ trlEol ^Jtr ae.g-EA,l E.5 trl7l +e4 eE ill+l^l
+BL, 4i%1, +^I, +^f 4ale+ ,Jol77l^19 flrl {zfz} !i ,ll E+. qlq4rl= olfi eulp ,JE qLJzl ifolT} Ell+ z+71
^I*.
4. tg ^llEq 6dql
ITHE 4^ldg ;zle u-efl fllg E',J 4 ullEgl, dztzl q +g qlqzl t}4el eHlge dol'J Ell g-s-6J
cubic lattice)zt gqzlil. +9 qq^l=,11+ z++. ol qlEq ++g d7l dtrtre+ gdtrtr7I +
^ilgE 4 EE
r](body-centered
+Cq 4xLEg +7le +gE Ec EIEJ 4rl(face-centered cubic n, ++"Jg n++ 5Cg ,*=E+.
lattice)7| Eqd+.
554 123 -,r^llef CA^|I
olE:d r.iJl(12.str) ot*¤ zi{t(ionic solid)b o}olgrl *o18"-a zI3 tszl-z} qH A!+6Iq ^JdE Ez}=d=ol Ezlolr+. EelaEJ
=
+dElq 9leq. fEg tdzl qlq oe rle. EE4 9l+. olgS (plastic)$ "JHl4etr 94 "Jqg 716ll +or* BEll= "JE + 9i
+q tln z++ol ,il+ r7l qlEql olg a* pIEIEE +=ee,l] : Eeolq. TIgg ¤L6I B^Jg tr|^l "J5 + ?l= +E.al.= C7r4
+ ol$$ {afzf 4114,+ olgE r7l7l- +^6}E olgE
+E+. C EzlaEJ(thermoplastic)ol4lr. 6'lr-, Hl7Iq4 cI+4 +A " tr
^l
olE .Jq3 4{trI. (.Jolg4 $ol$,r.fol$) .Jq+ ("}olgr} * "JEzl ullE.ll 7B6Iq B^Jg +^l EIE + S= +qlallE elBrl8
olg golg ol+ql olg 4a oJ4. eJdi{l(elastomer)E 6
^pl, +olgr+ ^IolE) Hlgqol ¤|'=6t71
EaFrq(thermosetting plastic)ol
e6J ++Ee r{zlzl d4. ++4 eol olg a'J cI.JEq +3= "JalE Ep_lzlr+ ++il + r eg x]46lE fl4 e"js-e q5o1
4?d.14. rq+ ae d6l-= r*= olgEol 4d4os d+6J 7l= E^J 7]Eg !Lol5 EAol+.
f S.oeE HI+I+E "J+4ee + {lzl a-+ a"J +.J ++ql^1tr d71=E HJt(addition polymerization)q^l= Ezl¤ol '*a 9l
+ zlE+. c+6J +a= olgSE ^Jql4e rTle+ dQl^lql^J gol 'J z.¤6J¤
gq 4lES a!}g ^J^Jqiq. q= 5q qlBfll9 +
gql 4+ ololgE Hlql q4 g4{+. o16 e6Jg gq g4qg{q ,,.11-e.S eq}g
"JE+. +
^-+^
E EE E!8(condensation polymerization)q^l= +$!l$
Exld ts^lrt 6J etr
!.i1(12.6tr) Erltt ?ill(molecular solid)E ^Iolql
E-=31 9lE g^I E= tszls +dElq fl4. ol -Je tL4zJ ^l +9.$zfz|
xllzlrlS^l A6Jol
^J^JErl.
qlE Eq olol$ z[$
^le d4I ^Iolq^l E ExfTI ,]4ElE^l e+ol s^JElq q3l ++q
o-e. +zl ollE9l Ezld aa,ll= +g6tn +=dol *4. +=dg
+"JEol ^JC$4. A zlzl4 ^lE E+C E}+l^lle+El ^JCB +6J
EztrJ EE .<jlzle| gxlel +g ag^Jq q4 B+41q.
ill ¤i 41 6J4.
=8C
:1E ?E r.i{l(12.7e) E+8 r.= += ?ill(covalent- +.Ji]* ql+E HlaaEcol4. rqLl qL cs9 ees
=iEtill(copolymer)
networksolid)= r"+ a'Jql e-lt} Aq+ rE +=-a E¤Bl (crystallinity)E ,*= +EtxllE 914. Aqld e+q+ ql6}q
^le =^Jql
9li g4-=e +dqq 9lq. ++d :rE +z il^llb +^l^J n,ll acE= e^l e"d=r+ ¤!6J^ll +^l¤! zlz]|zltl aEq q4 94
tr+ g{ trl ++61q, +:dol ++. +soJ qlE, tr}olo}gEe+ Tl4. 'J ulaJill ^l¤.9 sg gzl
^l¤E ¤a6l+ Eil?|il(cross_
+gol 9ltrl-. trfololgEq^] E^ gzl+ ^ls +-e +^=ql E6ll linking)oll E6ll^.lE +'Jiilg 5^Jg rrll 96.t9 s=+. n+=
4 Hl+lqq 9ln, +tsql^l ts^ g^tE sp'? d6Jg E4q q4¤ zl3 ElE(vutcanization) +Age' A-g qI g^I ii}
^l+ql E6ll
+g BC6Jr+. sJEill(semiconductor)t ++E+= ¤d pa1x1"3
?aJ9 qI4."14.
dzlE dE6I= Lallola, EElitl(insulator)E d4 dzlE AE6l
zl 9+= a;-|lolr1.
LftEe(12.98) E?ol "Jilg E= olxt?loe +861, "JEI49
E 100 nm ol6}e zlolzlE, Eeq .+Cg H++. ol z$Eal =zl
eg flA HlEille+ GaAs, InP, CdTeet ag sl'JE Hl
Si, Ge$
,*= EAg LEEfl(nanomaterial)ol4l6.Jr+. oJ^ldg
Eillzl ++C 1E +^E 6s,t} qol+. HlExllql^] ill+"141 A.J = ^lE
ol r-r0 nmoJ HlESl flztol4. ol azl +=q^l EeE qa4
C E^l gulBol tllJzflxl(valenceband)E BC6ln, Hlq il= H]
qlLlzl= rTlql q+ B+11+. '=.+ +LE^l+ l-100 nm a7l
?.Jd +^I 9-ElBol EEtrl(conduction band)E ¤dt}+. g^t7f
H9lql^l dill E¤!}E += Er,l +E4 Scg r*:+. qlE E
trle+ dEtrl: utzJ4(bandgap, E )ol4l. 6lE qlLlzl+;: ^Js E g4d+. +
4qq 9l'1. At.J 7Jol7l z}|olA4 + fl^ zJg 4zl *CE il "l 4u"14 rzl9 +q a+ HI*C"I 7l^1i1, ^4ol
olzf f;zlaifl q 449 r7l= +zI6J+. L4+ EoFq g+ 4r+, ^l+t+^l94zlzl ?*91'J sp' edg r*
E+Eol EEJ(dopine)¤ HlExllE dzl dE.Eb 984zll 6zl * ^lltr+ +4 Eii.llE "JEfl+. c.orl ?¤ gBldg EA ?lzl-
E"J B^J¤ 44+ Ezlol+. +4 +LF'r= +S+g "Jot g
"B HlEill: E+Eol dz}99 dEqq 989 dxlzl ¤
6J4.
E}Eillola, p¤ HlEillE E+Eol aTiqq flzlzlrl.ll d
il B4lol4. *9 "JoI gfl ElBq q-+ HlEiUq ++^lH 4Eg
^l]6l-=
gn ^dA qeg EE3(hole)o1 ¤zl]6}.= Hls:1o1r1 + 9t+. +¤e-e.+q e4E Bg+oJ r4¤3 +^9 olil-?l B
^l-E Ellol+. ole+ ag +r=Eag dzl-=o 4, lllEl ?.1, qioJ 44, EoHl
5:Br'i1 |
(1 2.8 tr) 3ifi{l (p olymer) * i ?l cJffi | (monomer) 4l at'=
+*6171 flt ¤*zI dflqa fl+.
zo Hl--e-.,\I
L O -r
O!-
s}+^l 1!el$ oJole+ golg HH9l+
+q}^l ++l'J+olg+ "J"lg Hl]9l+
lrz.rl .Jolg Hl]9l+ "l solS Ell+l+e} olg aEI s+6JEel ¤e4
^Iolel+Al^l
OJ+
E4I
tso-e.H.= TllLJ r2.2 rHql +Eit oli|fl f=91 4aI9 (a) t9 4leE:e,],<l
t2.t o|elql F 56el arllE +E{fltrL 6I++ H}E^lloln, 4 e. (b) olil-?l 4zlE BEIE ea6l^le(rB r2.4-e.+q).
6l+= a¤4"1+. qL aol HlEilloln, qL aol ¤ts (c) B9l
^llsql
4 849 +(¤44 Ag^q)ol P 4L+ 9lE
=
illql7.l, olrq¤Eq ¤B6r^le. [rz.r¤, 12.74] zl? lrz.z4l
oooo oooooooo
o o ooo
U o o .)
(, oooooooo
o ooo
a\ (_,
o U o (l
ooooooio
(i) (ii)
(a)
+
(a) (b)
(b)
\, 12.7 ffi gzl. +6J41 + dzl dsdg *4421 +lg ag qL
4oJxl : ol+= Eq ¤B6I^le. jz.eg, rz.sdl
(a)
@#
r2.8 EEE HIE^llE d^I +4E:Hql 444flr4.7r2.t4)
(a) Arlel Bnl + qL {ol flz}z}rlolz}!
t G) qe aol dEtrloJTI?
(c) E.s.9 qL ++ol qa4g 444=zl?
(d) ?Elc +zI sElBe ol+q4 9lE ae qL qtTt?
(e) olag n¤ HlErlloJzL pB HlE4loJTI?
(0 HlE4lTl Ga, Si, p + 5.8^lle g
^lEl+.ol+E ^l-s¤
F{tzt?
^b
1 t, .,t
t, + + ulol 9t= Mo
t"/t, + + oil
Ll
rl ifl?Tl Mo
a
a
1
.i .+
I a
2
4 9l+. ^l-aql 4-qd *99 =rlolq *g%Ig.JeaEI. (c) \if o1 +n d7l dtrtr7i ++r
4*zl9l Eq 9lb +r.Aaq B+ rzl=,tle 4-E4. 4 (d)++ a6J9 rE +a
r.ACE ¤+ f-zl= 7J4 q.o. 3.s, 3.2,2.8 nmol4.
12.15 L++ 4 p+.JEg qtr BEile-l A{($^IC, !:4d, .19d,
Irz.z9. rz.g4) E"
#C :E
+e).J^l +4.11^ls.
(a)ol: $zloll +.0 nm +La{ol Eq fli7}? (a) CaSOa O) Pd (c) Ta2Or(\id, rczz"C1
=,7lol
o) qL $zloll z.a nm =.zlel 4udcol il=7p (d) 7l-ElloJ(CsHroNroz) (e) EFQI(CrHJ (0 pr
=.q
(c) E 100 nm-Brf a7l4 cdTe EC9 4zJ4¤ r.s ev 12.t6 .+g 4 +'JEe qtr ¤4E AA(E^}^J, *4d, ol$d.
=
ol+. ol a4etr+q *=q= H9 ++r+ d*ib 9"f *+c rE +a)ql^l q44^ls.
"JzI?
ol Hg 7l^l*d, zle.ld + q.L a.J7l? (a) InAs (b) MSO (c) HgS (d) In (e) HBr
^Ie_ld,
t2.17 700 "cq^J q4 Eeol 9l+. nillb E4lola Eql +
+i
1
ri{lel+^(12.28)
2 1l 4 t2.te (a) ead :ZillE +4'llb rBg g^l ++ql^l r?-l^le.
(b) Hle4c rillE +4'.I= rHg gz} ++ql^J r.4^le_.
ill+ qL 4ollzlt**zl? Y Y
rl-¤- gz1flzt, +zL olg)E q¤ eqE .Jqol l. L
^lolql5
+xll6l=7I?
-1213(a)
B^Id AC O) ++^J aE +^ 44 (i) (ii)
(c) olgC AA ++C aC
(d)
3.5s A
3.5s A
(i) (ii)
o.ra A
l;#
tz.z+ edxl oJ* 4zl¤ ^J^J6ta EoJ 4zl-= +ql +rldg *r-
4 Eq aol= E"J6fZl +zl6J i|] EAI 4ztr3 g-6e-e. E
el !.zI. 4zl ElEl tE
^'ll
4EE B'J6}^1"J, 49 q ol^J
e0'z| o1qq. qtr ++q g^l 4zl7l slEqzl=7|?
_t + O" eo, O F
?ill(12.3E)
12.25 LllT++ qL aE e0'7I otH +91 ^llsE ,*b .Silg g^l =+d
12.31 g^ K, Ca, "JE= zlzJ 0.86, 1.s.3.2,4.5 glcm3
Sc, Tie-l
oJ* 4zl-= 9g 4.Jzt?
oltrI. olE + 6h+= trIE
(a) r|* 4zi 0) +HJ 4^I (c) c.* 4zI ^l]d E"J +3E aC+6E1. ^ll
7l]= EHJ +aE AA++4. ^lld EttI +aE ¤A+
Ed
(d) t^l4zI (e) c-%I "t +^l4^I
6l+ 49 qL a.J^l ^146l.r., r ol+E "J6l.^lg.
12.26 E* ++l elq Eq 7Jol7l E+ E'J6J +91
^llE ^ilEE? 12.32 (a) TiCl4, G) NiCo ffi, (c) w, (d) Ge, (e) ScN 6 *49
(a) r|* 4zi O) 8* 4zI (c) +l!LI4zl'
(d)&^I4xt (e) c-%I q +^l4^I
E{g z}d aee ql{LEIE E4g qL t."Jtn
rz^l: :eq +4U a4 aol, "JHI4 os ++C g^q^'l +e
nzz Ae E%L 4^l-= r*= g^q +91 ^llsql Eql¤ + 9l= 6l
9= ^il zflel ^lg Etg +=q t9 ^]lsE r.316ll E^I.
4 fl4a5 H zl]'Jz}? (a) zl* a"J6}al g^l-7} +ol= +4= q- 4oJ7l?
(a) I (b) 2 (c) 3 (d) a (e) s
(b) TltL c717il g^t7l +ol= +ab qL aoJTI?
12.28 EC .J* 4^l= r*E g^E ++l Eilg + 9l= 4l
^llEq
a fl449 q 7ll.J7I?
(a) I (b) 2 (cl 3 (d) + (e) s
rz:s qq*g 6.j e,rle,lel 7Jol7l3.833A.J Ed "JoJ Bg ,qls 12.44 oI4E aCg ,*= 44E qHql ql6}q il+l qH, E^ll 'J
E r*= aag Bd6J+. (a) ol4E sxl9 flzt EI^IE¤ +, A+rJ p+6J¤ +ql^l Fl,tzlE ed6}^le.
olrl$ #49 "Js= al4l6l^ls-.
Zl4}6f^le-. (b) (a) Cuo.oeZno.:a (b) AgSn (c) Tio.qgOo.or
r2s6 vJ++ aoz'Cglr] ;lld E* +4A?*Y adg Bt++. laa5q.g 4 E+ql ql6lq +r+ 419 eA6}^le.
(a) 4 t9l ,qle9l e*¤ ca gxlE P zl]'Jz}? (a) zl{t oF.g E^ll 6F.tr4 $Col ¤4.
(b) 4 ca flzt"ll ztat Tlvlolql *= gz]+ P zllqlz}? (b) E^ll 6J¤-g uli6J olg HlzlE-g += g^E
^Iolql^l
(c) rJf9 gzf +^lEi(I.e7A)og+q ++l BCg+.
^'lls+E^Jr,l
g zgo| aE Zl4l6}^le-. (c) 6J=:ql^l El++ fl4= dq gAq4 ?*=trI.
(d) olgEql^l a+++E gEE 4lt}6}^le-. 12.46 Ll+ 4 ++q1 46lq +r+ zlltg eA6}^le.
(a) ?4zJ P+.J¤g Aql{ c}qzl aCg ,*=E}.
r:-:zz ,Jfe dgql^J 4 HE AolTI s.s88 A.J EC E%l *+1
r*b aAg ¤d'J+. (b) +54 aFq +c+e +r.lol4.
^lleE gzl= E^]] .+lilE il7,l6J4.
(a) ,Jf, flx}9 SzI tlzlEg Zl4}6l^ls-. (c)
^HloJ4^zloll,! aE$
(b) ol gEql^l a+ ++E EJEE 4l4l6l-^le-. la47'4e--4 Aol tr4 tflql^J ^l-&El='4g r*= +'g "JE7l
rz.re flzI ElzlEol r.sz Agl gzlE +C¤ trl-g BEHE E%I + 9l6lq +4 qE gdE ol+6}q qH|g "J5qoh 6l-=71?
9-] PqEAge 4l,t}6f^le-. 44ql46Iq qtr B{fl6$0l {Cq=zl$ p{of,tle.
^-llEg
(a) 94 + 0) Be4 * (c) *E4 + (d)
9rl 0) Hd EBI
(a)
=+l + gq+
rz.s .J+oltsg Ed E%L^llEE ?*+44& B^J+4. 12.48 gE q4 E-= ++g flfltl rtzlr;l=
=rlq 4=EL g$+g Efl ^lls aolql
(thermal expansion)$
(a) Efl
^llsql
E*g Al flzlE H zl]elz}?
(b) 4 gF"lk gz}9 ul9.l+= g"I"Jzt? qBrll g6}-3 e 4"J71? e-E +7171++9 lrJ-5aql trlil=
(c) gFults9 gz[ q]zl$(r.43 A)-e--e+El Bf.l 6J E c.rtb Flalzlz
^lls
aol 4= 4l1}6}^le. ee(12.48)
^J?]E
(d) "JFults ++e] gEE 4l4}6f^ls. =+
tL4' '++ ¤Bol ?oJxl, 4l.JzlE Tj¤6f^le-.
rz.ao "lE g^7I4lC EEJ 4zl-= ?*E 449= BC"J+. +91 (a) fr$$ dzl¤ol ul¤xHplq9 9l7l qEql E¤ dzl d
^il
g oJ e.!alel 4olE +.oza AolI, aAq gEE e.30 g/ Etg
cm3ol4. flael flzlr3g alt}6tjl g^E
'z*Etrt.
^l4E}^ls. (b);:+g +E nrllEtrE| 3IrJ6I7l qEql +g dzl dE.
rz.ar tffi4 ++rJ sldJEql 4+ ¤H + $*4 A+? cg,*++.
(a) 3# lHel ql ql"l+. (c)f,$$ T}gdl-fi.g rll ++6171 trIEql 9ds4g z;
(b)'g;'E E ri= "Jg'+ ++ ol^Jg ;:+EE "JEq^l =
=+. gol
E a^Jol H6lzl *= ElilE'o14. (d) ++g ++q 4lE"d ¤t qlq4= Bl{4s}¤ d
(c) ;-4rJ pI6JEg 9Cqi aCq + ++ oldr$ fr{e-e EIEqI gdE^JolzI+.
^l¤ol dzll dg:.I^l*6171
rJ+El^l ?+=tr|. r2.s0 ++ Eqlrl ¤Hle qqql, += eHle qqol sE t4ql
".I5qd E}6JEoln, tHige.
(d) + ++ ollt$ frtrpol gzl +=ql^l gBEE F zl| tc=q*g "L ollz} Hlz.l= B qHql L=E ++ ++¤ "J
oltlE El= adg r*= t}-s--+ Br]qr., ts-a9 ts+ol Ag rI edAI y,44r+. 4qq1 r.=qal 9*e ++ ++g
yrAAE+E, r olfiE ¤ds.t
^8Cg+. "JAg rll ,,I4 E= Ed4
(e) $z,3 EP'g +^J6l+ flzl¤9 a7171r,l+ E|= trll4 *aq^l B-6.I^le_.
ilE ".IEqe + 9l+. r2.sl 4E fl^l24tr g d¤ .t'lf$ +2fl-e. B dB Eil6J
^l¤ql
tz.tz 4* dBql ql6}q +r+ 419 aa6f^l-e-. +zt sElB Es.=:r.H n.zzql +ElH+. EIE g^I6zll-tr
(a) zl* tP,* i14l +'-!olzlE}, E^]] 6ts9 ¤.dg 6J=-"14. g dB qloJ tszt eulB E-s.E EJEa, -Esg
(b) il+ tP.g 4zi qlq fl= '*,ll' flxlz}'+e' g^le
^l¤ql ^l-s
4q EH-E+q B-61^le-.
il++qzl"J. E^l] E^:a.g 4^l.Jq flY'+e'flxlz}'* (a) -ErEoll P zll9 Ezl sElBol 9lbzl?
Ell'g^]¤ 9l+. (b) 7t+ *.g glulxl= ,*E E^| -sHlBql Q zl$ ulrlzf
^Iolql
(c) ils tHql^l= flxl¤9 q}^lEe
^Je
Hl+6I^lEJ, E!
9l=7I?
gz}ts-r+ gd z}4.
4l{H!ql^l=¤i^ll flz}zl?q_l4z} (c\ 7l* +g qlq4= ,*= ez} eulBql $ zll$ ufQz[
12.43 oI4E aCg r*b 44el qHq 4+q 1+l'ffi, E^l] 6J ol L ?LO
I:
^\=/
560 123 r^llef C4^H
(b) g^ Zne| si
44E A+ql46lq r
+ g^Jol EJ +g aetr q+q=
ol]gg {ga}r.le.
a.g? o o
(b) &El olgg 6El]+]oJ Al2o3 (c) ep} olgg 4ul]+loJ AIN oll
Ll
ql4q +r+ 1Ag Aa61^li-.
'4-o48+ql ^l
OF
CN
¤ x (t"ll ql6li^lE Gap,Asl_,2| +zll++. x:091d x:I 0l=.BeL[olEaJ
H+lql^J Eeq qz4ol cl+4 adq CEl4{Lqa 714
oJ F, GaPo,As,.sE lrlzJ4g !14!o'|r.19(caAsei Cap rlzJ +EI +*^lloJ Kevtar5 zl-Fii Elolqel- g¤ ,J+rll g %I
l,
tl
{ x(
I
H
LEDqI
^F8-¤
E¤9 aCkll)g 4ltl6i^le. Hl-q trlqt
n
gErd(12.8tr)
r2.e0 +Eqeg olulL,tl9 +* HI*ql EEl] ^JCg4. olulLt9
rzsr t"l tglril* +tfl7}? + ++l4le ^l-s¤ + 9lE
(b) Et-g
ae qL 4"J71? HId, qlfl(qE{olzpr E}), ,ilElt 'JHI4"J +48 a+'
trl'g-q
HRO
r2.s2 n-cll4loJ9 Ezl4g cH3(cHr8cH:o14. g4qlB{g +
ql4ltr ++61-e HlH, ql4l.Je fEldle A+6lzl ?*=tr|.
ttil
H-N-C-C-O-H
r ilolE qBTl +Egf ?lEzI? H
I
.ag^19 tsz}r}: 100 amu, 10.000 amu, 100,000 amu. ol +aq^l -Rg -H, -cH3, E= 4E 48zlE *4t
1.000,000 amuoll Qlap ol fzfz| EIB+ ft.Jzl ¤E6I^19-.
4. zo4el 4E nzl.=. ¤ zl¤4.J olEllctol 20+ 91trI.
-rzsl
12.84 +g dBol *"Jzl, 41?-lalE zlzlalrle. (a) :H9l 44d EzI9 +t} +ql Hl+q el6ll
^JCq= +
dz| ?EI HI*4^J Hl+E +^JdEg frE|(+gol 100%4 EIeE .JElzl.J +a= r.?l^le.
n 7lC6J trll). (b) +^l e zll9 olslt 4}ol HI*4q EIE +E
^l+g "JE
rz"ss qllq:7Fqdt4 +q} +* Hlsoetr ^JC aol olH 'flElolE'+-a El4. soz11 olltg olulL,llol
"Ja$.,.1o1e.1
Ely cl.Jgoltrl. xllz+.+{{1,H ql^Ei ^JCq .I+ +*9 ;:Bel Ezl¤ +Eeol+r 6JEl. ^ll zl]e.l olnlrl&(Rl,
qlE +ol.*,rle. +*!l(*Elql^El)E q R2, rcg 4E nzle ++qE)q q6l.q +EI HI+ql E
^Jd6t7l +lflq
^8Cq= ts4olE +aE rul^le.
6I
H HI+ol "Jq+oF 6l+7I?
(c) ts4ol=4 +Eaql+zll6}b Rzle.l ullS +^l=
rz.s0 44141(succinic acid, HOOCCH2CH2COOH)4 qe Hl4ol ^JEEI
t9l4l7l. +6J +il Hlg"es +d-
o}EJ(H2NCH2CH2NH, 4 gdql g.&g ts4olEe+ +EIAel ++E
= =+.
illE ql+ +B +q Hl+4g A,rle. +E6I7l 9loll slqrzl-E Hzl 'N "Jt9 il¤Izlc+ olxl"J
^Jc6l+ +4q ,c'JElg zlszl.ll q-4 olul:=tg
BgqlEI. (b)g r
usz qU dz}6il HI¤¤ sararfM Eol4a ^F&q= +ElillE gt'q golalE
'N
Bstr.+q "JE4',c ag ol6ig
¤C.J4. a_+z7l +CCl2-cHr*,o14. ol Egl4lel + f glqo} aJ4.
,l]g EIE oltrlL4}e=e.+E1 H 4e.l
,r-il
4.8 rel^19.
+= B4ol=zi "J=qe f gbz}?
12.88 (a) EEeuqlog+q ¤al3E.sg{lg ^J^J6}=
r}Aql nsr ("1 E^19 qE +a4 5^J EilEq +q},ll7l+¤6lrll El=71-?
4'J slq EI+^lg a^le(Eq=-e.-e-s.{lg r.+E-e- (b) +{}4lq jl:} e{}g 4H dql uloll Q -ft$tNz}=7l, g
EtlE-tr "J+zll, 4l+ ol+, aullolq gE. Ed q+ +S6flzl=71?
E" 9e 'r;3'94;.
12.e2 +4E q¤ qlEql, zl"JE Er]qlBflltrtrl j1"JE E
CH':69-f:t'' ulqlB{]E =-C trJ
EJ5.7}
=7p
CI E4tq s+48 "JEBjr 6J Ell, +g e6Eel *g eA
=aeEfll
EE r*= +{}"ll + qe ag dqoilo} ts4?
rge+olEBe+q gr.lol3Be.4o1e g -rzs3I;l*
o) of 12.e4 ¤Hol Ttzl 41qlzl, zl{a}.rle.
(polyacrylonitrile)g r+Aql ql+ ++ HI+^l (a) tsClli r+ Ag r4ol+.
^JC6I=
+7f EA E^ll 563
O) gA+^J +6Jill= +^l CBB + flE+ 12.100 rvql oltlzl.J o}^Ieg 4zlgl 4.J +41 trl
^I.sqE
(c) g7I4^J +!]xll= {$e" ¤-+ .JE+. Eql 7}s+g E*6Izl 9+=+. olq6J +4ql *E ,l+
LttEE(12.etr) c 9l= Eeg Ec E%IE doi¤¤. f3g zl-21.3 6p
ol+. +91 E^14 aol* s.eosAol+. (a) olxtd
t2.es jlxllTl4rL a5E zzloJ trll, rl^llE E.Jg'rl'e zlt ^llsel
ol .JEJ4I Eols-e. ^Ja+H + E^.iE.le.l aolzl3.00 nm
A+44 7l¤6}xl *6J +E gl4. : olffi !$o|.rle.
4s.oo nmoJ 4.+. EBlill eCqE zJ flzlzl H zll 9lE
12.e6 cdsel qA4g 2.4 evol+. 4++ cdsg ¤C.ll zI9C
zI? (b) (a)ollr.J 6J +LEzITl +E^lg, 4E E^l7l tL+
I qlq4ql 6ll'J6l+ Hol HJ¤E+.
ar.1o1g, trlrJ4
E qg HJ¤E 4+' 3.00 nmei 5.00 nm -u-!r1e1 zlol
(a) B¤B qE
E zlzlE eAe q! Hg B A"J7l?
43eF9,"JzI?
o) +¤^q Hg %L=g+ 9l= 4¤;J azlg cds oJ^fd
ol 9l=zl? rz.ror :qg++fle.] zloldgg=tsIezl ¤BsJ ag ql aqlT}?
(c) 834 Hg %I=El + glb 43aj =zlel cds olzl-d (a) :4{3 +z}ol7,lEJ, +gg E^}zl- o}q4.
ol gl=71-? o) r4¤e +"J+9 +^ g^IE Elq fln, +ge q
rl +el, q +q +4 gzlE qq 9l+.
t:-:s? '++¤Bql44q +E= 419 AA4^le-. =
(c) rfl{e ¤gAlolzlq}, stse?+ol+
(a) l-10 nm CEgl^l d]^l a7l7l AA6LE HlE4lg El
g¤g +++ +iol^]"J, r4{g o].q4.
(d)
a4g rJa6J+.
(e):4991.t1 EcE sp2 g^Jolxl"J. g:ts91;.1= ,p'e
(b) 9l+ zHS BoI HlE4lql^l %IA9E qq Eltlg Hl
scEl¤+.
s.ill$ olz| ezlzl zJastql q4 aqd+.
12.102 clzl$(buckyball)$ $z1o1qq+g +49 Eaol olt-l
t2.e8 +g ¤Bq 44q + E= ,lllg aC6l^le-.
4= a3 qtsa4 +E +rl= q! a.J7I?
"JE +E^q Hg %I=6I= Hle.;15 9az1.jr;H. -= (a) ElzlES e^E q}Sqa+.
4 *zIqlHzl91 611'J6Ib r)rJ4g r*b EAg ^l-.S614 (b) tsl7lg3 E+61 cgg gz}+aelE^f*g r*=r+.
+, olB+ zlg qz4g r*= Eeolzl"J 4e6}rl EzI (c) ulzlBS E+61 cEg +=dg ?*+L+.
q eTlE 6q^l "JE +LE^l= + 9lq.
^l-.8-6J (d) ttlTlBg HlE,llol+.
regs +g ++l ^lls,* E^l4el z)olzl4.08A.J Hd "J%L + (e) fl9 ¤H + fl zll olltol eBol+.
eE r*84(rB rz.rr). zl-aol 20 nmoJ i$!l .Jq
Szl* H 7ll 9l:7I? (+9 +EE i,zrlol4.) "
?l E+ +rll
U2.r03ldHE Be+Eol E++e-l h*dg zlt14. 12.106 ++6J eg illC E%I +=E 7*y 449e BC6J+. frl
NaCl(801'c), Mgcl2(714"c), pc13(-94'c), Scl2(-t2l.c) ,+ 4+9 E++g Ezl-al$ .JA+ HC EEJ +aE g
(a)4 slElES qE ¤flel l,,il(Ezld, #4d, .l$^J, + 9l+. 'JE7I eE Bql= Fq"JzI?
=
++d fE +4)"J71? lt2.t07l++ 4^Iql tsdE EE6'}H, "JEI49E 4E7l eTlqir-
O) q+ 6 q! e+6JEol trl +g +=eg zglitll ¤col *otzlq {zl {q+ "i gds.s.z} *o}+14. :
cacl2e+ SiCl4 olffi {ga}.rle.
u2.r04lr47lle] c-i}+l4zl +ql Ed ^I,J 4zl+ s4. Ec ^l- r2.r08 Ni3AlgztEzl +-r. EJETl4zl ullEgl ul4zl gl{g el
q zle +g r*E illc 4^fe Hlql qA ++e Hd E%1-+91
%1-+91
^]lsY ^]lE=. ^}BF ^FSgEl. ^JlsE,*b E
q^l A9¤ + 9t+g Bol^le. %r-rg +"J +3E r*E ElE, ail p.t7ql +4U Eie+
gol Ni3Alg e^l Ellg¤ .JoJ +4E ,,tE+. gBl t+l
ll2.loslg^l EHJ 4xl-=i lLtI6l^I. qqlTlql^J EJ oE hE El=8=.
6J E^]r.lel aolb qaq C* s.sr Aoll, Ni:AI9
{I Hg 9_=3-_q_-e'}Ag a+ E= 4E7l e0.olq. q ^'lls
H ++E g^l 4^l-= "JE*Ezt? 4A t.se Aol4. ol zlEE ol¤-6}q F Eeg "JE= 4l
tI6Ii1, Hli6}^lg.
r2.r0e .rH tz.vql LI4U 4 +++ +6JEql q6lq +fl
^jls
trt ql 9lb 4 gzl9 += eA6f^ls-. Eqd Ele dB
=q M3Sn, SmCo5e-Efq qh}+El¤ql+g-6P-7p
! Niral
564 ]23 _?^ltef
^t^^|l
6lE %I^lol+. (a) I so mot%e} ? 50 mol%oE ol+q4l a¤^Jol 7l* ¤iL, +baol ,IrJ Eg 4e qL
6F:-g q 4q.oJ7l? rg 12.189 ol+6lq ol .#:E 4 B4.JzI? ¤aCol z|1t r+!EL, \-i{ol 7l-t} *g
g +C6I^19. (b) +fl 50 mol%$ + s0 molyos ol+q ag qL B4flzP EzI zJ tls zls"+ +4- EoJs
a 6J¤:g H zll*."Jzl? ol 6tso3 ++ 49 trl=71? tr ol$ ¤Ea}^le-.
12.125 erlEltr. Al37.9o/o, Mg t7.to/o, O 45.0o/o (c) d+= g-$$ql ^l-&qq *E}. +ql^J
^qE(spinel)g =4EEg{
g^J6J ++g * EteE bqql 9lq^l gq
E+6I.= olEolq, EsE s.sz g/cm3o14. Eq 4ls ^llz16l=
= 6J E^l4el aolT}8.0e A"J E%Lol+. Egl sEgHl
^ll+ol Eol+ Er.lq^q
zl¤-trtrI ++6I
= ^llsql E olfle_tr gr]sEgHl
q fl= 4 flzl9 +E ea4^le. 4. Eq.fsrallr.1o1E EzlzJ
12.126 (a) 4ololEEql^.] C-C-C a6J4g gEloJTI? (b) +
4 54ql^q(E= E^l ^l+3 tr++ "*9 -ouz15
,*E H) olel +g
flql^l c-c-c aEI4e golq_lz|? (c) 4¤g El"J+3 ^plq ^Iol= ¤B6I^le.
r2.t2e (a) E 12.691 +ElU ¤4gg} ulolpoil,q ¤+ A6J ql
+otgg "l qE g^IsHlEolrl-&Ezl?
*-Atl zl* 4rg a.Jg q! e6JoJTI? (b) i1sql^l E
U2.t27ls.8.4ql ++t A'J 9lBElE ole"6l{, +g H}+ql rll
4gs+ HlolHg +olol-+!Ee. d+6171 9al-9 E49 zl
+ qlEE E!+=+Aal^ls. gg 4l TIAL HA #q^lE A.J+ qL A6}oJ7l? (c) E
(a) 9]EHI9 +6J Hl+
8.3q1 +4'J B+ A6J flBq= ol+6}q, +iqgp+ Elol
(b) t+'JE 6,6E HI+
^JC Hol +ololEEE A+q= HI+ql 4dJ Ail Qlgrl He+
E4qle{l Hl4lgg4lole(pEr)g ^JC E}+
(c)
5 7{a}.<le.
lt2.tzsl:fl rz.:egl +Elu 44 eol, g4qlBelg +e^l.J * ll2.l30l+^'= +oloI.EE +aE r*=4. El+l ^llE * E^.lr.lE
4eE ++q^lr, r/oJ + 9l+. TftL .Jat ¤EI= E ?olE s.+: Aoln, ++l ^lls'J 87IE gz}Tl Eq glq.
g4ol +g rBql +4d a4 rJol H1]6JS dBol+.
(a) E? r cm3 49lEq flE+^ gzlE += q 4oJ7l?
^rHql^l EoJg zlE oJe-+ +g A'Jg L+4
^ll+ltl 4lzl (b) +i.rle t cm¤ 1pp-9 oJ-e-,+EEaIH d=.sz1u4
4-,-i, {+a 471 EoJ+ ^lH YIE 6J"J A.Jg ++.J+. u,l ull f;z|.flup.7IA6l^f. ge+.Jg e mgoJzt?
H H H H H H
t2.t3t ol$rJ lz]g.J^J6}E eI zlxl %}Hg:zgq^l F HI
¤¤9 7}96l= 7lolQ. Ferio35 BC6l7l 91el reoel
rio3E HI¤¤ ^J46i BzI. q}*ol $dalrll 114.J+i1
TLAal:7 2.s00 99 FeTio:= r,ffl6}= Ell gs6J 27I^l
(a) 4 El +l4ql 46Iq -sHlBel sCg Ftqlzi? ?
6J4g gEloJTp HI¤¤el oJ¤ +6}^le.
(a) t¤ plE Hl¤:^lg *^ls.
(b) ¤p]qjgfl 4c E4sEgflol?+n 7Ic6I BzI. +
* 44q rtl6J E?,1 s-+gHlg +aE ri.l ^le. (b) FeTio:9 P+qL^l=Jg +dl^l91.
g+= +5l.^ls.
(i) cH37l7l rll6l-q ++ql"J +lzl6J a+(ol ¤ (c) FeTio:9
^lEql (d) g9.+ peo9 Efel e=JG)g +6|^le.
q]= F"J tsllg gel"egqlol+j16J+.)
(ii) cH37l7l zlEql q4q J.qtr 4E Hql +lxl+ a $saj rio,e] E+el e=*G)g +61^le.
(e)
+("1 ¤ql= j/ql Hl]g ¤qo +g{lol4j1 ++.) 12.t32 +4 flzf9 xlEg A ++ls Ll44^ls. al=el HlErll
(iii) cH37l7l zlEql ql6}q .JEql +e^l6}zl +lrl+ d9 r+ nm"J? 7l= dg zlzl_r. 914. olql 6i*qb +
A+(.1 ¤el= sC E]]g +?]o+g{lol4n 6J g^lel += q 4oJ7l?
^
r
7
I
r
f
ffi1
r
I
I
I
"l
u
l:
l-
ti
13.1 > E61l zt8 Ee.l +6l]¤ Ell E^l +=
ql^Jb qE 9"1 .J"l4b^lE aq6J
oEr{] +61 E4A BE E
^i46JE+.
.Jql +dg zld 1o14. +6ll r+ae]
+ 7171+s6J +Bg EzlEol ^.ls
4olqk zI¤4.J A6J4 qlq^l Hp+
oltrl.
Eql E +"iEtrI.
,=o:, (1.2¤. ¤).
"l4lql^lE zl;llel g;NEE "Jqol +
+. t
567
13.1 I s"6|l ul"t
+qe + Eeol += Ee dalq ae4 e4IE q ¤¤¤4. +Eg ec6l+ EdE b
qe q-s + 7l^l "JzL 4 (l) geol 6Ir., *6ll Bzl 9*E tlEilql^l q
^]tr lolalr.
+q9 54 +e_+ irl4 EqTlq= zI¤4.J a.}J+ (2) +6ll !+dq +q6l+ EzlzJ ts=
4I+9 eqlql gEl 9l+.
or(g)4 Ar(g;o1
=-J
rs.rollr'li-lH tr-qe-e. E4qq alzl.. tqg :l4l
^ll46IE,
zlill=
^Jtr
4q^l +"-49 BC6Jr+. zl4l Exls=e +zI+,rlc $$olrp 6J "J* 43 49 4
e6}zl *6Ir. Elzl olt} zlill olzlzlfl q+q}+. ali4e-tr. gz[ gsoe-tr "J6]q E l¤
ol +ulE
=
9t9rzlill f-o!o1 ¤^Jg+.
7l^Jl9 g6Jg x|${(spontaneous) 4Col4. ol= Zl ts+etr+El ol{ gluJxl9 F"J
S,olE zlEe "Jqtsg 9olt4. *471
^Jtr 4Jq^l +4|+l4-9.e EEB
oll Ss_eyl
(entropy){l 6t= gEql*ol ?zld4. Qle-eu15 tetlql^J q z1^116l +E+. zl+g q
E alel +A^lE7l +7li;l4q E= alg qLJzlTI rl *g "Jz}ql rle "llql i9 4lel r
te-eu]z1 +7I'J+: ass r4{i+. tr}+^l 7l^llE g6Jg 219 qle-+q= rtzl4z1
4. :44 olull 419 $Btl= 49 E6Izl g.}Ell, ol++ zlill oJzt r
^Iolql
EzlrJ ^JE
ai*ol 29 s.zl trll+ol+. E= +zlt E(E+q. {fz}-ffiZ} e. +^ aE})+ aJ4 r
+Hg qLJzl= 4lg flg'l .J++ql +++. 4lg elgq ai= Tlxll oJzI +el Ezlz
^JE
zI+ 6z191 6ll*aJ+. q+ol qE 4Col zt94oJzl, "IUzl= Zl9 ql= +ul +7lel
{lBul ,J^ ^}ol9 +¤ql e.ldl aegq. 44^.1 +qel Bce st}q u}= {eeulq +
4q Ed ol+q{+.
+E ++q E4-=ol dJ44 rll, tszl¤ol zJ-aj gxlzJ Eol4 844"J tlqql e.l6ll
^Jtr
zll,*tszl ?+=rl$, goJg x].$!e_e. "Jqtq. olp] ?ol TlillEg .$zl9l g* 4l+ol S
48, z}ts4gE 4ol4l g+. $+6tfl zlxll E{¤9 EzlrJ'flol HF *all E!# *
of E + Hzl ullEol4. rq+ +rl]e+ ¤.4ol rillLi ull: g4.rJ E.l *"19 ¤C
"_4^ll.J
q+= AC+: rll iealzll g+. qlE EE -r.x1 gcl olg a6Jol 4E olg4
¤E] ol99 d.a 9l+a dlE ,. (8.2i1), rill: ^Eql^l
olg4E EzI ^rolE .J49 4lzlgl 9
4 5ql +6il9+. rEl+ gs+ 7l-+ilq= t 5zl g]:EtrI. glr|.IE olg!+ 7l+fl
E4 ql4"l ,ll* oJo}zl ^Eg
ullgolQ.
^Iole{
t 0 o o o 0 o t
o ^\o
{o'
a + o
o
o
lo
0o o o 0 t a
Arg l3.l + 7lx1l7l Eg Esr.E(E"4)= e86t: rlg4 alE
=-ctElGl
568
13.1 E6ll rlE 569
^ll
++E EzlzJ ^Js 4¤+ +-S4 zJol *9 ¤Cql +q++.
r. ¤¤ oJztS ,Jq +e-+g tlE zl¤¤ *+Ellot"J +4 E4¤ol -00 El] +e-tr EtlgtrI.
z. Sqi oJ4¤ rJel +ql-+r[ z]¤¤ ++6llo]"J +,Hql^i ¤-d oJxLEol z]zltr +
^JE
,Jg EI=tr}.
:. rl]e}¤-d .Jzt ,JE +rll-+e ^JE zl*ol ts^J.t ql= Ezl¤ol
9." g6Jg rllol4.
^lE
+ EAol += Eeql +"1]g + 9l= cE= ol5 ^ll ++E EzlzJ ^JE zl+g t}44 z
zlql fl=.J+. 89ol BCE Eil= +,]]-+A
^JE li+E azlzl +e-+e ^Jg
zl+ q
+rH-+ql ^JE zl+el aTlel Eli6I4+ rl trllolr+. ql= Eq ,fl4loJ(heptane, c7H16)
=
4 {l4l"J(pentane, C5H12)g ^l.+ $d6l +6l]q}+. ol EE= 9l"ll .Jele BElltg +rH,
SlEll.Jg 84ol4l 6Iz[. + Eag EF ++Colr, +,ll-+e ^]E zt+E rTlE +
e-+4 "t +,l]-+,ll ^Js zl+(Etlqql E.J "Jq)E aTle+ Hl*6t+. trI4^l g6Jg,J
6116l+ Eol $.r, ^lE a6}(qlEeEl e7uol il"l zlg4gs +Eg Bc'JtrI.
^iolel=
Eql i+g +ol= iol *9 ¤Cel gqlolEl. rill NaClg Eq + +=+. olf+ r
+c E Ezle} olg ^tolel +rH-+e oJqol, Nacl(s) 49 olgE ^Iolel +a-+a .Jq
4 E EzI ^Iolel +rll-+rll ^Jp +¤¤ ++e. "J* =zl trllEol+. ral 13.3i.lH Naclg
Eq -+sE E B4-= Nact 4C EEql El]g'*+. oltrll E.lHzlE "Jd6l:=3 cl- 4g
aJ.=op., gd6} ¤3 Na* f$ aSop El]g*+. olfi ol&-{fz} .Jqg lille+rl EH
9 olgg qqg "J*, El^l "Jql +e-+4 ^Jg 4¤¤ ++e "J+ rEl. n4l7} +qlq
EIE ¤.rll-+,]t z++E ?+qqo}"J E +zl olgql 'oJ"*g' +rJol B¤g+.
^JE ^Iolq
_r.illql^J "J+ Eilg Nan4 cl- olgg E EzlE Eel.rAlql+.
"lelt +er+ +rll E
z[
^io]g ^JE
z]+g EEllt[(solvation)41 6]r, Eol +rlg ol ,!.a z]¤¤ ++
oll
(hydration)4L t4.
018-g+xl.gE 4r'E0ll^1, Eoil 9l= g^t 6 ol! aol Na*_e. efdltsTt? r 01fr=?
E{! 8=xru+xl +a
=a
0lH+rt
v\ &
flEllfl trJElloJ
++0l^llE
(c3H6o)
-==E
(cHCl3)
.
OilEJS
(c2HsoH)
, *
E
(Hzo)
;..
fi..il
\_
(czHro) (CsHrz)
f.' aa
i I ?,
a oti
?
.+I a! 5 rjOr
I
?,
t
t
*+ ta
? ic5 ,
C
a
D.t
,F
E+oll ?1= NaCl 3E
i Eq 1= +ElE 018
=q
gr a 9, a a?',
]+." r:r"ii
i{*l
AfH 13.3
=oll^lel
0l3d -7i11 NaCl9 Eot|
fetE Cl- ot3 +EiE Na+ ol3
J:.i," a.+^,
O b oo 9 t '
s".l E^Je.lqlLlzlE
+611 4dg "JHlzleE tlgulE E+= +EI*+. ql= Eq Naclol Eql +6l]9 rll -t 4
Cg ErJE E¤ 4a(ms"+:3.e k|/mol)ole. uess Hzlg ^l-&618, +e-+4, +q]-
+,l], *a-+4 ^Js lt*ol q¤Zl +.-qg $B4 Hs+q g6.13 +=zlE $ f !lr| e..
(s.o¤).
+61lr+Ce elBul EEI9I $flol gI= zlzl Ad a += 7l7l= 1eE rJ+Y]q.
^ll
zrzH9 84 "JzlE ol+qd B94zI ts491(aa+a), m2114 +ql "JzlE ol+qd Bq
=
4zt E4Elq(la**;, ol5 844 +ril "Jxlzi ¤6JEE(AHg ) 7}zloltrI. ^ll
t.(8d),.- nzH 8d AH+a
z. ($ol]).;- mzll $ull AH+,fl
3. nzH8E + rrz\ SEH : ¤-o-q AHe*
a. (*d), + (*rll). .- 8'-4 AH+e : AH+e + AHg,1 + AHg+
dAl qlBq EcI%+(AHs"r)3 ol5 ^Jl
6}el 6Jol+.
¤-d .Jzl¤9 B4= *d B4-5 ^iolg "Jq tlE 4¤¤ #71 +16ll .Jt qlHzl9 F.J
ol {ea}r}. q+^.1 ol r+cg EE 4d(Aasa > 0)o14. u}}z}21tr, +eg a¤-a1zl 9l
qI sool] Ez}el +EqlE qlLlzlTl 9-ea1r11ar*q > 0). +e "Jzie+ *ol] "Jzl oJ
^[o]E
q tls 4¤.ql 9a]l rll H4l +c s^= 6Jt s¤(laee < 0)ol+.
^Jzlts
13.1 E6H rlE 571
9xl
o= EEII
E^t,J oJal 7fl8 Extz ?laj zflE
EIll
EIIZ ?]AI -coee
tceiD d^***o" ?xl
o o,Le e'l1d OE ,0tl
-Q.OH
H*'t
I[*r=
gE
rl8 E6tl Ea4 -e:[ iL^]
fH 13.4q1^J -H-=ol, fl= ^Jl 'l] qlgq a}g E}6l.H, llEl6l+ alql ql+
^loJel
13.1q1
¤zll izl-91 trl+ + E= {tee +E}+tr}. q+^l +E Bce ts¤"144 g¤ \
.J + 914. qlE +4I "Irql+(tvtgsoJg Eql 7Ig q, +6ll rlde ggoltt
rf
=q
(AH+e : -e1.2 kllmol). ole+ 4a4 otr, e& oJE-ENH4NoJel +6ll= g-9ol
Q(Aa+, :26.4 kJlmol). gEsE 'J6J ^Jrl TlEql 4+ oJ^HE gEol
^l-S5l=
+ g+qg +s +^d Eae 561 olEldJ E50l ^l=$g+(:I.J 13.5). o15 EEg E
+"lqe+ Ee+q 44 Beg l1^ll^Jel g(gEe MgSoa(s), g+Eg NHaNo3(s))
m
sE +Cqq 9l+. qg heH Er+ 44 +eE EzlzIAqri^l gol Er+ 4i"l +
"lol 984 gEE ¤.r_lrt+ '}]fl+. ol= +%l xllag MgSoa i 8.lol rl*6ljr.,
NH4NO3 i$'lol ii+tf= 49 9"laJ4.
+"l] 4d9 t1E4 Eslzt 4l*d* Ctsql 94q, r HI*ol qL B-dJe-E qL
,.
cE .Jq+=zl= g + 9l+ ...,.--. (s.4¤). gg r+49 z|$zleE tl4q+ a6}ol fE 13.5 EJtt EfrLlE ?.1^EJE EEI
9lt}. HlHql AH+eol LJ+ gts 4C.l4E, +ee t SaHHzl ?*.g Xol4. ol
=
c+ ?ol +Eg ¤d6l7l 916ll^l= +,ll-+e tls zI+(AHs*)ol la*=4 AHsaE 6Jt
Zlr+ HliE Atr+ +E6l 7loI"J 6J+. q 4"tz} "l
^Idg, "l+C +e"l ++C +"Hql
+^l ?+= ol+= ¤E.J+. ++c ¤-,ll EzIq olge.l qlqe ,ll+ zltrl. Irl4^j ol ^Js zI
¤* olgg Eqql gs6J ql'JzlE -H_tr-6}7lql ql+ ++6l.rl.
El+6J ol+E, Erl 'Je +c E^{ +4e gEl"J(ceHrJ ag ++c +,lql +6llElzl
?+=+. E SzI=
^JE
a+ +i AElg flQ r=r: (r I 2E). +el.J +qlql E tszl-E E&
olel+ .Jqg ++6llot"J 6Jr+. H2o +zlzqE Eelq-= rll pe+ 9lHxlzl
^l7lelH,
HzOeI C3H,, $z| rlol9 .JqBq rll$olQ.
=.zl
o-r El^l;r!
lLoH 6l-il
oo-r -r - Hls
uo
+Eg EE6I= r] *q^J= +"1 BCg Er_14 44r+ +.lg ¤C6t: e+q} Hi¤¤
Hrll ++6lloF"J.Jtt. ql=
^4..
qe ++e +g-r+ ee HI*ql el6l] e+I +'-4ql +"llg+.
=H
Ni(s) + ZHCt(aq) -+ NiClz(aq) + Hz@) Ir3.2l
ol qlql^J, a44e +ee Ni f,$o1 olq4 Ni ++9 EoJ Nicrrol+. r +._49 +g
zf,zx1tlE, Ni(s)z| olu Nicl2.6 Hzo(s)z} q+gEle=J 13.6). Nic12.6 H20(s)e| zJol,
44 4zl.Iql "JC +9 E B{-= ,*: sl6J$g fE|g(hydrate)olep .Jelri 9l+. 4e
4sE Nacl(s)g Eql +6ll^lAg qlq= 9rlal e+q} Hlg"E .Jol4zl ?+=+. :a +Eg
1* 42,<1zlB Nactol q+g+. ol tl d^ll= F6ll +4E +de +Ese+El trd}zl
?*= BEfle.] +ag 3rl+g + 9l= +"-Iq ++ Aolq.
+ +
I
+ TH
ffi +
rloli-
i'
I
I
t ry Et
rlEE+ Eq4ql Tlsl 0l^1lE{t Eo-{oll^l aPJel 0 l-^11 Eat E.-4ol EJ
gel 4.x=Jg "51q, ar+s 7I4{l +ee +sq LI"il Brll ¤+.
ql= 5E 0"cql^J Eql ql'J Nact9 +6l]E= E roo mr* zs.t sol+. olaS r gEql
oJA6J EB trl] Eql +¤ + gl: al4 uacrel oJol+.
^J ^JEIE +Eg "JE
EeI +.-49 "JE= ql gs6J +eE oJE+ zlg "JE +eg ¤-6H^l7lE, r 89*
=s
il(unsaturated) $olo1r1. ole+ aol 0"c E 100 mlgl NaCl 10.0 g9 E6JalE +Eg q
"*e +eg +ul^la + 9l= *xllqol ?lzl ullEgl BE9I ¤-o+olr+r.6J+.
4A.J aaql^l ssi +".49 +E= rll $,s-qt +4E oJ.trr+ rJ Bg "Je.l +eg s.J6t
E +"-49 "JE + 9lq. rq+ +Eg ltEEl(supersaturated) +s4ol4l1 d+. qlE EE
+g gEql^J o[.rilE& dEg Es] *"lg "J= tr]g, ^J^l6l gEE *+H, ss.z1 Llq
Aql qr+ +6llE7l- Aa+qlE B*6tj1, s-E +Aol +6l]¤ tl4E BZI ¤+. r+sp+ +
.-4ql fl= +de Be +EE+ +g *.tr e 4ss+ +sqe E.JA6I4. rEl+
=4l6ls-e.
ts"t gl= ¤.4 Ezl-5"1 eas}dl.qE aa ^Jcql g*21 4B6l El]gElqo} oJ+. 4Ie +
4 4.4(44x])g .-;eH, 4* +Ael AA9IE +l.J Hgq,g zll+6t7ll qq eaol "J=
"lzll, 4*q Lill ${ol e}41 ¤zHal+ sE} 8.lol E4(:e rs.z).
*# dxl*ol 91tr|.
:o:
lt
cH3ccH3
0l^llE
;3
a rH 13.8 dl^lloJ=
r*9 #zl EldJEg +^s+ +i gz}tr ol+qd ++^J g4ql +47171Eq 9l+. qlE
5H E B.2ql ¤49 "J¤9 *zl El.JEg E+ +C'J oH7lE. z*z 94. olq+ EzI5
c9 zt+] #zl E]qIES 9.n9(alcohol)ol+i1 6J+. o-H A!+e +i A6Jg edg +
9l+. ql= Eq q+g(cH3cH2oH) +zl^= E e^Ie+E EE "Ji.g44E ^ls +i 4
Elrl Ll:rt. dl^lloJ= =r|'
EE+=ar g
v I 4) I rrflEoll ?=oll 9l^l-Lttl: x. 13.2 E4 E^iloJql qitJ oJ=.gel +6|15.*
ot=-9
EI= Eoll t]|-d E6l|.E' CoHuoll tl|El E6llE.
CH3CH2CH2OH (propanol) @ @
*oo: 9?gol +4q1 gd6l 4oJ4(miscible)E ag el"l++. *oil.r t9= -ol oEg/100 g *ull. zo "c.
13.3 I SaHEoll g-Bt= +: oJ^l 575
H H
H
H-- H
H H
H
I
H H
f,/\Jol nuTlfL ol-E
vr t' t' | ilL
+ ollEJg Ext +4 eEr ollEJ= Erte+ E E^t ].tolel -od
lo 3e-dl,tll oJ(Co H r z)P
^tolg +^ ^
I
cH3cH2oH4 Hro9 gBE r]lql^J rAl +szl ?++. rSol gqlg ull tszl +aol E6tlE=
=7t^lZ+.
r4l E6Izl ?+=+. :14oe. C+ol gd.EI rl +Hlq= tEEulE +7lY +a4 ¤C
.il 9,1 9l= E.Jg 6Iq, ql+ge E4 Ed6l e*g + 9l+. H zoH
s t:.zollrl='Jigg +^d6I= Ea gz1s1 fzt E9l 4* "Jag9 +6llEql g6J
H
Hlol4"Jg .Jil$
q4 += ++q^l gq1r9l ¤6;19 += olHzl= rEol TIzl= 7ae gga3 + gl+. rB 13.119
+E_+E+q4 +^=71^\t 9tq. ql=5H HlolEiql ce+B Ezt. Htol+EJ A(qlqts.)= ql+ a +a 7l4l .Jig
- ^l+g
olLl. oH7l7I EzI9 oI+ zlg ++g ilxl6}!_E s. 13.2
Eq += HlE, Htol4"J A. D, E, K= ++d +,lc+ zl
= q dE fl= a
%r-=4(++c)q +=4. Hlol4"J Be+ c= +¤-^dolq^l E- ^1¤. "J?gr+
+^t6I+. trI+^.1 olfl HtolEI
"J3 rl9 ++Col4. ElHql Elol4ql c EzlE trl zIeB^l
ql A xltlqzl ?*zl ullE9l, ol= Hlol4EJg f,.+61+ ¤.4E
g,H"J d,+lsllo} El+. HlBql zl¤rd Htol4"J3 e45ql u1 +zH9 oHzlE Tfzlr 9lq^] En+ +^ A*g ¤Cg + 9l
ol4"J AB 4te_a E_.r +ofg
^Ie.qlzllr
u1o14 +. olEl* 3q1,q -H.H Hl-ol4"J cE olg AE
=+ol zltlqn 9lq. =+i^e+
"J AE+ql d4zl t*zll 617l fl6ll +Etl "Jol
,JL+.
eI qE Hlol4qlg +¤-Colr, ol{ u1o14u3g ++d"l +H g+ ¤.41: 13.7, 13.48
576 135t E.-4e-l¤E
Erl 8E 4rE6lE
E^te.l t|1+Ee +=8
t 17HE +d7l E4 8a 4f86lts
47fi9
=tr71
H-
H
o
H
HHH H
I
H
H- -H
H2
HtolEtu A utolEIoJ C
qFjl 13.1
-e-oqlE 7c6J ql+
^19.
=o
HHHHH
ttrtr
HHHHH
rlttt HHH
H
(a) H-C-C-C-C-C-H
lllrr (d) H-C- C_C-C_
I ttt
HHHHH
H HHH
I ttt
HHHH
(b)
H
tttt
H-c- C-C-C-C -oH
I
H
I ttrt
HHHH
EaJ Erl
l^lle+ olillg +6l]E= "Jqql 9dl bql 9rll g6.r'9 Ezl *b4. HlBql qH +,Xq .ll
t zl4l9 +4E= +,I +i.il 9E zl4l9 Y E .JHol 6zlgi* 67I*q. g-qol TlxllE
+4Eq1 "lzl= ¤5Jg ol4}p+ *r
zlzlzl Tlilll}4 +E^J9E +E¤ 49 eq ?E :
"l6ll6J + 9l+. ¤¤q
aJ 13.12.+ EB6IH, zlxll tszl¤.ol +._4ql E9zlE +Ee+ +qql
^J
g=+ *4 Exlz| zlzlr.re-E E"lzti _Ezl Eg6I+. rH r:.r29 94 *zl9l t
6ts E^lg slsEE 7H+: olel6J tr-HlEl= 4as Ll+BrI.
olxll rfl r:.r29 +rJql 9l=+7lql^l Eol= ai]H, q^Eq 7t6[q +E
99 zlllE "J+t+a ^J46lzI. Pvlz}849 eEIeE A46rH =.Jqg ,l!l *qe tr] Atg
+ EllE 6ztoJ4. ol46J .J4 6z}g Arls^1, Tlxll ¤.zl¤-ol Eill -tr84 +qzli1 +sq
^Jss EqTl= +E7l +7}'*tr|. tr14^J +slql^l zlill $dlsi +^l ¤¤ql E$rf
ullzi
zf f;zloJr]. + TlAl E{¤ol +elq E9zlE +EeI8d Exl-pol +"lee+El uu}4Ll
s= +E7l zJold ullzlzl zlillel +6llE= +716J+. ole+ gol qH E4 +qlql rll6J 7l
m Es4 +l0ll 915 zlrll9 +.8 gqol F utiTi ElE, EBol+flEl+ E"-4011 91ts 7lx1l5-8ts olgzl S6lE7l?
*l
'oo
go
$)e
@e t
a + TelE + o
o o
e
I
i
"tirn".
i,
i
I
o'
;l
o o
o
o oo o o o
o
otannl
Bivt
4rLEl
o/tE.
E{Anl -Hel.El
tl PJg ol.Lr6t EJ47l E6llE
q* =:,*l '
ArB 13.14 Tlillt6t|E= gqolA^--Joll qal A^-dtt EJLt=Esl+Z0l ga;= q tEoll^] Co2)18
0l g8-sttl-. 0l= ts4 9loll ?ts CO2 7l^lle.l +E oJalol zJ4dlfi7l tt[IEOltt oHekra/shutterstock
ql4l 13.2
Henrv H*l 4ltt
2s'Coll,\l s{fll +l0ll fl= 4.0 atm9 COe +E gr'aioe it|g EaJ E-e. 4"1 CO2el tsE= Zl,|!6l'119. 0l 8E0ll1l Eoll r}l-.J COz
¤-5. trlf
ral +4U ailH, {++el 14 +eE Eql q* *6XE= +"le_l gszt t+61
13.1sql
E ?ztt4. :7El+ ol +zlqE 49zI 9lr[. cez(soJr9 4*, gEz[ +7]g++ +6llE
+col o[{seE Tlgqd+.
riil gar+* 94, Eq 4* zl4lg +qE= gE ,*+ql lrl?+ a^++(:e 13.10). fr
El& +ql E zlzt* fx¤ol trl-F6l]zlE, +?]rl Lil+ql^J +71 %r-¤-g B + 9l+. olag
+6Hg $utzJ9 +7)71+"1 u}ee unflu]ezl rllEol4.
uffilziz]E, tt]*ez] q*4^lE co,9 +6llE7[ AA4q co2ts)zl +Eql^]
"lar+
uu|!+srll gtrl.
CH,
100
90 i -1 -i f 2.0
G
80
ot
80
ru
o{
zo
-a
olI CO
ffi60 -E
-ED 50 ,fi4 1.0
\-
O
i40
oN
t30
u
I He
10
0 10 20 30 40 50
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 8E('c)
8E('c) A:.9 13.16 E0ll tH-.J Lll Tlrl 7l^llolEEoll tttE EdlE 7l^ll8
a.LB 13.15 Eoll tll-d E Tlxl olE eEr'El':ErEsl.gEoll tttE E 0ll^l 8^ll "JaJE t atmo+ 98611l+^l-d e+, E6|lE9 .J91ts
a[ls mmol/10lrf.
4s9+.
d"]l *+Pts 7l-E!4 r=ol E+6}= +71 + e4= e
Eetr 4rll++. r olf+ gEol eiE+ ^J$zll$ +xll
(biological fluid)91 46J ¤:6llE7l gd *71 ql5
"ll5.l+.
5E roo ftql^l +96I= A++= sI a atm9 "Jqg La+.
ol oj{o}oll,r.l es%g g$r+ s%E 4}A gq}Eg oj 0.2 atm
9 .t}^ ++ "Jqg 444ErJl, ol &aE *E .J43 e+
AfH 13.17 Tlillel E6t|E= gaiol qal oJ=
*zl t atm9lll +E+,ll= +E *q4 rJ+. 4Ii9 ++'Jq
Tliil= =71'Et0ll =7|--dt|..
AI++= EA 7l^]le.lE6t|E0ll +E= T|SqoFzrtl: ol LJ+ solzlE Egol |olzl:1, corzl E Hls_e up3.q
^fE6[=
O illstudio/Shutterstock
xl *6[z1 9o+ co, +-qol H]^86J4. cozE Eql 4"]ol
+ nE^Bn, ilH4'J + 9l+. ei= TI\I $ol fu]]ap
=46I=
A+, 4la 5^ qBg ql^l 4la dE "l ta
dg
71,]]olq, Egg Fql^l"J g
^llilql^l 4l4g + ?lzj
u]iE9l, %I6llt}+.
lrzl zlzt = E^ll7l-E + 9l+. HIE +i= EArll^Iq^l +H ¤+ E4l: 13.s9, 13.60, t3.lo7
+¤ Eeol+ B"J Eeg 4l'il 6l+ +E= ppm E= ppb-+, s.^l*+. ql= trl+E
g¤+ + Hl^el zlrll :.1+ =E
EoEE 0.010 ppm, 4 5 r Lql 0.010 mg9 ulAE sEJ6l= *
olEl. ol EoEE r0 ppb9) 6llB.J+.
A Soz 4--o43 Eo4 rqqg 0.00023 9er sozE -81961r ?tc[. sozg EEE ppm Egr
e ppb gol.oJTt?
I conrzl? E?IEE
qF{l 13.3
tr7 eeJsl *eJE bEel 4lt
(a)0.100 kSelE0ll=+i.^(C6H1206) 13.5 gE E;l]/.1;1 E"-qE.J=flt|. 0lE"-qql^]8tr9 EaJ EEge gDloJTl?
(b)^16l-+ gollZn2*tl5.4 pg Eol ?irf. znz+o1 5EE ppm Efle g0P]71.?
^\e2.5
TtlU 1 x 10 6gol=tr 5.4 ttg:5.4 x 10-6gol+
(a) E4 +4e.] r++(13.s c)e} +,l]E r++(0.100 Ilel 13.69 ols"6t¤ ppm$ 4ltI6JtrI.
ks: ols+q ^l
too d7l +q,.it-, +aE e=t E+¤-3 4l4I o=- ol 7,!"j
_O-zl
ed
ollo} tJ4. ppm : x 106
+"-4E e=J
atq
^l
13.sE ole"6}q e* E+sg ahI6J+. +a49 e 5.4 x 10-6g
x 106 : 2.2ppm
*e +A(=+i^)q {eln+ +q]($E a=Jg g.+ aolq. 2.s I
E0l > .H.6 fflxll1
3* uIES(,t ): =+a^el
e* x 100
E so.o gql Nacl r.so g9 s,fl'6}r. 915 gololl,r'l Nacl
=+?4E o-- ol zlF-l
_8_o}l
=o e* EEgg 4lr}6l^1s..
13.5I (a)0.029to/o (b) 0.03007o (c) 0.0s13% (d)2.9t%o (e) 3.00%o
x 100 : 11.9olo
(13.5 + 100)g
> EEi o4lrll2
atr ol +Eq^l EE e=d. EEgg (roo_rr.s)yo:88.17o
tl$+ sE +qe A"*ss 6}olsgi4} i¤{Naocl)
olEI. g.e-*+.
3.62voz g'Eq +"1 2.s0 kgol Eq fl= B +E
0) eq ol a+, !-aq Elol=-E:flfz| +qA+. I pgg Naocl9 d*9 9"ttz[?
ql^l +E 4"1a, +.lE +qE r +qql E+g +e9 "Jr+ ¤+^la ql f-so6l-+.
=g6l
+"lE EiHE-E(molality)E metr- .E^l6l-=ql, +eq S+ql 714q} t.s t9l"l4. E
g tE= ¤-Ell I ksql fl= +49 5+ol+.
=q
gB+E:ffi
+aE 5+ [r3.e]
4+^l 0.200 mo19 NaoH(8.00 g)e[ o.soo kg(soo s)e] E-g 4q +Eg +EH, r +a49
NaoH Eo EE (o.zoo mol)/(o.soo t<g) :0.400 m(a o.qooI=g r-" E)oltt.
SbEe+ 5g bE= 49zl Hli61]^J d4l gEo 6J + 9l+.
.E]-"E= +EE +qql E=6Ir,
. ]e-e+ ]-o E!, +rllE d=6}ql g=ql+
Eol +4"J ql, #g +._4E EB boEe| +r-"E= ixl4 o-e 44 rJLl.9l4alE r r<g9
+,H: r kg9 8.-44 44 rJjL, t ksg +o-!g 49 r 19 Rulolzl ollEol4.
gEql rI4 4=Jol H6I7l glsEE, +sqE EB EoEE gEq ¤.Fg Ezl ?*L4. :
44 9s H+ql q4 +._I9 *.\z| ffiqz]+ 'drL6IEE, gbE= gEql q4 H.J+.
trl+^J +alg qtr gs H+l oltlql^J trll, dq6}= EoE9 ++l= Eg t.
^l-so6}j1zl-5J
E ol+.
mflFf
rtE 4q ge?*g ol+ql^l gS mol-tr u1
=+n.^(cutt,roJ9
s*l Eg EoEE 41416l-= E8loltrl. flzl ${(lfa:.)el ¤+ 9l+. Eel "JE=^l^so6I¤ mLEkgo_tr Ei¤+ 9l+.
*=ie} +,ll(E)g kgiE g.I"t 6J+. gg r-"E= +e(=+a^)9 5+E +,ll(9E kgfE 4b
4o14.
3Fi]9 54+(180.2 glmot)2 ^l-86l-
',rj
Molc6H12o6 : (4.3s*.u*,ro.,(#r***r9@*) : o.orn, molc6H12o6
qr++= g+tr ++4I++.
EE 'JE= 1.00 g/mlolEe +rl9 A=Jg (2s.0mt)(1.0oslmr-): 2s.0s : 0.02s0kg
5E tf+lslsJt
zl¤9 El=+tr, q1zll r:.sollrl trq AilH E"E ++lE tls
xjlrzlollrl ul]g zl-fl dl4
=
H++g + 9l+. gg tsEe+ +bEE t}E H+le ql4l 13.6q1^J4 aol, +.lel "JE= g
-stro|41 g aolq.
qEl
F 13.s
gEtr+ Eg 5lie.l aru
g^t +E-44 trBfo.E 36vool HCIE E-El-dtl. 0l E-4011^1 (a) Hclol EEE= Zl^trl,'.lg.. (b)Es4oll^ Hclol E=J 5-E(mE Zlt
6l,\19.
,l *dg E"E9 *?lE *d(ucr)el bE= ahl6l+ E4 (: r0o g - 36 d9 EE-6Ii 9l+. g+go1+ 59 *E= Zl
oltrt. 116l-71 916l] +d(Hct)9 rH+¤ g4g ulfolot 6IEi. gE
xE! +e4 8,119 d*.1+ E+q +Eq t+l(e $-g 41416}11 96H^j= o-"ul](H2o)9 :H+= 5+e +,il6ll
=Ad-qql olap, SgbE= 4l4l6Pl +lql^l=kgfE H++al]o}dJ+.
'$ E+9, E+9, Eg tE)E H+6i= 9lq^l +"-49
*01 HCIE E+ : 1ru *r"1 (... : o.ee mor HCr
(a) HCr9 E+¤_g +6171 9lsl]^l HClr+ HroE e* *r.rlrnl!9l)
6fls
s*l +q4l *49 ae}(s.o g), *,}]9 4*Q2s g), *99 "J 4(rl t:.s). *d(c,HJq 5+= +eE gfel54=*.qeP
e.(o.szo *.lel E]-"E(M)= +61+ EElol+.
e/mr)e+q q 4l+9tr1. +.-|el +{= Saqel e=*(+¤9 4*+8,I
4g +.lE EE"EE *eel E+= +.iE L+e +b aol E erJ:5.0 g + 22s g: z3o g)r} r trJE_tr+E] +8i4.
584 138 80-4et dE
'*! (r !
.]ilzl
oE-etLol F -,- L czHsg E+: rr.og.,r,r(#H#) : o.os+,nor
,Jtr BE a7l7l4*6lr+. 0.05 mol4 0.2s Lg a+, gb olg¤4E z)ft67 mggEElt4. EHol=^lBql *:A
EE (o.os mol)/(o.zs L):o.z Mol+. +9 E.]="E= gtrIoJTI?
99 tr91(motlL)71*i1, +eq e+E $a fz1z1 + zi4 (a)0.017 M (b)0.022 M (c) 0.8e M
olE + gol + +E izI"J o.zt MoltrI. (d) 12.6 M G) as.a M
+si +,ll9 A*@.zzs rg)4 8"-49 Pul(o.z6s L)71 a7l > E=qF{2
ql^] Hl+61s*e, E+.Eel gts +E9 a_7\E Hlt6IEt. Ae er+g ES E*6F= +"lE g
=El^llE(c3H*oJ4
E7l 1.10 g/mlo14. ol +"-qq^l (a) E4^llE9 Ets b
(o.os+ mol CTHB)l@.22s kg *r]]) :0.24 m
> E= qlrlll
E, (b) EEg, (c) E44lE9 Er-" E= 21416I
=4^llEE
Ellol= eJE7l t32s g/mlolr, 100.00 gql ca2+ ^ls.
^lHg
13.s | ¤EJ^J
+Eg q¤ 844 Ca=e ++6J +,l]e},l]+ r}q4. ql= EE ++6J Eg o'cql^J q
ElBql, ++"le rB+ *9 3rq^.1 e+. +"-49 q=dg *+zl +l"lq qlB{]
= ull, olel* ¤rJol olSE
=
4olg +F"_lg zl-F7}g
B¤zl"ll ?zlal*.g 9l+. dzlg +
+4e +s49 g=dg ++6J Eel #=EE4 koJge.rl tg gEql^J elAe.l 4#
7l-:i6}4l 6J4.
q=dol *-olzl_r, #=dol Eotzl= ag .J(+E)q Hlell6l.r ¤:¤ "JzI9 ++elE +
++ +.-q E Eq 4 d 4 ol 4. ol +l 6J C Ag EE¤(colligative property) ol r+jt'JtrI(#g
ddJql E=+trI-= elulolr., 5$Ce $.d 9z}.f9 da"t4 E4ql e-l=6Jr+= 9,lol4).
q=A 4Hr+ #=e sE ole]ql 6zl "J4 rllflr+ il+"JE +9Col4. +eE }ETI
Ceql C=*zlee qBrll ¤6&9 ulzlixl H{ flz1t3r1.
oJE LHaJ
+71
EtJ 8zl oJq "lill= :aAE +7le+ ¤Bg $zlfl4 ,.,r,.- (u.se). f;zl oJ{(vapor
pressure)ol* Szlzl E^lle+ B¤ql 9lg trIG ?g +Ee+ ¤+ +E7t eg ql) ?zl91 9
611^J trlil=
"J4ol4. +rl Sqg +Cg + S= Eeg ulgl${(nonvolatile)ol=p a}
a. +71*qg +EI.ll: EAg flBd(volati1.)ole|-:r 6J4.
qgc "-4^Jl +,l]e+ Hlflgc +eE +cE +"-4e r59 s!+g +EI6l+ $leeulE 5'
7I ull5q 4.$!q+ ,¤cgtrl. d4lE ¤:,l] tszlE olBl6-J 4aql E6ll +"-4 .J4
^JEIq^l
slslr, r_tr oJ6ll +71 ^J4e 7l4a 6I= a6&ol *olzlzll g+. r4sE Hlflg¤ +a
ol ,il, +rilsl 6zl "J49 ++6J +4E ?zl .JHe4 *olzl4 g+(feJ 13.18).
=4g
Hlfltsc +ag EEI6I= +E 9lql il= +lgc +,H9 +71 .Jqg +"-! + *ul]9 ts
ql Hlell6+. olfl+ +Al= Raoult HE|(Raoult,slaw)91 E"ll A*4s-e s¤gtrL +"_q +l
ql 9l= 8,l] ?zl.ll el+ ++'JE(p+e)* +E + +,l]el EET(x+q)ql +++ +,HE
+71 sq(p3.q)g +-t aal rJLla ol H4g ¤E.Jtrl.
13.5 l=gd 585
p f oc
Hl6lH lll
-Qxl i]7l
C t_
L (-
")
t- + t4
+eg fizla]eE;{ "Jq+= +71 .Jq qlfle 84ol Ez}.=, olgolE +41fl
El+lgC
ol +e.Jzl9 d^ll r-"Eql q=.J+. +71 sq rllH3=.gtolr., qB+E"il Eil++gc
I zte +esl ¤:++ +eE aiildq e_l=6l.= 4ol otul4, +e .JzIg +Eq E='J+.
1 ks9 Eoil NaCt 1 motE ts7|.61-E 1 ks9 Eoil C6H12O6 1 motE ts7l6lts ri-=.c1.5e1
A
I ?l
I
oJ+o1 L*0lxlE Esz1c1 4?7l,,J?)l,0lLlE 11=.71?
qFil 13.7
gojsl 671 oJe{ 4h!
25'C0ll^1 trJE7[1.26 g/mloJ Hlflgd HlE6llE0ltf. 25'C0ll,\1E 500.0 mloll Eel,illal s0.0 mLE zlalG
=al^llaJ(QHBO3)e
oJ= Eo4ol
"Jal= ZltJol'llg(E. 25'Coll,\1 ++-d Eg 571 "Jqg 23.8 torr($$ B)01r, ++-d Eq "JEE 1.00 g/mlolrf).
=71
: molHrO : 27.8
:
xn,o o'976
-.1 Hp I ,,,"1 crHro, ,?.8 + ofifil
+tg{
+Ee qqlE +lgC CEg F zll olt zlzla gl4. ql= EeE +rl "J43 16*:75 1611o1:il., PE+s -22 torrol4.
B zl¤flg olel zlzl +lg^.j E81e-l .s.-!"14. "lel+ g6J
= q4^l +eqel ++ "Jqe +g+ aq.
E¤. 016]]6}7l +16}]^l + +lg{ qzllg olt} +._q Ae+ BE ^J laal = (0.::)(75 torr) =25 torr
zJrN uxf({zl^l qts {ol ${oll qts aol *'ll.Jzl t P=e.qr:(0.67)(zz torr): l5 torr
+6lzl trJzt). +q flql flE zl8l9 ++ "Jqg Raoult Bzl sq^] +lg d;] 6zl "J43
ql 9611 494 zJol +q4l+.
: PUA + Pg+Sl : 25 torr + l5 torr : 40 torr
Paa
Pe: XeP"e, Pn : XsPi
zI ¤+. ¤ rl +ltsCol 9lE Hldol ",*g++ +7]|71tr) E+
+.lq dill ?71 .Jqg Els.r+ A+. 614: ag;qale{.
Pdll:Pe+Ps:X^PX+XEPB
3zl 4 Hldel SEge az]l sqql 46J HI{IE *zl oJ
mol9 {tl(cuHJ4 2.0 mot9 E+91(c?HJq gE}5
1.0 49 ulge+qd4(^l lo.14, 10.1s).
g
^J4ql Ez[(xsd:0.33, X¤+r = 0.67). 20'Cql^l ++E] : ?qlgs :
+71 |u +a
+EX*zr: P.rat 40 torr 0'63
t
* zl4 +lgC ^JEg golala 9l= oltr- .-q^ll +aqol +
7l tI4E ¤Bg ol+r fle 4, 4 fltsCol ?l= CEq +
'I I 't
rt. r,'
otr trJ E*4 B Xol4. ole+ Ag
^Ide flgC
,il 7l7I
tl' ^Jql4
¤¤¤ EE-6E 9l= g!++g EqoITl(Eb ++fzlos +
!. !r,
46[7]) +]El 7l+oJ z\zzl fl
^FSq= o+ille =o+(distillation)9
E| r,.:,r-- (1.3¤). =o+ts Az.il6l= 6'J zlzl BHola, 4
+EIEI C+^q^l g+E zl+fl, 4d ¤e, Sg+ # +
=" E= ¤edql^lE r
* 461+ r+aE ="+olrf(.f.H 13.19).
Eill
++Et Eilt
EoflE
or
=7lS+
_=71 olal
Tlill
.e.oHol
++-d SEllol
4!EIl flgxl
\-/
Es. ATu
arH 13.20 g=E e=E Eq +E 8Es Z8^q de ++ej A"-4el AEE +dE LlEfLHr, +E^4 dP
Eqq dEE +.NE LlEfLJtl.
588 138 Eo-tst dE
+-?El +qiql q+ +.19 #:d sE+ +e9 gg tEql E=6J+. rEl+ #=d s
# "JzI7[ +z]oJ^], olg.Jzlq +als,ol ¤-d
.Jz]9 d4 r-"Eq tslrll*+= 4* zl4
sllot ++. NaClol Eq *9 4, Nact r molgl EI6lt^J +e otz[ z mol(Na* 1 mol4 Ct-
ol$eE E4¤ trI E4g olgE +E CE
1 mol)ol
^Jdg+. *4ol =B.J +ql +q^l
9E: van't Hoff ll#(van't Hofffactor, i)E -r.EJ6llot 6J+. ++6J Hli6J ,1, +rfie+ *"-4
ql q+ #=dq Hq+ +s-n+ aq.
ATb : Tb(+E)- ru(8,t1) : iKam lr3.rzl
ol ru(¤:.1)3 +EE #Edolr, rr(¤.,11)E ++dJ +,l]q #=dol4, m!
^lql^l
*
eE gg*E, KrE +rll9 Eg *ts¤ cE {lf(molal boiling-point-elevation constant)
(4 +,lq qldl^J {ezleE aaq= Hlql
^}+), van't Hotr it
zlfol4. Hld6ll4E a
$ ; : roll, d6lleE 4+ i abe Eeol +,Hq 9"t4 olgqlqL+ql E+.J+. qlE E
H Eql^-l NaCl9 4*, i:221Yl4. rI4rJ t rn NaCl ++"-4q ql'J #=d ¤=*4 s#
eg Elaqle r m 8q49 #=d sEg + HI]TI gq. rqEtr #=d sE(E= qtr +
E +gC)ql 5^d *dol trlrl= ¤6-&9 Aq6l qltr-6lzl +l6ll^lE 84ol {all{olzl, ul{
aH4.JzlE ot= aol +96l+ .:r, (4. r ¤ + 3 d).
q# LHAJ
> rH ol=E
13.21 LllaJ= Ll"
LTr -9E
13.s l69¤ 589
^lgs+ E4(CCI,)
76.8 s.02 -)) 1 29.8
A Eoil +ot ?r= 0rrr Etror Ee] B=E= 0.51 "c a7r"^raEl.. orae uE^r Etr9 tsE7r-
I
I
r.o',g= e.l'l6lETt? (.u 13.3 d4)
qHl 13.8
*ts8
xl'=^i +Eo4-e. Hl+lgd, Hld6t|trE oll=zJ! E-et-dr|.. Eq EaJo_e 25.0%9 0il=il! I.
:st6l-= qtsEE =al-olgcH2(oH)cH2(oH)= =al-oI=E
Eqg E=Erl /l^i6 l'^le.
: / 250ge.*t1.02\/ I molC2H5,O2\/1000gJ{zO\
: _ ^_ m
5'5/
\ zsoel+P )\6LtsEnl6or/\ , wrro )
al r:.rze} r:.rr¤ #=ar+ q=EE H+= LTa : iKum : (1)(o.s1"C/nl)(s.37 nt) : 2.7 "C
^l=*6}q
4l{}6JtrI. LTr: -iKn: -(1)(1.86"CIwt)(s.37 wt) : -10.0'C
590 138 30-4stdE
+e.l +++ +qlB+ *99 Afzt q gE H9l= Tlzl (d) 0.050 rn CH3COOH (e) 0.20 m CpH22Ol-
q,{"Jg Tqalr{. =
> Id.* ftt8t2
=
> Ha qlr'il 1 0.600rg4, *?BF^ ++ gql
gg EEL6I= gil
qtr ++Eol qbdol 7l**A=7l? =-+E+.(cHCt3)
6J7j =z16l
EA"J +aBE(C10H18O) a2.0
=
(a) 0.0s0 m CaCl2 (b) 0.15 m NaCl (c) 0.10 mHCl +Eg q=dg 4l4}6l^le-.
tf+ E^J
oo
a o a a
a a a a
OITL
9^-l Oa o 1O a t
EOH O1 a a a a a o
"J^[
ao
o
aa a a o
o
O
jl a o e
o a a a 1O
oo a a a a
jO HIEtrI
a a a 1O
aa a o, a o a aa aa
ta a a ara
ao a a a o aa
o aa a
o o a oa oo a a a to t a
aa aa o a ao aa a
a ao aa o
a a
a? I .-i* .-I+
+_La +.
H2oE oJrf olE¤. ++Et EEoll^l: g+ HJ-BFoll
flGl^l
E +Oil^l EE +e-+ H2Ool 6=01 ,Jrf qafll H2ool
o ldLlrt ol[L nlEq olrl
=vIt-t.
LaH13.22 AtF "J8= EEel 5E7l-tJ tse +o.-e EJFqt= E-d -d +Ele-E+E1 tl= +EleBsi Erllsl olE rl8oltl. AFg'= EE
g+0ll fl= "_I^ll9 +0pl Lle)l rl]Eoll EJgolH, .l gF+"1 "I^il tsO )l ?J]l^lE= 6l= Lll ggLf .Jalrl ,Jrl.
AfEHollll "_lsl
13.5 16gd 591
azJ 8.2+ HIFEq +49 ++.lr} ++* E ^lolql "Jq+= AIF ¤tlg trq
el6l]
+a 9l+. uz|+e g+ql E¤ rE6J6lr- 9la, e-=+q ++"-qg se-6l.r. 9lEl. il+ql=
Eg F6ll g+q^l egf og Eg .Jat ol+ol flal g+. qat^J "J+ +._lg +ol: +
szl gEL a+ B¤ql^J cLil 13.224 +rJ"+) 4E sqll +H +olE+El ^Ja sqE
^'lE
,+ol7l q+ 4^J Eel d44 ol#
H+rll g+. AIF ¤tlg H+Zl 617l +16ll s+q=
'Jqg +EE EF?i(osmotic pressure)ol4 6Ir, fltr +4t+. A]F"JI+ eg el+ 'Jq
g +"-4ql z16[8, :LA t3.229 e-E4q] -H-ol= 4aH .J+e.l "+ill +ol= ?JAl C 4oltrt.
,$F"Jg ol,$ zl;ll H44 +^I6.J flv:inRr s^l++. tI= A]F*, v= +'19
zl+, g+, ^les
oltr gsol4. ol
+rl, ,=van't Hoff nz +aE Rg zlzll
^J+, T= ¤4 ^l
g 446|E
n:{tt
r r,/*,
: |MRT [13.14]
Mg +EE EEoEol4. qts +"-qql 'l]+ *F.Jg +"-qE E"Eql el=6t71 ql+ql tFs
I +BCol4.
F.J6J dF"Jg r*= + +a4g HIFEqE E46lE t+ ¤tle "JqLlzl g+g 4o14.
ole+ Ag + +.-49 Eo*C(isotonic) $olol=p 6}l, 6J +Eq dlFg.ol trJ *g. 4*, ol
+s4g A6.J t,E +"-4ql Hl6ll 4td(hypotonic) +.-4ol+i1 Ei+. E6J q Tl6-J L"E *9
g Eg +Eql ula]] l*C(hypertonic) g.4o1ep eI4.
ql=
nlF ¤{}e ^Jil4lql ,fl+ +e+ Egg ++. Eq 4e+Ee ++4dol+. rilE
49(intracellular solution)ql El6ll rAlC.J +a4ql 4¤*z[ +zl]ts ?*, =e t3.23i']H E
g +Igtr olE"6J4. olull r.llEE 93uJl, ol $Cg *¤(crenation)ol4r dJ
^llE =q$|l
*xtg qe?¤ Ea1rli1flb sqr{17|"flatitr +0il^1 r'JElrlE, +g IEh tC 6 ol! rl0l golH ri?l7l'?
T=^{ ild.E= E E^tsl grl 0l- LlElL.lrl
I
-E_q -e^l -!.E
'J3 Etr 5E
\ Ltq
^L
-QIl
o= l-E
or .L.-q
rL o= IEE
-Qxl o!
E8d4loll ?l= 4E+= Bd6lZLl'++6trl g=q. z8o-{ fl3 +0ll ?1^l6J 4El+e] +E #A +q q^l-d 4e+e.l EE
^18"4
afg 13.23 4e+9
^lls.E=
Eft AF Ed Eol 4E+
^lls0l^l
8ul^11f7[E +=0[r, Eol 4E+
^1lE
+o+
=GleE ^]ls:
EJdoln
0l7i0l8E0l EJtf.
592 13* E.IstSE
25.Cqlll Eo_4el EJE ATF"JA 7.7 atmolr[. --J._{z[=eE= 0l+= Es4e] g!l.E7l.?
=+i4(coHrzoo) =E-E=
6fi* * Na*g Cl-q + oJxle o1g516}E-tr, CE ¤lt}.+g
E{ 2s'Cq^l cEE r$F.Jol 7.7 atmE +qe .L B"+4 NaCl bEi 0.16Mol+(O.rss M NaCl *93 oJzls 0.310
E"
tlol¤. ol= EE zl4l6t= +4lol+.
+E9 r-" Mol B+). o.L6M Nacl893 Ar+e_E o.eo/oE +4qln,
= =+?.: ole+ e3 g+E^l "Jq4 ilEI.
4e AlFs4 ZET! f"ld,"Ire al r:.r+E olgo|g L"E +"_4e ^8r_lq4
^l
ql ql"l] + ?l+. ul{flpolzl rllEql ,: rol4. > !a* qEll
= =+i.\= +.gq qE 4*ol*"19 +F"Jg fizl{1zlv_tl?
Sol rt: iMRr
II (7.7 atm)
(a) *4 tEg A^ O) gE 4H (c) *,119 dzl
M: *: : 0.31M (d) gE 9? (e) *el qtr aE dlB s,+
1,y(o orr,ffi)rrrr*t ^IoJ
> ts,*qFtl2
ssi .J^J
+Aql^l +"_49 *-E='ll4 a=* E4Ese s^1rj 20.0.cq1^.1 0.0020 M +=-tr-\.(cr2Hzo,,) *99 +F"J
4. o.:r M Z+a-a +.-491 e* EEgg 5.3o7oolr].. Nacl 3 g"t.Jzl?
Eq ccL +.+el #=d e-={Arb --0.3s7'C), +ar+ +4l ql E6[8, CCla $ul]$ K6--5.02.Clmolr].
13.5 593
=gd
fllEl ll 13.124 LTb:iKbmg+Eq Eg +EE
^l-&6lq
6J + 9l+. ulzlu-|e-tr, +ag EA+e E J r++e+ A+.
+g + 914. +Ae l: rol+. 5g t
Hld6leolTl rllE"ll u}+^l +eE rB+(0.2s0 g)5 zl* E Zl++ E+tr ++
Ee+ +4E e ccl+)g ^l-*6}q *eE E+= 4l& olo} +4.
oJ(40.0
=tJl
ll rE.rzglrJ EstE:#: d#;tu:oo7t7m
tr++^-l +.-49 *rl] tgg *4 o.ozrr motg E*t4. 8d
g +Ell(ccl4) 40.0 g:e.s400 kgg "J=+. tri+^] mol *3
ol E-\L
^l-so619 (0.0400 kg ccrrl(o.ozrr :2.84 x tO-3mol *?
9-oI kgeef4 )
=!-71
OfOO=--]=lL
qFjl 13.11
*FoJge+q Ee%rel4lt
qE EEE= s:d6lE +tEel A+"JE +¤6|.q, E,+trg EtraJE Eoll 3.50 msol EEtr= EG 5.00 mL9
=86fHtr1. =EE]
,\l.e Eo-{= U=fltrt. 0lq 0l Eo-{ol dFg= 25"C0ll^1 '1.54 torrflcl. EH-4E01 HlE6tltr0lalr 7l8dE, 0l EE4Eel Zl
=traJ=
{t6l^le.
e6JE= 442]|4 tlE zI¤¤ 5:4q zl Ee +aE BC6lEzt? +Eeg ulddlde ++6}^le-.
^lE =E6}r]l
+6lE^l +EJi{= olE+. dill +Ee +q}!l= +.-qql^l (a)t (b)2 (c)3 (d)a (e)8
6J +fls z++6J + fl=q1, ole+ ag +-J!l= +EAg
; sf, Slrfl 2
'471+4'qa- ++. tr+lille.l Eeelol 2s,000 g/mol9l rll 2.0s s¤ +E+ "Je.l s+qlql +q +E
e+ +E4eg ga+g+r 7l-c6}z}. f*ol ro.oo mr_oil =E^+olfll
0.100 L¤i "JE*+. olEll +EE +Fglg 2s'Cql^l 1.21
kpaol S.4. E.r-l^4ol HIE ¤.A+g 4l4}6}^le.
0.0er6 atmol4. +"+ql^l H ,l]E +Ea ++l4l71 4^l +
o Na+
o cl-
aals, q4e ddeql ql6l]^l , ilql g6}.9
=tri.
+"-4"J++ , {}g s+Ei^l t?lB olgiql 7la+ Tlqilql
trJ #e
e h
I
I -tE
o+
I flgE
f=e^
NaCl
0.100
l .00
r.87
rz 0.0100
1.00
t.94
rr 0.00100
1.00
1.97
nr 7l.lAl
1.00
2.00
6lLtol olPS
K2SO4 2.32 2.70 2.84 3.00
AfH 13.24 0l887l5zJd NaCl E-4= EaIEJ Na+(aq)el
MgSOa r.21 I .53 t.82 2.00
Cl (aq)HU Ofllaf ol8grE s-ef-sltl.
13.6 Eeo - 595
13.6 lEe.ol=
qq Eee azl9lE +,Hql +E 4 zJzl"J, zl+H ++qI +,11e+El E4zI ¤
^ltol
rl. Eql +&g El^ll6J dE oJzI= 6q qlEql dxils rl 9lzl *6Ij1 a+ Eql 7I4*=
q. +a s= #uI"J g4E +cg dE "Jzl+ qt+89 tszlH4 :E4d q r7l qlEql ol
4* d,.Jol "Jq*+. HiEql ++"-4el BtI oJzKg +Eq flq^l= ol8, ¤ts +.-4ql gl
q^l= tszDts zltrI. ++4 + 714 oJz|.tlo1q1 de4ql ts4.!_4 q il, +q
=+a^e6JEE rdEol SE]g AEE rezl rzl 9+e E& EXITI
I g6}6lq^J ole+
=^l]*+.
Ag +&E +rJ Bql= =-Eo;c Et(colloidaldispersion) E= t+61 ==Eols.(colloid)4
L -J4. geolE= +.-4r+ H.J gqlEq aalcrr-g Eeol+. +Eile gEolE= 7l
i{, .lAI, rilloJ + 9l+. 44e) ql7} E 13.sql gzlqq 9lq.
fz| zzli gElE.g Ee.o1=e1 +.-qse ¤+oft: ql ^h*g + 9lrt. ¤EolE oJzl
9 zlES s-1000 nmvlzl ge.J4. +e "J^l+ zl$ol s nm-H_r| a1-5-1. zllrztf .:.,;t, \tZ.e
¤)ql^l t +]tr Ee=g.lillq +41^l7lE $eolcz| g+. oJzl= +oJ a
=solE gzl zzlzl
ql tszls TCHzls 6Jq. ql= 5E C"-qql +I^= dg6l+ 61lE=trElg
nmoltr, E{eJol 64,s00 g/molo]4.
6.5 x s.5 x 5.0
Hl+ "Jzl-b Ll+ 4ot^J :7EE E4Iol ¤"l4.llrl a"J6|41 _uolzl"J, lEg
=eolE
qg 4}+^la Atre rq. qq^.i q6IZ+ g
'I++9 E_e.o1=- +E6l #6lzl ?*sH
FB6trll tr.Jq(ql= 5q +eE +f+
zlEJq BEIA +47I Eql E&5lq
=trol
il:
gol4). rl$ol :r$$ qg 4}+^l7lzl ullEql fH 13.25i1H qol E^Ig F4g
=-EolE
.Jz[q 9aJ HE &+g EJEETt(Tyndalteffect)41.
41 9 *dol _U_"J4. ¤eo1_. o[E
91, B4 7l-=& ,l?]ql^J zl¤ztEsrl Lts= rJd E= #ol4 +Eg F6|q +e= qH
g g + 9lril *+. E= rl6ls Ag dEE Etqzli ?+=+. 7[^l%]d ]EEHg xl*
q +el Sgq +E ^4tr4 4zl ?9 ts{-E=4 zl9 .Jzl¤"tl E6ll^J q rTll &+ol
^qg
gqt+. ole+ eg ol+s 6l!=9 ++4¤- trlrll gtrl. 6117} A ql, qloJqE+El g qe
trl Bg 4zlE E"rlql+. +=qe trl &*614l qj1, *g4q L+49 F46Iq g + 9l
Zl ¤El.
T il
I
i
il
li
s 7
tl
/l J
,
I
E^lEE ?lel tl+d +d7lel Edl'= E 7l= ql 9l= E tsr1e+ Eq ¤q4 9l= %r-^1e-e. dq 9lr. ElEql rag a+
E^l-= Erl q= +d EoHoll +7ll 6H
=tr| C"J +C7l= E Ezle} tlE 4I+6IE,rl -E.Egl 9lril ¤+. "Ifl a+Czl
: .JHI49E 414+ ei= E6J6II 9111, ++ d6l-= 7l^1a- 9l+(r=J
13.26).
u (1
A
I +d7lE=
olE EEtr=8
GCal
^llEqr'el
xltr'$rtl' $e-?
.l+d
^lE
Hli:Bt6lfl=71?
015=0il gl^l-dr[. 0l= EH-{E .]
a
tt* ^+d =EolE=
qH %IH9E .Jdq+qB E+q E4Ig f il4. :B
zl ?+eH Eql ql+ A+C
=-eolEq
z|$ {a}rz} z}zl ullEql, A+¤
$eo1c' Eql^l E4gtrI. "JAsl^l7l:6J Tlzl *Hg i+C oJzI _sE
a:lH 13.26 rJfd Eeo1. "J^t Tl+d7|ts ql ol¤.g +zl^l7l= 4o1r|(:al B.n). (g{(adsorption)p EEq Eq
zrt| E^P[=+oil^ A],r{1,!o+ +^lE + ?1
E= 6l] raJP r Glolrl.
=rl.
ae E6F=g g^EolEE,,l.ie
E|= 7i, rall Eo-!oe uul^1Lfg
5+e =z1l
rtat: ag g^l6Jtrl.
6(')r:
-QoH
@ (-)
e
o- aL
-v[
s0l3 \_./
13.6 Eeol- 597
018
+ 1
rTd ll OlEl il^lJ olEl
o e! tTd ad
+
e
o+
+0 gg
7lE
o
o+
+
9t= ag elulall, *f(absorption)4E +s4. ++= "'qlzlz| 5¤ ¤+6J rll Eol "J
+etr 5q7I= 4.r+,Je ag x++). ol g+ olgg E4 ^JE z++6lq oJ
dEJ+. E^lql ol*6J Eeol_= "JxI glgl ++g olg ^lolql Hlgqg 5 =EolE= +ql^l "Jzl-=
ol .r']tr. E= ag EoI
=+.
4+^d ¤Eol== EEE tliczl"I E6I^l E.+ "Jcs+¤ + gl't. qlE 4g zl#
BJgg aidol4. q4^l 7lE BJgg E+ql^l =Hql4lql r5
g d$6lq Efl s{ql ,lE"+g BCEI+. 1q1o|_et ^l/.sldoe =416lzl ?+r1
AE(sodium stearate, rH 13.28),
s3 afs$ a+^J "J+(+c E= dq= E)olrl += +e A+^d(++^J) "J+g ,*: q
H Eee, E+ql^J zl$ .r]^¤ldg "JAEE aol+. ole+ Ag qlAsl+ -^qlolat ¤.ol
eE i+^d olgE "J+4 7l+ Elg ,J tla z++ "i a+c "J+r+ E9 ^Jn 4+9 er+
ol+.
¤e.o1= .JCs+= "JrJE ip+4lqlE +i,lglzl 4s.g + gl+. +4E +ql zlB-ol i6L
q EBg .g.sE+ ¤zlle*H B6ol +elll ++. B= ¤E +
trll dE4 p+
z ^qlote4}
q4se Hl*d +4= z*E sl*Eol glt}. ol p|6J-=-g a+¤(+^d) "J+r+ A+^J(+
+c) "JEg ,*=+. ol 3rI6JEg AtL .}l9 ,(lBJg +sl6}j1 ia.Eg E"l] zl+^d tsIolEI
qlglelr.lzll5a1z11 yi=rt. Se|(emulsification)*'+rll ^JC'g *61q. qI ErllTI rl
Ezilql .rl:.sld99 il= ag 9"1'J4. i4zl + ql.l+(s 13.s). +zJl ^Jcg E=
=
Eag f:4xll4]1 c4. rl+olLl-+E d-*.g tEE g]q -H.E, Be slql E*ol #Elzll
olfl s+.ql EE=g A¤4eE a+^d "J+4 i+^J "JBg zl
^l-Sg ag "J + 9lrl.
_E
zlil 9lrl.
Ll- tr ol zlEl-f_ HIE{ z
A+O att f ao
e "-49 +*d +E e.J all-e.3E ql (hemoslobin)S E'-+6tj1 4e+ +ql 9l= -dlE=EHlel 8syo7| +o-4 otr+q AC
^.1
gln, ol=4liE -d+tr+q dillE 4 +Eql dB.Jtrl. * +¤+.
EJ 4e+ HlE6Gickle-cell anemia)E'J441 +dEql 9l g+^dE go;e- olulLtlE +Bq qq^l +a4 Hpl
'J
qC, -dlE=EHl Ezl+ Cd-ol otqn $pal {l}z} $zl 9l zl"J*4. AtL4e -"lE=EHl +zl= -cH2cH2cooH
?+e ¤Ellql 9lq^l Eql ql6l.q *g +6l]E= ,*=+. trI4 zlft zl\:L 91'. olulL&g E'-+6Ii ?l+.
598 133 Es4E d:
L*,
-cH-cH3
CHs
Hl^l/\t
stod Hl^l^l
"too
ole+ ag {0}i {{}ol il= ¤qle.l 6ilE=trHlg *d^l
4 *l4sl{r.lzloil Ll+ "Jzl-=E +dq4l *E}.
ill._qql
s.q}
=
13.29q1^]e} pol ,r]lEz| t EolqE Fl5?.141 6J
=El
+. t E.oJg ^llE= E.^ll¤g EeElil 6}jr, -f.-tr "Jql ga a.fe 13.29 ¤8 4E+e+ ..t Eg 4C+ 8A 4C+=
U-ilE, -"1"+elr+,.JH zl*9 Ad4e oJffi z[{*r}. o1 6x10 3
mm s-Eoltt
^l=01
o4i1 LHqFisl
E_-aolE +E
7l4l Ezl+ EztB.ql *ul4lal-= ¤+ +EE qtr ar+ +=6171 {z}zl .rj$otr +zloJ
+= ag tozlolld HllS.trI. S+ ^I+
tlE(mean free path)i +84 +E
^folql
Ezl-$ol
ol*i* B+ rl4E 9rlaJ4',,.,. (10.8¤). TlillEE EzI4s ol# 7l4l +zl¤ol ts+
4eE +e^l6}al sE6l-b 1ea rla4g.+= 49 tzlat4 ,:,'-' (rQ./!).
+ol] Exls=4el +E An+, +._4 qlg "Jzl+ +e^J6I4l ¤.zlolzll g+.
=EolE 7l.J'* g4.Jg,l]+
E Ezl+ *r]] 92l..il ulull ql* r7l qEoil =Eol
+Eql ++. alzluJ ol
e+ ag +Eol ,ll* *ol "Jq+a, aq4se Eeol= .JzI9 dzll ¤.zl"Je +e^l6}rll
x. 13.6 2s c E+ql^1 l^lt + t6t7t ?18 E.-e.oltr +sl 4ltt! B+ rt+ 7dE
I r.23
10 0.390
100 0.123
1000 0.039
13.6 Eeol- 599
EEJ qHI
.a.al 7ilL{
6 t 'ttE
tr++^J *"-qg "JE *ll g^J6l+ gF+3 q+r+ e+. (0.00397 mol)(-81.3 kJlnol) : -0.323 kJ
sEg6stq
E61l ut¤(13.1tr) +'-qe t
E4ol trtE Ee dillql J"J6lZl e +EE rte bE ++l." H+g + 9lE|
&¤ EI .Jq tlE zl8¤ E0ilEr
^JCgr+. ¤.,11 Exlq +er+el E=J¤(13.5tr) +eE 5dq +4l$ol +q + 3zr gxfel $roll
(solvation)4I .J4. *"llz} E"J trI 1li 4L¤¤ *i(hydration)
E+61+ +.-!E E?]zl Cd9 property)olaln
4a 6JE+. Eql^l olgd Eeg +"ll= +^J E. tszlq E+ EEI =B¤(colligative
.J+. +gCe +71 "Jq ,-IB, q=A t..]lfl, #=E eE. dtF"J
¤ olg9 +p+ql E"ll^J .JqU+. +.-!g "JE trll dill flgq H 9 So;.4;q-. *21 "J4 4H3 Raoult HE|(Raoult's law) o -tr E.rl
+: "J+ s= S+'J +E 914. *'l BCe ¤+E dgq HEI +4. olgEe4(idealsolution)3 naoult H4oll E+=trI. +rl]-+rl]
(ts$ r+A)e+, o}+el
tEeEl$ E+e| t+6t= +a! d$q * "l +e-+eq EzlrJ C4 Blf,6ll^J +rH-+Aq fl"lrl tsxlzJ -J
zJ{til?zl$ E4Iql E6il +E6lr,ll gEl.
e.l ilols oltt4 45.ee+q H.q+4 gtrl.
"J6Lq "*e *"-lol
s.ilEErt E6llE(13.2E) es+ +E4 +^l 9+: +e ,JE ¤B HIflBC +¤g E+6ln 9l= +.le +++ +,lltrr+ #=dol
g E4ol+. +6ll r+Ar+ r qr+A.J Edrt(crystalization)E E +E+. EJ EE 9E tl*(molal boiling-point-elevation constant,
ql'+ ¤al ot
:s
BE E+-d +01 qal5e qEE + ?totot -dtrt,
** =ril 601
. *Hl*oJ Ee*
Hl*"J Egg +"J+"48 HzlE sd-6.t1 +A S+ E4l: 13.6r, t3.62,13.6e,t3.70
(13.s¤).
^l¤¤
Ezl+ Eln+ +6llE +alE 7l¤.+4(13.1¤. 13.33). . +"lql ++61+ *'llg ?zl.Jg 4tlaJr+(r3.se).
^1, ^Iolq
+{ S6 ¤!41: l3.ls, 13.16 +H g+ ¤i4l: 13.63, 13.66
.+6ll i+Aq glq^J BBE qg4 +Ag +qlEql Ell+ +ZlE .+._l9l #E¤ eE+ q=d qiBg 4l4}i.J+(r3.s¤).
zl¤e}4(tr.z¤) +B ¤+ #4: 13.23,13.24 +H S+ +^\; 13.73,t3.74
."lr,lql^l r,ille+ zli.llg +qlEq ulrl$ $sel ar+ql qdl 7l .+EE dF'Jg 41ar;1t:.s¤). +H ¤+ +41: 13.77,13.78
¤'++(13.3¤). +A ¤+¤!41: r3.3s, 13.36 . +aqE +gCg ol+6}q +eelgee6tg 4l&.JE+(r3.s¤).
. 7li.ilel
++ "Jq4$aNs,r.1o1E +4lE 7l¤6.Jr+(r:.1¤). +B ¤# +^ll: 13.7e, 13.8r
+H g++41: 13.37,13.38
. +E4 EEol- iloldg gg;3r|(r:.0¤).
. EsoE, Eg bE, E=+9, a* E+9, E"JES9 .r-"E= 4l& ^Iole.l
+H S+ ¤i4l: r3.8s, 13.86
6ln, :7E,r.folel rlE g+|g fle(r:.+¤). . A+C ¤solEel4f{ gsolcrt qBZl E+ql^l
"J{cl+l
*¤ g+ E4l: 13.47, 13.48 i flizl ggajr(r:.6¤). +H ¤+¤.41: 13.87,13.e0
. +grdol f9.q,lxl 7l+6ln, van't Hoff
^l+q 4ql ¤BtfEi
-=.o Hl-e- l
Or- E O i
.s":ftP" lre.al Tlrll *6llE7I ++ sqr+ +¤gl: uenry H4
. dEE B* u4tsg(y") = o - a- ou-
9-oI -4.o'l /(l ll o'l z'lE+
e o ..
x too [r:.sJ eE* Esgql+6J5E a9
g"qg **
-Q-zl ol F -A.
ELr
e o* o e-
+._!9
e
?-lEl+
I
oJ+ +zll
tso.E-H.= 7fl8 13.2 q+ rHg ololgrf +9E E Ezl zJ9 tli zI¤¤ trq
13. I rI9 SzlE ge e ulz| 67161= +^lE Lf g6}^ls. [13. I 3] [r3.r¤]
=+.
-!
I
o o
go
, a {8
(a)
?..s;
(b)
o
(c)
fie
602 133 30-4stdE
(a) E EzI9 flzl-6 "Jolgr+ eql+ gzl^= ol- 1o1212 13.7 trI¤-rgg rel seE 44\n 4"14. qtr a"l E
HlolE}El
: ol-r?L-? ql g +n. olB aol
^1,J;ql
e +E^l ql+61^le_. U3.3¤l
(b) rl-g 6 K*H+ Li+ql^l ol¤-+rll z++ol ol+ *td-
^JE =
E ¤E+ AE?
a.Li*71K*ts.+ ¤*.1 zI4.
b. riel o13E1- 9lHzlzI Ke.l olgsl qlqzltrq r+.
c.Li+tl K*B+ olg Hlxl-=ol zt+. 33
.jlo'"
c
d. LiTt K-H-EI EJET} zlEI. de
e. + E4 q Lu.lTll Hls. 6J+.
LiTI K-ts Cp ''
r3.3 lzl ollulzlzl +g +.J d6l¤ r*= olg5e +CE F
gC jzx|E {46lltrz}. [rr.rE]
ol
.taoo.
go .?;. *
c ce
(a) ol lr,ll==$ Eql ql6J Sdlsz} F"J6J7I?
(b):.Bzl ?+48 4zl qlLJ^l7I nille+ 4zI qlLJxlTl-
tat" e
o
=
+g .I'xll 6 qL r,ll7} Eq 3 +A=7p (+e-+"l] o:
.\.Ig zl+g + aalql^.i F.J6IEtn zlA6I+.) ulolE|EJ 86 uf0lEIoJ E
oo ¤ lr oo C D li ^lg'
ao T
foc ooo ao a
O6 a
o lj
o a
\r
(a) (b) (c)
r3.il qlFEee "JEqd *dol :l4]1 7ta6}zl-. ol +dql + l3!rs rl-g 4 +Eql^J 7I+ 6st +e-+4 ,r.Iol9 trn 4*9
eol +ol 9iE o.z M *9 o e. $d6l il]g +, ag +eol 641r r.z¤)E zlzla|.rle.
+o]. il= 0.1M +olql Br^ttr|. ol +d9 .azl BqE o.zs (a) Hl{l(cosJ + ccl4
rol4. :Hql i+Elu ar+ eol +F"+ 9p9 pulzl =4 (b) E+ Elltsg(cH3oH)
r. 7tc6}r c.F"J¤. ra"6l.q ¤Bql Eg6}gg q +d '.il (c) E6 KBr
+ +._qe.l +q= q1+6t^le. [r3.se] (d) o}^llE+olEg(cH3cN)+ HCI
13.16 +g 4 +"-qql^l zftv +st +e-+rH ,r.|olel rla {¤-
BEIE ^l46.}n, +ql-+a ^Jg 4+ol zlzli tree $
o_!g +96l-^ls.
0.1. M (a) E 6 KCI
(b) Hl4l(c6H6) 6 curct,
(c) E 6 ql+g(cH3oH)
cqt 46J AH+ezI +q Ag ,*b olg eEI clElEol ?l
0.2M trI.
=
l3.tz 4* + ++e+ ae.-4xll-"IxllqlEdg e +EtU ae? -rr.rz(a) olrpjggEq ++4.}71, olq$ 4sl +^l ?*A=zI?
49 q= E^ls=g +-q Eal e4= +4u+. [r:.6d] (b) AH+q, AH+a, AHen 6 ol- u3-o1 7l* ge] <tg
^JE
=
'/*A+71?
13.18 g+.JEH Eq +olE 9o301 ;|z|gltl4.
(a) ol 8"ll 4ae Bg H}+alzl-, +g HI*.J71?
(b) +"-qol BcqE ol+= +E.J7I?
oooo
o aa oo
o .ttL nrs ("1
^l
13.toll^l ol- o3;o1 4^I qlqzlq 6flBq=7|?
q-. qlLlzl
(b) ol
t' ,
o EJ+^lql^l 6}01 6J^d-gg.J7l?
o
Eq Liclol s.6l]qE z*, aus* : -37 kllmolol4. la*,,,
13.20
(a) (b) AH+a, AHe* ? ol'. t'3"o1 7l* gq Ag ,*AY7l?
=
n.n + ++d +71 "-qill.J dl4l.J(ceHra)4 flql.J(c?H,Jg 4
.J4.
(a) AHs".!e o}q 1I¤ ?*Y71, gq Zig z*Ezl, oil
=
7WAY7I? =
(b) dl^ll"Jr+ ilqtg EE Elgs olEe] +
^le d.JEl.
oo o oa oa trtl, +?]gq fl= +++
"lil5ql EloI ol 4l
a a o "_qg "JE
ao oa E {EEq= G,litlE7l. rJ46l+7t, olqB oql 7}z}
a O
o &71?
(c)
604 133 Eqg 5tr
8.22 Eql4al rsr *99 elgulzl E +le8 ktlmotgqlE H 13.30 .J4U(ofulL&)3 E4 q^l.J + qL aql El g \AEzl?
6}.il- Eql 4t rcrE SaNEE t44g-E. $Q. ffi f ol
q+ Btlg 7l* S ¤B+ ae ?
(a) Effi$s- Eql 6J^J ++.
(b) g.J QlEtrt]= Er-l6J 4014.
(c) E6J flgEl: E-E
^Ja
zI84 K-Br olg ^JE zI+
g #= EJI gssl qlBq4 ula|{ !to}o} o.}Q.
(d) KBrg Nacl4 eg 4E gEql Hl6ilg4elol r+.
gal.u
sit EE, E6llE0ll gS= +ts ?lr(13.2E, 13.3tr)
13.23 gql 4t cr(r.ror)r.e H2oE +d]E= ls'cql^J s 100 g rl-rr r"l ;-qlolE.l!(cH3(cHrr6cooH)g E!} ^].gsl E^. +
B zoa go1l, 3s "cql^J E 100 ggl 324 sol +oI 9lE ol qL Aql 9 6*dbzt?
*99 ts "c4xl aA6l ts46}8 ad.g ^JCElzl ?*=tr}. (b) 4ol+^ll.J +ql^l qL aol Eq trl
^|ol=s6'r^-ltr+
(a) ls"cvl^l B4E +E+ uleFi, -+.s], +s+ + qL 3+d=zp ¤E6l^le-.
'ti'
4"J71?
,/CHr-\
(b) ol
++ +4oE B4E 8"lol B4 9l= +?-l *zl S H,C -tl- CHT
Eg +flg ull ?dol ¤^Jslzl ^lzlil+. ++ ¤^Jol H,C CH,
gqt i!.JzI ?
'\ ,/
CHz
(c) ¤¤ ^JEllql^l dCg eAg e*e? Etol8^lloJ
^loEBafiloJ
13.24 Eql 4aJ Mnsoa.HroE +6llEE 20 "cq^l E 100 mLB
13.32 {FzllE 'J4 ^F*q= ol+Ee+lg Eql 4+ +6llEz}
70 goltl.
l ol6}e
mg/ml q!
zll;J4ol4. Ezl- +a4 ++(sl^q,
(a) 20'Coll! 1.22 M MnSor.Hro ++.-qg E+ EE+,
ol
fl^I, +e4)ol Eeel Eq 4+ gaNe9l 7lq6.I=71?
r+Ec+ +"-! ¤! 4"J71?
"lv ts^l +aq qL ++(sl^q, ¤^4, *e4)ol ol gdq ¤ql
(b) Mnso+.Hro +.-qq L"Ezliolxlzl ?*g a+, +eqol
E]l+E+^Jql 7lq6l+zl?
e+, ges| $erlolz1E'Jzl ?loll,tlE qtr dBg
+4"floi 6l+7t?
B.2s -aH 13.lsE +ll6l.q, 40'cq^J $ 100 goll q*q ol.gC
n4l= 44 +o.o g4 7l6J 4+, ssl +aqol q4lEzl aa r
6t^19.
(a) NaNO3 O) KCl (c) KzCrzOz (d) Pb(NO3),
0l+reE
8.26 :aic13.lsE +n6lq, 30 "Cq^l E zSO goll +ol- g'st +
e4ol 9E cJl geal 4 gE oJ¤ 4lt}6l^le. 13.33 q+ 4 tL + qL aol dl^lloJ(cuH,r)oll cJ $ $iz|! z-|
(a) KCIO: (b) Pb(No3)2 (c) Cez(SoJs a+ql q6iq o1..,$$ {$a}.rle.
(a) CClae] CaClz
Ttn E+ dl g d 46}zl.
E tcH, (oH) cH (oH) cH2o Hl
(b) Hl{l(c6H6)e} gq^llE(cH2(oH)cH(oH)cHroH)
=r]
(a) ol5o1E_E Hlge 4l"J aee qtrl=z}? ¤B6I^le.
(c) *rll .J&(c H cH c H2 cH zcEzcH zcHzc o o u) e] o|41
EaI tql ^J7l= EztrJ .Jqg +
3 2
(b) E BzIe+
E4I(cH3cooH)
g6I^1e.. =r.l^]l=
13.34 trlg 4 rdl + qL aol Eql q A +E7]? 4 a+ql ql6l
13.28 71 + Eg 4ol^l g:=tr}. El-g + 7l* il'J+ olf+ q q ol+E ¤E6i^le.
Y7-"J7l?
(a) r.|olpedl^ll oJ(CeH
r Jrl /'(C6H
1206)
(a) 7lE +z|7r E-H-EI "JE7I=.+. =+7
(b) EEEg&(CH3CH2COOH)i+ rEsqg4I iE
(b) 7lE Ezl+ ql++ +^c+ +^E +cqq 9lEI.
(cH3cH2cooNa)
(c) 7lE Ezl-7I E-H.E+ ESzlol
=4. (c) HCl4 gEl 9lB(cHecH2cl)
(d) 7lE EzITl- ¤i-E-trI +71'Jol tEI.
(e) zlE +zI7I ¤i-H-trI #=Aol tsr+.
13.3s El.g E lol "*bzl, E4bzl E+61^le.
(a) SEzI +¤++'ll++E TIAH Eq rl $ $ir].
(b) gs.zl +¤++ 4+Eq olgc a4l= Eq q e +
Eg dedql^J 96l^l-8-61+
*,llol4. .l 6 ++^d +e
-r.reo1,r1g(CH3CoCH3),4189(cHroH),E:+{(C6HsCH3),
9l zlzJ 4EI6J +,llE qg l"Jzt? =trI.
EA 605
=^l
(c) Esl +.lg +g gEql^l *3 gEE B4^la ql, 4 O) +al t75 mL + s.2s gel un(No), .2 Ijzo
s+ +"1 ^JEllql 9ifl48 +"Istr+Q Lx11z1 33 o (c) e.00 MH2so4 35.0 mLE 0.s00 L7l qE+ Bf, +.1
4¤Elrl {lzI5J+.
E. r:.as +g 4 +alg Eg bE= Zl.t}6t^le.
(d) E5I +a!9 gEE +olE, !-F -n,ll= +7Flq +aq zz.a g4l +oI gl= {4l(cuHJ
^}¤p] +A(ccD
(a) s.oo g
E bEE EJ TI6Irll 'JE +.^ItrI. (b) E o.:so Lq +oI 9lE Nacl +.so g
13.36 rJ¤. 4 E+ol *=zl, E4=^l rjJ6l^ls. 13.46 (a) E t6.O mololl KCI 1.12 mol¤ +.J +.lE gg r-" E=?
(a) rJE +E F gEql^J Eq q.J q!.J zlz]lel $ojlr z *"19 EJETI
(b) 0.12 +l6i^l= +EEHI(C10H8) roo.o
E Hlil++H, *e gEql^l q + += ag "Jrll 94. g9l 9r(sJ H gE \9"t 6I:7I?
0) 4+eE ol$rJ ull$ gql ql+ +dlE= *q49 ae nqz t rql H2so4 s71.6 g9 E+61+ +& +rlE "Js= r.szs
7l +7l6Jls_ rJ^oJtrl.
g/cm3olrJ. rl*¤ Zl4}6l^ls. +sl + H2So4E (a) 3e* uI
(c) E* $szi ¤:zlg+=.7lall EzIe+E +^ A6Jg #q eg, o) geg, (c) EB r-oE, (d) E-'-oE
4zl ollEll, 'l]++el Tlillq Eql ql+ +6]]E= gE
13.48 ol-^itr4l(Elol4I]J C, C6Hso6)g i8C ulol4"Jol4.
7l+7lz;J++ Ai6JEl.
(d)eE7I +rlg++ .JS olSC jlalj= Eql q 3 +zl E zto gql oi-r'a-E-.ll s0.5 gol +oI ?lE *"-49 "Js= ss
oLL rL , 'Cql^l 1.22 gimlol4. E++g 4l&61-^ls. ol-^=.-ts-tq
r5E"1
(a) 3%I EEg, 0) E.Bg, (c) EB bE, (d) E+E
13.37 3o"cql^'l 5 6 gE TlriE Henry Hzl 4-15 3.7x to-a
11ae o1,qe+olEg(CH3CN)q "JE= 0.286 glmLolil, 4+g
Mlatmolfi.30'cql^l Nzgl 45J r}f3 o.ox to-a Mlatm
oltrl. ol + 7)4171 1.5 atmgl glg ul, ?+ 7l4l4 +6llE=
(curon)9 "Jg= o.zsr c/mLolEI. CH3oH 22.s mL*
e8.7 mlel cH3cNql+q +.lg "JEfl+.
4l&6I^le-.
(a) 89 + ql+gel EEge?
13.38 6ll+Hql^l qlTl + or9 *B oJ43 o.zr atmolQ. -*. t3.l
0) ol +alg E9 +.s(z)i goloJzl-?
el Bzl9 ^l-s6lq, 4zl"J
Henry eso torr, 20'c9l
^lEel (c) P9zI sJAd+l17LA6IH, ol +al + cH3oHg 5*'
sslg &as.^ +Hq orE 5r-"EE
^l +71tr
al&61^le_.
E(M)Y?
Eo4slts5(13.4tr) 13.s0 E+fl(crHJ9 'Js= o.s6z g/mlolr, A}ols$l(c4H4s)
13.39 (a) E 483 gql NazSOa 10.6 gol H"t 9lt: +'lql^l NazSOa el "JL= 1.06s g/mlolQ. E+fl 2s0.0 mloll 8.10 99 r*l
g* EEgg 4l&a}^le. (b) 3(as) *4¤ EJ *(eg) olesl¤ +q +.lg "J5s.+.
2.56 gz EEI6JEI. 99 LoEE p ppmoJzl? (a) ol +aq + r'.Iole-ElE g+¤-9 al4}6}^le.
13.40 (a) CCl4 tzsgil Iz 0.035 mol9 sd-61-b -a-orrq^l olol9 (b) ol+EE Egr-oEE gotoJzl?
E(I,)E A=* EEge? 0) EI*E¤ kgB o.oozr sq sr2* (c) +ole+ +aq +ulrl6J8tl4l TlcdfB, ol +"_l +
s.e-6}n 914. S.2"9 LoEb H ppmoJzt? {oleglelE+EE?
=
E rsa ggl cH3oH 14.6 gol s6Jg +"-lol glEI. r3iltrl-g 4 ++"1 + +eE g+= 4l4}6l-^ls.
(a) cHaoH9 EEgg +6}^le-. (a) 0.250 M SrBr2 600 mL
-r:er(b) cH3oHE a.6t EE¤.g+6f^le. (b) 0.180 mKCl86.4 g
(c) cH:oH9 EB .r-" E= +61^19. (c) ?*e-e. 6.45o/o **a-^(c6Hr2oJ 8o-4 rz+.0 g
13.42 qlEg(C2HsOH) +zs g4) EllE(C6HsOH) 20.8 gg +oJ + B.s2 r++ 4++Eql={{++aq g+E 41416}^l!-.
"_4.1 ll4. El-¤¤ Zl&6}^le. (a) l.s0 M HNO3(aq) 255 mL
(a) 459 5E& (b) 1.s0 llr NaCl i*9 so.o mg
G) qlEg a=J ESg (c) de}e-+ 1.50olo+l-E-\(c,rHrro,,)fS9 zs.o g
(c) sllE9 Eg bE KB. r.xile. El-¤- 4 ++.-qg ixll6l= %IHg ¤B6l^l!-.
1143 rf+ ++aqel 5r-o E= 4l&61^le-. (a) l.sx 1o-2 M KBr 0.75 L
(a) *9 250.0 mL f Nrg(NoJz o.s4o g
-13i3(b) 0.180 m KBr r25 g
(b) +E 125 mL + LiClO4.3H2C- 22.4g (c) d*e-+. 12.07o KBr +"1 l.8s L(ol +"-49 "JE.= t.to
(c) 3.50 M HNO3 25.0 mLE 0.2s0 L7l qril Ef, +.-4 g/mlol4.)
13.44 E|g ++g$ E+E= |lta}^le. (d) AgNo3 0.480 mol9 s-J+ +alql^] AgBr 16.0 g¤ ?
(a) *.-4 0.250 mL 6 ls.o gg Alr(sor3 d^l7lb ql gs+ o.lso M KBr *9
606 133 Eo-4e.tdtr
13.s4 +g 4 ++"lg a46l+ *Bg ¤B6I^le. (c) *99 #:ee ++.J +Ellel #=dtr+ ++.
(a) -r:ll (uur)rsore.+4 o.rro M (NH4)2So4 *o-! r.so r (d) +'-q9 #Ede +++ +4lel #=etr+ *trI.
6) .a8l *4-egq 0.65 m Nazco, *e4 zzs s
pJs.i
t3.62 Hl+ltsC +e4 "l4l +,ile +"-qg "JEHEI. ffi {$ol
(c) ¤=*"e ls.07o pb(No3)2 +o-q 1.20 r-(ol -sg9 *=ul, Eal=zl $ uj:of.rl e.
l.l6 g/mlolQ.) (a) *99 q=dg+ui]= e7|6]lE H6lzl S=trI.
(d) 6.0 M HCI-tr+El sa(OFr)z s.s gg ++^la + fl= 0) +._qol 9Brl ^8zli ili,ll= ,lE ++6J +4ol+.
o.so M HCI +o-4 (c) 899 q=de +3E +Ee| ++6I+.
9,119d+ A& ++qqg 16 Mol_z, "Js: r.+z g/mlol (d) +"-qelgbdS*d9 E"E9l El46lq +7RltrI.
-1355
+. +.lq HNo3el e* EESS?
ol
=
(e) 9! gEq^J= +'-q flel *,119 ?zl"J$ ++6J +EI
13.s6 sEl]+ 4l+ .JEqol
+s"_qg e=J9E NH37f 287ooln, 6rl.Jtr+ *+.
el
"JsE o.so S/mro1;1. ol +Eq EE"EE g"foJz}? 13.63 g I Lql I g9 Bg +.14, E I Lql
=Fa:(CoHrzOJE
rsz a-*e i4el ols +.qee +CE il+¤ qgolq. e=J l0 gE +t.e^(cr2H22ou)= '+g + +Eol 9l+. 20 "cql
o e 80.0% c$+ 20.00/0 zr9 4d9= r*= *g
dFg azso ^J
4 +"lE 6zl.Jg 4l&6}^le_(+,ol gEql^l +?+ E
kg/-'9 gEE,*=tf. 9 6zl"J* 17.5 torrolEl).
(a) ol J'ill +Eq^l zn9 EB:-"Ei $ulolzp 13.64 #i6J Eq 67l"Jg 60.Cq^l t4e torrol4. Ag g+E
o) ol *eqql Eznq g+Eb ButoJzl? E4 qBHl soJat} +'-q gE ?zl"Je 0o'c
=4ol+3
13.s8 TIEll oJ(c8H,0N4or¤- 4 qel ilq^l gaq:
ollrl 0z torrol4. Raoult Bzl9l el6IH. ol +Eg ol^J +
^}+8lolq. oil ol 7L9
==-tr-tr8:(CHCI:)S Sole .J 7l-qlql +o-qE bEzl0.0s00 a u't:
z9 41, r:^es t"l 338 Kql^l E ZOO.O g4l ZZ.S 99 sEl(C,zHzzO,,)E
(a) zl-41.J9 e=J EIEgg g"I.JzI? 7I4q axlldJ +eq 99 +7l.Jg Al4}6l^le(Eql ql'J 6
G) 7}ql"Je.l ¤'+ge guloJz}? zl$ z|-EE ++ Bql +q4 914). 6) 40 "cql^J +7l"Jg
2.88 torr *izl 9la}{ 5 o.r+o kgoll zldl 7qo} p :r-P
o -aJ g{1 3"+¤- 4l^}6}^le.
o =+ol¤(c3H8orE
o o e 13.65 (a) 343 Kql^l E r2s ggl zA.s g4
6fq =i.l^llfl(C3HsoJg
+"-q +lE 6zl"J9 4l4}6f^le(Eql ql6J
7l
+
o
o o"o =7ll6J
zl$ x[trE +s Bql +q4 9ltrt). (b) 3s.cq^] +7loJ
I to.o torr *+71 9l6}q qeg(czH'on) t.oo kggl z|
I dl +qot g qIEHI 3401¤(CzHoo,)E e+3 altld}^le
--+" (:s'cq,t1 ++'* q+gE 6zl'J*
Ttszet.s"6ql,rl H2o9 +zl"Jg l75 torroli, ql+g(CrHsoH)
1.00 xl02 torrol4).
,t4lE
rrss "J+ulfl ss + qdb +ql^l co29 r-oE.= 4)a- 4.6% 9 6zl"J9 torrol4. Ag e.*el H2oel c2H5oHg
400
sEl6}q e +qg ElE9+.
(+ulEl)qlg.J+.
(a) ol+slql^l ql+gE gBge got"Jzl-?
(a) "J491 atm, $EE al-a-ol4r. z[{afr.,
^ldq]^.1
ol
(b) oldl +.-l4H aEEi+n 7IAtr Efl, 0:.s'cd.,.l ol *
coz9 oJqg 4l4}6l^l-e-.
*E ._49 ?zl"J3 g"I.JzI?
(b) 4lgg 37"ctr- z|{a}r., ol co2el Ej=oE=
^ldql^l (c) ol*.-4 ?19 ?zl + ql+99 EEge ts"IoJzI?
9"I"Jzl?
13.68 20 "Cql^l HIdl(CeHJ9 *zl"Jg 75 torrola, EFgl(CzHJ
13.60 4.\o/o(f,ulEEg) co2E EEI6I+ +71= tI^)A Es6}tr
n¤:ol E4zlr, ffi q +E7f E"Elg4. ole+ ,J+ +71
3 22 torrolu|. H1414 E+flol ol^J +.19^356jr1-l zf
Ag .ll. (a) 20'C9lrJ 6zl"Jol 35 torroJ +a49 3d gE
9 L"EE (a) Eu4E&, (b) E.:-oE+ EB6I^19(+, I atm, gg? (b) (a)ollr.J zltr$ +q 9lE +7lql=461+ HIdE
419 lz'c-E TIA6JE1). gEge g"loJz}?
Eg¤(13.58) 13.69 (a) 0.10 ,?1 Nacl ++.1+ 0.10 z c6H12o6 ++-Er+ Bl.il.6}
13.6r Hl+:lg^J +an+ Erll +rle +"lg "JEfltrl. rI.* d¤"I .l #:d.l kSzL *821, oLqE ,Je7n (b) Nactol *
trJ-6}^l 9-.
"*=^1. E?]+^l= 614E+n TIAB ql. de4-qs 93 Nacr
"_qql^.] Sd6l
(a) *99 qbeg +++ +,llel q=Btr+ k+.
+"_49 #bdol 4lt+ #=dtrtrt *+. eil r;1,{}zl ¤B
0) +Eq q=d3 +++ +,119 q=dtr+ *+. 5I^19.
F+ 607
=^ll
B.7o 4 ¤-aol lo%(Ae"tEl)tr Eq *E +.9 +8"q9 g=dol 13.81 +lAzI"Jg ^'ll+
irlq6]+ Eiol+. +e4 210 mr
^]lsqg
+7161++e_E L|g6t^le. ql ol tr^ 0.1s0 g9 .E!+6tn 9l: +.-qel tFoJS zs.c
+z-tr^(crzHzzorr), e+ A-E ollrl o.ss: torrol4. {olaz}oJ9 Eeu}3 got.Jz}?
=+n/-(c6Hr2o6),
(NaNoJ p].JE
13.82 fzl Eq +q 0.2s0 LE +"-qg "JEfltrl.
2.3s e&
r1^g- ++.lg #=dol +7161.= +^le +g6}^ls. +F.Jg 0.60s atmol4. +71 pltlE
2s'cql^] ol +.-qei
0.120 m 0.050 m LiBr, 0.050 mZn(NOz)z ol Hldqleol{jl ,lA6J q, ol +71 plll$el gA*e
-ts.zr =+n/'.
8.72 tr++ ++Eg q=eol ai6l=+^lE +g6}^ls. ErtoJzI?
0.040 m 0.020 m KBr,0.030 rn qE M cact2 ++"-qe1 +lF'Jg 2s "cql^l
0.0t0 0.674 atmol
+. +Eg van't Hoff zlffi zJl{la},r19.
(c6HsoH)
=E^llil(C3H8O3),
qg -ts-s:
13.73 s. 13.3E ol¤-6iq +.-qq q=dr+ #bag [13.84] -8. 13.4q +qd z]tr.E E 41, o.o:o ru NaCl *.-!4 o.ozo
^IeE
44 4l.t}6}^le. z K2Soa +'-q + q! +aqel q!:$ qflol A ==t4?
(a) 9lES Go.zz rr 34^1lE
EtrolE(13.68)
(b) 2.45 mol6 +sgdl(C'oHs) 0.240 mol
=E.tr.* r3.8s (a) zlillEuJ "JEq{ Ee.o1=r1¤46l+7}? 9l :dzl,
(c) E o.zso kg f NaCl l.s0 g
g rqopxl gfg7] ¤H6I^19. (b) l8soEql Faradayb E
(d) E raa g 6 EFa^(c6Hr2o6) +.tz g4 KBr 2.04 g
ql^lE +q}6l .Ja"J # E^fe.] +ElH EeolE¤ :4ie+
13.74 -s. r3.3E ztEE ol9.o6Iq +g +'-4E q=44 #Edg xllaalfl4. ol gle4E +oJsE +._q+ +E
44 4l4l6l-^1e.. q^l *E+. 4gg ts 4xllEol=eolE:+E.J^1,
=EolEoJ^l
(a)
"ll+g G o.zs m Z*=n olBzl +Eg + il=zl-?
(b) cHCl3 So.o g 6 9lz,ll9l(croHr) zo.o g
13.86 7t+ 4¤6J B'g dq6}^le-.
E tzs g 6 NaoH 3.50 g
(c)
6J o-qillT} EIE el{ql gEol= tr-e-E E&¤ 49 (a) ¤,
(d) E tso c 6 qlB{ 0.45 mol$ KBr 0.15 mol
=+olg O) qlgd, (c) *, (d) qqE¤ol4n ++.
r3.7s -s.00'cq^l q= *99 "JEzl 9loll^lE E t.oo kql 9l
+4ril'= a+d e"qlql fl= a+C g.e"lE(E= a+C
Eql H g9 zf6llo| i'].|zl? gEolE)E "Jas}^l7l= cI'JEolEI.
={ol=(czHeoJ --r3s7 +rlq fl=
13.76 10s.0'cql^l #b++E9 q=ag gEtoJzl? r++ + ,I* ^+c
+g ++x]e,?
[3'zzzs.Cql^l E 0.3s8 Lql ollulil(CeH8o4) 44.2 mg3 HoJ (a) CH:COOH (b) CH3CH2CH2COOH
+Eq +F"Je gEloJTl? cH3(cH2)ilcooH (d) cH3(cH2)rlcooNa
(c)
13.78 ul*59 LB 34 s9 gg EE|6}J fl4. *301 Nacl(d 13.88 qq_+¤g qlTlql^l ¤'e-6J saolEl. 4zl ¤!9 qqe¤
4lq Naclol e0"/, oltlg)-e"J aCqq fl41 zlCE rll, qlq_E¤ol $,= qTle+ Elildlq s.Eq Eg
^l+
+7t^l7l=71. +^^lvlYz[? : o1-,qg
=zH7f oJg
20.cql^l Ht*Eq +lF.Jg 4l&6f^le_. 6l+ fl4el
+Eqlgilg Hl^J^l+ /r-Eql/r-=- tsg ql qEE ¤B6I^le-.
gxfg [rpa[E+ 6l+ ae.gol4. ccl4 36.0 ggl =+i.
o]=4lB X4149 zlal{ ++.4etr+q +Eqag ad^lrJ + 9l
-l3refl o.oa g9 E+alE +"-qg #=dol o.as'c 6zlel4, ot 4. ole+ Ag 449'${(salting out)'olep oj4.
E4lgilg ge+3 4lt}6}^ls. -1r:sq (a) rJg L"E9 ,J9
d4eg ^Fs"g A+, E= ElEaol
Ag {Ee e{ol "JqqAETf?
(b),* tru4d"l 94ol "JqqH, d6IAg B7l AE+ *
BqA-#qd t}E 4+ol ,J611^lb7f, qlollzlbzl?
(c) rlE=i +rJ6J + a+7r, g^l ¤^J-ol .Jq+=
^JElqI
ae dqldg A7I6}E EEA$ Eelr+a 9lb ++E
E Eol d6leg EElaITl ql+olq, 4+^l +Eeq
) fa|$ {{ol E4alr +Eqeol aA6}rll EE}n 6J
0lEeilHEl
+. ee ^dEI+
r*e.l= * += a+=. 94 dtle
flzl.g olgSol BEeql ,J614 ¤+qq *E4e EH
13.80 ,I+g .J?gg n=.Li 7lE-e-e+El Eqalq, rllxll$ uJ ql 01916}.9 BC6|Al qq Ar+4etr E+ql^l +Ee
E= EJI Hl4l o.roo kg9l s.oo g9 498 .Jag
^l-+8tr1. .cql^l 9 .Jxl d6lz}0ol qq +EAol ed47l ql+ol4i1
g +.J g-"1* +. r ttrl. ol zle ef,e.l 4*B Ba 6J+. ol F zlC9l Eil6lq EE6l^le. ol + tl\ zl$
gE ga"*e g"I"JzI? g +E6l7l 9l6}q qtr ao+g gs,t7}?
=Aol
608 133 Eqg.5E
13.e0 ulrL= /.qlole{} 4E(cH:(cuz)r6coo-Na+)rt aol, d (b) f$zll5 ql++ s}'fl¤sg .+e-+ g6JEoltrI.
^+C
El4 E= rz?-l 6 qL Y Eol Sg
+d ++r.l ++¤. E+ 7l-^ln 9l= pIEJEE +c ^qlo}-e.4} AEE
^+c aEg
qq gl4. /.qlo}=t .r?-l'7f q
Epha +Eol 4le+ El aBg +6J 4"J71?
n d6l-= Itlr 9l= Y Eol 'tr1?-l'+il
^J46lzI.
(c) +g4lT} E¤ xI4E EE B ql
^1146|qn ^4o}gt
(a) I}lq Eb E?-l + qL +Eol gql 4# BoE qlgAg Bd6l= ag +e6J + 9lg
^Qlole4l^EE
9all *,llplzl- + 4 a"J7l? aolq. olaS qE Ezf,J /J.E zl+ EIIE"JTI?
OJ+
ryl. E*II
l3.el nTIoJ(CuH2rNo.)9 'zFft 9zl' eElle+ +i+9 g++ (b) ?7I{9 + Ei gi++^ Bql) + 6}
BEI(Z}+ g7l
4 Bql(crTH22clNorE zt* ¤zl B4b
El-e--r+ A-e-4, +b ^J44ee +&d.Jql. ql l.Jzl?
HCt 6J rlle+ ei}o}q g++^ BE{e di}g + 914. + (c) xI* Ezl ¤4 ?7foJE Eql ql"J +6llE= ql+g
ti gzl-= s.^16}
{a}zll trolz} gl6}q E_E tsA gz}e+ 6.70 mLtrJ 1.00 solE|. q+gql^l z|+ g7l BEllg 7
zl= ?t9lE+. 44E +449 4¤aJ 7ll+E +^ flxfE E+ +Efl +r-" E= +61^19.
TIoJ
zlqil 9l= Ei gzl-= +4.Iq, 4 ts^= trIE gzl¤ (d) g++^ Bqi 77Iq_1E Eq ql6J +6l]E.= E o.aoo
4 ql ,]|el Aqlg 6ti1 9l+. mLB r.o0 gol4. Eollrl gcl+^ ¤49 ?7IoJ sEt
(a) azloJg + eql(^l+ g7l E= gcl+^ ¤4) 6 6l +"_lel E-tsE= +6i^le-.
+E {}qzlss isd.Jcll, qL aoJTl? (e) zt# erl ¤qlE szfoJ r.oo kgg ¤olfc 84tr d
o cl- H o
il il
HeC HaC- C
-N +HCl .- o
o
iTloJ gaf+^ ?7foJ
(xl+ g7l)
13.e2 +=.-Er-(cr2Hrro,,)9 4sal +Eg trlg Eql f,=s^ 13.94 .JH}ie+el ee +EEql ¤z116}= r$,<|rj zl;ll r-[$
E +.J + ^Jgstr aaq B4^lZ xlla;|flcf. s{ ^l (nn)9 ¤zllb 9P ol*
^lqq 9lq^J dz}ql
oll=. zl?
zJ"l ul'J Flq r+=Jel +a1)-71¤.._qql^] a8 ,lJ.Elle 4 TkCol ?l+.
¤qfl4. +g rll8ol "*=zl, EH=zl s:^l6l^le. Eq 'l]+ 4EE +.11E= 7.27xto-3 M
(a) 30"C, I atmoll.t.l
(a) 4*9 +3-e)-71AAss 4=E + Bg +._qg E s Tlag ql, ol gEql^J Eql 4.J ai$e.l Henry B
tr4'14.
Et a tr-++ gEIoJTl?
O) +e}q +a_E_)-71aag.e 4=¤ +. 4= g?146I O) qq zlxlle ?C¤ ^lE7I 3.sxro-6EE&9 4Eg
4 BB t4z} olq+. gaJ6|n 9l+. dill oJE rz atm, 30.6ql,rl ol zlill$
(c) 4e}g izet-zy aaqE 4=g + E+ql flb + Eql Bn sEHEl. E+ 4Ee-l $bE= 4lt}6}^le-.
r-e,^ ac _B.Eql^J +re^ gz[zf ol$s]] {s} r3.95 .Jill ¤Eq eI o.tozoE eeJ,es fxNaJr]. ol
f,ae^ e47I gal-E.= +Ee+EoJ6IEI. =+?^E
L"EE (a) ppm, (b) gB r-oE-e, +61^19. (c) 8'-49 E}.
13.e3 ql++E EnTlE Eql 4^t a pp-9 orz| \of Xlolo; E= aa6.l7l 9.16l]^l= qtr a!-7l. c] $!_aJzI?
¤ + el+. 13.96 Hf*E + #9 E"Ei 5-50 ppt(part per trillion)ep Er
(a) olag H mol/L9l allBEEzI? qfl+. ElREol r: pptel ;¤ s4l6l.n 9lqr ztAB EL
(b) l0'Cql^l ol bEE e7l +16fl^J: E +19 oz9 *E Hf*E r.o><ro3 4flql E+qq fl: +E rB+= 4l4l
.JEg gulqol6l+7I? (l0.Cq^l org Henry B4 6'l^19.
tiE t.zt x 10-3 mol/L-atmol4.)
5-sf EA E^ll 609
OJ+
EEJ +4I
13.106 ¤+9E+i(EAe+ g+9-flg ,*= El'*E)= Azvl^l El El(*ul: 15 mL) +q *= oz9 EfE
=oluldg
$ulle r6-a19+. q-gql +-* sloJ+E=g 2s "cql^] E Al4l6}^le(qel'J49 r atmeE 7|A++).
F 7l,qloln, 2s"C, t atm 5F9EB4. .Jqql^l Eql rI E6llE(EaJ
+ +615= d* UIESe +{,Ifltr}. =+e+EJ^
CFa 0.0015
"/.)
(c) C4t EST] BzilE zlzlL 4olt +olqlrll trllE= + U3.l07l Ctr'4.J ill3(az'c)q^l eE9 4zl.J(t.o atm)4 doi
zl{- zll*;l*91, +7lql .J
o-!;ll(liquid ventilation)E
-,?E 4eq q F+e t^E +"J + 9l= +a E4E
il= Eql YE Nz9 +61lEE 0.01s s/Lol+. t7l= E
78 molo/o Nr.E aCqq 9l+.
-,$olz| $olali 1o14. oltsl6J o_lillE + 6'J 7I^l=
(a) !xll{ oE ++E9l ¤9 t r"ll +E N29 E+= Z}
CF3(cFrTBrol4= p]6JEol4. ol eq4lql 4
E+efl 4}6.f^le.
+ 4I4 +6llEE oqi.l 100 mL%I &^ 66 mLtl +=E+. (b) 100 ft E+9 "J4* +.0 atmol4. ol zloJoll,<l po-!
+7lel Hljr'6l-zlE, *zli Pu] zli 2ry"4 +4= 7l Nr9 *ullsE EoI"Jzl?
zlr glq. "J"J +o}7l pI6JE ._q4q Eslg
.tIlE 6.J H f4 Eg6l-==+efl (c) {ffizf z}tlzl E Etso + L+g EI c.l 1 LB H mL
aql Elr.6lq tI4E =.zl 9 Nz zl^ll(zl9 %Lg BqlE)7I !9Fe EJ=qEzI?
610 133 Ea49 dtr
u3.r08l rl-9 #zl EeEg zls] glg.ul tl(kt/mol)g nq6ll !- (a) 9ol9 4+el +d gxl-el, 6d g^l +9E dzl4,gl
x}. ,il^ LO
'il-r=i
o (b) BARF.el +d B fl^l-++19 dxl u]lxl f4E +E.J7f?
il
(c) ol .$olgE TlgEl +c flzI++le +tt+ag r*=
cH3ccH3 32.0
0l^ilE ag qL 4"J71?
(d) ol$((cH3cH2cH2cHr4N*)g +rl 7l
^l+EoJE-t.
olol3ol+. EJoJ oJolgrl qrg ol+
= gElE, qE golgol ^I+BoJEts
28.5 zl ++c +,Iql^l 7l* * +
oil=illg^tol= gg ^Jcg a.J7l?
=
13. I l0 (a) "J8lB +7lql^J oI¤ z.oso g4 t.oo M +& 15.0 mL
E HI+^14 +i
Tlill .rleg u.hEfl4. Hl+ol SA¤+
H 30.4 Tladlql^l ol EJ*ql ql+ +¤ *+ HI+^lg 4n,
^J
=
0flllEgEll6f0lE
dg +4 rlElE g+E 4l4l6}^ls. (b) +.-4 99 +E=
CHr
r22 mLol4. +qq += zlzlle.l $flr.$ +^lg-tr]1, 2s
EloJTi?
W/fts^@
a#
cmc
lr3.l l3I 3s.Coll^l oi,rjl$((CH)rco)e-l +zl"Jg 360 torrolr, E aeo
6zl oJ49
.tr-tr*.(CHcl3)9
E-e++ E+e-E+
roo torrol4. "I^JlEr+
?ol "f* +4 a.Jg BC6J+.
= ¤tuLNP*
^lE llE gd4ltrJ+{ill 0t0lg
C1
cmc olt9l^J +e{gl C¤e +46}rll E*4. : ol]?E
cl- C- H...
I
¤g6I^le.
(a) *99 sqE(qE &+ CE)b cmcoll.<J +46[2l +
I
CI
7I'*rl.
Ag E+E o}^llEr+ ol+q{ *93 rs "c
=-e-e,s__e_E (b) +.19 olg dEE= cmcgl^l +4614 Et4. : ol
ql^l +71 oJqoltorrol4.
2s0
+E ¤H6l^le.
(a) ol^Jat¤+4u48, ol+.-q9 ="7loJ3 lultls,fl
(c) E|$zlg-o- +aq^l"J Ele qe g4= ¤+
(b) +.19 4t¤ Hl*e.tr, o}^-llEr+ =se+.E gB--a- ^+C
gE= ,11g.619+. :-oEz| cmcoll
tsg 4C(^ase < o)oJzl, E¤ 4C(^ase> 0)oJ7p ^qlola&
q, f.4r. a4ts ^EE
q ole+ z3g q$$ ,rllzlz|
13.114 +aq9l .r-"F71 "JZl upln |,5-(critical micelle concentration, =d6J
4E.9 tsEe+ qB4 g+qq 9l:xlE
cmc)E UqX:-.e.oil EB6IH. "JHI4etr'ZlE g{zll' ^qlolil&
ql+6I^le.
IE ¤41 +41
:fl r:.ragl 96iH. +++ *qlql Hl6il +.-4 +el +lgc +,il n ^J46J + olag B* .Jr gl= aolEl. +++ *Eiltr
914.
$zfz| zlill,$ee nut4+s7l dxl ?+g olf+ +e +z|7l -s. + +"_qel ?zloJol *3 ol#zl. +eol +"llE zlffi ulzl {lg
H9ld rl*E ag +,}l EzfTI E?]zJ_eE Eil llzl rllEol4 ol olqElE rlAg AEE+ d¤g ¤Zl6l^ls.
T
{
\
\
\
*
T \
\
I1 \
i!
[! \-
/ rLr \\
) il
r
\ Ib
I { I
t/ ,
{,
fr
.:
rt tttr fil,'c ",
/
14.1 F g3 4sofl gSE += ?lrt. ++ +
Eel olql ¤6'Jg += "J^K*.E, Hl+
Ee]E?]4 tt4. gE. +,1t9 Szll)9
tl++alql 4oI zl¤*4.
14.2 > EJB +E E+ +Ee+ +rJ +Eg iI
olql qlql EIg+. r4:1 HI+89 ,J
+E P S¤ Asz} tI*
+ HJE 4==
^JdEE
^E slol'*Eq
- qB4 g+q=^l$.J
oI
I
* olBtrI.
613
+qL HI++EEe qB4 HI¤-ol "Jq4Ezl HI8 +Zl 5'.J slqr-¤elol 9"t4 #9
zlr. ^JcEl=zl ql ql.J atrE 4l+61+ ql ++6I+. qB4 **ol $olupzl olall
617l gl6ll^J= EI+ +Ee+ rq ¤6Fg Elil= "Jzl-E olo]lo]lo|.J+. q¤ HI+E +Eql
4qI ¤84 dH= EI+ ,1rlq+g ¤¤6t= ql +s_6J +4¤ 4l+.J+. HI+ qlrlq=
(reaction mechanism)olt e}¤¤ol rjdge E6|= +414 r+4g- $x1. ffioll,tl ++rll=
4o14.
+E= AA6E ,JEg olflalr., q1-o- {rgl So}g Elzl= oJzl#
ol tlql^l= El¤'
ql= Eq +^lol +q6}= +E= ad6t= oJ4s=.g +9"J71? 3o1 \aE
^J46lt B+.
+EE qB4 AC6l-=zt? zl-Fz| a\z\zlt:zl Hflzl+g EEI4+9-71 dql fle+ 9-g Ea
S qB4 ^llzg f ?lEzI? ul+ 94zt olel* a+ql 4,* E= 6llBg zll.',143 += S,^l
EJ, EE +E HI*el \uzl Ae fl?-lql e-l"ll ¤EEg
"J + 9lg 4o14.
TIEA ?JE EE ++-d +J^
oll g*rfE 3tr*i.lg
ZlE46t44r qHEltsTt?
uute
14.1 I
'Jt +Eql oolti,ht
ft. oJzl
614
14.2 BJS +E 615
1^qlHl's-Ar
ta.z I 1-O -tJ-
qtr .Jel 4E(speed)* +q{ ,rlzJ(time) zJ4 {ql^-l .jqq= {s}(change)s {Egtr}.
+ +E= g+E trilE E,r.lz.l 4lrflg EHI.JtrI. ql= Eq 4_FilE +EE 5d ^lrJ EoJ
q He+ql ZLFTIE 9lilE^J ++Utl-. trl+ql^l* xl-Fz} +EE trF ++l trI"JE
^lrJ'J
+9lE 'tElu+. 4 EgI=J("}.J ++le +a.J 9lil)g ^l7J 7J46)7J ++]tr +d)ee +
E aol+.
ols] $rlalzll, +q HI*E +E(HI* +E)= ++l E= ^JCEE r-"E
^lrJ'Jq H]¤¤
HslE *qlq. HI+ +Eg ++1ts HF a'J EL"s(u/s)oltrl. +bEtr +39 bEE
aE. +Ag ,<lzJe-E +b aolq. =
fg ag 7|tr-e_l HI+ r + B= ^J46H trt. 4 EJ4 *E o.or molg A,
il.2ql^le+
4 El+4 *E o.or mol9 BE 4441, *zlE 1.00 LE +"lE ?14tr+. HI¤- azloll r.oo
molel Az| 9lgEE I E.EE. 1.00 mol/L:1.00 Mol+. 202 ME+ + AE bE= o.s4
A6fgL, BE tE= 0.46 Mtr ?zlal94. A 1 molol HI86lq B 1 molol ^JCqsE *.
Eq 6Jr= ¤dal + 49 k"EE 0.30 M, 89 E"EE 0.70 Mol+.
r.oo Moltrt. 403
ol HI*el +E= H]*E A7l igq= +E, EE
^JcE B7l s^Jq= +EE +4.9 +
fl+. ga.J 7J4 E.J nE ¤*(average)
^)7J
+Eb 89 EoE EE|%Eq ^Jd H3r+%I
^lrJ
o-e. +b aee q4g + ?l+.
[B]ql^je+ rJol qtr E]E^lql qlgE= +tsEE ++u4. ral^ Ez[.J B+(A)
^Fs*
4l+aql^J ala&g u a4 ,J4 ..^" (rl s.:, 5.2¤). ql¤:E :a7l+El 20= EqI Bel
=
¤+ ^J^d 4E(rr:oaql^J tz:2}znlzl)b +*q gq.
¤+ +E: '*tf; _'d?'" : 2.3 x 1o-zMts
0n ,*$ nouQ
a
a oaa
a o
0a
1.00 mol A 0.54 mol A 0.30 mol A
0molB 0.46 mol B 0.70 mol B
LazJl4.Z A ---- B-tr Tl=dEl= 71.94 HJB r[¤ +trl= 1.0 L0lrf
=af^rol
616 143 +-+ EJ8 +EE
HI+ +E= HI*E Aql {EH^JE 5.J6lrll +49 + 9l+. ol a+, AE +EE +
4E + ?l+.
^E
H4
A9*l+^E+E:- 49 Esle*
E"E alAl
lt4.zl
At
^lrJ
ol
^loll^J
[A]7] a^6]= L"Eg¤ s^16]71 gl6il g(-)E +E= ^l-&6J
a9 gol-E B
s7I 9l+.
s+4 oE +EE 6Jt o}el tte-s sa¤+.
[A]7] a^d]E-+ A[d= ¤+ol+. ¤+"J a[A]E oJ+s ul-Tzl gdl (-) Yg= ^l-soJ+.
B +zI 6J 7H7I rll"t4 A +z| + zHzl EE, Ael ¤+ AE +E= Bsl B+
^JCg
^Hlq
^JC +Ee+ E"J6I+.
E+ r+-
ou ^E : -4141-
At -0's4-!4--
2os-o
1jq0M :2.3 x to zM/s
qH 14.1
7 Ute{ Bt +E llttsPl
rzJ 14.20li1+olT.l^[e= 0lE6[q 20aql,\1 404Dt^lolAel EE +E= Zludl^|.".
^,E
Ntl'J (i) 60= +, r210.84 mol
=4^=qlE =4'*+.
tz:202 ^l-"lql^] a9 5f 7JiE rr:+o
E4 AE tE= 20ag 4l o.s+ M, 4o=9 4l o.:o Mol+. (iil r,:o:aq,rl
ol A4ql^lE ¤t HI* +E= 41116l+ E4lol+. aql^.] h:60a trl r+.
^lA ^Iolts-+
(iii) t' : +oac+ b= 602 rlololl,t.l qI+E *+ +E=
4C ¤+ EI+ +E= r-.Eel HElll(atAl)g ^lrJg HEH}
(A,)e.g +b aol+. Az| l!f,-$olstr HI* +E= "JE Zl 7.0 x 10-3 M/s ol4.
rffl {E ulaf
^lrJql
gs+ +E(cnHscl)4 Eol H]+6lq +B gng(c4HeoH)4 gtlg ^Jc6I= HI¤¤ ^J4
6]] Ez[.
c+HsoH(aq) + HCI(aq)
caHect(aq) + H2o(/) [14.3]
- g.Jqq q}+ol olF
0.1000 M c4Hect ++Eg "J= + oa({f,-go1 7H^lq= i7J) 4
"J"J ^lrJql^J c4HeclE *E= +A+qr ^J46lzI. E 14.19
g+ + gql 9l= qlolqE
E|"J* c+Hsclg ¤+ Ag +E(sE H4l1 gql +4H)= Zl
^l=s6}q ^lrJ 'J4ql46J ^Jl
tlg + gt+. ¤+ +E= zl¤-9 soa ^lrJ ,J4q^J aA6}J a olggE al+ ai6t=
ag + 9lr}. HI*ol d.8q{4 HI+ +EzI +46F= ae AB4.J ¤r}"Jr{ , aa+
.$
14.2 BJ8 +-E 617
400.0 0.0448
0.80 x 10-4
500.0 0.0368
0.560 x l0-4
800.0 0.0200
10,000 0
t
ii
(instantaneous + 9l+. +rJ +E+ ++ +
rate)E ACts
roll^lel +rJ +E
g"laJ4. +rJ +E= 5d ^lrJ
^ldql^lel +E=
0.070 ^J2J
=^la fql^]sl
=4+
ql^l +dg zl¤zlE.+q +*+. rH 14.3q1^-l ,:0=e} 0.060
ddg 7137t
:6.3 x 10 sM/s 0
100 200 300 400 500 500 700 800 900
!}eE ¤Hol= uil+ql^l ¤Eol H= 4+, +E ,tlzJ(s)
=E.fr
(rate)4E +q= ++ +ia= 9"lql4. r:091^.19 ++ + :18 14.3 Eel H=J(CaHsCl)o1so= ,t.lrJol -Er+e +E[1.! r
E= HI+el i7l +E(initial rate)u|.z .J+. ¤+ +Ee+ + A[lE
.++ Aql^l +dqE+El t*6r7l 7l&7l|= ac6IE Hc ¤ + ?i4. 'lzJ+49l sl+6}+8, ^l+ 'J4ol 0q d
trlE g+ +E= +rJ +Eql +d5l= a9 "J aol+.
"l4tsoi9l.! ++g ^lrJ ,ql^lel saJf9
ol (-)<1.
=6J =
-dlclHscl)lilolq.
619 143 trt+ rl3 +E=
qH 14.2
EJEsI+t +E 4lt
ral 14.3= olEdlq, f : 0801^l C+HgCl9 +rJ 4E +-E(^71 +EE 761.^19.
6}lS >Haqfl1
54 4 ^lAq r4sql^l +rJ+EE {{al"i.$xllolQ.
LoE trl-g + qL aol :H t+.:9 r:1000aoll^JE +rJ +E
ql 6l]r*61+7|?
r{lc! r:oaql^lE +rJ +E= E7l +loll^l= ,:0:aql^]E
(a) t.Z x tO-a M/s
+dql El]+ 4 9 z1&zl= +Elot *EI. ddg +4¤E
glHeE:4sgl +4+ 914. 4d9 zl¤zl= +zl+9 H (b) 8.8 x 10-s M/s
ral 14.30il^r uutE a+Ei +^rqe +E6r'^le. (i) onq^l 60oa EE +E, (ii)
A f : oaoil^lel ^tolol
+rJ +E, (iii) r: 60040il^lel #zJ 4e.. zlt= -E.^l golE + ?lrl.
I 6H
=
aA-tbB-cC+dD
+E: ++4 A+.
.
+rE--;
r- ra[A]--i ra[s] ra[c] rA[o]
At Lt -; Lt -A At lr4.4l
14.3 I $E$+s tsa] 619
EC q}¤¤ol+ ^J^d+g B^16}z1 9+r HI+ +EE t#oJ A+, ^l r4.4E CqE ^l-B-
dtrL-
qFll 14.3
t¤Esl ¤¤ +Eet ,J&*q aE +EB oJrJ
1l7l
2Os(g)-----3Oz(g)
(b) q! +zoll o2ol 8d 4s LlodlL7l6.0x10-5 M/solE, ea +l0ll osel 4E +E -alo3l/ar= g0l.P.!71-?
6tl3
E4 +qd +e E+q HI*4g +6u^l ^JcEel ^Jc +Ee+ 4lsJ t4.4ql +4U AilB, +o+ Hlg"4E ZI+E 0l+6}
^l
q HI+
HI*EE Ag +EE falf $xilolr[. +E= ++4.
EUI
(a) rl ta.+91 +4t a^lH +¤ "*+ +g"49 4l+E r Alo:l r A[Oz]
ol+6IE trI.gr+ eq. -!2M3Af
: 4.0 x 10 sMTs
14.3 I EoEgl'4-E'Jzl
HI* +Eq qle bEq ¤6Jg g++= 6J ztzl %r-He azl bEql 4et azl Hl8 +E
el E=cg aa6l+ 4o14. ol ElHg ¤H6I7l +l6l]^J trI+ HI+g.$zJall trz|.
NHa+(aq) + NO2 (aq) Nz(g) + zHzo(l)
-
^lAE ++tr +C
NHr** Noz-9 +E= EL+s +A6I4LL sd6.J Nr9 PtlE
^lrJe-l
6iq HI+ +EE s+g + 914. NHn*, No2-, N29 elq[=]e4 Alizl E+ 7J7) EllEql
olBl+ El* +E= EF Ag 1o14.
814.2Y HI¤¤ + 6l+9 *EE Eel^laql 44 zzl tI$ 4rzl B+Ag ++Llli1
.rl rs.+= ce+ D e.lel 5e5ol Hl*ol {a!q= :..J **6J oJeE ^drdgE "*7'1 ?}=4. ql= 7E 4'?J4l7t 4l*,
ddE Bd dq ^JCEI= 4+71")q. old BJ¤,Er+ ^JCEE iE +Ee| ^J¤ +EE +44e 4=q14.45 trI=zl 9*:+.
ol +ql^l jtE6lE -tr= HI¤+ 14.4= rl=Ei.
^l
620 143 at-+ EJ¤: +EE
I
! I
J
( I
=Es9
z3ol, cb9+6I=EeE 5r-"Eol+. "i+^'1 ¤* E+e+ tEg +4lE ^l-&61+ dEg aE4 E + *g a
EE E"Eoll aElql6JE+. 4++9 siqt al^l-+ zllEal^l¤g ol4.
zllag e1o'3E.9 azllE *"1 *.E= 4l1I+ *l]. +rll4eE +H E4l: l4.lol, t4.to2. ¤{l ¤4lExll
seer B49 qqB=g rlEg de ,JEql^l qE
^l-so6J4.
gl4. ol zl.-eofrl [Nor-13 fzlal t[4q]^J [Nur*]E + 6[8, Hi* +E= +tsH7] g
HH
+(de F+ 2E ulna]l -H.+). [No2-]= .JA6]41 +zl^la 4lE [NH++]-= ql Hlls +zt
14 l), HI+ +E= ql ul].e +7ldJLl. olel.J ar+E+q :izl q1-o- +E=
^l7lH(dE
[NH4*]ql HlqlQ]g "J + 91trt. [NH4*]E "JA6[r1l +z]6]E^J [No,-]E +^]6]41 H5]^l
7lH, +* +E= ag %I^ls.E g6.E9 +=+. tr14^J HI8 +E= [Nor-19 +Eql 4H]
qt++r aEg 4c + 9l+.
q]* 4E.zl. HI¤¤E bEq E=6t= ag E^l5lE ++4 aq.
^leE
+E:k[NH4+][No2-] tt4.6l
.q t+.ozlH, tI* 4sz} Hl¤-E bEql qB4l E=61+zl= Hq +: ^lg -^E H*l(rate
law)ol+r..J+. "JEI49E rl-g HI+
aA+bB-cC+dD
ql q+ +E Blg El-q-+ rJ.l ut4g4.
4illtr zfg AE Cfol4. ol4l + ull$flzluJ, q¤ HI+q 46J m4 r9 "Jz1l qE, HI*
4¤ql^J 'JqLlE ,+ +Al HI¤-ql 4+ ge AB= Eg + 91trI.
lNur*l :0.100 aa, [Nor-] :0.100 Mql^Jq H]* +E= 4lt]g + 9i+.
+E, : 1Z.Z x tO-4lor-ls-1110.r00M)(0.100M) : 2.7 x tO-6 M1s
Hz(c) rz!)
+ zHr(g) +E: klHzlltz) [14.10]
CHCI3(8) + Clz(g)
-
-+ CCla(s) + HCI(g) +E: klCHCr3l[C12]1/2 t14.111
+E Bzlq s7l¤ zl+e+ +B *+ +*4q Alizl gzl6t= 4*zl zffi llzlr alQ.
rq+ 4 r+.sq 14.11ql^li-lH 6J^6t oJil6I= 13 olrl4.
qq* Hl+q qlfl^lE +E B4e d¤4 oe EC9q.t t4.
ql+Eg +E Hzlq^J HI$ 443 0, 1, 2ol+. :aBl+ HI+ zI+7| ++(^l 14.1l)otA+
*+"J +E B4E "*ol E + 91trI.
r[3olHJ8oll 1116ll,(]
2NO(s) +zHr(g) -.-----}Nz(g) +2H2o(9)
d:d4oe Eqd 4_E gr.lg
+E:ktNorlH2l olrf.
H2e.l EiETI + HtlTl ElE, UB +-E= Ljl HtlTI El4l=7t, F Ht|7[ Elil=7\, H6lxl gfl=71?
qFJl 14.4
gg {soil ol:li }Eg "c6Jg +E ,J4l!.|.
s{1,!71
atlff zAE 4 {}zlq= 3ol r0zli Eq 914. Bql 4.* HI+ il+7}
E{ +q1l ^l tz}ql Eq il= +9 4+71c}e.Q. o14o1 q +-e_Ee, +E Bzlq q4,ri [n]z[ tA]trq +Eq q
s6}g "ld+= ag "J + 91trI. E[+^] BE EET!7l*
=
9"latE Ht= 4 HI¤¤E r-oE7I +Erl= 4o14. +E E
44 tzt .JE +C s_aEg ol+4q, qI* 4gzt +7161 gElE(844 +ol 7[* "*3 {).1 4sz] zl-1t u[=r[. f=
+^le si+E# '+96l-= Erllol4. 2<t<:el f,,tlo1r1.
=
4tEt 4l +49 +qTl rJzl oll+9l, 4 ="+E *q ,l]+E + > E* ffldl1
E H4ql Bq^l 4 txlq q6J +E= 4l+B + ?l+. ol {lxlloll,r-l H}+ +E^lol +E:ktArtBl4n 7t46}z}.
E_g¤E EI* 4szl +7i61+ +^ls +g+ ag qL
Eol tI4 ril: H34 * sz1etr H44 * sz\zl E9 9i-e- ^I
E= .AEL a"J7l?
-+L
-+!
.!.zI t: : (a)1<2<3
+E: k(sxs)2 t25k
(b)1<3<2
/*zt z9li *gq + zzli4 -H.44 * ztilzl Eq il-e--EE (c)3<2<1
*^l 2: +E: k(7)(3)2 :63k (d)2<l<3
^Jz| 3ql= 5-94 + rzHel -H.4^4 *zzllzy 59 9,lo o + (e)3<1<2
C-zl 3: +E: k(3X7)2 : L47k >H=q|fl2
+E7l7l* v?c13 oaqr3x12)olq, 7l* iBI= A* uzt< +E:k[A][814r 214.3 q, qdlq +4U sE.+g H]
(,.J2| :)o14. u14,r] {rE 2 < I < 3oltr}. + +E7l +zt6l+ +^'lE +g6l^le.
trJgl
+E ^J+q =zlel
Elelzlzl qL s+o.L t}Sol ^Jql4ee EHIE-a Lflzl= oJoE_Elr g ql, +dg ?*+ rt
g +E tfol4. .JEl4g-e k alol 3H(-10eol+ ol.Hrl a+) UEI= HI+g g"lolq,
/c *ol leE(rool+ olEEt zle A+) Lfl HI¤¤ 9"lel4.
=
+E *+e-l ++l= +E B4E dill +* ,}+ql IIl4 4eq. ql= d8l HI-& il+
=q
zI z"J HI89 a+, +E
^J+ ++l= +Sg "J+6Iot *tr}.
+E9 +91: (+E tl+el ++l)(+Eg +91)'z
tr14^l trE bE ++loJ EbEe+ t+l"J aE +4'}]E q+r+ a+.
^l^.&61+ ^lrJel
,i=?
+E tr+el ++l: (r-" Yfl,' : Y+ - M-rs I
E9_l ++l), Mz
qru 14.5
EJt ir+q 4E tr+ u+lel a{
I
(a) 14.9et^.1 14.11011 7l+EJ HJBE Eill oJB x6g gEt?.!7[?
^.1
(b) 14.eel +E E=10il rflEl +E 8+sl .J+l: +%.oJ7l?
^.1
6ll? B0l
Et + TtzlE +E H4r+ EB B}Hql ++ pgeE, (a) (a)
^l
14.e HISE +E= Nrosql qi6l^l lzlola, dill4e
dill Hl+ il+, (b) a Hall HI+ql 4+ HI* 8+e.l ++l= +tr lilol+. r+.rr HI¤¤ cHcrrq ql6}q 1ilolr.,
^l
E= +xllol+. cl,ql ql6}q rfio1q. Eal^l dill HI* 214; 3lzolq.
(b) 14.e9 +E Bzlql^]
fitq dz,ll HI$ 2145 +E Hzlql s^lB zl+E 6JolEl. + ^l
E ^J+ k9 E9l= +E B4ql +4+= +E9 SHI4"J + +E ++l: (4s tl+ t+l)(bE ++l)
g(M/s)e+ r-oE(M)= III+^l
^l-&4q +q4"E
kq 44 Eq^l
+.J4.
624 14Ef Elqf EJ8 +EE
+Etr++er = i=g:l
EoE B9
:\.:,-'
M
(a)
(d)
M 1l2s-t
1v1
zlz
t-r
(b)
@)
M tl2s 112
PTtlzt-rlz
@) Mtl2s-l
d4l HI+ il+7} H6iE +E tI+E +gE EoJ+= ^tdg > E* qlrlt2
+9"1+. (a) zl t+.tooll^l qI¤¤ Hz9l 46J HI* 2145 gottzl?
> -H.* qH 1 (b) 14.roql q.J+E^J+E ++l=#9.JzI?
^l
al r+.rroll,tJ +EtI+E +fl= trl-S+ qL a"J7l?
16.9 x t0
s
J 0.200 0.100
0l 0lE6G (a) ,J30ll rH-d 4_= E^1, (b) +E 8+, (c) [A]:0.050 At,lB):0.100 /\/oJ rt|1ol EJ8 +E= +61.^19.
^lE=
6ll'J +qd ,IEql^l 4e9l Elzl= g6}9 0l+610l
LoE Hslzt
E4 +qd s.ts HI¤¤el soEe} a7l HI* +Eq qlsJ a HI* ^l-+ql mal n* +6J+. $) m4 rg.JE, +E'$44
ol4. EzllE (a) 4s Hzl, (b) +E tr-+, (c) soll +qzlzl gg9 xlEE gso 6iq +E *+ k= +e + 9l+. (c) 4E
gg tEq
'l]+ HIg +E= +61+ 4o14. t}+e+ HI* ^l+= +614 qH, +E H4g ole"alol fol
z{tet (a) +E Hzlg tr]-sr+ ag B4ol4. +E:k[A],[B],. d tEql^-ig +E= +6J + 9i+.
&01
(a) dE 14 zE ullalB, [A]= .J46[a [B]= 2EH7t qfl+.
tr|+^l ol zleE [BJz] +Eql qBzl ¤6]¤- Elil=7] !_
+E1 k[A1]-[81]'
q +q, Bql ql+ +E 849 il+E +6J + ?l+. 4E1: k4n lW
dEes+q +Ee+ bE alg B-qH 4.o x u1s k[o.1ooM]a[o.1ooM]'
to-s
4.o x to-sW k[o.looM]'[o.2ooM)'
ol +"1 qBiH 7x:6ololo| 6Jtr1. qel^l 4s H4g e r: (tl4n
^lol
ql ql6l] oxlol4. ol{${Ez} 1s]q-5-$a}{E 9"lol4.
4 r+.t24 a;-f 'ln'g z}¤erol+(++ A.2). al ra.rz¤i rI¤-4 zJol C4tr +E ?l+.
ln[A],: -kf + ln[A]6 [14.13]
zl r+.rze} 14.139 [A]p] tAloE B9lz] ++H LoE9 ++lgE. 4"J + ?14. zl
"lule]
AI tlEllg El¤¤ +E+H, 4 r+.t29414.13e-l tE ql4l Sqg +E 9l+. olqoJ
L"E-$E zlflol zl-r'ofl 13 oltr zli.ll $zl(ro.4e +z)ql q+^l-+6J
"J4*gEql^] sqe
tE (n/Y)oll A tsl46}71 ullgol4.
.J7I qISql^J zl ru.n9114.139 qEl %[Hg.s 4"J + 9l']. k, r, [A]0, [A],6 4E
^11
<ig .JH 4"lzl 6IL|= +6J + 9l+. trI4^J ol ol+6[E tl+4 !g
ee a$$ eCB
+ 9l+. (r) t]*+ 5C ^lrJql tse Hi¤¤g tE, (2) "J{"+E ^lE7I Hl86l+ ql
^lz+
g9-* Lo E7I
"JC+ ++ql Eg6r= ql g.g-6J ^l+
^la, HI*E
(3)
qFil 14.7
11SB gil HJ8 4g Ezl9 olt I
12"CA Eoil^1 olEJ ¤=^llE6|l HJ8¤ gil HJSolq, +E g+E 1.45 y.1olrt. ol ¤=^ll ggBrol 6e 190il 6+e 1!4
=ol7l.
5.0x10-7 s/cm39 EETI- Elflrl-. E+ 8E= 9E(8E. Eet7l. +Eoll B:*= +^l ?JEe -Er')6|.q-r" 7lE6l]], (a) r|.3 6tl 6E 1"J
g=rilel tsEE EoloJTl? (b) ¤=rilq tsE7|.3.0x10-7 s/cm3.E ,J^atalU gDlLf
'Jtli7?
^lzJol
6fi3
E^1 ol EI+g "Jit **o14, *.Ee+ ^lrJE 4aol +qA ztel E^ll (a)9lrlE +E t+,
^l+:r.ul-r. HI¤¤E
.a.716r--
(a) "Jr 9l= <ig 4 t+.t:ql Ell"J++. lnfSfx]ll,=1, : -(1.45yr-1)(1.00yr) + In(5.0 x 10-'7)
111
y: mx+ b
olzl HJt
0lil ElEi(second-order reaction)9 eI* 4sz} HI¤¤ +EE 4+q Hlql6r4Ll E|
.E.Eg
^lE
E + TIzl Ei¤.E Elq.J+. ++6lrll aITl 9l6}q HI¤¤ Aql ql6}q 2iloJ
'I+ql
vl
ln P tl] fE E,(lE :zflszl4.ldolatE. olrq-d EE + o^)=71?
=E=
160 5.2
a 140 ffir
! rzo
ol 4.8
4.6
HI roo oI
U 4.4
8- 80 z 4.2
4oo f
U 4.0
540 3.8
20 3.6
0
0 10,000 20,000 30,000 10,000 20,000 30,000
'rluJ (s)
^tzJ(s)
(a) (b)
=01
ql+ h[Noz]e] l/tNot= tn[ttoJ r/[NoJ (r/u)
^lrJql lNorl(M)
E^l6l7l 9l6l-q, aqal zlE-eP ^l2J(E)
0.0 0.01000 -4.605 100
El trl-*E ahlg +q+4.
50.0 0.00787 -4.845 127
-5.8 50
0 100 200 300 0 100 200 300
,ttz(s) ,ttZ(s)
afg 14.8 No2E E6t| USoll qA4E rfe
14.4 I
^lzoll
ttl= :iEol Eol 629
ocil."Jt
.Ji[ H]+q^1, H]*E Ael tE: f.s 14.e9 se^4 +daH EldB
"e. [!3 e olE g^l-H-t8at
aA++. [A]7[ aa6]E H]* +EE ololl ulullaH.<J 'J^6]rll g+. git
2^1.
^lrJollA
ts-lB(zero-order reaction)e.l A+, Ael 4E +5i= tAle+ ++6ItrI. S^l
?J3¤;El6t7l olaig^l=7f?
+E : -ii:k
-AIAI
[14.1s]
HJAI ^tHJBa[g^[HJ39
.t"ffi
ltalo
-- -ktrp
lnl: -kt112
hl 0.6e3
hp k k
174.17)
4 rze.*El, .Jii ++ Bzlql^l frrzE HI8E9 =zl +Ee+ rud ag "J + 9l+.
r+.
rfl=g HI+ol 116}6l= F.J qlrJzli "JA6I+. ql= Eq qtr +rJ HI*EE +E7l
0.120 MoJ a+, + 4E +rJ717I zlulE llo.rzo M) :0.060 Mol g+. "J Hq *rJ7l7l
q zl+E +E= 0.030 M-tr ,Ja++. I t+.vz ol+6lq .Jil EI+ql^J kE "Jr 9l'tE
630 143 at+ U3 +EE
arB 8E
1ee"Coll,\1 DllE ololaLlolE=Jol 0[^]1tr
14.'t0 A 10.0 g9 EEE s-g-d Eoiol gi'HJ- -dtt=, dJ.JTvl
^11
qHl 14.e
.Jil.tsJ¤.E cJ,JTlEt
c+Hgcr4 Eel HJ- oJ^f HJSoltl-. (a) rts 14.3= 0lEdlq 0l USel [jJ2J7l= +dl,\lg.. (b)(a)oll,r.l +pl HJ#71++El +E 8+
+61^19.
=
Ii..r: ,Jtr F E4l HlzJTl= 680=ql^l g"i*ott}6J+. oltrll +E
5rr,; |_Ee,| r4:.tr+q
Hi8el *rJ71= +6Ir, r. +^l ; u11 z$a|{ o.o2s Mol B+. r.4s= zf^ll6l g
^l+el =
q-E_E ol=
+rJ7l= ^FS5lq +E {r-+= +6}= Ezll.l+. "J + 9l+.
> E6 qlrll1
(a) H]rJzlE +6171 916ll^l qE :'E= dq6l:,1, :t +:E7l *d ql4lql^1, zs"Coll,r.l N2osk)7} Nor(g)e+ ozk)s E
Hlol El= ql 34= rlzJg "J.l-Eq. 6Hq= HI¤+ "Jit H}+olq, k:3.4xro-s s-'ol$.4.
=
rl ol+6}q HlaTlE+q +E Tloll 2.0 atmE N2osE galofjr. 9l= +E .Jq
(b) r+.17¤. ^J+= 4l1I++. ^lE7t
380 torrE Hcl6h= ql aEl:,tlzJ$ $ulolzl-r
Srrl
(a) r4 E-e.*q [c4Hrcl]g 2.7)7"lol 0.100 MoJg 'J + ?l (al s.7 h (b) 8.2 h (c) tt h (d) 16 h (e) 32 h
+. ol .J^l- t}*g tlzJzli [crurcl]ol o.oso ME +i > saEql,|l2
+= ql ael= ^lrJolq, :4gql.<l 9lg + fl4. ol d (a) l4.ug ol+a}q qzll 14.uq 7l+g ¤+xll9 E
^l
3 * l+oaql 'Jqt+. 6]]ql 46J hDE 4l+I6}^le-.
(b) k= +61-71 96l] !
rt.rzg= ol+6lE (b) &6419 EoETI a¤- iig t/4ol q--- Ell AE)= ^lrJ
. - 0.693 0.693
g +6t^le.
k 2.0 x 10 's
ttp 340s
'
olil HI+ q q= Hl*el t}?zlE HI+Eel .r-"Eql el=6lE-E, HI* 4C +ql Hp++
+. .JzI HIAE 4EB +E Hzl ^l 14.12q1^l tAl, ql^lql [A],,u:]telo=, r 4dgl rrzzE
4.J4q HlzJzlE +61-= 4 r+.t2==- gflq. 4 r+.r+oll olel aol q]oJ6[= %]Hg zl+6]
H, olr[ H]$el t]zJzlE +g + 9lt].
l1 - ,.L
lt^rr:krirz+[,\]o
2
kttp
lAlo [A]o
*-1
tr z:f[A]o l'14.191
J
14.5 | EEel',Jt qAE
^-,E rlE
gE +7}ql q+ ql++E ]tl-q} HI+ +EE 6zlaJ4. ql= 5E "JzlF q}+e Btl arH 14.12 EE= gB ErllTloll^l g
GlLl-= Et-E gB US9 +Eoll g-d=
rlql 9ig ullBtrl ¤eql 9lg Ell q 94 +Eq ee-tr, 4Ee +g qltrq q-E\6J Elr.l+. ar+,JB HJ- rlgEoll^l rl
gAlql^J trl E4 zt+rl. cyalume' B+r sl4zl4 zJol H¤ ts^J6l+ ElqI g%Ig uulBzl gqLlr,,ill4o e q PJ3'!01
+A6ll BE Hi* +Eql trl7lE gEe-l S+g.J f 114(=414.12). g8-sftl.
632 148 6l+ BJ8 +EE
Tiolrf.
4 zl-i +E6Iq, ol f zlzloll q4q Hl* 4szl +7IoJ+.
:r$zlu3 RI*ol 'Jq+48 ++,J 65s+ rl "tg +qe
Gl^ll 14.11011^l
^lEE
z[, + gH]= %]^loEE +=i"1 s+g+. ql++E H]+ql
.J+E"J HlsoeE gag4. ql= .JEi4.J gEel ^ru
^l +EE "Jq 6[q ilE urp+ r,
=H
eElEql^J, 4 Ezk a'o} E 10'0H 7I* +E=dJrt. Hzq rz -EE +Eq E6Iq Hr
^Iole-l
,I ^JC9+E, El¤+ I=E qzl ?+ol ¤g 4o14. olar+= Bil, tlgql^] ol EI*g,l]
+ L44l 118++. 10'3Hg +E zlsgl ql+.J HE u¤trJol ElsoeE tsa¤+. +E
qlEql El¤+ q E4 'J94zl ?*Yzl?
Hll6J oJaf
q++e-] HI*ql^J, ts^IrJe-l +E=e ezl¤ol H-6Jee E}]6Jqq fl= a+qEI E++
=A
HI+g "JeA+. += ^lql Bxl¤q tr-qlzl ulalol flzl_Eol ^ll-e.+ a*g "JEzlgl 4B
+ +llq flizl= AC.J+. qlE 5q +Eql E6li cl gxl-=ol .Ja4^l cl,z} q=. raJ
utaq +l+ rH4 Ae EI¤¤ ^J46il Ezl.
Cl+NOCI+NO+Clz
HlEql :aBq oI4+ +Eq^l= F zli9 cl gzlT} zld +5614 *ql^J HI¤¤ol ^Jdq
?+=+.
^l
gr^JEl qlLlzl
EzI Ezl¤ol +E=g trl HI¤¤ .JezlL +g6-J g6J oJztTI otq+. 1s88LJql 1?ll
El]6Je
'J9 Elelz} Svante ArrheniusE tszl-=ol Hlso6}EJH qtr 4A6Jg ollulzl5 zlzll llol
ol q}+r z].J6l.fl+. +E EBql 9618, ol qqzl= +E Ezlg +F qlqzlepq zl
qI6J+. +Eq 96ll^1, Ezl-=g ++ qlqzl= plql A6Jg 4l+ +E6}{
"JErlLt, ++
4rl+, E= a.Jg ¤+6141 6[q r a4 p]q] t]*ol gqt+. eE 9lHzlz] +ztg
El¤l¤ "llHzlE HqI^l7l= ql tsxl-=ol ,l]+ 4Lg 3E
=
.llHzlE zltlt_,l]+ A
^l-SgEl.
14.5 3-=e;u.13 +5 633
Ert4?! uJSol
"Jol'J,
at- a/\l =E,
40
5e=
3
=EE
.,il&
_=E Xl
e,
o=
A.r.H 14.14 Cl flxlel NoCl E^[ trt+ HJ- gee + flZLl goe + fl= E^1.=E
^tololl
a6l ¤.zlolB(ul+ zI9 ¤-F 9lHzl= r*r gleH), r5g trzl 9E E+E "Jozlzl *
etrd ^lE +E=g gol4. :+eL HI*ol ^lliq= r1l geal 44+E qLl zl= ggrf qLjxl
(activationenersy, D4r 5|=ql, gCEl ,r|+ +s+.
"llulxl #3 Hi¤'q
EI+ol "Jq+= Fq]el t|+g:aJ 14.1sp] eE|. +g d+= flq Hq a BFoJSE gs
+¤ ol5.^l717l g16l] +g a+. tqg ="4 ? ^[o]E *H(barrier)olr]. aql Eg6]elH,
gg d+= tqE +4zlzlzl ;rol olEg + 9E+ ylrl(putter)E ol+6|q +EJ -gF
9lHxlE 716110} +trt. EIE +g.J qlLJzl= 716lzl g:gl+8, ro9 t=Jg 942|4zI9E
of Lilqg 1o14. ole+ Ag B4ge, EzI= slE HIBoI .Jq+= E.J zl¤9 A*g #
q qtr 3ld6Jq qlLJzlE gstr aJ4. ol ala qlulzlg.llHzl ,*HGnergy barrier)9
=
E ^J4B + gl+. qlE EE q1g ololiutolEgql^J o|.rjlE{olEgeq zl.E #a H}+
q^J, olold+olEH9 N=c Y Eol ges a¤q+ +rJ ^J4= zd 4ol4l tl.
"llg
^&.J + 9+.
H3C-N:C:
r\ --------) + H,C-C:N:
\_-r' [",. I,]
n/
gra d+7l,g0fLI
^iot
6lb^l= ae q3 ¤i +qE7[?
^llzl=¤ =g6f=
Eel ?l^let=el ?tr iiol, 8rl"flq 447lel a+ i[01
i
L-
arH 14.15 A7l dfEt|e[415 8Et| ,\l0l0ll ?l= 8EE Pl6H^l= 011L1^l7l"Jea;r1.
=+5t71
634 14"t A_* EJB +EE
Ll
H.C-N=C7I H3C-C=No-tr H++q= Hls"3 gg HI*
^l olrt. trI+^l H}$Etrtrl q *g "llrJzl$ z*=
H3C-N=C ^JdE$:H
AE 14.r6ql^l Eq +El. rq+ H}+ql^l 9lHzl HsI(lE)E HI*
:1\
+Eql o}+fl g"JE ?zl ?*i4.
,Jael 8.J +E ^}+= n,! zzlo\ q=++. 9tI4 o e r,z[ {$ffi
arB 14.16 Dll=J 0|.014+0lEaJ(H3CNC)o1 0l.5Ei]loJ 01. +E ^&+4 ==a HI*ol n[}s+.
.{Le{o;eg1s3ccN)E EgEl= u30il rfl-d oilLl^l tJEE
ol HI*E qHI+e
=9 **ol4E ag +el6l4. EHI*E
gcpl qLl 4= aHi*g aEe+ 4q *(ar +4q a+. rqE
e EqI+q^J g^dq¤ql EBdtEjE dH}+ql^1tr4 rl "*¤ 9lHzlz} 9ea1q. ol EI
*E A+ g+ql^J s=+oEE +*Bq s=+ql^l g+eeE Hl*"] rl tH.l =H4.
ZSl ral 14.16s1 tru=a'qu=otl rHEJ +E **=e 4*alfltr'r 7f=6l^t clL g-dg +E
q=7n
| t+rt.
qtr EdqI o11g ololr*olEg tszl+ El= Ez[e+e] +$$
E"]] +ts6J .ll'JzlE 9*
ssrll .tlr,lzl ^JH$ ++{tr].. $A.J +rJql zlxll $xlel 9luJzlE l-Jg HgE EE+trI
Tlrll +E EriEg tzlo}4.---, (10.7¤). ral 14.tz9 += + gEql^Jg g+ ql
=
uJzl $Eg +4'Iq, HI*ql gs,* qlqzl(E,)e+
^Jtr
4iulaatH4. +g s-Eql^l ol#
E,E+ ¤+ glHzl= r*= +z|9 +gol rl glolzla, ol.e olall Hl* +E7t q E4
= =
4l+.
t- EJSoll
a4 qlLl^(E")
E r3T
^l
ol
E
E
ts3 EEoll^1 U361.=
Erlg EEol trlrq.
E5 qtq^t
a.l.g 14.17 + E^l=e.l EE oilL1^l .EEoll Elil= Es.q ggr
^lE
14.5 e-Eef UB +E 635
A .t,6t^tA *rajEBel B - c9 F Tlxl y-t8ol gt+r 6t^f B= Eal-J + 911, o; EEol pj86l
A c HJ8oll^l B7t dol SEtlgzt?
I -
zlill tlqlE EzI dEl9l,<] 4tr+ a4q ee ¤+ qlqzlE ,*= EZIEE +gg +El
.liE q-s-r} a+.
f : e_E,tRr Il4.ZOl
ol Rg Tlal ttf(s.l+ l/mol-K)oll, r= eEI gEol+. f *E a-7lql 4il olol
^lql^J
qqE EsdlE, E,7l qal Hl*q dB4 {}oJ too kllmolg zlt-, rY dg *oJ:oo
Kqr. zlC6}z[./E 414] i]3 r.s x 1s-r8oltr, olE ,ll* z]g =rl
+iloltrt. 320 Kql^J Eg
f:4.2 xr0-r7ol4. trt+^l 20.9 gE .al^ 100 kllmol9 qlLlzl= zlz)t-
=:7}trJegE
9l= B^I Egol 10Hl] oltr- +7I6.J+.
Arrhenius 4.1
e@ @
Ej
EJ]
25 kllmol
=
oll
15 kllmol
20 -',
Ll
I :T
^l
10
T
kllmol T 5 kllmol
15 kllmol
t
__t
EJ39 Tlg EJSelUg HJS9II-"J
9lol 7l^l BJBE UE oJ^l A7l71elALla 7l'8ts q, 8U39 +E At+71'lte ,toll^l E to+ EEdt,\l9..
^ll
.+E HIE++ gEql q4 +7168--E A: gE qC¤e TtzlzlEJ, xl+ *ele} Hlr.6l9g CIE 4C <tolE|. trl?+^l A:
aE dl+s ^84oil"i.J+.
636 143 tr'-.,f HJB 4-E=
gcgl oilHulzt *g++ +E (a) (i), (iil, (iii) 5 o1u1"3l HI+ +EE zoTl^l7Jr+.
^}+= 4xlr. HIgg B4d
4. ar: +E t}+q ¤6Jg Elilzl ?j:=+. tri+^l +E tl ttl (il4 (iil
+el+^'l=2<3<lol+. (c) (i)+ (iiil
(d) (iile+ (iiil
> .H.+ qll{l1
trl-s + qtr HEIzI *.t HI*el +E tr-+E +71^l71b7l? (e) 4l zlzl E+ Hl+ +EE +71^l7Jr+.
(il 9s ar > .E6 qlrll2
(iil $CEI qluJzl zJc qHI+g Hl+ +E7l Lfl a+q unl$ +e-E Cg6}^le-.
+F^JEI ollLlz;
z3x
rnk=-L+lnA
RT
[14.22)
111 mx+b
ol 4g 4d B=I= r*=+. ln k 4 1/r9 zld r4Eoll^J 7lg7lY -E,/Rola_, y ¤s3
ln Aol4. gflE eEql^l k= +c6}r., h ke} l/?ql ql* r4E= r4n, :a4 sE 7lg
7le+El E,= 4]4I6IE gC+ "ilulzlE ACg + 9l+.
F zH ol{t9 gEql^J H}¤:9 +E t}+= oJn 9leE, :r-4EE rqzl ?+r ^_l t4.22=
ol+6[q E,E +g + glr]. qlE 5H rrr] rzgl^l qtr *+E +E t]+E
^lE += ¤E
krr+ k24r. 7IC6I^1. 4 gE aaql^J trl-99 zlol cB,*4.
E. +
: ---- 1n.4, lnk, : -frr* ne
E.
lnk,
^Je-l
+E t}f k,9 ag a4l +g + 91tr1.
qEl 14.11
g¤rzt ollLlzl ,JUalTl
trI4^'1
-5
kr
-6 i : e-3.18 : 4.15 x 10-2
2.52 x lo-ss-1
tlztl : -E
I
-7 -n
I
I
k1 : (4.15 x to-2112.s2 x lo-s s-1) : 1.0 x 10-6 s-1
s-8 .1
trl!4Ll+
14.6 | 'Jt
+¤ slq H}+^lql= HI* azl9l Ee4 HI+ ¤:ql EdEol E^lqq
:4* =46l+
r8dEe =7l]6t= zl-^ll6J
fl4. ¤zl9lE t}*Eol Es+6t=zlql 4* EzI +=q +415e
+4+ flzl g*4. Hl+ol .Jq+= +41$$ E!= fll{Ll=(reaction mechanism)olelI 6J
trI. EI¤-,ilrlq=g a6Jol #,qzli1 {dq: +^Je+, H}+q III.E gztg t}rl gil Hp+
E zl* Ar.* +=ql^l zI^Jl6l-Zl ¤E++.
.fJ .J4l
'Jt
sq^l ar+E HI*ol .Jq\]+= ag tsIfl+. ql= 5E q1g olola*
^IolE +E
E^l-=
olEg(CH3NC) Ezt A +E=g 9lHzlE =o;-6t{ CH3NCT} o},tJlEu}olsge x}4 #zJ
g+ glal
"J=rI.
638 148 at+,J3 +EE
/.-\
H3C-5Cr-------> H3C-C:N:
[",. I,] ->
u|{z}xlE Nozq ozE rJc6}E H}¤¤ +Bd qlqzl= r*E No
Noe+ o37} E}9"6l.q
Exte+ 03 $zlz[ 4B+ tsI6]ql^l +E=6.J Ar+tr "Jq+= Aee -u.J4.
No(s) + or(s) -+ Noz(s) + oz(s) lr4.24l
+ HI¤. E+ 6J +4lq^l .Jq+q, Eg EXIElE(elementaryreaction)ol4:z ++.
+'J +41 EISq^l HI*ge +q6l= szt9 fE: HI+el ErlE(molecutarity)4r. eI
+. "JE + +ztYI HI*ql +q+H ol q]¤¤ gElrJ(unimolecular) HI+ol+. EllEr ololi
+olEgq zr;l +rJg .Jtszi r+aol+. F zll tl¤-E +zI ,J +53 E6J6l= +"J +41
HISS olExl(bimolecular) t}*ol4l o'J+. NoeI or9 EI¤* olgzl HI6-olEl. +'J +
4l HI+{^J ^ll Ez[7] E^lql +56]= a+= gElr](termolecular) t]*ol4l .J+. i]ts
zI HI¤+ $Ez[ 4Col4 o]tsz] $Aql Hl6I El¤ol +61 *n. 49 "J94zl ?*=r].
7l] oltlel Eztzl +z]4ss E^lql +EaJ 7lq= g{ 4}r, ol+l6J +E=g H}+ ,il4q+
'-Jl
R No(g) + Clz(s)
-
NOCI(9) + Cl(g)
trl.JAl trll4Ll#
E1
trI4^l EI*ol + t4l ollzq=-g.tr gqtqa g + 9l+.
{7lq+.il^l +"J +{ HI-&ql qt 4E+ HI*^le E+ q6r
EJI
a erJill ++41
oil
H
rl
AHA{9 H, d8l HI*rl4E rl4e}*al"l 9E}.
¤rllE ql^lql^J, + 7||E +.J t4l HI¤¤ E+ q6IH trIg4 e+.
2NO2(s) + NO3(s) + CO(s) .+ NOz(g) + NOa(s) + NO(s) + CO2(s)
ol E+gE .J+ql 9l= +F Eeg d7j6lH, ,J+61 rs.zs*
ut-g.ot xt6H
^lel
zJe "Jat t}*zlol eqd+.
^l
a rH 14.'19 Eol d|Ellel. 6zill= Eq +ts uSel No,E ol HI+E HI¤¤g olqr ^dcEs olq+. olag a H4l
olll-l^IEEE
E"J +41 HI*ql^J ^J^Jqr +.9 +4q^J +Es.lirJl, olag
=rJi{l
r+.0 i EJB DllTlLla 639
qH 14.12
Ezts,314 +rJillel ttE
eEol ozE EeJEI= 7ld= F Ell DllzLl=E zlili zlo+ E|$qflq'.
oe(g) ---_02(sr)
+o(s)
Os(e)+0(e)
-2oz@)
(a)01 oll1t-l=oll^1 4 Eg EZI HJqe-lE^lE= ¤B6l'^le.
(b)Ei1l HJ39 El.+ Hl8^lE l
(c) EzJrllz h 9leE ¤E6l^le.
^le.
4ts,)4 Hla +4lel tsztE= H}+4q^l Hl+61+ Eztfq .l 44q+q ql* 4-gE E* + *s as?
"ll4q=ql^l + +41 t.i
E6ll Aqd+. d^ll HI+^le +"J +41 HI+E HIA^]=9 (il ol$z| HI+ol+.
tlol4. +Ai{= 6}+el H}8 *Zlq^l ^}Cqn, q= +4 (iil d^l EI+!g A(s) + B(s) + c(8) v(s) + z(s)olQ.
q^J -
(iiil E¤ x(c)= ol ,ilrl'l=el+rJ^llol4.
^FSq=Eaolo+, dal H}¤.4qiEolslzl ?*=+. (a) + E^"I"J *4.
=01
(a) d Bzll Bg +4 HI¤+Ezl9 tl¤¤u.l ${a}E-tr
(b) ++ 04 (iilzt *4.
"J
(c) E J (ilr} {iil)o| gO.
'J+zI HI*ol+. + H4l El¤+ + ,l]E HI9--E E4= (d) E* (iilq (iiilol *+.
sololE-tr ol+z} HI*ol4.
(b) + ,l]el *'J +41 el¤¤ ulalfl q-s-4 a+.
(e) rJl EzJ EF *+.
+ > H= filr{l2
2oz@) + o(g) 3Or(g) + o(g)
trl"g HI+ql ql6}]^l
o(c)= "JEq Ag oJ-e--e +4+-EE zlz6}q ++61 6IE, Mo(CO)6 + P(CH3)3 .- Mo(CO)5P(CH3)3 + CO
Els- r+ Ag .Jxi t}$!$ E=+. q-Sq ql4q#ol x{"Jqfl+.
zoz@) 3ozk) Mo(CO)5.+Mo(CO)s+CO
- azlsl
ol{$ Mo(CO)5 + P(CH3)3 .+
(c) +rJllE o(dol+. H}¤¤E o}qj1 4+ Mo(CO)5P(CH3)3
4CEE olq+. "lae ,il4q=tlE a H4 +alql^l (a) 4l'J¤ ql4q+g d4 HI+E HI¤4ln+ggaJo1gz[?
(b) ,il4q=e_l 4 EAlql^J tszlE= 9Bzll 9Ezt?
^JCqj1+ H4I Bzlql^l aElB+.
(c) 6zJ^ll$ +H6I^le-.
f
Bzle EI+ ql4q=sE+El aaE+ qlr, ol= dEzl.s-e sB¤ +E Ezlr} Hlr,g
+ 9l+. r-4 oe. olzll+H e .Je de4 +E H4q +.J6r= EI* 44q+g "JolLil=
4,o14. +"J +41 Hl+g +E H4g ^J461= A+q trzl.
^14|6ll
+'J +41 HI+g q+r+ Ae dql^l 4+ +s6|+. t}*"l +'J +41 H}8"18, ol HI*
9 4E. B4e +4Ee+ zld4.J *4lz\ 9+. qlE E9 .Jtsz} HI¤¤ ^846l] trzl.
d+CdE
e tszl9 +71+7titJ++ "J4+ 7J4 t'"J HI+61= +E tslql6l.q *zld4. trf4^J
^l7J
"Jts^I4d9 +E= "Jilol4.
4r = t[n]
ole4 +.J t4l HI*e.l A+, +E H4eq-Sr+ aol olitol+.
A*B ----- ^gCE +E:ktAl[B]
olrl HIg +E E4g +5 olEq^l ule. gg + glr}. Ag *ETI + HllTI gE a Ezlq
s Bzl ?J+E+71+ HllTl¤4. "t&zl"zltr, [B]7]+ Hl]oIE A, B +E+71-F Hl]
^tolE
ol+. trl+^l +E B4e iAle+ tBlql qldl 44 oJilolr dill4_e--E olilol+.
E= 7l-!'o6J E.J +41 HI*g 4s Bzlol E 14.3q +q4 9l+. +E Hzl.l tI*9 E
zlEe+ zldzl.J ¤*ol 9l¤¤ +4 rlAl +qtr4. r4+ *zl dxil +¤ elq HI*4"JS
ts 7 El+ol P zl]9 +.J +41 E]¤_g E$a}izl5 .J + s+= ^|dg "ixl e+.}.t t4.
L 14.3 .Jg .J4ttrt4 otEet+E'Jrl
Eg ElI U3 -aE r+l*l
=I[E
.J+ZT e-ddE +E: klAl
OIEZ} e+e-----StE +s.:r[a]'z
ol+zl e+s.-----^JCE +s.:r[e][s]
tBzl e+e+e.----^8tE +E:r[e]3
$+zr A+A+B.----^JCE 4s.:t[e]'?[s]
tBzt A+B+c-----^JdE +E:ktAltBltcl
qFll 14.13
fl"J Lf4 tltcl+E Efl qE¤,Fl
rtE HJ30l 6,lLlol Eg Ezl uSeE BolLJrE:g trt|, +E E4lE ql86t^19.
HzG)+Brz(s)-2HBr(g)
6tlff 4s.:k[HJ[srJ
s*{
^lol
?9zll, **ol t9 +41 r+co]?+r. 7ta6l.n +sl ol HI+ql ql6J dpg +46iq, HISol ^rue ,l]+ tri
+E B4g fali sxllolr|. +E H49 zld4E ag "J4 qS4.
=
rlq HI¤-ol 6I+E tr"J +AI Hl¤.eE .Jq*+:7rdol gl 4=:t[nr][nrr]'/2
o E.E,
^lq
fl= Hi+3=E 4l+E ol+6tq +E Hzlg dE4 +E Bzlol, 6}+el +.J +Al H}+ol+a z|{a}z
+ + el+. ee +E Hzl4 4ezl qEq, HI+ Eilrlq=ol 6I+E +
Eol HISol Hz t tszle} Br2 fl $zlg stl6l-= ol+zl Hl g +als qq flzl 9+q= aEg Eg + 91tri. tri+^J qI+
*o14. trI4^l +E Bzle 4 HI¤¤ql qlql oJilolr., d^ll 3 HIE^I F 7l] ol^Jg +.J +Al= Eil4ot"J ++.
4 0 e olilol+.
14.6 UB ullTlLA 641
>E*qll{l1 (d)B-----X+Y
2 A+B +x+2 y HI¤¤
^J46]]
B7t. "l HI+E ql4q (e)A+B+x+Z
a B4l +41= ++g +E H4, +E:ktAl[B]= F .H6 Slrltz
=ql^l
u+=4. HI* ql4q+E A H4l Ezle.l ++4g qL a 2 No(g) + Brzk) -+ 2 NoBr(g) +¤¤ Bzi.
^J46ll
.Jzt? (E.¤ z= +rJrllol+.)
(a) HI*ol 6I+9 +"J +41 Hlg"ss gq*+l.
7146t
(a) A +e +Z n, +E E21-o- *,tle. (b) +.J +Al ,I4q="1 ol HI*
-Y
(b) A ----- X+Z el fl|q=se 4BdzI?
(c) A+A+B +x+Y+Y
{xll: zlf;
^14
1
- zlfr 3 (A, B ,q_+ zl4}i E"
4)
-
efr 4l&a Aq^l 6I+ E= r "lt}g 4l4l4zl rJryo1+^l ,llt4 floll zlz| $ol
olzlf
"JEl gl+r1 7}a"ll H4(re ru.20(a)). il¤ol zld 3ql Eg6l-= +E= 4lti Aql^JE
lF gAlg Hq+= +Eql el"ll 4l.Jg+. q+^J r+Al7l +tr EtrE E"46IE .lAE
+E ac +zlol+. rq+ EIE .q+ 4+}^ A9 E= 4l+I4zI dtr-4ee 4IE6l:7, ql
(a)93?.
^l¤01
s* nl{lA B¤ Ezl6l= +-E¤ e7i^l7lB, ^l¤01 rl¤ 10ll^l 3c>e 7l.b
*Ezl6z1g t;!o-17l?
A zltl^ B
ZITJA A 4lt4 B
2+4l= 1+41tr+ gt
4 kz>> krol4, ol= 6t^ll Nor(g)z| 1+4lql^l aa6l
uBteq.
+illq E=6r4, ol| u|gz.lalzl ?+rL .JHlzl o.e= HIgg +E Ezlg Hl¤¤e, "JEql
ge6}+8, rJCge g|d6ITlE +l.J+.
H zlzlE 7lC6}tr, +?JAI NoBrz9 t.E= 7ll^l HI+E.J NoeI Brz9 ]-oE-E 'I+g +
91tr1. +d NoBr2z[ E9]d6]r H]8 e6J¤ql 9ol flg CEE Be
oJol +4921 ?]=+
r 7ld++. g+ ^Jc¤ NoBrzt: Noe+ HI86Iq NoB¤ ^Jc6I4+ Noe+ Br2tr 4ltf
6116}= *B=e aElg 7l-bcol 94. ol4,* + 714 7l+c +ql^J a HrI= 2+alolr
gfl 4Col4. + dxll= r+419 9*8ollq-q-r+ ?¤ "JEzI4{ol4.
-!t' NO(S) + Brz(8)
NOBr2(5)
il)Slli? 5;,H?1?
[NoBrz]oll '116ll
EE,
[NoBr2] : k.
frtNollo'rt
ol +4149 zl ra.:ooll q.J6|8,
+E
k,
:,krk_1[No][Brr][No] : riNo12lrrrl
414.269 HJSoll rH-d otzllq ae qlzq=e.E+Ej 4-E H.lE +E6l.H= q, olriol d-d4ee +eE +E g4l7t gil-EtE 6
B6[^19"
EAj En[= a7l E4l= r*= qlr]q+g +a, d4l H]+E + ¤lAzil N,o2E HI¤+e r¤-6}r fl4. :44 dql4 +E
E Blg folf $zllolcl-. Ezle+rJillE *.E=EaJ6t7l 9+a, rll4lq +¤-EE r-"E
4e! qlaq+ql^'i Lfl +.J t4
HI+g +E BzlS d81 tr, qtr A+ql= ^JCEE ]-"Es s¤g+. tri+^l a H4ll
HI+e.l +E B4g AA+q. trl4^'l +d LA tr419 Ezl +alql^.1 BB"l B{*$n 7tC6lr., Nzoz9 *E= Nog
14.7 l+oH 645
^+E
zl?7lzl s4 Tl?.lE HI* 44Ll=q EI6l]^] ^J46l] tr9t+. + 6t+el +"J +Zl +
qoeB.Jqq-= ^Jl HI*ql qlEI ,ll4q+ 4+e+, 6lL|9 +E Ad tal= r*= rJ+6J ++
Zl HISql 4+ ,il4q=' f zlzlo14. rq+ q +tle oil4q===E 9l+. ql= 5q q*l
+ol ^Js+qI rJgE +rJ6Ij1 9+8, +E H4g +61= ql glq^l +rJxllg LoEE +^lB
+ H= A+$ql ql6H^l ul+7| E 4o14. Al4tl dE ql"lEle+ 9z16}: +E Hlg E
7l f]6fl^l 3szll ol,!-e1 "*e +Al= g a e 6l+ ,ll4q+E 9l+.
14.7 l+El| 4t
toll(catalyst): zt4lg g+4ql slE4 HE+E 4zl g:-q-E^l p+E HI¤' +E= Hs+^l7l=
Eeol+. ^J^ll qlql^J, 4zl 69lrl, E= Bl+ +ql^J "Jq+= ql++E Hl¤+ +EHg E
+ee. "Jq+q. {-E4ee +s,* H}*q q .cr}4 "tr z}s"6}E +Ell= *zl 9lol] B3
+84.J qle} ¤7zI ol-folzlr gl+. Eel++E +^1, L]I+, +71 g^J Eo4 *3 HIH.zl
dl-zl ?*g qI¤¤ +1161+ +,llE 9z]o144 ,il461+ %r-Hg *zl 9lal B.3 ¤+ r.4g
Tlgolr 914.
tg +Ell 4.+
HI¤: ¤.BEql^-l EI¤¤==4 +4E 7g rtfl(homogeneous catalyst)
Ag ^Jgs
=7l]61+
+r. ++. *.-4tol4 zlxll$etr +461+ +"J +EllE ql= B+. qlE^] r+&+ +^ +
*9(szoz(aq))ol Er+ 4IrE Edq= HI¤¤ ^J46il EzI.
2H2o2@Q tH2o(/) + oz(s) [14.31]
-
+oll7l- s.eH, ol +¤+ ,li+ L4rll "Jqt+. rq4 "*e Eeol ol HI+g +,llE 4l+
g + gl+. ql= 5q H-e.r,Je+ oleg &c +Eql^J 44IEl +ie+ Hls"6l9 HEEI +¤:
"_44 +g ^JC6J+(fs il.2r.
ZBr-(aq) + H2O2@q) + zu+(aq) Br2(aq) + zHzo(l) 14.32)
-
646 143 alqf U3 +EE
EJB
o o o
=-EtEoll
i.l7 Ltrlq
NaBr +oil
@
p, p"
., I
lll{
uo -QoH
o- =ot
6l
HrOr(oq)
¤> \."*
)
-i f I ¤ ) ooa
g {' f' { o P o .rl
ooo
, *
{,
2Br-(aq) + H2O2@fl + 2H+(aq) Br2@fl + H2O2@q) -------->
ol{ol {zll q}¤.ol4E, rrEqle+ olgeH}+ +ql s}q}4 H+= 4flzl rllE"ll +Ell7} o}
'14. :44 r+&s+ +^= al r+.:zollrl Br2@QelE EI**+.
^Jcg
Br2@q) + H2o2@q) ZBr-(aQ) + ZH+(aq) + oz(c) [14.33]
++ofl uJ8
4nll ulg
x1
EJI
e
2H?Oz
oil
q 2H2O2+2Br +2H+
^l
2H2O + 02
2H2O+02+
2Br +2H+
HJ39I T]B
La414.22 40tl7l'fl= qsl HeoJ +0H7[ll$ r4l9 Hzoe E6tl U30ll tfl-d o]lLlrl trs
I
t\ I
I t a
II t. I
I
I
{
t
H -.J tlltl C2Hail
^t+
SdolG CzHs
EtrI. =rJill7l'
I I
ILa
\'{
,; ,t,
Eg olrll
++ E"Jol Hl+e rEJ 14.23q1 +4u "llrlq+g F6}]^J dgql^JE
=4618,
dril "Jqt+. H^l .ilBfl4 i^zl ++ sEql gzi¤4. ++g H2e.l H-H ¤Bol #
9zl2l 9H ++EEql a.Jqq ?lH u fl4-= Elr4 zhq-Eal sE ?lE "lEaJ+ 9lal
¤+. ol H ?lzt7} ++qq 9l= qgd ts4-E "J+H, c-c n aBg gr + +^ flzI
+E 6I+s+ o ?6Jg B^d6I.1, ++_+i ,J o ¤6Jg F6ll s-Hql AElg ollBzl(czHJE
ol o 4dJ9 Hlr4 E6li^1, *"lxl E4 flxlzl E +e H g4-= qI*H 6url
^JC+trI.
c_H o A6Jg d7ll ^JC6lr qlel"J EzI(czHJE ++ .trBql^l gqdq.
EA
g+qq 9i= ir+E HI¤¤s ol+qA +E+ +t* oE^1, ol E
^r*9 Eg ^1tr ^lr.H
HI¤+ ^JEg $xlalzl +l6}q d"J6}{ 4¤g +E+ .Jq+ot.J4. ol4'* alo+ EI
=
*Eol 4e6J +Es .Jol4zl fl"ilrl =+(enzyme)r]-a "JEi4 il= Aol4"J EgCg
,*= ^JEo+4 +EllEol tr*ol g,s6r+. ql++q Ea= +EIa Exlolr e4elg E
=
10.000-1,000.000 amu9 H9l= ,*YL+. EdE rEol +d^l7l= Hl+q qql ,I+ dq
4eE 4}+61+ql, qqe + 6|+9 HI*q^J + B}Llel Eeql"J zle" E cEE +q 5ol
6F|. qlE I+4IEI +a g6ll HI*e +s+ I++IEI +^=
=q ^JE+4 44o14. 'J+ 4l
+Ell$s7l
$sg +,ll= E^lE qlTl sg 1|'-7lql +st qgg.J+. +4 +E= 7lg.J+ 6IqqE, trFq ed aaql^l uHTlzI
I
""+Elolzl
xs.:9 4Cg E= 4-FzI HI]7]7I^E + 7l^1 C 5q 9E "14'* sg EeE '&g -d+g + ?l: +=
e+ &+ aae+ trl¤d +El+dol4. s.ql xl+rz} allzlzl4 ^ql
oE 9t+= 43 Ezkalq. 44^l olfl Eeol 4zle uH
t'"I+ "Jel g^ls} +r= ++g + 91tr1. qlEl ¤4lll oI dql uNzlz|:trsq ^lla6t= 4o1 $e;[r]. E]e +
= =q7l
14.7 l+DH ArE 649
ull{$zl(catalytic converte.)=
^l-.$6}q
ol7l6J Eeg
^ll4 +4 H{}71= ql*51 sg4.J E-+.J +q]E egap 91
6J + 9l+. 4. zltli| ull7l7}.^-'. +rlle+ 4* roo-aoo ms FoJ d4
aJ HEolq, 4.g9 6Izl"J, ol 5}g
^lA fq}
+El] H+71ts zl-Eo4 El]T] e6yoq +sl+Ael cozl Coz$
^l^HE
+ 7l^l rl#. +4++. (r) coc+ trl¤^ +El+a(c,H/)= H2o-+, E+qrl, t}e+ e^E u\lfio]| 760/o A4¤+.
&El^14 ol&s+ +ae+ Etr H+I^144. (z) &s] e^= g +,l] tr{}zl9 4.+ql q4 ^F+q= +,HEE aE.ol Qe
g^lrl e4 Tlill-E E+^la+. 7l:6fzlEJ, +l++e "j= +'}] EQlzl9lrl+ g+
^l-8.q=
=i zl.J C$olrt. E+g &pI +¤¤ +d6l+ Ell oll+ =ojl, 4
co,caH), coz+ Hzo
qlg eS^lzl4+ "JTtEq= B, +, e E4 Ae E+Eql
NO, NO2 Nz * Oz
- 46J zJdJqol +trt. grhEe E;4. ulLB ql EA'J Hl,r{t
+ zlzl zli$ ^]E +=
olel6J $etr 617l EllE zllrJ. H]]7l7[^ ¤xflot= E+Eql 9q} egql q ".1
o${l
ql Ct4.J +q] =.ull$
zl]g6l+ ae qqe Edol4.
^l.Hg 444. EEg &pI eig +flql zl6J5J ++ol-1 4}e+ EJ
+,H= Hg IE gE H?lq^l a${olo1o; 6Jtrt. E+ +
ql= Hl]7l7}^el q+l zizl ]d$ol +'HE gc zI4= Eq+ ¤:ql .I6il ++tI gCg ,*n 9iq. E46IrllE, ol ;!+e EI
E olE ++6ir 2l+611^l gcg frzlollol6J+. E'tl +Ell +B+ q slfl6}r HlaI+. ,ll'J ^F&q= Eq;.g 3s70, 94
Eq 6svo, EEq e50lo 4s.214u11 Hilzl9l ^FSqr 9l+,
:4oJqL aAql^J fd ot93 +dq+ EoJ B^J6l+ EHTI ol elfl fr$$ ftr Bolsr.l 7Ie+ 4^l ol4ll^J d+qi1 91tr1.
z|5el $zl$e| 7]|414 +4 Eql ++61 drJo} *4.
coel +q4o9 ¤+= +{16l+ +,ll= "JH}4ee 3o1
*¤ E4l : 14.62, t4..gt, 14.82, 14.124
++9 tI+Eq +l*+ol+. olBl6J Eae 6'e= HH7l7l^ 3+
nl
+olt= sE4
VI ?'EtIl'Eolol
el +,H EE ,Jg d+g slqlEl^la +a(f.al u.2a)ll zlxl L EH 4O-
oJ+ElLtoll tsrl^l
qq 9l+. o3;ol{(er,oJe} olaql EEI zlxl¤ +Ells ol
+qa Ed r.oJel +a7I ^l-+g+. +,ll= E^l u}zlzl^9|
a? f
)7fl
=46I=
&l z1i11q1
=:+4q
o29 o-o aqlg E3r}^l7l
.n, ole4 gzlts EzI¤ coe+ Hlso6Iq co2= Sl
^Jc¤ &r
^JCqI+. EE|+49 &+E
q- {= 9r1-a1211 dB9ErJl,
flxl gffiaE g:+ol "Jq+r c-H A.JE ¤Bol +lrl
=Ei.
dol *49 llrl¤+ +l++e NoTl N2e+ o2tr ¤|gq=
I
!l
HI+ql ql6J zttt ag4oJ =ullolzlE 6I+. f-Bl+ + HI+
tr# p
ql^.] TI1I Er+zl.J +,l]= 4= HI+ql= iLl+71aAl 9O 9
¤qd+. trI4^l +=.+E +o]l ,r3gol $ea|4. 1a"A t4.ZI +nfl Eg|Tlel EEE I
ii-tzl +rl] qgg 6l= Hl*g s¤ rlEl(active site)4-rl 6I= +rll .ll9
54 ++lql^J "Jq++. ol zleloll.tJ HI*61+ E4$$ 7lE(substrate)ol4 )
J. 6J+. +rflel rl=4-94 .EE(lock-and-key model) o.tr. rJ+61
=oldg
¤Bg + gl+(:la u.26). zlE^lql + 5q"*: g4e+ zJol, zl{$ n.+ ,,,'O271111
* t
+ ,o
6^ E.^-7|E Qit
=:drll
arH 14.26 6^ HJSelrf=41-E4lEE
"*+GI
6}Ll0lt[. q EeP 7l
=9 tr^sl Er'¤
tr(t*!^l)O1
EaE Eq^laloil
l- F,
il
tf. =cl7l= =
t
L )
I d 'tf-l,
14.7 +!H 651
^J8
er atai ?a -r.t i^
ei= ^JBillql
zI^J +st g^E +E 6t+tr, *Ee, e .L{(nitrogen fixation)ol{tr 4B6J 4o14. "J+ l.A 44'
4!, u1o14,3, ssE 5 ^JE .?zl9l g+4"J Bg +ElEql q7l +ql^l gs6l+ BzH9l 9oll
= ^J¤qq, "JPb rsz*
^JCE+. rel+ E
91trI. f.al 14.28q1 +4U ailB, Ar= +"J ql^l trI+rll B $Cql E6ll +g4ss
^l *ol^B +
ql= 5q 607o9 rC e^'= E.grE +d.6J EaoJ A4 r.A n+
^JEflg 56iq 4+4 "s ++++trI.
6J B4E
oltr ,l4EE9 ¤¤E tsl]¤Eol+ +e 4E E= s Hq (nitrogenase)el zl+ql 96ll
^}Cgtt. a.AE "JzJol4 4
ol
.Jg ei= Nr(8)tr d+I6Ia, ol NzE 4lzle q5o1z3rp. SEql= +zflolzl ?*=+. .Idq, ++^lE?]
+ =
.Jg+e+ ae 4Eg +q+ql =st]lel
^l+ol #zl94E 4zl 69 gs6[+. ^l= ^ll+ql^.1 tsa¤+.
Eol Nzk)E
^lEol ^l-[.g
9l= ¤el.E A+6F= %iHol H}tr^l AA rA -aAi NzE NH3E d+l6J+, ol r+49 +,l]
olq6J ol+ ull+ql, 7l- S.g *l ,l]+ g^dc[ q]qzl= 7l4L+. ol 4Ag E]+l
"JqI clq4zt
zl+tlql^-l zI8 6,qq}
pl4 t}*ol *9.t214ts eEg *=+8, 4zl 69 Nzk)
=
(reduction) Hlso s-tr, Nq 4Is+ t4z} Nz9 0ql^.1 NH39 -3
7I zJ6J6J F+6J+|E d+q= 44"J da o-E ei*4. e4' ac .tr.a7l N2= +g^l7l= qlrlq=
^l$ol ^|8-471q g gd6l-zll oloflslr. ilzl e+4. zfpellol:-$ EEL+ Y+
g +E ElE^lH, e^ ;|A E^E g^d xlel= dol
;:4 flxl¤ golop 914. olelal EiE *+ !++ E
,i.:"-;:j-fsii,Y'l=' A(metalloenzyme)zp ajq. dol ;-+g 4IaI ^JEI=
f
dril E+^la 9lzl qlEql. 7l4ol 4iplqz+ ¤e
el=-J q= dol ,lcql^l ++ 6J+ tr^= 5E6l +s"6f+.
zE ei ra na'E "J+ +4rlFes+Mo= E6J6J+=
ag 40q 'J EJ.JaJ4 g ^l-gol+. FeMo_-H3 olz|
(FeMo-cofactor)+a EE= ol +a= si$ gC zlEl
SEel
^lE!+
EllTlE tr 4I+61+ age ^J484. ?A a{ 6-+el FeMo-
-Ba olzfS ztllq Fe glxle| rzflel Mo gzITI -5r+
+ gzlql el6]] gag Eqlol4eal il.29).
h" ++qI ^ll+ol ei
=31^q
j1A s^el e+ El]+ +d-6}:il.
-' otEtlg E +s+ nc$ zfp + 914= ag ^JEE aole
{N02 -)
s +E 6}+oltrI. ol ac q+q ei= 4zl ?gl,<-l
^J44etr Brdol *3 q.Jr+ ^JE7llq1,r1el fet}
) E6Jg 4l+ +++6IE^l +"Je + il4. ¤a j1A E
^l6l+
$.+H, zl+tlql ^JEol ¤z]]B+ gtg 4o14.
^7f
+{ E{l: 14.86, t4.l1s,14.116
arB 14.28 EA +gsl E+ E^.lE
\l
F
TEJ qHI
t/ 7HLtr{
¤.6J
flq.. 4aJ9 ZnO -r.illE U3 E7loll E7t6tE. tlel ?E gaj= EElraJ ol- 150
=7lg
TlEg nll, u3 EE zl9 gr'4e gElETl? HJ8 E7l9 +n171436 cm3a1E, EJ8 Se BJ8 E7loil
-15 zlr1l9 E+ts ^lE01l^1
gEtoJTf? ^180il^1 =q
(e) Et E= SdEg LHi = -378.6 kJlmotolcl. Eill USel AH'= lltbl^|g.. HJ39 gdEl.0ilLl^l(Ea)tl fiq kumot
=7le..l
g q.
olalr u3 ollLlrlE-E= zajs|.l] ae:laEa. AH", dol AiE]|E tr,(l6l,\l9.
6.60 x lq2aolq ol
^lAol
*rJzlol4. gi1 HI+ql ql6J Aol 4l&6J4.
+E tL+E 4 r+.rzE-o ^l-+6}q 4t}6IE tr|s=rI rJ+. AH' : Allr"(Coz(s)) + A,Hi@2@)) - AHf(HCooH(g))
k:0.6931trn:0.6%1660 s: 1.05 x 1g-3 r-t = -393.5kJ/mol + 0 - (-378.6kJlmol)
(b) Zno -r.x.llzl-=46.J ull t}Sol 94 mleAl {BEee ol : -14.9 kJ/mol
4isl¤E *4I B6]] HIS9 qul]e $-$$rli.<[
.EHol A44 p, ilstr+El, f.B
ol dlr+ t4.16xlH Hl+ qlLlzl
dg "J + 9l+. olae w.J +,}] 4+q + qlol+. Es= aq4al rg + fl+.
(c) #4i9 bE= EIEIB g ++le:a-lclele., +ql HI¤.E
elzJzlb 660aolr kE ag nl_s-E 4l+B aolEi. /ce-l TOISEll
tgl: s-'olE-e k <lg bE .*.^lq ++le+b +
^Fqo6J
+6lEI. trl
sE "J 6e tq
HJB +EE ,\lE(IlE, 14.1tr) rpf EIB *EE(chemical kinetics)9 +E E¤g t}*ol EzlE ,J +59 A4-e oJqt4-r. 213;j
H.!8 rate)E t+dl"b E+EIel + Eotol4. HI+ +E E|. +E6l+ Exl¤9 3F 9lrlzlzl-=++ +E qqzl=
-aE(reaction =.+.
ql ¤6J-9 ib tzls=3 ql¤¤el E;.14 tlEH, LoE, sE, +Ellol+. **.1 "J9471 9t ald6Jel gluJzl= t¤rl oilulrl(activation
energy, E )4n oltlE qlLl^lE r*= +Eol "Jq+E +
6Jq. E,
EJ8 +E(142E) EI+ +EE trE ++l ^lrJB *Eq Hsltr +
E ts^l-=g flxl-Eol t¤$ qg1".6r",ed complex) EE dolgEIl
+u4. gHl4sE +..I^J HI+ql ql6.J +E= aB ¤-be(M/s)el (transitionstate)E B^J6I4 El=ql, ol BJ¤¤ol
+9E +48trI. ql++E HI+ql ql6ll $bE=,tlz.lel !|fE r ^JEI= ^JCEE
H+q= a-aql^l TltI +e qlq^l tlqlol4. +E qlHzlzf +E
HI+ol 41BHql q+ +E7I ei} L.El^l= ag g + 9I
^l6IH, 6l rq-L 6ll^l BJE^I t}*ol .Jq4i ag olqE+. +Eol HI*e
4. +Zl *E(instantaneous rate)t Er-oE-^l+ r4uql^J EA g ololxlzl 916l^l= +E qI*EEol
d{ zl$zlo1+. +E= ^JdEE ^J^Jol+ H}¤¤E ^lq ^lE 4a{L B6}oE
^lAql^Jel El].JElq ?lqoF 6JE+.
+49 + 91i1, tsJ+el +qrJEsE+q c^J +Ee+ 4l-
^E-+..,.1o1e.1 tszlE9 eE qqzl= gEql E¤6I71 q+ql H]+el +
4= +41= .J + 9l+.
E ^J+= gEql r4 E=6J+. +E ^J+ /ce+ gEel +41=
+set tsE(14.3tr) ^-E Efl(ratelaw)g +Ee+ br .'.1o19 Xg Arrhenius Al(Arrhenius equation)9E +qd4(ft = ee-EJR\. 4
4 +4lEt-lEI44, trF trIs-r+ Ag BqlE 7l4L+. z\ t'l AE t'JE ?lrl(frequency factor)o l
q, ++ol'J ol 4zl ql 4!l
+E=/.[H]+E tl'[H]*E zl' "' $¤ol :14. Arrhenius {3 sF e:oJ
SL Hllolg TiTl +E=+e|
6J# ¤al ot
:d
BE E+:d +ol qal+e q.=E + etotor Ejtrr
.e+E HI+E +Eql ¤6Fg ++ "Jzl¤¤ cda..J+(14.r3). EE AA"J+(14.44). +H g+ +^\: 14.42-14.44
+¤ s+ExI: r4.u, 14.18 . "JzI EI+gl +E {}+e} H}z}zl .,.1o1e] $ZlE
"l*t}41r+.+4).
.HI+EolL+ bE= ^lrJql 44 +A6Iq HI* +EE +¤ S+ E4f : 14.41, t4.42,t4.99,t4.roo
^J^JEe]
eAq}+(r4.2¤). +A S+ +4: t4.te-14.22 .H]¤¤e] bE= EE ol+6}q ql+ iI+
^lrJE ++e +4u
.+B EI+ Hl+^lql^l ^JCEE ^JC +Ee+ Hi¤¤E +E -e- a{q}r}(14.+¤). *H S+ E^ll: 14.47-t4.so
g+^la+(A.24). +d ¤+ #4:14.23-14.26 ^r. .gd+ qlulzlz| qB4l +Eql g6}9 +=zl$ ¤E6Ir,
=
. Hi+ il+e+ +E t+= s6}6I= +E Ezlg Bqlp}9,lE ¤ Arrhenius 49 ol*6J f 914(ta.s¤).
g ajQ(ta. : ¤). +E g+ +4 : 14.27, 14.28, t4.30, t4.32 +¤ S+ E4l: 14.s9, 14.6r,14.62,14.64
. gBq deql^l qel bEel HI¤¤E +a+ +EE ol+4q .q;l 4E Eg tr4 HI*se +Cg r+*41 ql4q+ ++ql Etl
HI+g +E Hzlli +E ^J+E AC6JE|(r+.r¤). '+
+E Bzlg el+6JEl1ra.0¤). +H s+ +41: 14.71-14.74
+B g+E4l: 14.33-14.36 .+"ll ++9 zlB g?]E ¤Eql4(r4.7¤).
.4S B4E +E Ezlg 4+6Lq 54 +fl g+ +^ll: 14.7s-r4.77,14.7e
^lAq^lE Hl¤¤E b
z o HFe-/\l
Or-t- u o -
r A[A] r a[B] 1 A[c] 1 AlDl
--E- a Lt b Lt c Lt - d At Ir+.+l a A + bB + cC+ do tB r+q HI+4q CtsE-tr -s.¤6J
uo .4.E
BL-g- ol -a-lo-o'l
-r-
. +E:k[A].[B], Its.zl 'A + B + ^JCE HI*ql
ql+ +E Bzlel .JElzl ¤EI
. lnfAl, - lnlA]6 : -kf E= ,.||il : --, Ua.nl 'A
^JCE'+*ql
ql+'JiI HI-& +E tszlel 4e BEI
11
-
.-=kt*- Ir+. ra]
.A
HI¤:q 46t olil +¤. +E E4g 4E
LAl, lA lo
- ^JtE BElt
oJ+ +z1l
EoE
g-+L.llE Ll! 7llL.l
,\lrJ
051015202530
f (E)
656 143 af+ oJ8 +E=
14.7 (a) ol4 :H3 r:0+4 r=3otsq]^Jel HI+ Ar+= trq 14.10 ol4 + 4dg
^lE
trIE F HI*ql 4oJ tn t 4 t/r r1o1q
iE fHoltrI. HI+ol "JiI HI+ol+E, ol HI+q El? E E^lt 4.o14. F 4dS r A$ztlzl el4}6}q ffl aol
zl| pulolz|? 1+.q4) 4. ;ra.sd1
(a)olL HI*ol gC+ qlLlzl(E,)7}4 Atl?
{l o) qL q}+ol HIE oJzl-(A)7t Ll a7l?
& 3f"'
eqo
6il
{il sp
o0o e 3.'q
r:08 f:30E
(b) gi} H}+ql^l +rJ7l7l LJI H HI+E +ql Bol 9lb Hl
*Eq Ege g"I'Jzl?
r4.8 'A * {dE',E}+ql q+ q}* il-fzf (a) g^}. (b) g^}.
(c) olxlql Z*, oI4 4d rqg 6ql^'l qL 4.ol 4 HI+ 1,/T
^l+ql
6l]r*61+zl? lla. a4) ra.rr oI4 rHg Ag gEql^J Eg{} H}+ql qE} F 7i^l r+=
(i) (ii) Hl+ AtrE 4481"14. +gql t+¤ 4 4*ol *.Jzl,
ZZltzl +E6I^le. [r+.od]
(a) **+E=++4 A+HqDSrJ^l Atrql^.1 q BBle4.
o) F aE EFq qldl^J, qHI+
+E= aHI+ +E}-+
LJtrI
^lz ^l7J (c) F aEoll.tlE qlq^l Ep+(AE)= +rJr+.
(iii) (iv)
trl
EJ]
otl
L1
^lz ^l7J rl
(v) (vi)
,JSE T]A
r
=
otl
L1
a-il==l }{-e
^l
{6
(4) q
p +@ -------->
H190l xl6t{
{
657
=* =rll
14.13 ol4q HI+ aE= nEg q, A + c HISql^l r4.re zlt}el ++E Hl+ A(aq).+B(aq)Z ^J46l]H^I. ¤r+4
^JcEl
+z4lel += q 4oJ7l? H z1l9 dol *4zI =.ql
0.06s mol9 AE Ef,-+ ++o-qol too.o mL 914. H]
=
tl? t- Be| B -+ C + q! +Zl7I q ru[$z[r $$ e
=zl]6l+
*ql qlEL d¤ cJlolqi 494 eq.
cql 4+ AE= .Jel tl, gE {t, 0 ?ql^l q! a"J 30 10 20 40
-tl? ir,s.e9l ^lrJ(E) 0
E+ 0.065 0.051 0.042 0.036
Ae.l 0.031
^Jqlq^l Bq4rlr+ Bcq= atle ddge +EI4^ls. (a) .goll 9E 4 ^lrJql^lE Bq E+E Zlt6l^le(A= 6
Ir+.e¤]
a4lE ^Jd Hol B-aEI a+g+r 7Ia++).
{HD.g& -*e+gry{t 0) 40:a z]/etr_ AE ¤+ AE +EE mor/s E}9ltr 4l4I
6I^19-.
go a
rjr, o
tP
: olceE+ HI+q 4q-q q-q=4 ae dE
lcHjNCl (M)
rJlolEE 9fl4.
O + , + ^t2J(E)
-oE 3 02 qb -. 2000
s000
0 0.0165
0.0110
0.00591
14.16 + +rJ^ll7l
^.itr
+= +Etr ^Jcg= gg ++q H]+ a 8000 0.003 14
EE LtEql= r4sE ral^le. r?llsql HI¤¤, ^ddE, 12,000 0.00 I 37
+7J^ll. dol tr4 "t SCEI ollulul= +E|4^le. I 5.000 0.00074
l+.e?.. ru.z9l
(a) 4 14 ^lA 'J4ql^Jq ¤+ Hi+ 4sE ruls t9lE
u3 +E(14.18.14.2tr) 4l&6I^le.
v.t7 (a) EI+ +s.el 9"lb F9.oJzI? (b) +o+ HI+ +Eql ¤.J o) f :oa+El t:t5.o00zrt7l dill ^lrJql^lE B# H]*
g += 7I^l -e-oJg .A^le-. (c) Hl*E9 +EeI ^J +E= Alt6}^le.
^,ll ^E
(c) r : 20004.P4 r : 12,}}}Zvlzlcl, r: 8000a+Ei
CEg ^Jd +E= 6J* ,Je 4oJ7l?
la.l8 (a) +"I*ql^l "Jq+= HI*q +E= s¤61-= rJl .tl-$6| t:tspoozvl^lE + ^lA H+l +ql^l ¤f 4s.zl rJ
++lY Ft'JzI? (b) gs.z} ?71-+ql ul4 HI+ +E= H+l= 9g L.JzI?
= = r4sE r4r, r:5000ae]
<,li;lb7l. +}l6lv-712 (c) EI*ol A68Eql 44 +a HI (d) [CH3NC] Ell
^lAE
* +E= +7l6lb7L AA6l+71? f :8000aq1^lel +a4sEul' +91-e aa4^ls.
658 143 ql-+ HJB +EE
14.22 t+* ++q ql+ HCIE iE +EE +a6l.q ++4 'Jg E6l+7|?
¤E rJlol4E 9*4. (b) Ae+ Bql 4oJ HI¤.
^I+=
gut.Jzt? A^I BJ¤' iI+=
CH:OH(aq) + HCI(aq) CH3CI(aq) + HrO(l) 9uI"Jzl?
- (c) 4E tI+E E9lE +E.J7l?
luctl(,vl)
^tz(E) 14.28 A, B, c iI+7I Aq 46lq
7}{r-E Hl+ql^l HI+ .J
0.0 1.85 ^Iolel
s4.0 1.58
iL Bql qld-q gzl, cql 4dlq olife$r. {46}^t.
(a) ol q]*ql qloJ +E H4g 4^le.
107.0 t.36
215.0 t.02
(b) [A]7] + dllTt qil E]e H]¤¤-5el +'5.= rqlEoJ a
+, +E SE}} $ulz[ qdET]?
430.0 0.s80
(c) [s]z] HllT] E]r q= H]¤¤=q .bE=:IqlEg A
^ll
(a) 4 ?C ^l+ 'zJ4ql^'lE E+ Hl+ 4EE M/s tfle +, +E {a}i $u}z} 9dbzt?
4l&El^le. (d) lclT}
^.ll
HllT| qr qE HI¤¤Eq r-oE= r4-Eg
a
(b) ,:0.0+ql,{ r:+:0.0tsv14 .J,1ll
^lrJql^lE
B+ +8 +, +E $eli $ult] !dbz}?
+5.= 4l4ldl^ls. (e) .trE HI¤¤E +EE 44 HI.e 6J A+, HI* +Eb
^ll
(c) / = s4.oEPE r : 21s.0+vl4q, r = r07.oEBE q El]ql+ Hq+zt?
1=a3s.s!7/lxlel +
^la Hfl +ql^] gt +E7I q (0 EE H]¤¤E +EE 44 Hlstr ¤oJ+H, HI+ +Eb
HgE q! 4"J71?
=
9 ullqlE H6l+zl?
(d) [HCl] Eil
^lrJE
r4sE:.4L, r:7s.084 r:2508 +4 qql^J Nzosg EdI HI+g 2N2os + 4 No2
ql^Jel +a 4sE u/min, u/s tgE a46}^le_. ^1gsl-
+ozol4. Nzosgl .ll+ ++ il++ oJztoln, 64.cql^lg
14.23 oIflE 4 Tlill HI+ql 46Iq, Ei¤¤E +Eel
-ra:e+E 4.82 x to-3
s-tol4.
^JCg ^J++
E CC +E rJg +Al= ¤B6I^le_.
^E (a) H}¤.oll ql6J +E Bzlg ra^le.
(a) HzOz(g) HzG) + 0z6) (b) [NroJ :0.0240 M"J q. HJ* +E= g"]"Jz]?
@) zNro(g) -.+ 2Nz(g) + oz(s) (c) N2O5$ +E7I F ull"J o.OaAO M"J 4+, H]-3: +E=
(c) Nz(S) + 3H2(j:) + 2NH3(g)
9olqlzl?
(d) C2HsNH2(g) -+ CzHr(g) + NH3(g)
(d) N2oselr-"E7I ¤HI"J 0.0120 Mg a+, HI*+EE g
oiqlE 4 rlAl HI*ql ql6}q.
14.24
^JCg9 ^JCr+ EI¤¤E rrIfl7I?
Eg zl=oE +E49 +EI4^ls. ^
(a) 2H2O(g)
14.30 4+ HI¤¤ ^846il Bzl.
2Hz@) + oz(C)
zNo(g) +2H2@) +zHzo(g)
(b) 2SO2(g) +- oz(s) 2So3(g)
-Nz(8)
(a) ol HI*el +E B4g Hzgl 4dl-g oJilol-r. Noql ql6t
(c) 2No(g) + 2H2@)- * Nz(8) + 2H2o(g)
(d) Nz(S) + 2H2@)
q olitol+. +E B4g lr^le.
NzHr(g)
- 0) ++q 4E. trizi 1000 Kql^J 6.0xto4 M-2 s-tol4n
14.25 (a) i49 Sa +s"49 +ozk) --.--- 2 H2o(g)ol
zHz@)
alB, [No] :0.03s laoll [H2J :0.015 M"J EIE E]*
+. +AE 0.48 mol/s9 4=-e gl,t1z3 a+. ,l}Ael 4E
4EE 9uloJzlr
$re| ffizlel ^Jc +EE goloJzl? (b) 2 No(s) + c12k)
-+ (c) 1000 Kql^lNoE r-"E7I0.10 Mtr +7l6la- Hz9 EoE
2 H]¤¤ "Jqg +71 Lilq^l d6J^l7l-r. 9l+.
NOCI(g)
710.010 Mg EllE Hl+ +E= gEI"JTl?
NoE +E Eqol s6 torr/min9 +Ee Ai6J4E. *zl
(d) 1000 Kql^l [No]7] 0.010 M-E 7J44i1 [nJz] o.oao
,.ll d4 Sqq tspI+EE 9,1-tz}?
Me- ="716J qsl Hl+ $E! $ulolzp
14.26 (a) 9lE{19 ¤4 H}*4g czHrk) + 3 o2k) 2 co2@)
-
+2Hro(g)ol+. CzHe9 +E7I0.036Mls9 4E-E zJr6J
14.31 trl-g Hl¤¤ ^J46ll tr^t.
.+
CH3Br(a4) + OH-(aq) CHaOH(aq) + Br-(aq)
?*. core| H2o9 bE H+ +Eb gol-oJz}? (b) "Jqlg ol Hi+el q6}q .JxL oH-ql ql6}
HI* +zl qlq^J 'Jq+= NzHak) +Hzk) ----* 2 NH3(s)
+E tszlg CH3Broll
q "JiloltrI. [cHrsr]ol s.0 x l0-3 M,lott-lzl0.050 MoJ
++ql^J NzHa9 +E .Jq *4 +e7l 74 torrol4.
^17J* Ell, 2e8 Kql^l Hl* 4s= o.o+:z M/sol4.
+zl 4ql^J NH,9 *E.Jq4 dill SqE Hsl+EE g (a) 4E tI+ {rg 9"}9lzl.?
rrl"JTl?
(b) +E ^J+E ++l= Fitzl?
+E E4(14.3E) (c) oH-9 bE.z|,t11 ul]z} qH {s.5 gu1z1 9dbz}?
14.27 A+ B + HI*ql ql+ +E H4+ +E: klnlro14.
C (d) + Hi*Eq *E7l z1z1^ll tsll7} ¤4H, 4s,= gulzf
(a) [A]z] + tsllz] qE +EE $u[r-f {;]fz}? 4s 1t4; qA=7P
E6 E^l 659
14.r.2330 Kel ql+g 4q^l H.tr.ITJ4 ollB(ethyl bromide, (d) IBFJ:0.100 yoljr. INHJ:0.500 M"J Ell, H]* +E
czHsBr)4 +'tlcl olgE *¤¤ crn'sr(alc) + oH- (alc) E Bulqlzl?
+sr-(atc)ola, ol Hl¤¤ He"JsI qlB+
------ czHsoH(t)
14.36 2 NoG) +ozk) + 2 No2(8) HI+ql^J NOE ig +E.
+&s+ olgql 46Iq 44 "J^Iol4. [crsrsr]ol 0.0477 M q qi6J olEl ElolqE Eil+.
oljl [oH-]7] 0.100 MoJ ull, trEql+ qlBel 4E +EE
ae [No](M) toJ (M) jETl+-E(M/s)
r.7 xto-7 Mlsolq.
I 0.0t26 0.0125 1.41 x l0 2
9g a+ 4d +41= +4qlE'Jg +lql7l.? (b) (a)91 46Iq E+gE dE ql.lqE efl+. HI+E "JiI HI+ +
^l
ril
r4s-e+q gi} HI+ql q6J+E tr+E qBal E tl+e+ t}?zlE Zl&6}^le.
+g + 9l=7I? ,l.IZ(i) cHjNCE S4 (torr)
14.40 (a) 9HI4.J olil HI+ A ----- Boll^l E^l6I
^l+el ei+E 0 502
flg a+ 4d +4lE +Elr-I: .J3 **.Jzl? 6) (a)91 2000 335
^l
rfl 4d9 zl.gzlb Fi¤ 9"lal=7l? (c) olrl HI¤- 5000 180
ol dBEqlq+qI+E tlzJzlE +7li;ly7l, zJraliz|,
8000 95.5
E6t4 ?J:-r. rqlEoJTI?
12,000 41.7
14.41 (a) SozClz TlalE E61l HI+!g so2c12k) ----- SozG) I 5,000 22.4
+cl2k)olq, so2c12q q6}q "JzI ti*o14. 600 Kql^l
.l r+Ce-l t}?zlE 2.3 x 10s=ol+. ol $soll.lel $s. 14.47 +41 14.leq ?qt rllolelE ^l-s6}q +g eEql B.6]-
,!-++ gEloJTl? (b) 320 "cql^JE +E
^J+: 2.2xto-s ^ls.
s-'o14. ol gEql^l g tlzJzlE g"IoJzI?
(a) 46Jt ]ElE¤¤ ol+6}q ++ol .Jit t}*.Jzl, ol
zl HI+oJzlE ac6}^le_.
14.42 62s Kql^J r2k') +zl-b r g^l-E'=e +dlq=4, ol HI+E
(b) E]+el +E d'+= 9uloJzl?
.JiI HI$ +E g.zzt s-' ol4.
^J+= (c) Hl*9 tlzJzlE $PloJzl?
(a) ol ++E tlzJzlE gu}.Jzf?
(b) ol gEql^l 0.050 M r2.e. HI+g rlzl6J4E, s.rz= 14.48 +41 14.20q1 +qd qlolqE Elg aEq B6L
^F&6lq
+q tsoI9lE Irg o}g EuloJzl? I gzl+ 12 Bzl-E ^ls.
xfla*6}^l ?*:Ela zl{qlQ. (a) HI*ol "J^I HI+.Jzl, oli| {$olzl$ aC6}^le.
(b) +E 6i3 $ulolzlr
14.43 +41 l4.4lql 7l¤* Hte| aol, sorcrre] E6ll HI¤+ "JiI (c) HIrJzlb gEloJTI?
(b) so2cl2 ,l4lE 5+ Eqol azl SqE 1/l0E a4'6l 0.0 0.100
b Ell Aal= z.lzJS $ulolzfr 5.0 0.017
t4.M NzOs9 +6ll HI+ 2 N2Osk) ------ 4 NO2(g) + O2k)ql^l oJ 10.0 0.0090
iI HI* +E tI+: l0-3.-'olr|. 2.0 L
70 "Cql^1 6.82 x 15.0 0.0062
-n+ c6Hr2o6ol+. 23'cel 0.s M HCI +"-lq^l fas^ 14.57 oI4 t+,* 4*ol *"Jzl,4a"JzlE ++6l-^le.
E E6llHi*ql ql6}q qgE ¤E EllolqE ?8.+. (a) Hli6J +E .Jzl¤ r*E + HI*q^l rl 3 gcp].llH
zl$ r*E Hl*E +E7t q u+s+.
[cr2H22oil] (M)
^t,J(E) (b) +E tt+z}49 Hl+ol qlE "JzI rl"l 44.
0 0.316
(c) HI* gs.E +ztrlzlE HI.*E rJgl ^J+zl.J +E E
39 0.274
Sol?z|,t4.
80 0.238
14.58 oI4 t+6J r]l+ol +oJzl, za"J^lE s+6}^le.
140 0.190
(a) 4E ggql^] HI*9 +E ql
2t0 0.146
^J+= +46IH, HISq
oJ d^ll qlBul Hq¤ 4l4I6J + 9l+.
(a) Hl¤¤ [cr2H22ou]q 46]q 'Ji] t]+oJz], olil- H]+ (b) gg ElTe +e Hl*E4 tsHls+.
(c) El* gEE 2Ell +71^lvl4, g^JpI qqzlS HI9E
"J7l?
(b) +E tL+= gElqlTP ¤"J + 9t+.
(c) f,eE^gl 171 +E7l0.316 Molr +=s^9 ts611 t4.se .I4 Hl*=q ql6}q, E= +E oJzlz} ?4r zlct4.
+3e^q 44q gal Hl+ol4r 7lc.J ul,
Hl+ol gd+ qlqzlel9lHzl HEI¤ rqq-flg q, +g 6 q
zrots9lr]9 f,=+.^. +EE 4l&6I^19.
3e, 80, 140,
L HI+ol TI1L Hulsr., E q! *8ol zIrJ Lq4l=7|?
+E tL+= o)ql^l +t aig ^F8-6J+. :
(a) E": 45 kJ/mol, LE '25 kJ/mol
8E.9} +E(14.5E) @) E, : 35 kJ/mol, AE : - kJ/mol
10
l4.sl (a) F tszI zJ9 +Eol +E+ Hlso e-E ddgzl, oiHzl= (c) Eo : 55 kJlmol, AE : 10 kJ/mol
AC6F= oJz|b fflqlz}? (b) HI+ $s.z| fzl$ql 44 14.60 Ezll 14.seq +qd HI+ 6ql^l qHI¤. +E7I Tftt uulE
HI*9 4E. ^J+= 'JHI4oE +716I=7l, rJ4i;lb7l? Hl¤* qe A"J7l? qHI+ +E7I TI^L Lfl HlSg qL
(c) r1g- .Jzl-E 6ql^l gE Hpi"ll TI^L ElrJ'6J qlzi= +
A"J7I?
9..Jzl?
r4.6t ole .Jil HI¤.ll ql*+E d+7I 20"Cql\ 2.zsxro 2
+E q+, ullaj olzf, gCq- qlLlzl-E_4 qq^l= (a)
14.64 q! EI+ql ql++E tli9 ¤s' q+Cg dEel44zI t4.jo oI4E qlqzl EEql q+E+qlE-al^ls_.
'I+r+ 44.
trl
PE(K) fr(,v-t s-t) EJ]
=
600 0.028 0ll
Ll
650 0.22
^l
700 1.3
HJSSI T.I"J
750 6.0
800 23
(a) HI8 "il4q+q H zl]9 +'J t4 PI*ol s+qq 9l
Y7l?
AE 4lt6}^ls.
o) Hl+ql^l q 4E 6rJi]7I ^Jdq:7I?
E,e+
HI* 44q#ol* +{.J7}? (d) +E A4 +41+ +t.J q*3 H2el rclE ,lal EI;-q 4alg xll.Jg ++ ql4q
712 601+.
14.66 (a)HI*,il4q+9 a H4 B4lq^l GqJ1)l7l Hl¤¤e^l
-r+n Hz(s) + ICI(g) + HI(s) + HCI(8)
LI4B + il;7l? 6) HI* qlLlT.l E*.ql^J 6aill= ++ HI(3) + ICI(s) I2(s) + HCI(8)
(a) F H}*alg 4qlq| al+e+ *4 q6LE, so,7f o,ql e-l .J6I+r zf{afn, 54,11 H}q"4 a.a 4u11 H}+ql 4+
6ll so3E tls+q= dill tlsl H]*49 eg + 9l-sg ,*dp* .llul zl <lel itolE al4}6f^le.
trol^19.
u4.861 9i 7I+ e4 .s..^(urease)i .9-4(NH2CONHTTI E+
Norg fullu| 5zJxlltr a+6J + g=7I?
(b) ol H]¤-ql^l qI+6Iq ol4}p+ +^e| oJsqof=
^JC6l+ H]*ql^J +
(c) NoE +,lL+ ++illtr E+B + llEz}? qlE zl+6J+. Eql -aa7} H= A+, ol +*E "JzI q]
(d) ol H]¤+ +'J +Eil Hlg"4 H"J +"11 ++ + qL
* +E tib too '6oll.11 4.15 x l0 s s 'olQ. $oll nt'
19 9l.JzI? 7f A+. Hi+ +E tl++ 2l "Cql^l 3.4 x tOa s-r
=^llg
14.80 N2o E6ll HI+ql NoE a7|6lE ti*ol +t194, 7lg"t oltrt.
H]+ ql4q+e +g-4 eq
664 148 trt-+ BJ8 +EE
?l.J+ +41
14.89 A+B +
C+D HI*ql Eilall d46ll trzl. El$ t+'* HgCr2e] cron'- bE= H+^l7lE^l ol HI¤:E a7l +ia
4 4*ol &.Jzl, 41ql7,l=i ++6}^le. E +44q, czon2-9 a7l cE +Eql q+ ++4 Ae
(a) EI* +E Bzlg 4E.:r[e][s]ol+. 41 401q5 nOO.
(b) ol +*ol t.J +41 t}*ol4E, +E ts4g olilolE}. #:d tHcclrl (M) [croo'-] (u) +-E(M/s)
(c) ol ll-$o1+g +4 tl*ol4E, EHI+q ql6'J +E B I 0.164 0. l5 3.2 x l0-s
zlg "JiI.l+.
2 0.164 0.4s 2.gxlo-4
(d) qH}+ql 4"J gC+ qq4= aH}+q gda+ qlLlzl
3 0.082 0.45 l.4x l0-4
tr+ 40htl+.
4 0.246 0. l5 4.8 x lo-s
14.90 q-+ +A(H,S)E +* ql+ql e46I= t4 E4ol+.
(a) ol u33-E +E Hzlg *{.Jz}?
Hrs= xllaq-= el ztxl ,JBg E-3 94. ilel6l^= aoJ
ql, H]*4e q-grl e+. +E tL+ <tg 4El6J ++ls+ E4l +6t^le-.
(b)
(c) Hgcbe+ czot2-9 z7l +E7l44 0.100 M, O.2s M
H2S(aq) + Cl2@Q S(s) + zH+(aq) + ZCl- (aq)
oll, F"J6JgEql^l Hl++EE g"loJzt?
-
ol Hl*el +E= 4 HI¤¤ql Eil6}q g,.f.lE}. H2sel 4g "J
+E ^J+= 28.cql^J 3.5 x l0-2 M-ts-tol4. +qd ^l 14.94 '2x+z-^JCE'+*q q6Jazl +E=+C6Iq El
aql^J HrSE t-oE7l2.0 x t0-4Moltr clz9 bs.z} o.ozs
gE qlolElE EflEI.
Mol{H, Cl-E ^JC +EE
gEloJTp gE [x]o(l}r) lzh(rrt) +s,(M/s)
14.9r 2No(s) + oz(g) +
2No2(s) qlsog NOql ql6lq ol I 0.25 0. 25 4.0 x 10r
U4.971
oJiI HI+ A .----- BE +E *i* t::.2 x l0-3 s-'o14. 608 nm0l,t19 #E
Ael ]-.oE7l2.sxt0-2
=zl M! Ell, ,:660aql^JE HI* ^tZ}(E)
0 1.254
+Eb gEloJTP 30 0.941
r4.e8 (a) HzOz@d ------ HzO(l)*iOr@) Hl¤¤ "Jil Hl-"qoln 60 0.752
ol gEql^lE
300 Kql^J +E
^J+= 7.0 x to-t s-,o14. 90 0.672
tlzJzlE +6}^le-. (b) ol Hl+ql ql+ g^JcI ollL)zl7l7s 120 0.545
kllmolol:]s, H]+ +E7l + HllTI q= gE= 9rl-"Jz|?
ol rllolQtr$el 'BE HI*el +E Bzlg a
14.99 olullzlf,(americium)-24r3 $zl Szlzloll ^l-S¤El. ot - ^JcE
A6lr. +5 tr-+E 4l,t}6t^le.
4E+E %I^l+. +q 4aql ql'J gzt HI+ +E ^J+: 1 4. 1 s3 ¤l44ol Ql(csH)$ zlr11 HI*ql 9.ll triol
-tr
k:1.6 x l0-3yr-lolQ. rql HI6ll, AtlC 7li$
s$l4qolql(croH,Jg 4C+4. 2c5H6+ croHrz =
^|ol== ^lol
Ell opleE-l2s9 %I^l-b +q 4cql^lQl6I 4+
H]
= ^l-.&qb to1r1. *.1 +lBEll r|4 o.oaoo m csHo 8"19 ^lrJql q= b
+E tl'+E k:0.011 day
5. HE+= +A4q +S9 de qlolEl5 e*.4.
(a) ol F E+l gaE *?zlE 4+ gEloJTl?
O) qL 5?l flaz| trJ uBi= 4se B49bzI? lc,sJ 0vr)
^tz(a)
(c) 4 F9l ga r.00 mgol :sl9 HIrJzl +ql Brll 0.0 0.0400
^l-t
qE'Jg g"I'Jzt? 50.0 0.0300
(d) 4 E+l g4 r.00 mg3 4.J +q gut4 Bof il 100.0 0.0240
L 7Lr)
,l'*7::/
^le'
I! 150.0 0.0200
14.100 3-4(NH2CoNH,= Hq
+Eqa q^f rlael 3l+ ^J 200 0 0.0174
cEol+. 0.1M HCl +.-4ql^l _c^q EqlE q^g Hl+^l [csHJ 4,<lzJ, ln[csHJ Ell r/[csHJ 4 r
il+= +E.Jzlt ^ltg
q 96ll "Jqt+. ^lrJ,
4 =
:zl^le. ol Hl-sel 4s- *i
NH2CONH2(a q) + H+ (aq) + 2 HzO (l)
<l* e"I.JzI?
2NHa+(aq) + HCO{ (aq)
r4.r04 5C *zl ElaJE4 Ee.l EJ*q q+ .Jil HI* 4s tt+
HIS$ s4ql 46Iq oJilolr
- d,ll HI*s
7I gEql 4+ q+4 Aol E6lfl+.
"321o1u1.
[NH2coNH2]:0.20014o1n 61.05 "cql^l H]+ +E7i
6.56 x l0-s M/sol4. 8E(K) +tr 8+(s-')
(a) 4E ^J+ k Ae 9"fq_lz|? 300 3.2xl0 "
(b) -s_}.g z7l *E7l0.s00 MoJ rll, +.oo x ro3a +oll 320 1.0x10e
g-dE r-oE= g"IoJzi?
340 3.0 x 10-8
(c) 61.0s'cql^J ol tI*9 el?zli goI.JzI? 355 2.4x70 7
14.107 Noe| HrzI Hl+6Iq N2oeI H2oE ^Jd6l-= E]+ql 1116} (b) 2xAl7l +E a4 +4aln ts a+, ql=q= +E H
q +94 eg 44q+ol xll.J9fl4. zle +Etrl?
No(s) +No(s) (c) (b)9 e4= trI-ggl q! ol+'IEql EqE er+atr
Nzoz(g) + Hz(s) -Nzoz(c)
Nzo(g) + H2o(g) {49 + 9li-zl?
(a) xllQ}¤ ,|l4q69 +g- +41 HI¤$$ E+ trl6lq t (0 +
^JCEel tETf +E Hzlql 91tri.
B "*+ HI*4g 444^ls. (ii)+E Haq +el HI+ il+7}9l+.
(b) 4 Elg El4l EI*ql rll6J +E gils- x.tle. (iiil (il4 (iilE ol+ E+
(c) 4l4ul=:"ll\ rt2f,;llzl +i.JxlE +ql6l^1s.. (iY) (ilr+ (ii)E qtr ol$r of!
(d) dEl 44. +E E4e +E:ft[No]'z[H,]ol*[+.
.Jg ql4q+ol *+8. a H4l Hlso+ + Hell El* ^]l [t4.tt2lts++^ +"qq^l + s]*E (CH:)rAuPHr= qlel"J
(crltJ4 4E ++e-l + slqlE (Cur)eurur-e E6H¤+.
el t}4zl +Eql+4q qqel aEg eg+ ?l=7t?
(csr)raupu,9 +a1l HI*q q4q 4l?l¤ ,il4q6e +
r4.r08 C+ qlrlflql +z116[= e=3 ot4E + +41 ,l4q+ql s-r+ a+.
E"fl u}llg + 9l+. r$!l: (cH3)3AupH3 (CH3)3Au + pH3
cl(g) + os(s) clo(s) + o2(8) # (rnlEE)
+
Clo(3) o(s) ------Cl(g) + o2(s) 2t4l: (CHs)sAu -ia- C2Hu + (CH3)Au (L.fl)
ql+ dill Hi+4e +EoJzl?
(a) ol 44"11 3EI4l: (CHr)Au + PH3 -1+ 1cH.;auPH3 (uul¤.)
EEI-J+ +41
[t4.tt7ls&E] old^(NzoJi +4 qlq^J NO2e] o2-? A :6.0 x 108 M-r s-,o14. ol HI¤+ olgzf ge"9e {
=.e.-e+:
oJ^t
E6llEEl. ed HI+g El¤-ola. 4s ^Ji= as "c a4a 9l+.
ql^] 1.0 x l0 s s tolQ. 45 "cql^J 0.600 u Nro, *9 No(s) +Fz(s) -+ NoF(s)+F(s)
1.00 L-e.+q {CqE o2E 20.0^lt EoJ to.o L +7lql +E ++E 4ltldt^1e..
(a) l00"Collr'lel
Edat$.trt. oz9 *E "Jqg Zl4l6I^ls(^JCEg (b) NoFE EIEI^I q+ql eoll9 4zlz} 9171:: 6I^IEJ.
E+ql +qlq^l 9*=+7 7fc.J+. =-e
d4ls= 44 Szlzf ol EzI$ f.fl flxfolr.|. olel
U4.1l8lql+g(crHsoH) ¤-.-q Lilql^l ololeB+ qlB4 +tI+
6J nE6Iq, Noe+ NoF gz|el Lewis farl
^PJg
olgel *+^lg c2H5r@lc) +ou-(alc) ----- c2HsoH(/) 9:4 -E-^le.
+I (alc)olc|. ol HI*e] gCatl qulzli 86.8 kJlmolol (c) NoF +zI9
sootg el+6}q -H.^lg.
jz, HIE oJ^l-= 2.10 x lgtt 14-t s-'o14. (d) NoF
^JCg 9l"J
7l+.6'J dol
^JEllE
fE !-^le. ol
(a) :s "c9l,tl9 +-& +E tr-+E q+61^le.
ql, aElol BcqEa 6l-= "+'J aqlg dcsE +
99 roHE qlegq +q 2s0.0 -r 899 EI
(b) 0.33s ELll^le.
E*4. nfilz[xlE. r.4s3 99 c2HsrE q+gql +q (e) ol EJs"
E gc+ qlqzlTl *g oH¤ 4loJ6l4 B^le_.
250.0 mL +'-qg "JEH+. F +Eg ag +tl"J+ t4.t2t HBrol ozoll 96fl&+qq 2 H2oel srrE dCal+ 4Ic+
A6Iq 96J61fl4. tlSol 4 +¤¤ql q6}q .JiI+ Hi+E qlrlq¤ol E4l r4.74ql 9lq.
n 7lats Eil, 3s.Cql^lE a7l +5.= g"foJz}? ^rIgq
(a) HI+ r+aq q"J d4l s+ {lBEl H+E Zl4}6}^le.
(c) Hl*ol g4zl d6J¤+i1 rla'J Ell, qs HI*E"I t (b) tlgE gHl4.J 4a4ql^l= HBr4 oz9 HI*ol +
4l
^lEol
qyzl? C zlE"t +EE .Jq+zl ?*EEl. olE+El +E e
(d) HIE "J^Ie+ g^JsI qlulzlz| eEql q4 H6I^l 9+= A +Alq *Cs* 9lHzl rTlql +6ll qq+ +e-g
+r. 7IA4r., s0 "cql^lg HI+ +E tL+E al&6} g+ 9l=7t?
^19.
(c) ?zJ4"J HooBr9 zlg"oJ Lewis +=4g 14^19.
lr4.ilelqEl gEq^l HI* +E= +c6}q q-s=r+ ag h k 4 olE f {}ae o1gqu1 qtr
^e+
a++ slfl-E.e_l +
l/Tr4s.E gfltrI. ulf{z}r
=e]
U4.122)"*3 4zl HI*g 5-Ee HI¤+E +E 6f+zt 4g g:+
.*eEAl qlE Eq qql.Jn+ gcz[ q]oor[{
g+,il84 'l+slg+. g4hg
^JC6|= Hl¤¤ d46ll EzI.
HI$ 1: CHa(S) + Cl2(8) .+ CH.CI(8) + HCI(8)
ol ++g HolHb a+ql ,l]+ eE+. rE+ clr(8)7}
qg ++6tH cl gzl#
^8dg + 9lE+.
*82:Clz(S) +hv 2Cl(g)
1./r cl gzl-z} -
{CqH. olEg o}4 ,ll.J¤ ,il4q+q^le}
ole+ Aol 5ol6J dE er+ql ql6}q +^I ++q 6fl49 Aol CH4e+ Ctrq Hl*q^l +rle zI+6J+.
zll^l6}q -H-^le. HI$ s: cH.(s) + cl(s) ----- CH:(8) + HCI(g)
14.120 NOT} rze| El*6t9 NoFe+ F= ^J^J6IE 7lillt HI* H}$ a: cH3(s) + ct2@) ------ cHrcl(8) + cl(g)
E g.CEI qLJ^l= Eo:6.3 kJ/motoln, HIE qlzl= 9lE F +-&ql ql"J qlBul EE|e+ ¤-rdcl qLlxl} trl-$.
668 143 Elqf EJ8 +EE
Ee+ a+ ^l-s6J+).
"tH ++E HI*¤ol "JiI
oI"J.r+ Hlg"6}q A^IHAI
H19
do Arr (kllmol) E"(kl/mol)
(b)
"Jdg ++6lbql44 510 nm, 640 nmol,rJ =14 ¤:fzl9q s. dSlE ¤E]g +B6l-= ql flq qruEol BH6IZI g E
tq. EA Bel Db 4ol S4. +^J5qlrll Lll geq ++6J ^l ag+lol4E7l?
-E7I8l+gflr.. ql^JEe Eag EIE+^lg.E+ "Jr 9l+. Et (c) i*C9 5C EA a7l Hl+ql qt+ +'J +,ll'JzlE +'JaI
EI^JEe zI^l%IrJ g:+ Eg + flE 4e+ dEl eI nz} t+. olE E}^JE3 qtr ,JEg +
^lBdl -H.zl f.loN,{
il= 4l+,,J9itrI(ra.s¤9^EEeg
++qzl HlBel ol+ +a). 9l Elsql 46}qot ol.bzf?
Eil+ HI++EEg 9"I4zl +16ll^l ¤Eg ¤Zldl e_E+ alzl.. (d) d4lE a7t +*e.l +"H.J A+, Hl* rlaql +6J CE= trl
(a) d39lrl HI*9 4g. 844 4s qH E7l gol^lE qE dElg cj f;!a|{o} 6l+7}?
^J+= AA6Irl 914
--J
:{lnI
!tl
L,
{
rl
.-**
,-.*, -l 'lr&. &irL
I
,
fl
",4 L
I \
I
15.1 > EJge.l 7}|H 7lq BJg. r+ EeE 4Hg
?Itrf.
> g+q
Et-* =J-d
15.3 tsE
=7lE
ot6ltet
ql46iE
4E ¤B ^J+E
Hll+il. a_ *
%LHg
ol 1tg"6tE EIq HI*^IE s¤ %l^lql
qB4l el¤6lE^lE 6ll4d}= Hg Hll
e4.
< Eol
^l|=
!l| +917[ g8:el +Coll ol-e= EE Ee 8Eilts ffilo e 961
lll= Hl|oll,(l E¤ nlH-oeu 0E + 9ltl .:Sur/Shutterstock
671
E9 +d-6J
E 9!Eg 4146[r, ++e+q Aazl9+ 4^]g H a6]71 +16ll ^l-s
^l^Hg
gr1. zoosH -"lul4lg KatrinaT[ New orteans= r]49I9 41, q5o1 gol-E^J 4l%]
ol ol olqaE+.
^l^H
{ulla}z},BBol zl]zlH^l E^19 z]]o}eE
g.9 q tlql^J= +71.J il 1.-5l..11, ssl +"_q ilr.2,J) "l uenry Hzl ., (13.3
:l)g E6J6Iol Eeel E?-14 Es+e+ +Ag E4 ¤eel qel d6lt *+. r qle^J
^IqlE
?zl"JgllEJ"ll lrz}. gqlg Szl9lrl .-441 +lel 6zl.J9 EzIzI Eillq^l Tlillt}e-E EBI
44zlE +Ee+ 7liil^Jel E^l7l "li{ql 96il Egqq .li{7} q= +Ee+ ae el E+=
H++.
+gr+ ¤+, E:: +6Ie+ aaslel u|$zlzlE, srlq+ EI¤+ crJ6J4 9*alo-e d4g
+ 9lrl. q++ol +E6l L4+H, rE.J *4zl dix'J HI¤¤ql^J "llsH azlH qHi
+g +^lB + 914. rq+ a+ar} qEi+q +E= aelolloluj 6I= +s+ ql^l7t B:ol
et+.
itEtElB(chemicalequilibrium)3 4HI-&q d{g q g.'8*+.
ge}*ol Ag +E.=.
HI*ol ¤B t}Eilql flg tril, H}¤¤e+rl ,.JCEol BCq= +E: ^8Cge+El HI¤¤
ol ¤^dq= +Ee+ E.J6l+. a 3aL EoEE E6Izl g:r. +*e geqzl dql B+ ail
H -H-"J+.
ol tI4 +* + tlql^l= slo+BBql ql61] zl.^Jl6l Aqg 4.o14. r + letr-ql^lb plql
¤Bg gqqll+ g+^l7l: ,JBg tsHg aolQ. {zlglrJ} qB ++9 B¤
^JEll=d+
zJeE EE6l= ,JHg HH+r, BB s!+Eql^l HI+EI+ tEE aA6t
^JdEE ^J'll4
.JzF=ql 46}ol ++.J Xol4.
=
>ral 15.1 New Orleans9l-tr
E rlE ol,(l.{ltrl A 3^lel !.aJ
ErJ^l "! +EJ^4 gq3 6Hg
^q,
10u1= s;AroJ rIlrHolz, 4aJ
6H+E!Jtl-.*q-.
^!g
kd.lrd'itn
t
il J
7
d
q
F.
.J
E. I
H
672
15.1 | E--Jel Tl]Lj 673
EI+ +EE4 zl^lg ols-oo|{ olq6J ¤Bg E46J + 9l+. Nzon9 +6ll= Ct}8o14
Noz
NzO+
r.6}r, Nzo+9 ^J^Jg qH}+ol4r alz|. ol a+, aHls.4 EHi¤+ s+ +"J +41 HI
*(elementary reaction)ol+. xll14.6eql^J H]]S 4+ ?J"1, slq^lql^J +"J +41 HI3'9 +
E B4g trl-gr+ ?Jol ¤ + 9+.
{HI$'Nzor(s) + ), 4Er: krlN2o4l
Noz(s) [1s.2]
ol
^lg
trl^l C;]5IH r|gE !g E=+.
gq:!:*+ tls.sl
[NzO+] ^r
ls.ss+El F 7l]9 +E tr-+e-l zlizl E +e tr-+E= ag "J + 9i+. ol tI+= ¤
^l
B tl++r*+. E6JB¤ tlqql^l EoE6J9 ul¤ol tfc+ +*+ "J+ 9l+. ¤e ^J
iE Nzone. No2-tr E= ol Eel gaJEE zJ"ll oi*
^1416[=zl, ^lzt6]=^1, ^lz]6]Ezl
fl zlolTi S+. +qA gEql^1g ¤¤ql^l= r ElTt $C.J <l"l 94. trI+^J ¤Bql^l
NzO+eI NOz9 Blql= +s6J zll6.J saol 9lril g+.
Noz ,k7[NzO+l
Nzo+ 4
-E
i 7'JEoll s'J-d -E gBollEg--J
| / (E:-7t Y-txl k,[No2]2 'a- /4ErL
\-!zto=d/
Eol=l\
/ ?Ja)
0 0
/.l} + AlzJ+
(a) (b)
arH 15.3 NzO+G)----- 2 NOzk)HJ8oll,(l eltrl EBoll_E.JE 8U¤i ^-E7|.qHJ8 +Ee]'J= trfl E
EolEtl..
15.2 E-d a+ 675
15.2 lBEt+
zJ? H6l+ Hi¤+, : q}*ol
*zl r.ilql^l HI¤¤ol {^dEE H6}r, ^gcEol *¤¤e
9uI4 $1i{zloll S4l$.ol ralr CH}go4 qH}$E H}+ +EE4 4dql SZlHol x}¤
¤¤ql Eg6lTll g+. a^e+ +iE+El g:ELlol-s Eld6I= +g HI¤+ ^J4"}]
^Brll
-u-zt.
Nz(S) + 3 Hz(s);- zNHs(c) [1s.6]
ol HI¤+ Haber E¤(Haberprocess)el zlz.zl qq
^Jtql 9f4ol4.
trl+^J EIE
^ll4l
4* ++q +.q6tEl. Haber *dqlrJi Nzel HzE r¤, :zoJql^l +Eli HI+^l
=44q1
4 .JEqoF= 6J^d.J+. r7l+ Ef, 4lql^l ol Hls"g Nzq Hz= Ed6l AEalzl *El+.
s6lq c+ E+ gaJEql t'^lql qL **ol H+ az.lH H.J+.
^Jl =^H6IE^J, ^ldql
ral Hr, N2, NH3E LoETI H6tb
^l+ql 44 A9 +EtU 4.o14. N2e+ H2-tr+
15.4=
El 6I+9 ¤¤ sBEol eqeql +el6l-
^l+61=zlql *4ls.ol,
NH3trJs-tr
^l4l6t=zl,
+. ¤B 249. o&+ qL qr.}e_e.prlE EgE+ + 9l+.
aA + bB ;- dD + eE U5.71
Hz9 aE +EE N2elAE +E.clPflol ?/E7l? ?]sf :rBtlE olgzl ElHElol o;*7n
Hf.=L=.Efoe ++ gdEgtee
="J
EiA EEI EEI
!=
E.
H2
E
H2
NHs NHa
N2 N2"
l7J + lz +
afH 15.4 oJEE(Nre[ HdEJg-+ !E= 8d=(NHs)oJee Eg-d Eeq E'J-dtl'.
^l4t6l.= ^lAEl'=,
676 158 6t-+ E-d
^lql
4.J6Iq 99 <iol4. ot4 ?z[ cE tf A]9 9zl slafl .<1-o:" o3 E.bEol+.
¤¤ {l.+^lel E4= ¤B H}+^lel scE +ql 9l= E= Eeq +E +olr, 4 bE
+B slEi Hl+4q zl+"J+ 4E4l+4^J qlg+tr}. tsE= ¤B EI+^IE HI+E + E
=
Atr+q tsl+6t7ll 'llE++. tr|{^l Haber *C, Nz(c) + 3Hz(c) :2NH3(s)q ¤¤ t
+4e +q-4 e+.
v-
INH"l2
'
A---
[Nz][Hz]'
[1s.e]
BBql Egt qtr HI*ql q6[q #¤ *+ E]q] H]*^lg "JE, E]*,il4q+3 seq
+E BB tl+^lg g + 914.
¤B t+^le Hl¤.el +Et*-eqluJ E=6lr HI¤. ql4q#rl+ ++6t+
Haber *t
Eq+ts oJ+E Eol= EJI gsoJ .Je ed l.C ¤zJ aoo9 r++EE olu.ulolzl 4*B Hub.. +C oE zlla
^l*el
Eql 4+q= *tr4 gd $r{. ,.c,., (14.741, "ei g+. g-Eqot= EoJql Hts ++q7l+ oJE*.g_e*e H++
^lEq
jlerl ili rd s.-l:"). trt4^] tBql= tI"JeJq oJsqot Eler gl4.
^14 ^l-sg +
zlqle.l ulez| ¤ea}q. oJaol f=9 +4ql qq xllq6l= Habert a+9 drJg gB6l zlg* "l]+dol ,JoJ +g
*tsg +.=_aJ ++ ++ +ql^], fte+ 4zl ?9 ?ae.4 "J"1fl4. ]= zllril
^llalqd E"J +.JE 44 d4
.qu1^
El oJEqoh= qlc6l+ dz zl* ;.soJ cI+ HI+ +el 6l (Chemical Warfare Service)9 zl$619-=. 96197, +7I^
+oltrI. fzle! giE ^l-Sg rl]H.dlf,trl. A44-q.g, 1e18Hql f
lgl2LJql 5.Jq ++zl Fritz Haber(1868-1934)= Haber I Lg p+qt} +tI AC3 t}"J.J b^J4 ul$$ izllz| sl
*Ag ,1]B6I9trI(^l ts.6). r +Ag Haber-Bosch *d fl4. olol+l.l6t4lE f.E #4.Jol4E olg.+' re33LJgl 5
(Haber-Bosch process)oleliE 6l-= aqE, ql+E .JEq .Jql^l +*qfl+.
of Bt *CS zllg.J digz| Karr Bosch= zle.lzl f-lal {o1 +¤ ¤+ E4l: ls.rt4, ts.7s,ts;s
trI(rH 15.5). Haber +Ag +16]l^l= tg gE(4
^lB617l
4 soo "c)el k* $4(zoo-600 atm)S 99-e algr1, o13
r "*^lq= Ezl "14.g =aolfl+.
*CP s*4ol *49 S"tl "lzli +!+zl"J g.Jql
Haber
+6il q^|4 otr +trlEg 9lE -uq tet4LJ zlltzf
=4.
4dol ^lzlqflg Eil, +"Jg +qlg zil=ali ql gst e
^ll4l
\
l-l
c$ +gtt3 +oJ+q aqlql 9= e+e qzl$q e]+6}fl
+. d^Jg 6F= E.J, ts I4l4zI ¤-JJ qI49 "lltl +4le
.J6ll ol ++ol xl.+qflq. rq+ ql7ltr+El 4a zlillE E
)
^l-+"Jssa] +oJg +E ^J&
!.46171 f.l6]l Haber HI¤¤ ',.id,,1
e 4+B + 91fl+. dEzl-=g Haber S{ol $.fl48 ztlr
tet8tr dql z*-q aol+r +CtJ+. ffi
I
zI \
^llzlqldg \
olBrll +ril daql^l gs,* Ezl-= 49617l +l6.J %lBe n
4lrll ts.t
¤E t+4j j!7t
q8 HJSel ga 944$ ll.rl9.
6) 2qG) -- 302(sr)
(b) 2 NO(g) + Ct2G) ;- 2 NOCr(g)
(c) Ag+(aq) + 2 NH3(aq) i- As(NH3)f Gq)
lso,t2
r-o E 6Jg
+¤ EIE Hlg. 4l+el a3 4fE z*s.+ f,4. (c) K-: (d)
2[SO3]
K,: 2[sor][or]
^lE ' ."'
Iso2]z[02]
E0l
lorl3 > E6 qlrll2
: prf : fNocll2 (c)& : fAg(NH3)rjl
q¤ qlaql
(a)K. O)K.
ffi iffi ql6J
¤B
(a) Hz(S) + I2(g) :
t44 r.g l^.r.le.
zHI(g)
@) Cdz+(aq) + 4Br-(aq) ;' CdBt4z-(aq)
K" 4lthbPl
+Elts qB4l erJ zl+E H4.l ?ElzlsE gAqfl=zl= ¤Hg + 9la, rt+Iq} old
4e+ ol4}Ei 4iel +flg "Jdel dqlg s.rlaJeEr,{ ¤¤ triz} a7l +Ee+ ++6}+
4g +EEl + el+.
=
Nzo+(g) ;- 2No2(s) K.: t1s.1ol
+H
+= *Eq Eq fl= Eg
H zH9 "JBg
^]E+g =Hl*r]. ¤¤ql
Noze| N2onz[
^1tr
E rllzlzl ^]e+g
100'c-s #zlrlzJ4.
^lEl+
.JE rqr
g6JEg 846}J, E 1s.1ql
++u NozqNzon ¤B LoEE AA6J+.
K,= 4l&61-71 +l6l.q ¤B *E= ¤¤ tl+^lql q.J+rL qE Eq ¤E 19
^+rJ"l
¤¤ tl+
zl.E [Noz] :0.0r72M, [N2o4]:0.00140M9 otelle] ag ar]E gg + 9l+.
^l=&6]E
I(.: lNO,12: lo.ot7212 : o'Ztt ffi-
[N2o4]
A
Ed4
0.0100
15.10011,\'l K"el,J? No2c[Nzo4el /.l4t EiEoll sl=dl=71?
^l
0
/.lz+ ?-aJsE_ L|EILJ B* tf, Kp
arB 15.6 Noz9 j^zl tsEq 89fl01 ,Je E dcEol 7l^ll"J a+. sbE qld ++ glqg ^I
Elql HI¤:E HI¤¤r+
E SdEt[. Efloll E=-=f tqzl^l No2el
=-Er'Eol +6}oj ¤¤ tr-+^lg +4'J + gltrl. ¤B t}+^lql^l ++ E.49 zl.J
5E= 67[dl7]LlrJ^Zrr[.
+9E + a+, ¤¤ ^J+= Ke-tr -*^l6J+(q7l^J oI4 dztp= "J49
LI4,J+). rl rs.z9 "JHI BJ+ql 4aJ r, q*!+ a+
^le
_ (Pp)(PE)'
^." (Pe)'(&)'
[1s'11]
^r:H
+qA HI+q^l "JHI4e=a K,E {}rl Keel {}g +e.+. l4 oe. ol4 dz| c E* pE
ol+6[q ¤¤ t]+E +Qlll= ql +el6fi+ ++. 6]zl"J ol$ zlrllal * (ro.+¤)9 ol*
6[9 Eo E4 .Jqg t]g H+]g + g+.
nlvi mol/ro1q, g*E Ma+ ,Jq. :14 oe. Ee Aql qldl^l= trIs-4 A+.
r_l rs.r:9 ro(al rs.rr)q qE6lr HI+g 4E zl4l CEql ql6il^]E Ae %LHsE qE
6lE, Kpel &
^l"lel +4q +* "JEI^lg Erll gtrt.
qEl 15.2
KPI
^tolel tt
HaberES Nz(g) + 3Hz(g) ;- 2 NHs(g)
0ll ttlotl300'C0ll,\l Kc=9.609 ttll, 0l8E0ll,\1 0l HJB9KpE Zlt}d|.119.
BE ^J+cl.J+l
olulE qfl+e ¤¤ f|+9 ol*E }fr6ll6J 4o14. ¤¤ tI++ Hl¤- +EE
tflzl S.E
+"J otq+ gqq4E sdol ql+(rsr}qlrJ gqq4g +dcg .Jol-B 1ol4). gqo+
4 +Aee+q Eqd BB tl++ +E+ ++ .Jqtr+= $sE(activity)e aelgrl.
ol+4ql gqlE +E qtr g4E 9E"EE E.= bE 1 Mql ql.J bEE ulolzlrJ, EG
"J4(r atm)ojl ql* "Jqq Hlol+. qlE 5q Be g6JE +q qB Eeq *E710.010 M
olEE, r gEE= 0.010 M/l M:0.010o14. ol Elg ++l= 6}tl
^J4qEE 9E"E9
+fl= HAI gq. 4olzl. SFEE Ag tEe+ a+. +++ rlzlle+ "-qillel A+ tr-oJe q
q Z+6lld+. q+:.IB gEETi 1ol7l ullEol+(E^l B9lz| S.+).
dxll 4l"llrJE ¤}EEE HlolEE +gl7l $.+. Hl+ 95sz} +ilzl_e_-+ aq6}rll tEe+
zJzlE ?*zl"J, :. rlolz| 4+ }ot +^lB + 9l+r Tlcg 1o14. ol ,r.lf oll,rJ "JoI"l B
ag gia"Eql t]glzl s+= 4,o14. olE+El Eqn gqolzi ¤B t+(thermodynamic
++l7I s.+. trI+^J .E.= ++E ¤¤ ^J+= EI+l S.ol 4= aol
equilibrium constant)E
+Bllolq, ol 4E ol-$ ffi 4o14. ¤ rl E3 +=9 alql r.4q1,(-l= +EeI gtE= +
ts6}q
^FSg
aol4.
680 1s8 at-+ EE
B¤ t#9:zl
HTgE ."- gd=
qtr HIAE B¤ t[+e] a7l+ ¤B sq+Eq atql q1g ie* AB=
qE +6Jille} ¤+41 4aq zl;ll.J E^41
^il+EI+. =q ^F&q= EC
(phosgene, Cocl2)g *Ezl 91il, "J4le+ tsl z1i1str ¤i zlillq r00 "c
K>> 1, ECol 9-oll?lEt.' ql^lE EISq q+ ¤e zlEE r}4oil ezl.
lcocl,l
co(s) + cl2(s) ;- coCl2(s) &: f-ffcl, : 4.56 x 10v
qH 1s.3
BB t+sl rTlql EHBJ 6il4
(iii) aol4. r++^l ¤e ^J+ <lol 4Ig a(Hi¤¤ol 7I+ 2'Cql^19 Nzor(s) : 2No2(s) ++ql Eil'J ¤¤ tl-+
"*e a)+q 3 4(^JCEol zlat r*3 4) #eg qgq- K,:2.0o14.4?+E L*4 +7I 1mol9 NzOaE 44
E (0 < (i)'{ii1o14' =
qtn 44E ,J4 +71I mot9 NozE 444= a+, +q-q
O) (i)q^J= ^JCE o.oo mol/Lel **E o.+o motlLzl ( 1.0 L +71 + qL 4o1 z.c9l.rl ¤B g.J+g 444Ezt?
xll;|E-tr K,:0,6010.+0:1.5(rJg ++E +E 4+
2O
E 4tszl"J qls. zJ3 ArlE E=4. + 644 +144
I +: t.s). (iil"ll,tJL {CE o.to mol/Le} H}¤¤ o.so oo o o +o OO
mollLzl K.: 0.10/0.e0 : 0.11(E= lZlE oo c o doo (D
ooo
99
=4161-tr-+,
als44 +:o.tt). (ifl9l,tli CCE o.so mol/Lel HI oo
eO o .",i ; a ooog
o
¤¤ o. zo mollLzl & : 0. 80/0. 20 : +. o (s.:
=4l6tlr-s (a) (b) (c) (d)
4tI 44= (a)9lrl9 t,!
(e)
sZlE + hznq O =a.o). ol
el.JiltJtrl. > H.= qlr{ 2
frAi ,.r-:
K. [ts.ts]
rJt^.lE oJ+-^l7l7l
El¤,J "JE-zl BB ^J+E
+q11 Hl+ql q6J +B +q HI*!g iri %IBe +oJ6}trl. q= zl rs.r9
Nzo+(s) ;- ZNo2(s)ql 2= +6lE qgr+ A+.
=E
2N2Oak) ;- aNO2(g)
682 153 trlol E:d
ol p+ur Ei+4E +¤ol "*+q4 9leq, qE 4ql^l: +le-l EI*4g +rt. tr14^J ol HI
*^lql qt.J BB r H trf.sr+ e+.
^J+^lg
[Nozla
-'(-
^. [Nzoo]2
ol +¤.4 ls.lql ¤B ^J+^l(rl rs.ro) [Nor2/[N2oJS z]l+e] 4o14. ^l]tr.e
ql6J
^lg
¤¤ t+^le g4 ¤¤ tr-+^lg zllgolps, ^l]E+ ¤B ^J+ K.: g4 B¤ tfg zll
*ol,.tr., 0.2t22:0.044e(t00.cql^J)ol+. +^l EJ6I]^I ,+49 EC* +B s++ Hl+^lr}
BB tl+= g+^l4o} Er¤ zlgulloi ++. ¤B EeE so EE ++ Ht
=B¤ql =46I=
+^le qB4 444tsxl"ll +4l$ol +AzlEJ, 4l4I"J K. zte HI+g qB4 4=4q trl
4 B+A+.
-e-e+-o}H,
qH 1s.4
BE t+41¤trslil
u84e qe-aleq.
HF(aq) .- H+(as) + F-(aq)K":6.8 x 10-4
H2C2Oa@q) 2H*(aq) + C2O42-(aq) K,:3.8 x 10-6
-
tl-B US9 K",JE +6f^19.
2HF(aq) + CzO42- (aq) : 2F-(aq) + H2C2O4@q)
rllS
E{ + BB H}+44 r B¤ t}+ rtg +a, ole+ ¤+g fitet ++61zlg + HI+4g EJdl^l= Brll HI+4g e
Hzll ++e.l BB tr-+E fali $ullolc|. g + Htrl. +6}azl6l+ EI+^lg e7l^jl96I^l= olE H]*
^,ll
49 4ed 4$aHo16q-.
6l+ ¤¤ ^J+= e=q. z[F(aq) + CzO42- (aq) : 2R- (aq) + H2C2Oa@q) K,: (4.6 x rc'7)Q.6 x 10s) : 9.12
> Id.6 filrti1 (a) 4.9 x 10 13 (b) 4.1 x 1os (c) 8.2 x 10s
x 102 (e) 5.4 x 10-3
2s.c9 +¤-o+ql^'l trl-g + Hl*ql ql+ ¤B t}+z} 4* (d) 1.8
ol al= ¤Bq^J + 7l^1++._4 qlqla" 4 6J Tlzl rillE E6.L6J+. Elg ol 44q qi+ ¤
¤ ^J+^lg ++8, oldql d6tl trzl *+ Extlql +Rzlrtl g+. ritl Eeq bE= qB
,tl LI4'J 4"J71? +o&"J'J9 Hl+84 olE, HISzl rs.rs
^JCSe+E] ^lzlEl= ¤E]g
e-l ¤B ^J+4e 4gq A+= ag ga6l4 g+.
r.: pru2*1;ct-12 t15.2ol
r4oe. BB tr-+^lql^l +El+zl szl rllEgl, rillel +EE *¤oli %r-Hql
pbclz(s)zl
4aJ ExJIE E* $flol S+. .E+g ¤B"il +++ n4l+ 44lz} EElg 4E :z HI*E
S¤ r}+!q= olEE BE4 6+^& sQlq4 9+=+.
+-?qI rxll+ "-q4rt ¤B ^J+^lql EElq4 ?*=trI=
^Ide + 7Vl EJHse ¤Eg
+ 9lr}. a trail, ++6J aill+ o_4illE r-"E= .J4.J <i9 zt{4. itrllE Ar*ol F Eil_+
+7I6tE, +ylE + ts]]7} g+. trl+^J +qq 4aJ aeJul4 +¤g Eo EE trdtzl ?+=+.
¤e tr-+^le srlq} +¤- 4aql^J LoETt E6I= Hl¤¤r+ ^JcEq ql.J.J="Jg s+6[
EE, 344 rill+ ._qillg t.E= rulzlzl g+.
¤B ^J+^lql^l ++6J ral+ .lill7| mlzl= ae + H4l ,JBse ¤Hg f ?14. xll
rs.z¤9llJ gEqI4 B¤ tl+^lql 59zlE Ae 4 E¤E grEoEolr., oli zl#ai9l 4
fl *EE Elg.J 49,.Jzlat4. ++6J 849 4A, zft<I? ++6J Ee zlajlE +Eol
,l qlgql +++ l1^ll+ sq^lle_l gEo E= a36 1ol gQ.
c
4rs o
cor(s)
o cor(s)t
4t* bcl
(D4
L-.{ 4;
CaCO, CaO CaCO, CaO
ol +qA gEql^l CaCor, Cao H Co, ,tlo1e1 ¤¤ql^l ^ll 7I^l CEol E+
^lg
6l+ +, Coz9 F E .J{ol .JtI E"J6t4ts ag .Jel ={
r=J ls.Boll^J -H.ol ul-e| po1,
=+.
caoe* caco:9 tlql4 .Jrl= rud}al coz9 .Jqg ga6[q.
qHl 1s.5
ffi.J BBqlEfiaJ BB tt+4j &?l
q¤ 4 HJag EE 8+4 4 le.
(a) CO2(g) '("=
+ Hz(g) ;- CO(EI) + H2o(/)
(b) SnO2(s) + zCO(g) ;- Sn(s) + 2CO2G)
\t qFl 'ts.6
DI ffi.J BB9] E4 I
tl¤ 4 E-cIEol 44 "Jtr{l E7l0ll trJZ 9ltt.
(a)CaCOg(s) (b) Kp 'zJ-H.trl trl E "Jalq CO2k)etCaO(s)
(c)Kp '2JEtl t] g+E CO2(J,)elCaCOs(s) (d) CaCog(s)el CaO(s)
=
0l EEIE 6 o|l.- a0l oleflel BBoll Eg-g + 9,tts7t?
CaCO3(s) -- CaO(s) + CO2(g)
(b) co,: co,9 *E.Jqol ¤¤ "Jqql EB6J ++ + HEI + Eg+ 41e.3 ¤Bgl^]. tsg
=qsq
Qzlzl Caoot +=61 aql4{ cacor= d^.rq}q.
=xll*+.
NHaHS(s)9 olol zJca|fll q= H+= qL a"J7I?
(c) caozl s,o o-e ¤Eq EBB + s4. coz9 *E oJ4 (a) +TlqlNH:(8) trl471
ol B¤ llvl4 aq= f s4(co,z} HI+4q aqitr + (b) +7lq H2s(s') trl a7I
llE caozl g,c6l+). (c) +TlqlNH+HS(s) trl e7I
(d) ol a+ tElol (a)el:L-i{-q_tr ,J4. cacorS gqol (d) +7lE *q ?zI
ol+qa ql4zl +6119 d,ol4. azl cao9 q++ (e) *7lE +r4 'zJi
rzlt+ol fl+. =4
>r=qld2
> .H.= qFll .J.il Eqfl= Feror(s)91 H2k), Hro(s), ozk)
1
"Jqlg +71
200"cE zt¤¤ r.o LE "JEl $zloll a.o gel NunHsls; Ea + qL ag dzliRg rll, r re(s)+a H2o(g) r-
7I Eq 9le$, NHaHS(s) : NH3k)+H2S(s) HI*ol Fe3oa(s)+ aHz@) HI+"l EBq E$olfzi?
+,1lz[ ¤¤ql^]E H]¤¤ol+ ^JCE.J A+, +¤¤r+ ^JCEE Eo E7t *eE +ql= A
I ++6J tlql.e rJ+qq +4q toEE ¤¤ tl+^lql^J zlle-lg+. olEl+ tl4g Eol +
o]]E +q6|f HI*ql 4+6rE
H2o(/) + Co3z-(aq) ;- oH-(a4) + HCo3 (a4) t1s.21l
R NH3(aq)
^le.
+ H2O(/) 3 11po+(69) + OH-(aq)
=
tE
H+= zl&++.
3. HI89 pI+"*Eg ElqI Hl+^lel 4l+E ¤¤ tl+^lql fl= +"1
^l-&6lq(+¤ ^l-s")
zl s-E e+o++E bE Hel¤ al4I.JtL
4. 1+4lel a7l +Ee+ 3+419 bE HE+E+EI rB4l9 sql^J tslt4 9l= ¤B bE=
4lrI*+
s. ¤¤ {}+ {tg ++tr}.
ol 4dg olaflap 7l* au$ rJBe qlxll ls.8r+ Ag qlzll= gq H= aol+
qEl 15.8
i7l g BB -FE.-E_+EI r(4ltr'BPl
1.000 x 1o-3 At H2TlAlel2.000 x 1o-3 M b 7lr1l7l 91= HJ8 ET|E 448"ce 7tE6u qE gE HJSol gol'Jrt.
=ol
HzG) + lz(e) .- 2Ht(g)
448"Coll^el EEoll,\1 Hlel tsE7l 1.87 x1o-3 M"J n|l, EE At+ K"E Zltto=1./.19.
6fiff
E{ H2s+ tzq r-oE, HIel ¤¤ t.E= }a-. H2(s) + 4lq E= +++9 ¤¤ soEE +6i71 +l6}q E¤: z+C6Ir.
=tl
Iz(c) : za\il! ¤B tL+E+61+Edlol+. BB bEE+q ¤¤ tl+= 4t1++.
E0l Hz/6)+tz@)-zHr(g)
(r) EE E+4+E a7l ts-el *¤ *E= sE z+CtJ+. E a7l bE"(r4 1.000 x 1O-3 2.000 x 10-3 0
q tE
HEIE zloJ$ *zJS "tHrJ+. 4C.J ++ EJ bs Hgltlrr
+lql EIE HI+4g 4E aol tsrlo}trI. ¤B tE (i\r) 1.87 x 10 3
(3) [HI]E Hi+= [Hr] "t tlrlE Hp]e]+ts^l7l7l +16]q t (t.tr r rt'T*X 2mol 1 mol H2 - mol H,
:0.935 X l0-r:
e s++ H}¤-^le-l 4l+E ol+"J+. HI )
(r.tr r rt.T*X 2mol
l mol 12
:0.935x10'- mol I"
HI ) r.j
688 1s3 at+ E:d
1s.6 lBEt+el tE
B¤ tl+ K! zzlzl E]-&E 114 cE= 9"laJ4E a¤- glt+.
. rz| oll* zE, ¤B gq+Ee H}+^lql^l +E EAg ?tr eg,oj4.
^8CE
. rz| r-H_4 gd zlg-H, ¤q s.JE.g HI*^lql^l +¤¤ +E Eeg ?e ea;q1q-.
¤B {l+: (t) ti* s,*Eol ¤Bql Eg6I7l +l.J 414 ,J6&g q+61r, (2) HI*84 C
glrll f,El.
^dEE ¤B +EE Al4}dJ +
ilt "J"Jel
qE
SE472"cql^J NzqHrEPEi NH3zl ^J^Jq= Hi*(^l 1s.6)9 &:0.10so1tr|. 472'cql
1.00 r *zl9l }{22.00 mol, N2 1.00 mol, NH3 2.00 molel g.o;gol fl4r 7l4i;l
xI. ¤Bql sBolzl +l6lq g6JEg q¤ H]¤¤ E 4"JzI? N2e| urz|=q
^-l
Hls"6tq q *g
NH3E tlE a"Jzt? olr-lB NHrz[ Nze+ H2-E +6IE 4"J71?
ol eEql B:6tzl 9.l6loi Nz, Hz, NH:9 a7l +E= BB t}+^lql qoJ6t F, olE ¤B
zl^ll= sEL6l= H}*ql^l: L"E 4d ++ oJqs-q &l^l Qe-tr ++U HI$ xlag E
a Q<K
=EI.
HI* zlag 4l&6171 fl6}q ¤B tl+^lr+ El+d oltrll K gHJ30t t]-dslGl
^lg ^Fa-o6IzlEI. ^l-+6t 8dE3
E EoEi S¤ +E"J +E glzl"J, olB +E fl+. qE Eq flql^J a7l bEE
tri 8d-dtrt
^l
rs.zz4 ¤¤ tl+^lq qlE6I9g ql gg iI¤ e.:o.sooolflxl"J, &:0.losolEl.
¤¤ t}+= 4 g-Eql^l 6I+E AElg z*xlq}, q]* zlfE t}Sol {qBq q+ q o Q:K
4 zlzl9 lkg r*+L+. K E{61
ilr+ K. {t, E= ep <I4 x, zt+= ulL*4. r,ll z}zl Tlsot A+(rg 1s.9)= E}gr+ a rB 15.9 +Gl8 8Eoll^l Oe[ K=
H l_il.6lq uSg HJE} ql+61"7
?ol se+6J + 9l+.
I
6llU
E4 H}¤-ql^l +q+E azl Eic+ *Elzt +qflg q {|¤ Tjle HI+ s.JE +E 4 Eag a7l +EE +B + ilEL
q EE.6I7] +lal{ **ol qL BF6.}_e_-tr dqg a.Jzl ++ a7l .r-oE= ¤B t'-+^lql qlEa}q HI+ {+ Q.E al&tr
Exllol4. + 914. +qd S¤ tr.+e+ eI8 zlf9 =.71= EILEIe__tr
.r{l EJ89 tlB %1-.}3.J + 9l+.
690 153 trltrt "J:d
Eol Zzl to 13 q-e-. q- 2q'. +{148, El-g + Hi+g %}"} HE+ql q4 c+61 ¤B+
:
[HI] 2.0 x lO-2moll2.00L = 1.0 x lO-2M ag q! 4"J71?
[H2] : 1.0 x Lo-2moll2.00L: 5.0 x 10-3M (a) +7lE Pulz} 6Eq Hlql Bl6}(e_=+ql^l
[I2] : 3.0 x lO-2moll2.00l: 1.5 x to-zM =qEtr
g+)e-a rI*.1 {B¤4.
eI* 4+= +s-4 a+. (b) +719 Pulz} +Ed S+qE HI¤+ Hlql B-6Je.e
BE tsE-glZII
sl+zl-E=g ++ g¤ tr-+E .Ja 9l= H}.8-ql^l ¤B tlE.ilql^lE HI¤¤+ ^JdEE .&g
4l&g 9ez1 ?14. ol4 ae BEIE Ezll= += %r-Be ¤B d-+= al4l6J trll ^FsqL a
r+ Eli6t+. + Z7l E EE ++ "Jq, olE E" Eel .JqE HEl, 4l+ BB L" E E= +
Eo
+.Jqg *.E. zlc6J+. "JHI4-s-s trlzlEql ¤B t}+4g ol+6[q 9lx]l rs.loql troJ
{zlfl ulzlel oJ-$ 4l+}6tzl 96]] +q+ g !g +E6J+.
qH 1s.10
BE 85-sl4lt
8-E s00.c0ll^l Haber 38 Nz(g)+ 3 H2(g) : 2 NHg(g)9 Kp--1.45x 10-5olrt. soo"Coll,'.l All 7f^l 7li1l9 gB E-dE0ll
,\l Hz9 +E "Jalg 0.928 atm, Nz9 ?E geJP 0.432 atmolt[. 0l EB e-cr'Eoll,(] NHg9 +E gale g0P]7[?
6ll'J
E^1 B¤ ti Kpe|, EJ+^IE ,r.ll zlzl Ea + + 714 ge atr ol aq¤.^l-8-6lq ¤B t[+ *g q^l zl4]6]q +.J
(Nrs+ H)9 ¤¤ ++ "Jqol ?"ldeq, Hall Ed NH, g+ el4.
^Jl
e.l ¤¤ ++ "Jqg fali Sxllolr|. (2.24 x t1-3\z
K^:' '::1.45X10-s
Ilq Kp= BB tl+4r+ A+a +r, 9zl.ll ?qd ++ -J ' (0.432)(0.928)3
\!
//
qHl
a7l
1s.l1
*'_E -a"+El BB bE ahl-6Pl
?E448 'Collll 1.000 15a1.reoll H2G) 1.000 molrf l2Q)2.000 mol= it|fltl. u3 HzG) + lz(g) : 2 Hl(g)el EE A+
K"= 448'C0ll,(l50.s01+. alEIEJ H2, 12. Hle.l EE tsE= gEloJTl?
=+e
Nl.lU IIA ol 4* "lrlt Be *E_E +qzlzl gBI+. Iri4^l a
E^1 +7lE +rle+ ¤¤ {l+ "t HI¤¤E a7l r-oEE +L, 7l EoEel ¤E roE +41= gotLllot 434. azl :-oE
^tole.l
E-= +ol+E ¤¤ r-"EE falf $ullolr|. e+q Be r-"E= 4l&oJ ql^ll rs.8r+ Bg Eql^J Hl+6t+.
E0l
(r) Hzel rzq z7l
bE= 4=+. fH2l - 1.000M. [rz] :2.oooM
bE EsI(,u)
gq $rrM
(3) HI+E slql=+Eg ol+6lq HI+ol ¤¤oE d H2G) + t2@) i- zHt(g)
q6J ull "Jq+: +E E3rl¤ eA6Jq. SBe A7l EE (M) 1.000 2.OOO 0
E" E
e tl.8+ql 44 Hze| rz LoEE zJ^B 4oll, Hs](M -x -x +2x
¤B r_"E(M)
Hr bE= f;zloJ {olr}. Hz9 EoE H+= H+
xtr +4LH Hzf. +¤ Et4 Hl+^l-9--E*rl Hz x
molol *g"E 4l Iz x mol$ 4.ulaljt-, HtTl2x
mol ddB4.
(4) plqt%IEq ul4 azl bEe+ bE HE+= HzG) + tz@) i- zHI(g)
q BB r-oEE s^l++. olzll E=,Jg ^l-8-6t
i}]+tr z7l *E-(M) 1.000 2.OOO 0
olzl %14!g gH(++ A.3), + zll9 r tl9 I x: -(-1s1.s) t ( 1s1.s) 4(46.s)( 101.0)
: 2.323. 0.935
2(46.s)
=+.
ol +a x:23232 {l¤ bE^lql 4E
H4l 6ll
5lE Hre+ r2el :.ETt ++ol+. ¤+oJ bE= lH2l :1.000-x:0.o65M
p]*4 oe. $ulz| glo I]E ol Bg tsifl+. +E lrd:2.OOO-x:1.065M
o}| x:0.e35E ¤¤ r-"E= ++tr}. lHt): 2x : r.87 M
^l-so6t¤
692 153 at-+ gE
'%*
550
6eoy
500
200
450 ,f^o
qj
400
500
ArB 15.10 Haber 480ll,\l NHs +EEoll olil= 8E9i gejel gE 4 E:-J-=S H2el N2el
3:1oJ E--JEeFEI Eolfitl. =Hl7[
^l4o0
*
le- SHOT- lee-ayrttr Sg6J+
15.7 I Le ChAtelier flal 693
te ChAtelier fl4
EBq flE A\zl Es. gq, tEq HEl.ll E6il r+qH,
f -u* -a4E ^Jdl6lE+ qlB 9lzl= olF^144.
4l=
g^lnl Ht_q5t
!oo
=avl
-9.E'
¤¤4tE gE= tolH 4lE HI¤+g +g HI+ql 46144 ^8cEg gg HI¤_q
'l+ aaH HI+*+.
SEg 'r+=*9 ^lE'. + 99 +-r-o1g B;6Je-E olE"*4.
,qi+
fE HFCq TLI{
E=
=G 5d 90
==
(rffi
ule.nl oE5.oe olE6t
u30l 9=+o+
9.1&oa nlE6l
015-Bf
Jo-) c o -J_
E\) o"*'3
J (/a H?
L
-y .\-)
9
E
of
rqr15 ' a ?-r
el
Oa
o
/.l2J +
a:19 15.11 Nz, Hz, NHs9 gE EEtEoll HzE zlilE trllg g-d H2= 7l6lE +qd uJ- gEE- HzE rl 4E6|.r NH3= tl UE=
+-e-+ olE-zltf. =
_E_=i+4^l7lL B.6Jetr q}*ol "15L'*4. zlall+l oJEqoIg "J+= N2el H2-+_ E6lt¤r}.
olqoJ'ol$'e H]* rl+(Oel ¤¤ HlrE ra"6J ql+r+ Sd{ gil,{}E}.
^J+(K)q
rhber E]*91^lE Nz, H2, NH3el BB sqlge+H NueE zll46lE, NHrE rJ "J=
7l +l6}q ++ol e-E+oE olF6J+. yI"J
^JCg NH:E 4l+6ll^l
,llag+ gl+8, +
a4
+7]-¤-. + ?l+. +E4eE "JEqol-s ^Jt}6J qlql= NH:E cq4qs sqp+
-e
,tl4 NH3E ,ll+4-9.E zllzlf,r|(:EJ 1s.12)(NH39 #:.d(-33"c)9 Nz(-1e6"C)el H2
(-zst'C)tr+ +ld +tI). "441 Nur= xllzlop Nr4 HzE xllrfaoa|{ trJ Bg NHrE "J
214 xilzlal ar+, HI¤+ ar+49-E $ag+.
=El. ^Jd+g
2 NO(s) + Oz(g) ;- 2 No2(9)oll,r.l EE8 rl,= EEl.oil el6fl 9-(,9¤E0l t1 trJ
oJaJ
+tr| "j EEfsl Eal
"J"J 4l oltlE TlxllE Ee.6J qtr 47I ¤¤ql glr, r *ylz} aA6Iq dill .JHol ?
oJ
7I6IE, Le Chaterier gelql uI4: 4l= g].qg rJa^l7lEllr. ¤BE gil= ol+^la aol
+. 4l: zl;ll $zlel dill +E *^^l4.Jqg + ?14(zl^ll Exl+7I 4g++ .Jq
3 rl *z]l +4*+). trI4^l gA+ gEql^l Z4=.J¤¤ EBEE +ElE z}^^148, 4l=
zl4lE Expg AA^l7l= *.Jss olE"*4. Pq 6zlE q "*g Tlill +zl¤ trJE= HJ
oJ e -ts ol5,r.l zle(=al 15.13).
A zlel +tr17t
=71.61'8,
2 so2(s) + oz(g) i- 2 soe(s)"J83 clgzl g=71?
tS.z I Le ChAtelier Eal 695
t71? )1111
¤ ito
a &
&$E.8o
(l
o p
*r,
t s
s-1$ *, I
Hz't
"t
I ol
+--.1
SBEIE Nz "J $
H2)l^11 ri s
I I
o
c
EIEJTl
zail7l
ab-
.*& o
o o
HJBatxl ?JP Nzel
q-)
& (b
H27l rH.gEE
o o c Tlga)61171+o|| 9l=
I a
o 0 ^lLf7tq
NH37l8dE
t rQ
Tlille:diEol o N2 "J H2 7lill= @
'J4ElE^1
o r,\)
E 5oo "ctr 7fg-st \\
NH3(EI)7t o4ElE
\
G
p¤ \\
s $
(:f)
I
I
EillNH?el
=-r
arH 15.12 Se.qolq Ag4 StielE^.I-E +oJ-zf Nzb)elHz(s) 7l^ll= E 500"ce 7lg6ln +0H ?l=
Er|./tlzrf. Ell-d Nz, Hz, NHg NH3ts aqtrfqq E--JEOll,\] EJ33 NIH.E
rl EJE= +-oE 0lE-dtl-. =-st-'J4/.l7lE, ^ll7lqrr+,
OzA(s) ;- On(s)
oo e
o o o
o OO
o o oo
oo o Enl )l)- olai
=7t
oo o o
Hf,l -571 olai 7t.\ o
o oo
T*t o!. H- o.l
ooo oo o
oo o o o o aO o
oo o
^fltr8
=+=
8ts3 Tlillel=
Eol trl=0171
96t| 8d
871_E= --Jtrt.
o
E7l +El
o o oo
oo o
geg 7ti]|et=
^|lE8
5i5 lolzl 9l6tl EJB
ArH 15.13 "JaJz[ t-e Chdtelier flal Eol q ,g7E= -dtrt.
^H>0ggHI+
$ + Co(H2O)r'*(aq) + 4Cl-(aq) : CoCln2-(aq) + 6ItO(l)
+=^l
CoCla2-
li
I
I
5-)
:
LE7 I
arH 15.14 SEgt r-e Ch6telier flal E^l ++sl gEoll^l, Eqd|-7] 96H cocra2 I co(H2o)62+ 0l8oJ
LlEfll]flrt.
=
rl rs.zss+ ae g:g HI+ql^JE El¤¤ol ^g^dEE Hsltsq uI4 Eol g+g+. 44^J
gE= +olE ,.JcEol 4 B:ol ^Jcq= %}le s=+e_s gqol olf,ap. Kzl szl$
+. gg H}+ql^l= HI4zI gtrI. HI*Eol ^J¤EE H+ uI Eol ^Jd¤4. tri4^J ol a+
gE= +olE q gg **Eol ^JCq= g+sE B¤ol oltr6tq K7l A4*+.
E¤ tI*: gE= tolE K Aol +7IoJ+
SE *¤-: gE= +olB K tlol 4ril4
HI¤¤ ts46IH Elql Erl-= +Elu+. gEE *+8, ¤¤e gg ^Jc6l+ 4ee o15
++. EI+^J ¤;g +¤¤ ts46}8 :zH rs. r4ql^Je+ ?ol BB3 g+sE olt6}q Kzl z;
46}i1, gg HI+g ts46r8 B¤g s='a- e-E olt6lq Kzl f,zlxf,r4.
698 153 Et-+'J:d
qFll 1s.12
Le Chatetier eJalE. ol¤-¤lo{BB olt qEaPl
rt8 EE3 8?+tl HxL
NzO+(g) ;- 2 NOz(g) LH':58.0kJ
t[8el 4 EAE iiJEE qr- HJ-df-e.-+ olE^l7lilE7l?
(a) NzOaE 7l-"trl. o) No2= (c) Nzk)E 7f6tq Eill galE (d) +tr|= aiTi^lzrl. (e) EEE '*Erl.
^1l71elrl.. =7|.^lzrl-.
ntl*
E^l ¤Bq fl= 4ql gdq H+= +a, 44E Hplzl ¤ I,JE= g+se olE"g aol+. ol ulzlu| HE"J B¤
= KE
BE +lilql qtr g"}-g "la a.Jzl= ql+61-= Exllol4. ^J+ <iql ¤6"L9 aql +E-6I+.
=4=
AIA 7J HE+E E4¤ g"tlll= rll Le Chitelier fl4E ol8 >!r=qH1
6J + 914. trl^SE HEI + qL 4ol HI89 ¤Bg 9${9E ol-E:^l
E0l
,l q F*e ^JCEol ^JC9E+ aldEz}?
4 NH3(j:) + s o2(8:) :- a NO(g) + 6 H2o(s) AII': -904 kJ
(a) 4lE zI4A N2o4E LoETt zJi9E* aag aol4. Irl
4^l dcEg B-6JoJ sEsr_q.E olEo6J4. (a) H "*3 i!z)¤ EzltJ4.
(b) zl= q *e NozE sc^14 xll4¤ Nozzl-B6qE+ (b) gE= toJ4.
aag aol+. EI4^l ¤Bg 9¤"5- e_s olE" 6JtrI. (c) ** *zl9 PulE +71^l4r+.
(c) NzE 7l-6lH 4le-l drll "Jqol +7t6tzlEJ, Nzts **ql
(d) or(s)= xll4*El.
(e) HI* *zl9l t atmq Ne(s)= dzl*4.
+q6}zl *=r+. q+^l No2elNzor9 +e.Jqg H6I
zl ?*:4. IItil+^l B¤9 gil ol¤¤ $.+. > H6qllll2
(d) +!l7I +7IqH, 4l= El +rl(q "*e Tlill EZDE xt ++ Hl+ql^l
=
716l+ %I6}s-tr olEoe. 4,o14. trl+^J ¤Bg 9E4o PCls(S) ;- PCl3(g) + C12(S) AI{': 87.9kJ
+gEl d=Hg qHI* +E tr-+E H+= +4lll e, 4qI+ +E tf+(^l ts.zg)4 ea= EHI+ +E t}+(^l
^l-so6lq
49 +dg + 9l+. ts.ao)9 Aitr+ aolq. 19 dill4?l ltg z,$q1o}o34.
=
rf$a1; - #):,,00s.(e;ts") r,s 3ol
gg HI*E c* = > E (tHls")olq, rH ls.ls
a(gqlg.)
^t;,,): el -s-ql +4u ar+ aol tlHlqts *zlz| 4*¤4. &
ol rs.rs9 g+q +Elu 44 zJol, aHI+ "t =z| {o14q1
u}+ EH}A 4s tt+z} CH}* +E t}+B+
qHI+E^l=e:=J
gdc| qlujzlz| +s+= A elql= a+. Eg + q E4 AA6Ii *lE tr-+ K7l +7l6Jr+ + ¤Bol eE4
+ql^l= 4HlAq +d+ qlqzlTf 6.|l* qHiSE gdgl ql og ol-Eo6J+.
Llzltr+ aq. E,(A++) > E,(qHI$)ol+. ar|49. *¤ {l4l : 1s.69, ts.7o, 1s.94, 15.99
=
gE HJ8 ,JE HJA
E /GHr-q\
!a\-!O/ F /x{Hlg\
!a\ouo/
E,(8'JB) Eu(qHJ8)
B A
-;;.;l
AE>0
*
A B
+EHe.l rrf
¤B ^JEIql gl= qtr slElrllql +4E 7t6tB qBzl gvl? a?J 1s.16ql +EI'd az.lH, +
,ll= HI¤¤4 gCs+ tlEg *++. AHls"r+ qH}+e.l gcs+ qlLlzlTi L
^J^JE ^tolE
+ *olTlr1. trI+^l +,H: AEI$+ EEI*el +E= EF ?7l^laq. K= H}+ql^l dEI
s. r+ qHI* +E d-+E ul$oles, +,llE +471 HI¤- +EE EE+^lTlqEE K
ltql=
g6&,9 +zl ?*=+(:1e 1s.16). r arl +rx= sB"il Eg.6l+ +Eb +7t^l7lxlEJ, s
B e'*EE aCg E+^l7lzl *++.
lBI"q
1
uJ33 trl
oll +0l1 '*P
Ll ErdEf 0llLl^l=,+=tt to F HJ- SgEl E:d E-crE
^l 0llE=6f^l$, +Ell HJ-
EE0ll tr] EalE.J-.Jtr|.
A
B
u3 ze +
^l7J
arg 15.16 +ot|el ff?0ll ttt= HJB A i- B0ll tH:d qlqrl 7t|E(gsjrl^lrJ0ll ttt= Bel tsE EEl(g
+C= +rH7l?ts HJ- LfElLJtl. ZP^l +d3 +DH7lg.= U3¤ LfE[LJrl.
=+). =^4
700 153 at-+ EB
EEI.qBI
.:I.Al 7UL{
o u -llE
8E 800"C .gEoil^l EEZE ?=^(4EJ0lll1 Eqd EJA9I gE)oll Erl,\lz coel H2= gd^lztrl.
=ilsl =71=
c(s) + Hzo(g) ;- co(g) + HzG)
u30il^1 Eolrlts 7lill EBEe f,f 7[+(water sas)aE 6lE 6e-d ggt E-eolrl..
(a) 800'Coll^l 0l UaE EE 8+ Kp:14.101t[. 1.00 L E7loll^l rijl EJAet 0.100 mol9 H2O= U8^lZ ttll, 0l
-eEoll^l EE
6 H2O, CO, Hz9 EE +.El "JalA go[oJ7t?
=dE
(b) 0 | 6Aql E E 0ll EE6'l'7 I +l 6|.q =J9-d EJA9 ahaJe g 0 I'oJ7 |.?
^1
(c)EEoll,qq E7l Ltl Eillgr+e g0P.!71?
(d) 2s"Coll,\i ol HJSel Kp= 1.7 x 10-2101+. ol HJ- gE HJ3?.!71., Eg UBETI?
(e) EB0lrj coel H2= Elqe] trJol
8tJot7l +l6||^its Zle.l g+E 6l=7L e^^l4otdlE7l?
=7t^lZof
8ll'J
(a) SB ++'Jqg +6171 +lo|q oldr zlxll
,JA!g Bxl +¤r7le.l a7l + nn,oRT (0.100 mol)(0.08206 L-atm/mol-K)(1073 K)
^|+6J+. ^
Pu,o: : :E.6iatm
E Sqg +6J+. V 1.00L
a7l ?E sqr+ BBql Eg4qg ulg C(s) + H2o(s) ;- Co(s) + Hz(g)
oJ,llrt Ea Hll+E a{ I
Nre|o2E+qE No ^JC HI¤e ¤¤ t}+e+ tI* 4gzt rB sgE gql"Jxl= trq
rs.17g eI NoTl-¤la
=q.
eEql 4+ H*4. ¤Eliel roJ+ iI* t4l9 dilqql^l ¤e.z} ¤^9= ++
,r Loz@).- No(g) Ar{" : eo.akJ [15.3U
Nr(s) + It49 9s= 4* z+oo 11olc|. EaJ dflqql= 4+ r+%l
ol gg HI*91 re Chatelier g4E 4+6Ia 99 el+Ee 4 *zlzl ql4. ol4il 3dg NoTl 4 "*ol ^JdqE+ t
E+. rq+ ¤A + zl4l= g4 B4g+. 3=z| polxlB a]
gEq +7I= NoTt q .tlzl| {lr-e. B¤ol olE
^J46fE, rs.269 ¤¤g g+eE olEt}trl(H}¤iEe.l gol
6lr]l +4. 300 Kql^l ¤legq No I mol9
^8¤61+
EJ* ^{zqr
glzl ql+ol4). 6I7l"J *g gE= HI+ +E9 zJrE 9ul
I qB tf KpE I x l0 'sol+(fg 1s.17). rEl+ 2400 K 6}.EE, 2400 Kql^l ^Jd¤ No= 7\4r7l'8+48^l r ¤Ell
ql^l ¤¤ tiE o.ose., 300 KoJ tr]ltrq +eJ tot3tsH+
=
il tr'E+4
ol+. llE',^}4014.
702 15a,f +-+ Etr
¤flcle*q r]e.= ullzlzla= rzoo K cEs, q Htl7l7[4ol8Eg! 1200 K0ll,\j Kpel 'Jg +86t,\19.
d6l ,ll+ Eaq. r.H rs.tzollr.l^lH, ol gEql^l No
^g¤ Hlael ¤¤ ++= "j sx 10-aos, zaoo rollrlg l*rtsl + trorb);- No(g)
,*B+ *tt zI4. NozI N2el o2-tr H+Iq= +E= q 1.
s'J'J 6e Eq
AHI+4 qE}+ol +eg +E
EJEg] 7flLJ(15.1tr) plo+ Hls"g gB AI+ atol z++= ae ¤B saJEol
=+. ^JdEtr+ Ei¤¤
e gol4= ^JEHq
Eg'J + gt+. ol
^JqlE fl.t Etd(chemical
g q *ol goJ6|-L ileq, BBol HI+E +q 9l+= ag F.J
equilibrium)ol?+n 6l.q, t 44 EI+E+ 4iq fl= ¤ q. qHl+g ¤B t+^l+ BB ^J+: AHI+qI^JE q+"1+. HI
^JCEol
¤ g.JEol
"JEq{4. ¤B gq}Eq ardS gs.z]. oJA6}E ¤-ol F +41 ola'-E HI+g !t.l+E, :- BB iL+= rllrlle.l Hl+
^l
+qlqq E6lzl *bEl. el E¤ {-+9 +"1 ¤E}.
Be 8+(15.2tr) ol +ql^.] # 4HH BB3 N,(g) + 3 H2k) H"J + 7Vl +Betr +eB + 9lE|. sE
EJtr(ls4tr) qlBe
:2 NH3k)olE+. ol Ei*3 "JEqoI ^dt}.g gloJ Haber 8C Hl¤¤r+ ^JcEol ag ^J"J ,l|9 EBg EB B¤(homoseneous
(Haberprocess)$ 7lg Hl+ol+. BEql flts 4lE *+E+ ^JC equilibria)ol fi. fl+. EEg 2lg(heterogeneous equilibria)ilE
EE b-E ^|ol9 +rll= tl$ Ett E{(law of mass action) o e f + 7l^l oltr-g ^Jol 446.j ullo) aqiilE gt,E= aq
=4I6JEI.
9d4. a A+bB;- dD + eEE +q^l= ¤B H]+!q ql+ 6l lolEtr, +i#.J ¤BE ¤¤ ^J+^lql^J +++ jla]e+ o-qillg
5g gi+f(equilibrium-constant expression)* 4s-4 7J9q, K, bEE xllelg+.
+g7l s.= BE Sol+. EJE g+sl llt(15.5tr) B¤ql^J -EE +4+E E"E7I g3l4 9l
=
tDtd[Et,
K': "E *lB ^J+49 ^l*6}q BB d+ Zig ZI4I"J + 9t+. BB
GitBi .ll Eg:.lE 48ql^lE El*E+ ddEq +E EE|= ++9 p+
oJq o
zlillE +CE BB4lql^JE HI¤¤r+
^J{EE bEE 7li{ +*Eq 4++gE+.
e q4ur+.
H!+ 6 q!
Eg 8+et ^ldql^Jg HI¤¤4 ^JdE
(.'' _ (Pp)(&)' =E(15.6E)
e-l ++ $qol+ +E= ¤B
^J+!q qloJ6Iq
u.!3 4#(reaction
(ro)'(&)'
quotient, O)= +6J+. \lit ¤Bq fleE a:I(ol+. :1qLI
K.e+ KpE Ke:K.(RT)A'g *ZlE zltl4. ol H+ql^J R:0.08206 e+ro1g, Al= B¤4 9l^l ?*r+. e<KoJ EI=, HI¤+ rl "*g
L-atm/mol-KE gE= eq gEol+. 6}6ll olE6.J 4.olEl(olql qlq"* g+
^l-&61-1r., ^J^J¤-3 "JEes&l ¤Bg
EJE 8+9 0l6l|et 48(1s.3tr) ¤B ^J+ {}e eEql q+ HqI ql^l sE4eE tl4+trl.). Q>K"J trll:, Hl¤+ eE+q^l g+
o g {aja}{ q
trI. K. *ol rE+= ag ¤B gql-Eol Hl¤¤Bq
^J^JES
trl E* Bg H}¤+g ^J^"i"JE+. r( <tg "JE H}¤¤r+ ^J
ol e$alr. 9leq, BBol HI*49 ^JCE +ql 9l+b ag "J6il dEet BB +E= 4t+6J + flbqt, ++ bE+ +E *q9 H
EA E^ll 703
.al4 ¤¤"1 el"l6l-= 4+ _a*"l qB4 El+ +Ee+ +Eq= +H S+ +-41: 1s.7, ts.2e,ts.3o
ol6ll6J+(ls.1e). +H ¤+ +4: ls.t, ls.l3, ls.14 .LoEE +C6lq ¤B
^l ^J+= 4141a3rf(rs.s¤).
. qq6J Hl+q ql+ B¤ ,.J+^lg ++(rs.2¤).
+H ¤+E4: ls.3l-1s.34
+¤ g++.41: ls.ls,ls.l6
^J+eI +¤¤ "t ^JCEE bEE+q EI*E 114 %r-6Jg
. ¤B
. KPI Kp tql ggajQ(rs.z3). q1;'a3r|(rs.0¤). +fl ¤+ E4l : rs.4l-rs.,t4
^l.+
+H ¤++.41: rs.2l,ls.22 . BB 6J zl-^l geE ¤B r-"E7i +q? ql BB r-"EE
^J+e+
.¤B g6JEql +46l= Hl¤¤nl ^JCEel tlql4.J .Jg BB Tarf(rs.o¤). +H g+ +4l : rs.47-1s.s0
ti9 =_zl
9+ +¤11=4(rs. 33). . ¤B t}+e+ 471Z,E7l +qe q BB r-"E= TArf(rs.6¤).
+A g+E4l: rs.r7-rs.re +¤ g+ +-41: ls.st, ts.s2,ts.s7,ts.s9
. +q ++^lE Hslq q+ ¤¤ tL+E Hq¤ +++(rs.3¤). ¤45 ol*al-q ¤¤ ^J4ql 9l= 419 bE, +irl,
. Le chatelier
+fl g+ E4l: rs.23, ts.2s,ts.z7,ts.zg E= gE= ts+^la ,ll ¤¤ 97lrl qBrll Eg^lE ql=BJtrI
.E+.J HI+ql q6J B¤ tr-+^lg*4(rs.a¤). (ts.z¤). +H g+ +-41: rs.6r, 1s.62, ls.6s, ls.6g
:a O HFP_^|
OJr L O -
tDldlEl"
.K-:'
' "', [rs.s] a A i bB i- dD * e EE +q^l= gHI4?l HI+q 4-J BB ^J
IAl'[Bl' i^1, L"Eis4 B¤ *EEJ^l-&
-- (Pr)d(P.)'
.^.:_-
, -- (Pi,(Pil'
[rs. r r] B¤ ++ SqsE +Elu ¤e tL+^l
, Kp: K,(RT)^" [rs. rs] "JqeE +E[{ ¤¤ ^}+e+bEe +E}u ¤¤ tL+ rJE +zl^]
.C)-:' tDldlF.l"
" ', lls.zql qI+ zlf. L"E= Hl+ol 1IBq= +.J qL r-"E *,
lAl'IB]' E7t IIB E4 ?4H Q. &
L" : ^ldE ^l^*.
oJ+ +41
tsse -H.= 71lE
ls.r (a) q-*9 qlq^l E-trql k7> k,o)tl, olllE fti<
=7l6lq iil
/qoJzl= ql=61^19-. EJ!
HJ3E
^l AH Ig
Hlq ilx.l
704 1s3 Et+ EE
ts.2 El-¤- rgg ,ltr.E HI+ A BE +Elt aol+. EJ^q f : 10,1 20A 30a 40=. 50a
nog A ezl sl+4 3"9 -
B +^lol4, ,rlzJol zl*ql 4+ eo o- oo oa_ oo o
HI+e g+q^l 9.E+oE 4l.I.J+. 4E EBql Eg6I "r
.L: O+? ot ao
E7l? r+48 qB rBol EB tL4E 4lE 444EzI?
Irs.rd, ts.z¤l
12345
:.-:
o,+o aoo oe
A(s) +
.j:
B(s).- AB(8)
o
D o
OO oo oo oo
::l .T
f: 20E 30A
oo OO o o .o.
i'.: t;
10n 40^ 50a
oo o oo ;o
oo OO
tOO
ooo oo oo
Oe
o o :.i
ooo o
ao
c
o
CT
o
o
o
o it.a
O1
a o oo ao
aa
o._ot
=71,4+71? czHs@)+xz@): c2HaX2@)
q*. rBg Ag gEql^] xz7l44 clz(54), Brr(zJ4),
olo d
ID
?
ei, o
$ c d
I * o
qD
# f fi
(e) Kptlg 4l&6}^le-. C,
I to
oa O
o i '\ @ o
o
I to
,+ OG + 0
o' Oo (c)
e
5.0 g Pbo2(g) -'-M:,*:#
ls.n EI.gfHg aoo Kel s00 Kql^l EI+ 42 + B .- A + AB
ql 46J B¤ s.J+g 448 1.14. A gzl+ BzJ4olr
A E7I B oeTl
V: 50 mL V: 100 mL B gzl+ rl+^loltrl. ol HI¤+ ¤¤ tl*"JzL Bg HI+e
82:2
.rc
15.8 HI+ Au + K.b l.soltrI. trl-g rBg Ar(g
ABel zl2lrs.z?_)
$
,J4). s,(4*4). AB e^Iel dJ* g6J5g +4U aol+.
[rs.s¤, ls.6¤]
(a) 9s HI+ s{}Eol EB t4ql F9 9lbzl?
(b) ¤¤ llzl *e gil"Ee ¤¤91 s.Ealzl +lql q
^J491
o O
oo o
oo .O
BZIHI*ol deqaErp
oct a a aco
o
C
oo
tol C.
$ 300 K K
,t, .O
500
i:;
s flzlE gu}4 rl 7|6llot 6f=7I? [rs.6¤] P:x
E.E
rs.r4 gE 800 Kq^J olole_H ezlE 6]l?-l HI* rzk) :2 r(s) 1s.23 gE 1000 Kql^J +$ zNo(g) + Brzk) ;- 2NoBr(s)el
q 4EJ ¤B ^J+= &:3.1x lo-sol+. ¤B ++=&=1.3xlo-2ol+.
gEql^.i E¤3 Noe+ Brroll zl$zl.izl, NoBrql il
(a) ¤Boll^l rz4l
=!
"lr 4ol q y*ol =4ldlE7}? (a) ol
(b) cHlg"r+ qt}*ol sF +"J +alr+aol+n TIag ql, *rlEzI?
4Hlg"4 qHI*+ qe ael+E^J+71q adi-Tl? (b) 2 NoBr@)i-2 No(s) + Br2@) El+q &= 4l4l6l^le.
rl¤- U*e-l K.^ls (c) NoBr(g)i-NoG) +|Yr2@) HI+g iC= 4l^I6}^le.
^,rl-s. 4 tl*ol #"J HI*.Jzl, 5.7
.J Hl+oJzl r 1s.24 gE 700"cql^l trl-g BB HI*E EB d+=K.:1.08x107
-lsrs(a) 3NO(g) i-^lg.NzoG:) + Noz(s) ol+.
o) cHr(s) + 2H2S(g) : CS2(8) + qHz@) 2Hz@) + Sz(s) .- 2 H2S(g)
(c) Ni(Co)a(s) ;- Ni(s) + 4co(s) (a) KpE 41416l-^19.
(d) HF(aa) ;- H+(aq) + R-(aq)
(b) ¤B g*EE ql+++ HzeI sz?lzL ol'lH HzsoJzf?
(e) 2Ag(s) + Znz+(aq) zAg+@q) + Zn(s)
(c) EI*4g Hr(s) ++srk)r-H2s(d-+.4^l 3 EL K. {t
(O H2o(l) ;- H+(aq)- + OH-(aq)
g Al^l6i^le.
(g) 2H2o(l) ;- 2H+(aq) + ZoH-(aq)
g.= 1000 Kql^J +g Hl*el Ke:l.8sol+.
ls.r6 q+ HI+el &alg r^,tls-. 4 U+ol +9 H}8q14, B+
.J Hl*.J^l ^A^lg.
so2(s) + |or1s; .- sorlg;
-rs:s(a) HI* so3k) i- rrt gutoJzl?
(a) zqg): 3oz(j.) so r@) + i or(s)9
(b) Ti(s) + 2Cl2@) ;- TiCl4(/) (b) HI8 2 so2k) + ozk) r-2 So3k)ei rr= gultzl?
(c) 2C2Ha@) + 2H2O(g) : 2C2H6(g) + oz(s) (c) (b)91,t.19 HI+ql ql6J rr* $uloJzlr
(O C(s) + 2Hz@) : CHa(s) 15.26 gE "Cq^l q* B¤E Kr:a.AtJ2olQ.
480
@) aHCI@q) +oz(g) i- 2H2o(l) +2C12$) 2Cr2@) + 2Hzo(9 ;- aHCl(3) + oz(g)
(O 2C8H18(/) i- 16CO2@) + 18H2O(j:)
+2502@) :
(a) Hl* aHcl(s) + oz(s) 2Ct2G) + zH2o(s)E Kp
;- 16CO2(g) + 18H2O(f)
(g) 2C6H1s(/) + 25Oz@)
gtrloJz}?
q-e. Hl+ol B¤ql sB:"f$.¤ tri B¤ eql$el q+E+ = ;-
(b) HI+ Cl2(s) + Hzo(s) zHCl(s) + +or(s)q Kpb
HI¤¤.J7L olq H ^JtE.J7I? g"l"JzI?
-rsr7(a) Nz(s) + oz(s) ;- 2No(s) &: l.s x 10-10 ql+ci gEfoJzl?
(c) (b)oll,rl9 HI+q
O) 2so2(g) + oz(tr) .- 2So3(s) Kp: 2.5 x rog
t*zt s--s823 Kql^l trl-s ¤Bql Eg6I9trI.
ls.l8 E|-g EI+ + qL aol eE=-e_e il+4^l ^JcEg B^J i-
CoO(s) + Hz(g) Co(s) + H2o(g) Kc: 67
ol +^.I+ Hl+olq, qe aol g+qe il+a^l HI¤¤g
CoO(s) + CO(g) i- Co(s) + CO2(S) K,: 49O
BCol +^ll,* tlg"Jzl?
(a) 2NO(g) + oz(s,) : 2No2(s) Kp: s.O x 1012 9lE ¤Bql *Z6Iq, Kq^l Hz(g) + cor(s) :
s23
(b) 2HBr(g) : Hz(s) + Br2(s) &: 5.8 x 10-18 co(s) + Hzo(r) HI+el BB d'+¤ +6}^le-.
rs.28 gE 2e8 Kql^l EB ++^14 ¤B {tfz} q+r} eE}.
4*¤E + qL aol*r, q- 1"1 g.xl ?*9zl?
(a) EB {'-+= +E <}ol B + S'}. 2 NO(g) + Br2(8r) ;- 2 NOBr(g) X, : 2.0
-rrrr(b) + %F"Jel ElgstrEJ s^lE q}¤.ql 4+ EB tiE o 2No(g) : Nz(s)+ Oz(g) K,:2.rx1,030
qTWc+. I z.te-+Pel, +.s Hl¤.g gB ar.+ KpE 4l&61^le.
sB {}+ atol
(c) EBql Egaf= +Eb E44lEl. Nz(g) + Oz(S) + Br2(g) ;- zNOBr(g)
=++
1s.20 q+ ¤B + qL Aol*r, qL 4ol *zl ?*9zl? t}E++g(r)ol f*4ta-e e6IqE HI¤+ +q-l} AEl.
(a) HI+ 2 A@) + B(s) i-A2B(8)ql qlql^l x& Kp *ol 5 2 HgzO(s);-a Hg(/) + Ozk)
.J6l-+. -rs:s
(a) ol HI+q E¤ t}+^lg +B $qql ql6l^J ^A^ls.
(b) ¤B ^J+= ++B q ^F&qb ++lE HIi6IE KA Kp
(b) ol ll.f;-ol +g g^e+ t}} g^E +ol= +Elql^l llB
itg+Eg+ 9lrl. ¤ q, +q]+g *48 Gotv)s s^l6}-15.r-"Eql ql6ll
(c) (")9 BB Hl+ql^l oJqol +7I6lH K. Aol +7I+trI. xr.ls-.
^J
BB ^J+^19
ge s00 Kql^l pcl3k)+ cr2k). =pclsk)9 &:o.oa2ol 1s.30 ¤B HI*Nazo(s) + So2k);-Na2So3(s)ql ql6}q,
E, ol gEql^l ol HI+E rrE tsutoJz}? ol HI¤-9 EB tL+^lg ++.Jqql 4ull,rl ,.r.]_e-.
-rs:r
1s.22 e-E 303 Kq^l SO2k) + Cl2k) i- Sorclr(g)e.l Kp:34.5
(a)
(b) HISel EE il6J¤-a- Eq +=+.
"l
EJ+ql^l ++.lt
olH, ol gEql^]g &= +6}^le_. el BB tt+^lgE.r-"Eql q6ll^l .r
^19-.
tr+ 707
=^ll
BB A+q th!(15.5tr) o) BBql^J ps,6:3.51 atmol4. co2, H2, coE BB +
ls.3l ql+g(cH3oH)g ^JB4str .J&cl tsde+ +4q +,}] HI +.Jqg Al&6}^le_.
*sE ^J4I¤+' (c) HI8.il ql+KeE 4lt}6}^le.
s00 Kq^l 2.oo L Tzl9l Eq 9lE BB e+E +q= (d) HI+q 4.J K.E 4l4}6}^le_.
CH3OH 0.0406 mol, CO 0.170 mol, H2 0.302 molol 94. 15.38 +E 2s "Cql^l 1.s00 atmel N2oa@)el 1.00 atmE No2k)
o1$Egl,{ /c= 4l&6}^ls. E ill9l4l E4:=.ql,tl Elgri Ae B¤ol ol+qd4.
rs.32 olols{s} +}(HD 7lAlE 42s"c4 "Jgl¤ *zlgl '3fi.r1 NzOa(g) .- 2No2(g)
! r gPzl-+4e| ololsB oE B6llElS.+. BBql oleB Noz9 *ts oJ43 o.srz atmol4.
zHr(O;- H2k) + I2k)
(a) Nzor9 ¤¤ +e oJ{* $ot'Jzt?
¤Bql^l [ur]:s.sax l0 3 M, lur):+.zsx r0-4M, [I2] 4t r, alg zl&6}^ls.
o) Hl8ql
: 4.7 e x r o-, uol 4. ol gEql e.l K.= al4}6l,^l _a-.
^l (c) HI*91 4ELr.5 4lt}6}^le.
gg s00 Kql^l cl-* ¤B"l ol+qa+. gE 37'c ++.-qq
15.39
^lE +E
tu4d x. y7l +6Hqq 9iE+.
Cl2k);- zNoCI(g)
2 NO(g) +
^Jd+4. 4 +Eeg a
ol +Eeg r:le aE6lq xyE
-rs-rrB¤ silEql^l 7l8lel ++'Jqg No 0.0es atm, cl2
^ll 7l +E7l1.00 mMoJ +a4.1 BBql EB6l-fl+. B¤ql^l
0. 171 atm, NOCI 0.28 atmol4.
xe+ y7l- 44 o.zo mu4 H?14. 01 HI+el 16,$ faf,<le.
(a) s00.0 Kql^J ol HI*9 KpE 4l4}6l^le.
15.40 ,llE EI^IE s+q}^ls=g oJ^-ilEq s.Jg tEgr+ 41E +
G) ql¤- *zl9 pqzl s.00 L+r 6p, ol gEql^JE &=
B B^I,tlols-l ql$oll,t.le.l BB *+= +4"J4. AlE e^l
+af^le.
eg+
: qlEer+ r:r-e. Hlgo 6Iq CE-+EA +"J4lE Bd"J+.
15.34 tgsl t(pcr3) zl4lE g+(clr) Tlilje} HI+4q "J 2s"c f Sqql^l +Eeg +EE l.sox10-6Mol4. A d
(Pct,) zlAlzI g+.
s}g azl *.E 2.00x10 6M-+ BEe +"-4ql ¤:6ll^17111,
PCl3k) + Cl2k') i- Pclsk)
B 4lEE 471 EE- 2.00x 10-6 M-e EEg ::."J6J +E4e
7.sL 7l4l +7lq gqlEol Eq flq.
Pcl3k)e+ clr(c)el
+Eql +fl4. ¤Bq^l A AlE-+Ee +o-qol 1.00x 10-6
4s0 Kql^J ¤¤9 olF99 trL 7l4lE *E "J49 Pocr,
^l Me-l A-tEA +6JillE BC6Ii, B +.-qql^lE r.40x 10-6
:0.124 atm, P61,:0. 157 atm, Pp61,:1.30 atmol4.
,rz9 s-BEqd +qlzll= ¤,.d61fl+. A-+Ee+ B-+Eqe
(a)olgEoll,rl KeAIZ 9ul.Jzl?
e-l a6J EI.*E &E 44 Zl4I6I^le. q ,J6l.Zl e*6l+ t
o) B¤ql^l= HI¤¤4 ^JCE + qL aol cl oulol f{la} E.J++ r.l a44ol4H, E++ +A S+= fl6l qH {E
Y7l? g dqq+ 4"]r¤Ai-zl?
(c) aso K9lrl ol HI+q qal &E 4l4l6l^le.
rs:s gs K, 1.0 L +7lql No 0.10 mol, H2 0.050 mol,
300 'Je a+q 3E(1s.6E)
l5.al (a) Q. < K.4H, ¤Bql Eg6l7l +16ll qu ulale--e. HI*
H2o o.lo molg Hg, q*r+ Ag BBql Eg6I9+.
2NO(g) +2H2@): Nz(s) +ZHrO(g)
ol a4qb7l? (b) Q.: K,7l E)719lull
"J+qqol6l+ a
d3 **,.Jzt?
B¤ql^l [No] :o.ooz Mol+. $.a2 @) Q, > &+E ¤¤91 s.B:.]-zl 916ll H]¤e qL. HJ6J-qE
(a) H2, N2, Huo9 BB +E=44 4ltl6l^19.
deqqof 6l+71? O) qtr HI*9 =zl9l E]¤+"J ¤z16}
(b) iCE 4l't}6}^le.
a ^JCEol $g EL e.E Ag ¤"foJzl?
1s.36 2.000 L9 +71 +ql^l 700 KE Ttgg H2 t.374 g4 Brz gs 100'cql^l HI* coctrg .- co(8') + clr(g)E BB
70.31 gel g*gol cl-*4'Jol Hlso +tf. :
dI+ & 2.te "cql^l trl+.q coct2, co,
xlo-tool+. 100
Hz(g) + BrzG) .- 2HBr(s) -rra:cl, s!+Ee ¤¤ tl{ql flizt? E¤ol olt-.I48, EBol ol
EB tlEllg *zl 49lE H2 0.s66 sol 919,tr|. +qzl7l +l6}q ql+ol d4r.lqot 6I= HJ6J3 ql+6f^le-.
(a) H2, Br2, HBr9 B¤ r-oEE al4l6f^lg. (a) [COCI2] :2.O0 x tO 3 M, [CO] : 3.3 x rO 6 M,
(b) &E 4l&6t^le. [clz] : 6'62 x 1'0-6 M
O) [COCI2] :4.50 x I1-2M,[CO] : 1.1 x 10-7M,
rl'tz z.oo LE +7lql Eq 9l:
co2 0.2000 mol, Hz 0.1000 [clz] :2'25x1o-6M
mol. HzO 0.1600 mol9 g6JEol s00 Kq^l +¤.4 Aol (c) [CoClz] :0.0100M,[Co] = [Clr] : 1.48 x 10-6M
¤Bq Eg6I9+. rs.,l4 _tr ls.2ql +ElS Efel Aol, 4s0"cql^.1 El-g U*9 ¤¤ fL
Co2(j:) +Hz(g) : Co(g) +Hzo(S) f KpE 4.sl x lo-5ol+.
(a) Coz, H2, H2oE a7l Y E g-qg Zlti6h^19-. NzG) + 3Hzk) :- 2NH3(g)
708 153 at-+ EE
+4ql gz]g sqlgol aso"coilr.l ¤B tl4q1 ilEzl, ol No(s)el NoBr(g)9 "Jqol eqg, Brzk)9 ¤¤ 'Jqg g
HzlE +EI4^ls. BB ^J4zI ot,-]4H, g+Eol B¤g rrlqlTl?
ol+71 +16I olE"ollot 6l^b %16&g(^JCE +e.tr. EE HI+ 15.54 gE 218'Cql^1, NHaSH(s) : NH3(s:) + HrS(g) BBql
E +e.tr.) s.^l6}^l9.. 46}| &:2.4 x lO-solEI.
(a) NHr 98 atm, N2 45 atm, H2 55 atm gE 218'cql^J rill NH4SH "Jql *zl9l Bl ¤¤
^lEE
(b)NH3 57 atm, N2 143 atm, Hz S.9 ql EEB ql4zl E61l6}flg ull, Nu:e+ Hrsg BE r-oE¤
(c) NHs 13 atm, N2 27 atm, H2 82 atm 41416l^le.
ge 100.cql^l trl-S HI*q rC=0.078o14. rs.ss gE 2s'cql^l trl-g H]+el BB {}+ K,:2.4x lo-solr+.
SO2CI2(g) : SO2(jr) + Cl2G:) CaSoa(s) .' Caz*(aq) + 5}42-(aq)
-rras
Tlalq ¤¤ e6JEql^l so2c12, sore.l EEE 44 o.ros (a) 9s 2s'cql^l 4-e*9 cason(rE
Eql H"l caso, e.r1
M, o.os2 Mol4. BB gil-Eql^l clrE +8.J43 g"it
^ll
+alg "JE+E cur*el Son2-9 BB +E= 9oloJz}?
7l? (b) 1.4 LE scl+.lg "J=+E BBoll sgolzl 9lqi ge
rs.46 +E e00 Kql^l q* +*el Kp=0.34so1+. aJ caSor(s)9 44 e=Jg ¤uI'JzI?
0.455 atmol4. g6JE +ql^l So39 ¤B ++ $4.g 9"I (a) SE s0'Cql^l rill ^l.a PH3BCI3= "J4l *zl +q B
"J7l? a, ol .r.lEz| E6flqq BBql EB6IE+ El+. olql
Ts.qz+vl28s"cql^lEl-sEI+E¤BtI+&:1.0+xlo-3olE}. PH3e+BCl3qBB r-"EE zl4}6}^ls.
Br2k) :2 Br(g) (b) +7l9l B4zl-o.zso L "J Ell, ¤Bql Eg6l7l 9i6il
=4
+rl"l 5q 9lE BB .g.JEq Br2Q) 0.245 gol
0.200 Le.l 4r +q '+qot 6I= pHrBCb(s)9 44 a*g 9uPJzl?
914. *zl +q B.(s)el g"*g gEloJTP +s lso "cql^l I2@) + Br2Q) ;- 2 IBr(g) HI¤-g Kc:280
rs.48 gE 700 Kql^J Hzk) + rrG) : 2 }]t({') qI89 iE:ss.: olr|. lso '6oll,tl 2.00 Lg +zlql IBr 0.500 mol9 Bol E
oltrL
-rsszBqlEg6I9trIE rBr, rr, Br2el BB *EE gutoJzP
7l4lel EB sql¤ol Eq flE 2.00 L9 ¤4^rql H, rs.s8 gE2s'cql^l trIgHI*g ¤B tI+ K,:7.rxl0-4ol+.
^ll
o.ose94 \ 4.36 sol91trl-. E?+^r +q *= Hr e*g CaCrOa(s) -- C**(aq) + CrOnz-(aq)
9"Iqlzl? e" E=.
cacrorg .s'cl +.lql^l cu'*el cron2-9 BB 9tr1
ge 800 Kql^J rr(8) :2 r(s) Hl+el BB tI+ &:3.1x
"J7l?
10-sol+. 10.0 L+7lq fl= E¤ -g6Jg +q 2.67xrc-2 rssr
-rr+s r(c)7}9ltrlB, s'JE 691 rzb P f-H 9IAE7I? ,1q1.3(CHJ+ o1o1s-H(rz)g trlg-r+ eol Hl-qo SL+.
cel
CH4k) + Irk) CH3I(g) + HI(g)
rs.so gE 700 Kql^i 2 so2k) + ozk) i- 2 so3k) HI*E ¤B gE Kql^l ol - Kp}. 2.26x16-aolr|. 630 K
630 Hl*q Eli.J
^Ji Kp:3.0 x l04ol+. ql^l ,lElq-]E :a7l ?E "JHol tos.t torr, Izt:7.e6torrt
2.00 L +71+E BB g*gq so3 1.17 94 oz o.ros gol
HI+.l ¤Aqflq. BBq^lE EE qI*84 ^JCEs-l 'Jq
Eq fl+. ol *zl 491 sozE H e Eg 9lEzt? (torr)9 41416I^le.
rssr g-g 2ooo.cql^] El-g Hl+E sB ^J.+ &:2.4x103o1EI. 1s.60 4lE t$ql^l ql^qel Eg ^J{6IE Ell, +71 +,]] +ql^'l
2No(s):Nz(s) +oz(g) .J?94 *zl,tl9 tl*ol "*ol ol+qr q+. ol HI¤+ +
Nog a7l +E7l0.t7s MolE, No, N2, or9 SB bE.Y EllE rJtl(+E H2So4)g ol+oJtrf. :a + qlTl qB "J?9
?f oJ+ +41
ts.7l trl-s ¤B HI+E 4Hlso4 qHl¤+ EF +"J +al Hlsos 1s.72 2 A(c) i- B(c) B¤q^l ¤¤ tl+ &:lolB, BB t4
e qzllEl. ql^.] tAle+ trl= "]rl"J +rllql il=rp
Co(s)+Cl2(s) : Cocl(s) +Cl(s) rs.73 gE 1000 Kql^l Ni +El6lql cH4el H2oE g*+3 HI+
2s'cql^1, aHls"rl qHI+E +E ^J++ 44 t.qxrc-2& ^laEl. BrJ¤ zl;llE s.00 L ¤E+^rq Ed6}9I,
olEI
ol TlllE co 8.62 g, H2 2.60 8, cHa 43.0 g. H2o 48.4 g
rzfr s-I, 9.3 x loro irl-t s-lo14.
(a) 2s'cql^l BB t[+e.] (13 gotoJz]? es +{qq 9l+. ¤¤ql EB6}frqi1 7}a6ij1, 4¤- EJ
(b) ++E!+
^JCE 6
q! aol EB tLqlql^l trl E*ol e +q gB tL+&e+ Kp¤44 Al&6}^le.
416l+7I? CH4k) + HzO(g) ;- CO(g) + 3 H2k)
710 1s8 +-+ Ee
1s.74 &E 303 Kql^-l 2.00 L9 5+4r +ql 2.00 molg SO2CI2 ts.zs e-5- lsg .Cql^l ¤¤ HI+ ZtBr(g) : Iz(g) + Br2(8:)g
E '+flg trll, s6%el so2cl27} trl-g EISql 9all sorel ct, Ko:8.5x10-3014. IBr 0.025 atmol 2.0 L +7lql 9l
B¤q
=q
+ sE Eeg ++ sqe g"Itz}?
s E6lqfl4. E+tr. Eg6J
So2Cl2(g) : so2(g) + Clz@) rs.80 gE 60'cql^J 4g Hl+g Kp:0.0s2o1+.
141
ol $s.olld
EI*E ¤e ^J+ &E al&6f^le. PH3BCl3(s) : PH3(8) + BCl3k)
(a)r.9 H+ql=rt4q e
B ql, ol Hl¤+ gg q]+.Jzt, ql^l ol Hl*gl BB tl+ Kpe+K.E al4}6}^le.
B t}*.Jzl? 1s.83 g4 7l4lel El-e--rt eol
aA(NO)= HlqooJ4.
(b) ++ cql +qA e= qlgEl= ol+6}q, s.+ 4
^JC ^lE+ 2No(g) + Cl2(s) ;- 2NoCl(3:)
aql^l Hl+g aH= +61^le. ol ilol (a)otl^-l9 9l
ol
gE Kql^l ol HISel ¤B *+ Kp:0.26o1r|. ol $E
+r+ gil6l+7t? 700
(c) Tlal NH3 0.02s molg 1.00 r *zl9l Br s00'cE- zl ql^-l El-g-gqlEi=E a5¤ ql+6}n, s6JEol ¤B{zl.
g6lq ¤¤q EB6IH, NH39 +-E= gu}"Jzl? otHzl si^lal^le. ¤Bol olq+8, g'*E"l ¤¤qlEB
6t7l +16ll
^JCE4 Hl¤¤ 6
qL ag q "JEqot 6l+
rs.zo u eEls} +olE+¤(Nor.)* 4* Hl+^lq q4 e4¤E+.
zl zlf;|.<le.
zNoBr(s) .- 2No(s) + BrzG)
(a) &o : :
0.15 atm,Pcr, 0.31 atm,Ilssl : 0.11 atm
100'cql^] s.00 L +7lql 5q fl= BB 5-*Eol NoBr @) PNo -- O.l}atm,Psr, : 0.10atm, Ilo661 : 0.050atm
3.22 g, NO 3.08 g, Br2 4.19 go e +{qq 9l+. (c) &o : 0.15atm,Pcr. : 0.20atm,
(a) K.E 4l4}6f^le-. PNocr:5'10x10-3atm
(b) g6J 7l4ql 9+ dnl "Jqg g"IoJzf? 1s.84 gE e00'cql^] El^g HI+E &:0.0108014.
(c) NOBr9 Z7l 4"*e- 9oloJz}? CaCO3(s) .- CaO(s) + CO2(S:)
ts'77 7wE HI* e9 r- 2 g+^=.q 0.7s
B(s)= Lqoll ts-z}. eE 900 "C, 10.0 L +71 +q caco:. cao, co27l E
atm9 fft zl4l AE 4l+ + 0"cql^l EBql Eg6IE+ q 9lq. ++4 ae EqlEq^l ¤Bql 5g6IHg EL
orf,trI. ¤eql^l AE ++ oSqol 0.36 atmol$.4. CaCo:9 olol olqtr +46t4+ He+7I S
(a) B¤9lrl 54^r +E d4l "J43 9"I"Jzt? ='7t6}Ats7l?
AYzI?
0) Kp Alg 9"loJz}? (a) CaCO3 15.0 g, CaO 15.0 g. CO2 4.2s g
?¤¤ol 44zlq+Ytl?
(c) 9Bz,ll 6IE BE (b) CaCOa 2.50 g, CaO 25.0 g, CO2s.66 g
rs.78 E ls.2ql qqu 4+ rJo\,300.Cql^J Nrk) + 3 H2(g) : (c) CaCO: 30.5 g, CaO 25.5 g, CO2 6.48 g
2 NH3k) HI*E ¤B tfE rr:a.r4x l6-3olEl. ol gE rs.8s gE- 39s "6oll,11 3.00 L +71 +ql CO2 l.s0 molrl Hz t.s0
ql^l 1.00 L +ql ++* NH3E L+r. E¤ql Eg molg -J94L] tr}.* HI*ri aol BBql EB6l94.
=4^=.
6l-E+ 6l*+. ¤B g*E 4ql= Nurzl t.os g Eoi il4. Co2k) + Hr(g) + Hro(8)
(a) EB g6JE +9 Nzel Hz9 e"d.g gEfoJTp -Co(g)
¤B ^J+ &:o.8o2olB, ¤¤ E*E +ql 5q fl= 4
o) +7lq Bg.JEqotg 4714"*-e- guloJzl? guI.JzI?
(c) *zl +E d4l "J43 ts"t"Jz}?
Eeg +E=
+71E+ E^ll 711
15.86 cG) + corG) ;- 2 coG)ql q+ *B ^J+ K.E 1000 K (b) 4 B¤ ++ g-qg 4&61^ls.
7l,lle-l
ql^l l.eol-a, Kql^l o.l33o}+.
2e8 (c) 419 ?-4 6zlzl ¤B s6JEq^l clrel gBgql qB
(a) Sg Kql^l
1000 3.00 L 8zl .J9l 9lE 4eJ9 cz| g6J¤ nlaAEzI?
zs.o 99 oltlsl +^eI Hls"oJ+E. H r+9 cozl- ^J (d) ol HI¤+ Bg EI*.1+. alE gE= +olH EB e6J
dslEzf? Eql^J clel E$gql qq6J g6&3 ulzlfl|zf!
0) q rBel c7l +qE)+71? u5.9llgE 458'Cql^l H2 0.t12 mol, 12 0.112 mol, Hl0.775
(c) E 43 *zlz| tI*91 cogl +=¤3 tl mol$ eaJalg. H2, 12, Hrq BB g6JEol s.00 Lg +71
^i-&g+H,
aAY7l. trl +d=7I? q Eq 9lq. 0.200 mol9 HI5 q 7I6J + BBol +^l ol
(o EI+e gg.J7l, BE.JzI? +qAg ql, 4 EAE SB ++ oJqg +61^le.
15.87 4lg +aql^l Niog 4¤-4 ae HI¤¤ ^l-s6l.ol q4 + lr5.e2l qH SEql^J ,I^Jq Hl+ + 2 B(c) i- 2 C(s)E B
+se +Igg4. ^@)
B tI+= &=0.2so14. 1.00 L HI+ +71 +q 1.00 mol
NiO(s) + Co(s) : Ni(s) + COz(S) E +'JE cE'+fltr1q gqq| =BatqEI. ¤¤q^l s+6J
1600 Kql^1. ol HI+E ¤B {}+ Kr:6.0x10201+. EI+ EA9 L"E(mol/L)E Ef xE *^l+trI.
(a) EI6JE Be+ Cel ¤B .r-"EE xoll *6J ll.^19.
-E(furnace) Lilql^] COq Eqol 1s0 torroltr, dril 'Jqol ^los
760torr ol6lolE, +lgol .Jq+A=71? (b) E= EeE +E7l "Jel Alol 9zl 9loll Bs* x9 xll
o) Be tlqlql^l ccl4e+ chE 5+ "J43 gEI'JzI? (b) gE 800 Kql4 Ae HI+ql ql"ll +E tizl
us.eolg-E 300 "cql^l Hl+ pcl3k) + c12k) i- pclsk)g ¤ kf:o.og7 M-r s-r, k,:2.6 M-rs '9 Ztg,*=+8,
B tL+E Kp:0.0870o1E+. ol grollr.l Eq^= +q pcl3 aHI+g +gq_l7L B¤.Jzl?
0.50 atm, Cl2 0.s0 atm, PCI5 0.20 atm9 44 iHfltrI.
(a) Hl+ zlffi;.f$afq EBql E96t7l 916l^l dqqq
oF t'J HI+E HJ.6J¤ AC4^le.
712 153 trt+ Etr
10- 1 a
I
/
t
I\
ifi
V,.F b..
L-
'$
.-t
L
L.
-1
n
7 \q
;q
I
7
JI
lt r!
\
\
I
{
!
I )
I
af
IT
b-
b- \ h"
\
E
I ) I
I
T
16.1 Arrhenius +lrl g7l oldq tsl¤.
Arrhenius &-Bzl 4elql Ell.ll trlg
q E^l.. te Eql^J +^ olg +EE
+71^l7lb s]*Eoll, EzlE Eoll,tJ
f&s] olg *EE +71^lzl: E+6JE
ol+.
A[_Ol'rl
l..j
E{5{
I OO
Lowry 4I3 olCz| izlloll,
JlEr q+"J += + p+or+g 4^I-4
Bronsted-
towry ¤zlE o}{x| $zllolr1. oldzl
715
>rB 16.1 + 7l^l +7lt!:
euf(c6H8o7)l[ 01,17u5 ^lE
(CeHeOe)
tr
HO
til
H-C-C-OH
lo
lil
HO_C-C-OH
H
lo
I
lil
H-C_C-OH toH
HO
I
H
/.lEa{i 0f4-7_rrtl
Eql ql+ g +6ilq= gEI +i Tlill= Arrhenius,tlel + {lol4. olag Eql +ot^J r}
¤.4 zJol H*4 cl olgg BC6I7I trllEol+.
HCI(g) !8' u*(aq) + cl-(aq) t16.11
HCI ++Eg H&(hydrochloric acid)o.tr. gzl4 9l+. 11+ g.tlel t:E= Ar+ss E
37o/oola D Mo)r+.
+&el Arrhenius Hzlol4. NaoHt olg aql El.6JEolTl qlEq Eq +oI^J
^Eg
Na*$ 611- ol$9E 6flalql1, oH- olgE *E= +71^lvJr+.
Arrhenius &-g7l Tl]Hg +++ HlEql .J4l= 7l1jLl.:. a[{z} ++.]ql"J 4+9tr}E
7',|.6
16.2 I Br@nsted-Lowry &zl g7l 717
9ltrl-.
E +E H* ol8
HCle Eql^J olg46rq H*el cl-= ¤C6J+r gE ^J4g + 9l+. +r olge
} -*tn.
+zl oJd6l-= 7l^)Y zle gzr, + fl7171dzl¤ z*zl ?*E oj{z}apuj B + H+.
u* ol93 E +zI9 &A ?lzlql gl= Ela,* dz].,d.zlH +g dzl. "JE= ,*y 43 ["-:' '-:-1.
LHH
r+ rJ6I4 tl]r 4¤¤ g + gl+. qE oJCzt= E E Ie+ tllt z}+6lq alot=e Hsoz*
=q
E olt(hydronium ion, s:O*(aq))9 ¤CqI4.
+
H++i o -H -------)
I
H
[,,-i-] J. .{,
+
I +
+
[16.21
Y. +
Q'
--------)
L,,
'. , a
a
tr
4121144.
H
o#Jal tg "Jt H
Eq uctg +dl^l7l= H}+ql^l Hct EzlE u* olg(oJdzD¤ E EzlE dB++. H O+*
IrI4^l ol Els"g +¤-4 aol HCt EzIq E sz} gqq^l 6|olcg5
^Iolq El*ol arH 16.2 +slE 610lEets ol
olg4 ¤sl olg_g ¤c6l= aes +4'3 + 9l'I. 8E -EErl Lewis 74
=-EtH
HCI(g) + H2O(/) -------> Cl-(aq) + HrO+(aq) U6.31
t"
I
H H
c+ a, o c E7t
--) +
^t
al t0.:9 HI+ql= olCx} f{(proton donor)9] HCl4 "}Czt $z}(proton acceptor)
9l urozt +q++. "JCzl izll"tlrl "JCzl Ezl].E "JCzlzI dBgtrl= {ol Bronsted-
Lowry &-¤zl zll'd9 4dol4.
718 168 U ETt E-d
:CI-H
H
+ :N-H _) I
Cl: +
trl
"-T-"
|
+
[16.4]
LH-]
I I
e lt!
+H,
G?l
d, I
-------)
o +
l{.
"JHIel4 dedE +E +Er+ #4 zl7 EEql Eq.6J E(r=J 16.3)¤: +
, ^8zlE
Hclrl NHr9 zl;ll H}8_qtr ¤cg
_tr -aill NH4Clol+.
olzll Arrhenius
&-¤71 AEel Bronsted-Lowry &-Ezl C9 ^IolE +alE
ullalf +-q ql-q-e-Er+ ae ¤¤¤. r*= "JEqo[ ++E-= ¤.qEz].
NH3(a4) + H2O(/) -- NHn*(aq) + OH-(aq) t16.sl
drl
d, I I
l
I
oJr-qo1=- H2o-e,+El
"Jtzl¤ Ezl rllE9l Bronsted-Lowry ¤zlol-2, E* E
q1;.'1 oH-(a4) t.EE Z'71^)vl7\ ullEoll Arrhenius SzlolQ.
P
trtB EE9 8U30ll,\l Bronsted-Lowry o1t- ToJ)l?
,El^l-,Blo{71
-ru -rE-lo ^^l
E= &-g7l ¤¤ql^l= c++(9.EE_ e_tr)r+ q+-&(g+9-tr)ql E+ olczl dgol *
q.J4. qlE Eq HA-tr. E^l6J 4Ir+ Eq HI¤¤ ¤qE^I.
16.2 Bronsted-Lowry ||rl E7l 719
H+ E7I
tt+ rllzl
qH 16.1
E$Il. EcJilE qt"J
(a)HCIO+, HzS, PH++. HCO.-o;stgTl= +qoJ7l?
(b)CN-, So+2-. H2o, HCo3-el Att!8 +qoJ7l.?
+r
EC
"{l tc > H6qF{1
sq +qrl 4 AIE 4821, zl Ezlq 4}4ig += E8lol4. rtg ¤¤ Hi¤¤ gEjE L
4tg 4 E¤9 qrgzl= +zl r E4ql^] "JCzl + Zl= mnE
;- Sonz-1aq) + H2O(l)
HSO| (a4) + OH-(aq)
qa, 4 EaE 4L4Ig r Eeql "JCzt + rH= q4H ¤+. ol H}*ql^l t}etr. zI¤-61+ ag?
.ffisi
(a) HSO4-e+ OH- (b) HSO4 I UrO
e+ el+.
*conjugate +q= "t}ge EL4 +q qr}."+= 9"lol4.
720 16Lf g7t E-d
^t
tt9 q'J6lrll !S,
"J+ 4lt-4lHzl Bronsted-Lowry &4 Ezl91 4* Hl+^l("JCzI
dB Hls")g Sa6I= 43 "lHzl 9*4.
qBl 16.2
"J^Jxl tg Eg4 rrl
0 l-EJ^}+^ 0 l8(HSo3 -)e g+d gid^|.do lrl..
(a) HSos-elEq UA4= & le. olttl| 0l 013¤ toltl.
(b) HSO3-el=el U3^1= l 0ltttl 0l 0lEe g7l0ltl. 0l + HJ30ll^1 qtt-4tg7l 8= EJoJ6l.^19.
^19.
rllS 4 Hrsor1449o14.
E9 F HI+49 90}4ts 4,o14. L
E+1 *J fltel Hso3-el > .Ee.= slfil1
Hrll Hl+q^l HSO3-= Eql "Jczl= +!.E, Bronsted- oJ+ol+d ol$(H2Poa-)g oJ,."rztdol4. rl+ Hl
"J+^d
Lowry 4}ola, F Hrll H}+ql^] HSo3-= Eql^l 'Jdzl-= + + ol olgol gzltr +e"6r= a3?
Ee-I,E Brsnsted-Lowry 9zlg ++*tri. 4 H}+qld 4 (i) u3O+(aq) + H}PO4 @il : H3POa(aq) + H2O(I)
4I-49 7l rlg q"J6l+ x"l 4. (ii) H3O+(a4) + arOfi-(aq) : H2PO4 (aq) + HzO(l)
tr.f oJ7
|sl .rJcfl
{ol rllz I
CH+ CHa-
,J6J g7l= Er+ EI¤-6iq oH-(aq) olgg ^JCEI+. olag S=+ En-|(leveling effect)4
r ++.
oordztdB Ei¤+ + q7l7l oJdzl-= ^lE *ol¤ol: t}q4 *qsE al+¤+r ^84
g + 91tri. qE 5q & uezl Eql +6ll¤ oll "Jcztz} dBq= r+ag gEltr4.
HA(aq) + H2o(l) ;- H3o+(aq) + A-(aq) [16.9]
zJ¤zl4B, H20= HA-E+q oJ
"JE AHI+qlrl ¤zl.J lts.2c71HAel 4g71tl e-ur1
czFE lDll"lot Hso*q A-E ¤cg 4,o14. a aal ¤¤g sEE- e-E olEg 1o14. ol
4Ag Eql^J ,J&q ECS +qU+. elE Eq HClg Eql +6H6IE, +"le 49 EF
H3O*e+ 61- ol$eE +cElll, +^lB aEE HCt EZI"J B=+.
HCI(5) + H2o(l) ----- HsO+(aq) + Cl-(aq) [16.10]
H2O= Cl--E-tr} +t;J ETlo)7] 'llEql(:zB 16.4), H2O= "JczlE fl6l.q 6lolEEb ol
Sol ¤4. ol HI¤-g Sd6l _qg+es d$gzl trIEql, 4 ro.rooll,rl BBg 444i ol
sl¤sz} olq4 e_E+ %r-lE srJs-e E^I6IS.+.
=!
A-71H2O-H-E}
'JoJ ¤zl"J 'il, B¤e.
g+ss olE.J+. olfl ^JEle. uez| oJ41g 611
6113
E^1^JC+g Cad+ e_E3-_q-q ¤¤ol tl49=4, E= +q qI*4E 4I uson-cl Hco, *gl,<l rl zJt tlGsoa-)
Hl¤¤g daa13 g+e-s ¤E'l +149=xl= ql+61= ol "JCzl-= rll+i1, q "+aJ 4}(Hco.-;o1 olCzl¤ :r.ql_E
Exlloltrt. zlzla !lr|. q-+^l "JczITI r}&q^l Bq4^l zlgzl9l d
olEod4.
Itq ol HI¤ie "JczI dg H}+olr, + g7l +ql^J q ,J6J "Jq= %r-.Jes ¤¤ol
SeE oj{z}7t Agq= gqE gra}s_e dBE 4o14. ol > .5d6 qlril
1
H13^lql^l F ¤zlE 4H1*ql^l co:,-$ Hso4-el {szl rH 16.48 ol+6}q ++ HI¤¤ & Aol ,l* 42 4+
t son2-o14. qL aol EJ ad gzl.JzlE zH ro.+9l,rl 4 zl* +^lqlE +gBJ Ag?
=
ol + gzlej tql4 +lzltr q.Jg+ 91u}. (i) CH3CooH(aq)+HS-(aq) : CH3Coo (aq)+r{rS@q)
(ii) F-(aq) + NHa+(aq) ;- HF(a4) + NH3(a4)
E0l (iii)H2CQ@q) + Cl- (aq) ;- HCof (aq) + Hcr(aq)
:r.H 16.4E eE+ qq ol4oll col- o]8ol flxlofE-tr, (a)i < ii < iii (b)ii < i < iii (c)iii < i < ii
(d)ii < iii < i (e)iii < ii < i
So42--H-4 Co3z-zl q ,J'* 9zlol4. ].ell! cor2-= olC
zlE gq^l HCO3-71 qr., HItrq Son2-E q19g:.QlE > E= qlrll2
trl-g 4 HI+ql 46Iq rg 16.48 ole"6|{ B¤ol g+e
B=4. a 4+, ¤Ee. ^Jd+g CE6l+ s=5- eE d68
+tr}(+ K" > l). -E, olqE s=.4_ e_E tlqqtszlE ql=6}^ls.
(a)HPO4z-(aq) + H2O(l) i- H2POa(aq) + oH-(aq)
HSOa-(a4) + COr2-(aq) Sgrz-1,,q) + HCO3 (a4) I(. >
@)NHa+(a4) + OH-(aq) ;-
1
ElgTl NH3(a4) + H2O(/)
tt E)l - 4tt
dxl¤ + 9lr}.
=
H2O(l) + HzO(/) ;- OH-(a4) + H3O+(aq) tr6.r2)
HH r-i-l.
ol r+Cg
*
'=*j
llt
+
0-a
G?l
6, I
+
G
EE r]ill 0lpil(autoionization)z[l aJr[.
zl r0. rz9 aHl*r} EHI*e o19 uule.z] tl6JqE.E, qq* E ezlE e*E.J olgal
tlqE g+=trL dgql^l qE a+qlE loezll $z| +E E + ,l]q tszi"J olgpl
=^1]6rz1
g+. EI4^.1 +++ Eg 49 l-+ H2o gzlEtrJ ol+qa.r., oI+ E+6J {zl {rx1o1
16.3 ol8el 723
=g ^f^11
Eq ol+E
Eg zlill olgp+E ¤¤ t[+^]e +s-4 ?+.
&: [H3O+][OH-] [16.13]
++6J n^lle+ .-qallel +E= .JC6I7] ql+ql ,,," (15.43_), [uro] 6]g ¤B t]+^lql^l ,ll
e.l^la+. ol ¤¤ ^J+^.le Eel z|41 olgslql lol=e, ¤B tI+= &tr E 4t
=E6l
,'.la|-r. 3E olEEi g*(ion-product constan0+r 6Jr+. 25"Cql^J K,= 1.0 x 10-t4ol4.
tr}4^J
K,: x 10-14 (25'Cq^)
[H3O+][OH-] :
[16.14] 1.0
:laol 6ilul.eE4e.l
o|.all +trlB cd6[q ga EEa tdoJ7l., ed?]7|., E
)ldil7l? ^lEg,J8
t't^{.slol
uo 6- oo o- E'tolA{ -Clofl
04 7
o-
=lsloll
lH+l> [oH-l [H+]: [oH-] lH+l< [on-]
lH*lloH I : 1.0 x 10-14 1u+11oH I : 1.0 x 10-14 tH*ltoH-l :1.ox1o-14
rB 16.5 25'C +to-4011,t1 U*91OH-e-l 8tfl4oJ -!'E
qH
F
16.4
++rr gel [H.] Alt
.Coil^l + -
25 6:d +E.-4 el [H ]e[ [O H ]el'JE Zllb l-^ le.
Ttlff
E4 2s'Cql^] +C +EE H*ei oH- olgel :-"E$ !l$ 4lEl
^l
ro.ro4 Agq 96rq, +^d +.4q1^J [H+]= [on ]
6h= E4lol+. ql ag ol+oJ4.
724 168 EE
^J-g7t
Eot +C +.+ql^l [H*]s+ toH-1E ** x4t- a[x[. :+] rt. ol *99 [oH-]{}"-r
Ee (a) 1.0 x 1O-8M (b) 1.0 x 10-7M (c) 1.0 x 1O-6M
zl iool
ro.
="1
f-e. qi ol+= +++ Er+ EE ++"-qq EF 4so oJ 9lzl ullEol4. f
ul-$ u*(a4)4 ou-(aq)9 ¤Bol +'l Lll 4E ol959l 96Iq g'&g tszl"J, E +r
Efl ol+ Aq+ Ar+= 3-+6}zl ?+= El, olel+ olg E4= +^l6J+ 9l+. ul+^l ^l
16.169 -E= Bg ++Eql El.'"+dlq, [oH-]E "J a+q [H*]= 4l&6]4+, [u*]= .J
a+ql ton-15 4l&6|= qlq g + 9+.
^pe"
qHl 16.s
loH-l-e.+El [H*l4lt
trt8oll^l H*(aq)9 zl^l6l.^le. (4[oH-]71-o.o1o MoJ E.-4, (b)[oH-]71-1.8 x 10-e M?.!EE
=E=
rtgel E= E^1lql,\l Etre flEol fleE, 8Ets 25'c0lrl.
dz: o; E^llef
TtlH
E4 +&EI ol99 EE g A+ql +"lql^l [H*]= zl4] xlq Eq olgr+ql ql6J BB 0l+61
^J+^lr+ K, Ag
Eo
^I8l
6l+ E4lol+. q 4 4'J bEE Ahl6J+.
E0l
(a) rl ro.r09 ol+6}q +$g e=+ [H+][oH-] :1.0x10-14
r,,*r
1,, r
_ (1.0 x 10-14)
_ r.%i8-,- : 1.0 x to_tzM
[OH_]
ro.4 I pH ZI
++e4ql^l H* (oq)A sbE= trE o[+ +trt. ¤Et] [s*]E _H_f, pH-e. Ee6]q
^h&6]
olag [u*]9 E; rooJ e:<lgl ¤.+= +lt 1o14..
=Ell,
pH : -log[H+] U6.t7)
rEI+E
^l-8+ 5+
+ A= +adt4.
q1z1f re.aollrl EB.Fol, 2s"cql^J +c ++"-qel [u*]:1.0 x 10-7 uol4. al ro.rz9
A Eo-*or Ber pH ilE 7rtr + o,J,,fttrJq'r 7*6trt*, ogg"1e1 pH= ETrdE Lr.EILrl
LtEfLH=71-?
| =rL ^ldE
zt+ 9l= a+olzlEl, [u*]z] o]+ 4]e a+= rr] +s6]zl *+j1 7J+6J f ll4. :
44 ol4,ol *g ae olq+. "*g p+E 4col E"E EqI9 ulgl el=6l-71 ullEol4. qlE E
q +E Bzl"l [H*]gl Ell4q "Jz]q]*"18, Ezl H* EoETI 1x10 7 tvt4l/.]zxto-'M
E + Hll H6llE HI+ +E= + H]]E ugeJ{lr} ,,:, (14.3¤). 4lql^l *g ++ol "J ^j$o+
dx} dBg E¤'6Ij1 gl]1, r HI+ +E* [H*]91 E=++. ol H]+ +E: o[f fea[z]
¤q zizl +.-qq pHq poH9 {}9 =a 16.6"t1 +4qfl4. [H.]E l6ull Se].tlzlH, pu
ttrJ+ H+tr}. q4^l pnz| soJ +.lE H* toEE pHzl-6?J A"-qq H+ r-oE!-+ t0Ell
=
d6r+.
qHl 16.7
poH3".*EJ [H+] aru
[H*]E 4l.t]6]71 9.16l]^l -3.76e1 antilogE Zl+]oll"t E]4. (d) (iile+ (iii)o1 ,<igo14.
r+q¤4}+ 4ltzlE antilog 7lb(ullulle 10'E= INV log (e) E.E {ol ,t}:jolQ.
-e s.7lqq flgJg zlzl:z !lr|. > HEqW2
[H+] : antilog (-3.76): 10-376 : 1.7 x LO-4M zll&zll el gg +6l]^la +E9 poH= 4.8201+. olull
fet pH9 i+d ol6t *^l7l + x[{fo]zl 4lE9l ts*19 [H*]E ah]6]^1e..
.t//
Ea47]trlef allE4a 6ql^J {}¤01 q Asi Ae?
lH+l (M) pH POH IOH-I (M)
1 (1x100)
?ttf 1 x 10-1
EilE+4
#
)l ',:::
Eat,
4T
EolE
^ln
461+
TlEB gfsLlol
zfLA].Q
too EHHT]I
s-"!l
+ ff
pH*pOH=14
tH+ltoH-l = 1x10-14
arB 16.6 25"Cql^l H 7l^l gHJ4oJ Etrg H*q OH-elEiE "l pHe[ pOH'J
728 166f t gTlE:d
E
pH +¤
'f
+"19 pHb pH ulH(pH meter)-E +d.'J f
94(=e 16.7). ol zlzl4 4E fl4E ol
L]-= d7l ElqlE zl^lol ge6}+. 7J+61 g6IE, pH Elq=
611617l fldH^l= 20+q^l
L..- I 1 "J4gE 4Eq zle d.Jg +ac + 9l= ++q ¤ag 6J t}g d+eE +c9q
9lq. a+g +Eq B:E pH91 44 H6l+ d.Jol ts{aJq. ol d"Je pu Egle +t
ArH 16.7 r.l^lEJ pH 0lE1 E=¤ &qq elg + el+.
^]-Sg+. t-g
Esqoil =JrE pHoil qal q-E tr"J
ul* a=,=$ 4+6}zl ?+otE, pHE ¤da|b Ell t-gzl xl^lEol
0lg8-srtl'. 7l zl^lEg 4I e4+ ¤zl B4.llrl EE_qI 49 zlzlE Eeol+. r4^l zl^lEg *
gdumhyu/Shutterstock
@ Rattiya
3 pHe| *9 pH9l,<l ^itr += 49 ztt14. zl^lEol 9H pHollrl 4ol H6l+zl= .JH,
Th0n
't0
o +4,llS+. 44 zizl zl.tlo|.$ flel tol Elolozt ql+4.J pu il$ A46|= q g4
^l=&g+.
e
pH=
Eiltss=JziloJE ts7t6|q + 4el EEol EE_401 ElflrtE, 0l Es{g pHql cHatq olE
7JA-q rHl= ,A Ol-qnt/)
Ue-l -r
AP//Il
=eE
4 Hitoll r4E pH E9
ql=J ellE
02 468 10 72 t4
Dll=J ut0lg11
(methyl violet) 'u !{+
U.f '=, ,il
C?,O
LI=
=T taJ trl=J
(thymol blue)
{m
pH=
0ll= edlrl
(methyl orange)
I Hnt)l
=o
Lal
7
s4
J 0il= 4lE
(methyl red)
u++elE EF
aBl)
eo
I
-
Lal
LZI E+EJ
(bromthymol blue)
t:eqelE EF
I
t
trll=s=JeilE -9,(Hl
l
(phenolphthalein)
"Jal^El gtr?
(alizarin yellow R)
R Lat
ilEa
I 10
2'
pH= are 16.8 g,J4?l t-g7l xl^lEE pH HPI tll+.=9
^l^lEe
rl]* 2 pH 'J?lsl Egl= Tl.Tltl
7 4
5
I
16.s | ,Jtal ,J9lzl
Ell=E=JEiloJ
Tl^,l
Ol-
,It['JH]zl.J Tzlzl zt42 67izl
"JoJCx].1!(HCl, HBr, HI, HNo3, HClo3, Hclo4)r] 6]
4g oloJcxtl}(H,sor)o14. e&(HNo3)g "J.Jcztt}g 'llE4.J tlol4. EE d+4oJ
+4q^J HNor9 ++Eg $d6l H:O*el- NO3- ols-se +cg+.
Not(4q) ($d olg3tD
HNo3(aq)+Hzo(/) .----- Hso*(aq) + 176.2t)
ol tsJ¤+ $d6l e_E4eEtrJ dq47l qlEql, ol
^lq^l= ¤Bg Lt4.ll= ElgsE ^I
*
+6tzl SgttrI,a..' (4. I ¤). zJl 16. 3 Aql ^l fl+6t$;o1, u3o ( aq)4 u* (aq)= ^l-&6}q E
q^l +slg "JtxlE +4.J + ?lrf. trI4^l tel olgg+ HI¤¤ rJ+6I41 trlgr+ aol s
BEItrl.
HNO3(a4) H*(aq) + NO3 (aq)
,J&E ++._qql^J=, 4lol BF ?g -u* olgE 4lsozlol+.. I d4 [u*]E 4]g a
7l bEcl zJzl ullE9l ,J6J oJoJCzI+I9 pHE ule 4ltlB + 9l+. el= Eq 0.20 M
uNo:(aq) +..4q1^l [u*]: [No:-] :0.20 Mol+. 4ll6.6eql^J ¤Ha]9*ol, ol*Cz]t]
QJ ursoro3 A++ t*ol rl ffialQ.
ql4l 16.8
,Jt to{E pH alt!
o.o40 M HCIO4 Eo-qol pHE EnloJzl?
Eq "J llq HClo4=z}4lolE?, Sd6l olg+qq q-e. d TIzl +"jg pH tlol zle a+q 4E +^ls
+96}^ls.
=
[H*] = [CtOr-1=0.040 Mo]q.
(il o.zoM HClo3 (iil o.oo:oM HNo3 (i0 r.so M HCI
E0l
(a)i < ii <iii O)ii < i < iii (c)iii < i < ii
pH:-log(0.040):1.40 (d)ii < iii < i (e)iii < ii < i
aE [H*]b I x 10-2 Mr] t x r}-t M,tl-ololl llzl Ql$oll > H= qlr{ 2
pHE 2.041.0 fl+. 4l&g pH ilg ol qtl¤ H+l
.Jq flq. H+ol^Flq
t"E9 +iL*471i zlelolue, pHE HNo3 ++ol9 pHE 234o1q. ol &el bs.E gut?lztz
++e oletrl + ^Izlol+.
'fJ7l
,ItI gHl4.J 7l-SC 'tE7lY NaoH, KoHe+ ?e .JA4 #+4, sr(ou)rq +g + trJ
+ze gar-l E++el olgd +4IE+E"]+. ol 3ul6J+==g ++.lqd sa6l +6lqq
olgol grt. r4^J 0.30 Mg NaoHE EEI6I+ +"-qg 0.30 Mq Na*(a4)e| 0.30 ME
oH (aq)$ s.6Jd+. aH4qzl 9*3Naou==^l]6}zl ?+=+.
qH 16.e
r ?#?14 pH 4lt
(a)0.028 rVI NaOH E"4, (b)0.0011 M Ca(OH)z E-49 pHE gDl?l7l?
A cH3- or3g cH4or ElgTrorn, cH4E Eoir^j .ttoret= 6z7r.gtEr-. cH3-e[Esr u8oil
| ** EE EJBI= r ^te.
16.6 | o-Ft
,fl+Eq tlc Eeg E4}olr, {zl $5-gu3 ++.lq^l olg3r}¤E}(fal rc.10). olgat
Hi¤_q ql+ ¤B d-+4g ol+6}q e+4}ol ol$s+q= AEE s.BB + 9l+. "Jtg rm
16.6 qFd 731.
F
c o co
e o
B
t o
qt
B, t
HA(aq) + H2O(l) -----> HA(aq) + H2O(/)
=
A-(aq) + HrO+(a4)
A-(aq) + HsO+(aq)
2 tlt Et!
HA E^I7I HA E^t7t
$E6l6llalE+ +E4op 6flalEq,
s g,r.lop., +3rlg oJ^.lzl¤ H:o+(aq)q H"(aq)tr_ E^l6tE, q+4 eol oJ4 %L6Jql E}l
;- H+(aq) + A-(aq)
HA(aq) 116.24l
ol *lBg ++Eql^l "Jq+Es, ]-oE_E s,¤g ¤B tl-+^l¤l + gltrt. E9 Srl]ol
^l-&6J
zl qEql ¤B tl+^lq],rl z{el,rlzl + 9l+. "", (rs.4¤). rlqol otell 4^l a= &
^l-+6}q
(acid)9 olgElq q{} B¤ t}+E +E}U+. tr}e}^l BB t}+^lg tr|q=+ ?Jo1# + 9+.
o H
il
o|,qle,t}(CH3CooH) H-o-C -C-H I
CHJCOO 1.8 x 10-5
I
H
610lsgi4I(Hoct) H-O-Cl ocl 3.0x10 "
^IoloJF++i,iI(HCN)
H-C-N CN_ 4.9 x 10-10
fl6l.q olfl 4l4lg 6l+ E"Jql "JdzI dB t}Sol .JHI4ee ,I]+ EBis
=^l-= ^FS*LI. r A4 E4IE A+, +4+ pH E= 4ltJ pHE 6Jt ¤¤ tlql
+= ag 9olo} oJ+.
E ++dtrf.
trr qH 16.10
// a.atal pHESEi K,4lt
El +801 tsE7[ 0.10 MoJ Et(HcooHE 25"C0ll^l pHE *8al. t]Ll, r. il01 2.3801flt[. 0l eEql^l K,=
zl{16l-^le.
=Hl6ln =t9
r}l*
.=4 E+ +*.qE 5]-o Ee+ pHE g.z, ol 4}el & <Ig 4l E tsltq1.t] ¤go.J Be E^lle} olf $.t.].olc|. 9l4l ts.s.il
.t}6k Exllol4. d4l,* a H4l %LHg EI+ HI+g +a6rjr.
^l_8:6}q, = =
7l tEe+ ¤¤ +E= +e trJ=q, ol EzllE 84.
IH E+q olgelq qtJ ag T= aolTl= 6tLl, ol Erql
EUI
E.= ¤B Exil= + qq= +d B¤ EI+E HI+4g
zfC+Ei. s^Lq olgE+= rl-o_$ zjol + + 9l+. HCOOH(a4) ;- H+(aq) + HCOO-(aq)
l-H+ll'HCOO-l
oltrll ¤B ^J+^lg trls=4 e+ ^'- [HCooH]
¤Bql^l 4 Ede-l *.EE +6l] ts-zl aTlql HCooH HCOOH(aq) ;^ H+(aq) + HCOO (44)
ol*El r4+E
K^! zzlzl Etg rllzlE +Elql= 4s .J*r+. &9 +c6I= E El= ag oF-rt
^ll7l=
t-{ffi(percent ionization)"1r, 4E= q-q-r+ A+.
olgc;,++e:ffiffiffiX10070 Ue.zel
olgcr EE¤g 4Tlrt.
,J6J 4IoJ+=.
EE zlal ol$ffi +^l6IH, olgp+q= 4I9 r-"E= tq^l ccq= H*(oq)9 LoEel
Aq. q+^l & rn9 olgir+ EIEge q-s-rl e+.
olgpl EB¤:#}x roozo Ue .zz)
qlE Eq 0.03s M HNo2 +"-qg 3.7 x to-3 ruA s* Gq)E- st}6lE-E olge+ EE¤.g +
gr+ a+.
olg+ HIeg: [H*]se t :
[uNoz]a,t
X roo%o: '#+';' x looo/o 'tto/o
N qFJl 16.11
lf ol*Iltr q4'St 4ltJ
qEl 16.10011^1 4llbl.H=ol, o.1o M EdHCooH)E"-q8 4.2 x 10-3M9 H*(aq)E r.-d-dtL 0lttll 0l8El'H-{EB= 4ld6l'^19"
^l9
Ntl'J
E4 E4}+*"-lelE.]-oEe+ H*(aq)g ¤B EoEE oJr., ol tl9 "lgp] EEgg 4l+6f= Ezllol+.
734 168 tJ g7t E:d
Eo E
EPI(10 -x l+x +x
¤¤ bE(M) (0.30 - x) x x
6[lff
.84 +qd EL"EE ol+6}q pHE 4l,ilal-b E^llolEl. *. filei +l ts+"ll^"i ¤H6tfl=ol, plq Hi+^lg an H*el B
l6.2ql^l HCNE KaY 4.s x lo-loolq. ¤ ]FETI "lzl+oJ, Z7l ") gq 5=.91 ql+ s= 4LC6J+.
EUI
H+(aq)zl olg+ HI+g +El HI+4g HCN(aq) ;- H+(a4) + CN-(a4)
^JCqts ^Aa,
B¤ tr.+ &ql Eil+ 49 ++. &: IH+IICN 1
:4'e x ro-ro
1rilNt
736 16A| E--J
^J-E7t
5E EE|(M -x +x +x
Ee 5E(M) (0.20 - x) x x
{zl {++ "t gd ++4E H}3 +Ee+ z;ol, H+(aq)$ bEql zld S¤ol 9l= &
+"-4E dde E"J+ tEE ,J4IB+ EtIg +'-qe A+ql 'J +8617]1 44ti4. .14
6J ilol=- !-ol= I M CH3COOH9I I M Hclql ql+ dEg f.g 16.11q1 44*4. r rz
cH3cooH= 0.004M9 u*(aq)E golalzluJ, 1M HClg r M!H+(a4)= E6Jqlr+. r
ar+, ++49 HI* +E= HCt +oIoJ A+ql +a mls+.
ql^J6J 4e, E&e.l +E7l f;z|$ffi H*(oq)4 ¤e +5.= +7l.'*rt. rezlEJ rg
rEi::i&
=-:=
H
t*/
1. MHCl(aq) l MCH3COOH(a4)
lH-l = 1M [H'] :0.004M
ArH 16.11 ee HtSolrloJ qt+loll^l= 3A}g trfle+= trl= t-tS +E=.HoJtrl". TIEE_Hz 7l^,11tr^1, {10il sl6|1 {t6tE nfl golgrl.sr
4l SdEtl-r::=: (44E| =+01 =+
16.6 "Jt 737
6.0
5.0
ol
E
ET
+.0
EiE7[ e7t.J+e cH3cooH
E E4E3P tr143
E 3.0
E^tE 6Hal
2.0
1.0
bE= Et}E r-.Eq z.ld Elqlo}rl= ?*=r+. q= E&E +EE F El]E EEJE H*
(oq)9 *sb + tsll7i 9zl t*E4. =q
qBl 16.13
olil%r'{4.|t ole"$ pHef ol*.sl r4#.& 4ltl
tE HEI(A.f) +x +x
8E tsE(M (0.10 - r) x x
-6.8x10-4+1.6x10-2
2
trloJ^Jzlt
Be te olg3llg + gl= H gzl-= F zl] ollJ. zlzl:r_ gl4. .l4,t} 4Ig Elg!8IH!
(polyprotic acid)olep +4. el= Eq .I+&(H2so3)g +*r+ zJol 844str olgEl*
+.
H2SO3@Q ;- H+(aq) + HSOt(aq) Ko1:1.7 x 10-2 t16.3U
^l++.
r4 o.tr &zE 6J^J- 4"JCzlt9 + Hrll "Jtxlzl dl?]q= ¤Bql 4* aol+.
o}+tql^l K,2Y K.i,Hq 4+ ++. 4dzl ts 4L+ qlEq gddl¤ E Hso, H+ +
C9 urso, EzleP4 "Jdzlzl ¤{ rl flrll ailr-lg asE q^JB + 9l+. olag gH}
4.J Cdol4. 4 4'&Czlt}.ll^l a H4 oldxlE qqq= aol + H4 .JCzl¤ qq.X
aEQ 6Jd[ d4. u]]z[zlE, olgE+6J + 9l= oJCzl-$ ,ql z]l zfzlL 9l= 4]ql^l +
=
Ezll "JCzI¤ qlq{= aol dxll oJ¤z|E qlqLfl= aH+ dtrI. tr|+^.| "Jtzl-$ fl4
^ll
6ll^l qlqLllE , r K.AIE g+zJes 4}ol4l+.
/.lea6 E^k 0lttrlg +
?,lb g¤^l"E H 7|{ Tlxlr.
?lb7l?
HO
A H3POaolK,eE oltr EE= LtEtLll=7p
EL/\L
ou HzSOa =trL l.2x to-2
ElEle^} c2H202(cooH)2 l.0xt0 3
4.6 x 10-s
H"(oq)y a E4l olgqlql^J Eqd+. ¤+49-e K, aol 10-3EH old-_e--E +otzlTl Ul]E
91, olzl .JoJ^dzI+I9 A+ilH 4oJCz[& +"]E pH= +zl &, " +*El 414]6J + 9l+.
qFjl 16.14
trl"Jtzl,l,lel pH 4PlI
25'C. 0.1 atme.l ++-d Eollrl COz9 E6|1E= 0.0037 M0ltl. tr= EallEJ COzts EJt!(H2CO3)ol EEHe 7l'¤51'8, 0l
HJ- q-q_r]
=4-dtl-z
eol T]gErh.
CO2@q) + H20(/) : H2C03(aq)
tri4^l (x)(r)
0.0037
+el [co32-]= 4l&6]z1 &zE ol3il 9161^l= Hco{(aq) :- H*(aq) + COf (aq)
4. *q^l Ee [HCo3-]4 [u.]9 #9 ol*a] iTlBE(I4) 4.0 x lo-s 4.0 x 10-s 0
r, tcof-lE y4r "tH, +94 ae azl $E 5E Hit(r[) -v +y +y
e| B¤ *E= eg + 9i+.
E-.J EE(t\4 (4.0x10-s-)r) 1+.oxro-s+y1 v
^ls.
trloJ*Jxtt
I
75% J.
.g(lor3-1o1u1. pHe+
"JA ¤Bq pK,zl * Po+
e ag 7te Ell r B¤q 6l]r}61-= 4^l-4 I
Ell
oi BB9I^J &zE
QK*= 212 Kaz= 7 '21
Ka2 : IHPO!1[H3O]
+
/[H2PO4-]
o3={oll
-logE +16lB tr}¤+ gg + 9l+. 0%
p.K"2: log([H2PO41llHPO24-]) + pH 24681012 14
16.7 | T"Jz I
-- HB+(aq) + oH-(aq)
B(aq) + H2o(/) [16.33]
ol ql¤.g ¤B z3ol Ed6J+ gl+.
^J+^le +g_r+ 610lEE¤0LE!01 gTle 4f
/(, : --
tBH+lloH-l
[16.34]
E-g n|l olE flrr7t sd^|"=
tBj- Eol¤olE7l-?
Eg +E1]olEE ol eaJlzl ?*=+. .JE] "JEJTI ql$zle* oJEL.lo[(ammonia)z[
^lql
ei4.
K,, Kae E^ltI'J az-lH, Ka9 bE ol ¤B *izl qE +¤E HI+ql 4EL le]zlE I (ammonia, NH3)
q +q, ol A+q= Eql^J "JEzl9 olgal= ++U.+. g7! 6flq ga(base dissociation
constant, I(r= fl{+ Hzlzl Hzoe| HI*Elq ol Ezl9 4&+ oH- olgg BCEI+ *
-&ql rll* 4.o14.
Er6.4q "JHzl9 Lewis *4, 44I, ++e49 ra fiol +el flsq, ++ Dql q
*zlzl
Be ctrE ++6Iq+. ol ¤zlEg n* ol94 e6JB + gl= tsljzo # dzl6}9 el zll olt}
zlzla_ 9lr}. s r0.a9 6C Bzl¤¤ -HH, El++ dzl-,'^Jol ¤4 flzlql fl+g "J + 9l
0llE0t'J
(methylamine, CHjNH2)
'+Jilsl +¤
e}Ezli + ++E'|ts + 9l+. d|+= 6C ts^Is^l *dzl¤ Eol-59 + 9l= HIAE}
dznlg z*E d*.14. ol +e9 Eil+++ s 16.4q1 94+ 6c E4¤zJol {4 flz}
E EE+6J+. oJEqoLe EgloJ ol elElE=g oFJ(amine)ql +++(f=J 16.15). trzl o1u3
6l"0lE=Aoltl
S.,l6.4 2s c Eq^l ol Tt^lo+oJ7l (hydrorylamine, NH2OH)
f]EH
(pyridine, CsHsN)
csHsNH+ 1.7 x 10-e
H-N-CH3
"llBoIrJ CH3NH3+ 4.4x 1o-4
(methylamine, CH3NH2)
H
FJcl+i ole-
H- S: HzS 1.8 x 10-7
(hydrosulfide ion, HS )
z-
E& ol9 HCO3 1.8X10 4
(carbonate ion, CO:2-)
>p
bfolsgi4I olg 3.3x10',
(hypochlorite ion, CIO )
:Cl-O HClO
qHl 16.1s
tr (bE ol¤.6J OH- 4lt
0.15 A/t NH3 Eo-q0llll OH-g tsE= ?6l^19.
6tl3
E4 Eg7l9 bETr +q4 9lsq, oH- olgE EoEE 7 4lel E^Iel olgp+ Exll= Eflg uile+ ee %r-Hg
^l-S*
ali $z-llolQ. trt. slo+^lg )^a-. v7l t.Ee+ ¤B tEE s=
"J=+.
EUI
olgpl HI¤¤ olql dl'.I6I= ¤B tl+4g + NH3(a4) + H2O(l) ;- NHa+(aq) + OH (aq)
^rn.
+. Kr:--tNH,+lloH-l :1.8x10-s
*B E"EE .trtr
"J=+(q7l^l Eg ¤¤ ^J+^lql NH3(a4) + Hzo(t) ;- NHa+(a4) + oH-
E.+Elzl ?+9.1re, E9 L"EE +^l6J+). a7tEiE(M 0.15 0 0
5E E+(M) -.x +x +x
EE 5E(M) (0.1s - x) x x
E "Ja 9le-!-tr. qxll r6.ellrl zlgzl9 pu=*d aal?Je > lr= qlrll2
*Beg ++4. o| {xlloll.r]i o.rs M NH3 +Eq^l [oH-] rl^9 ElElge 0.0s M +"-qg "JEflg oll zI* $$ pHE 4
:1.6x l0-3 Mol rrE, pOH: -log(t.O x l0-3):2.80o1I 4q= a3?
pH :14.00-2.80:11.20o14. ¤zl +eloloE, 899 pn El;lE. ,llgol"J. ote^I
7-tr+ r+.
=
E9 Nu, Szlglrl N-H A*ol N-c A,*e.a tsI+lq gl+. or"Jql +61+
6J 7l] ol^J-el
plElEEg NH:el u[{z}zle, Eql^] oJC^l-= Boi^l N-H a6Jg't} zl] r,l
"J=Al
g+.
EgTls^l ollgol"Jel EI¤+ +¤.r+ e+.
IH
I
r.xil NaCIOE gel Eoll +?l + 2.00 Le 514-d Eo4ol pHzl 10.50013t|.. 16.37011 +qTl 8-E'E 0lE6|'q 0l E-4 +0ll
=E-.J ^l
EolZ NaCloel E+= +di^19.
6t{ql
rtg
E{ NaCIOE Na*e} 619- ol$9E ol+qd olg a6J e} E 94zl +ltNaclo9 E+¤ 4l+61++zllolE+.
to.sozlxl
ql5ol+. ad6ll{olE.e E+q^l +d 6llE+q +aE ol oH-E ¤¤ t.E= +'Jtr|. Cto I z7l +
rilel pH-trPel
goJ Na*e1, Ka:3.3 x rO-7oJ EgTl CIO- ol$-9g 6114 EE-trlzl+e +olE il]. 4 El++E a7l t.E_e+ *B !"E
++(^l 1637).2.00 L Nacro 899 pHzl-fq4 ill, pH sE "JE+. Ka 49 ol+6lq [cro I E +6J+.
=
=vl
16.16 E= 16.209 ol+6[q tOu-6 7a poH : 14.00 - pH : 14.00 - 10.50 : 3.50
^l
4. ¤zl,rl= al r0.zog ol+,*4. toH-l : 16-3.s0 : 3.2 \ to-4 M
.JP9 cro- olgol Er+ Hls"d+a 6l]E, *a49 Naclo b 4. pHzi e.04t Nac6Hscoo +o+ 0.s0 Lql= HIa4l d
EE O.Sr Mol g+. r-o E= 0.31 Molr, s"l9 PulE Z.OO r Eol H mol Sq 9lizl?
ol= +, Eq EqrJ gE "Jg 0.62 mol Naclool4. (a) 0.38 (b) 0.66 (c) 0.76 (d) 1.s (e) 2.e
Ezl Nur9 ?*
NH3(a4) + Hzo(/)
-.. NHn+(aq) + OH-(aq) [16.3e]
K^ x K,: flxllllrrl\/INlldltoH-l\
\ tNHa-l /\ tMI,f /
: [H+][OH-] : r(,
rrl4^.1 K^4 xa= +6lq gg #g EE olg+ tl+(Iq)e+ "Jililrl-(^l 16.16). + 16.3s
^l
r+ 16.3e= q6}fi.g zlal olgs+ *B4ol Eqzl!-tr B¤
"il Ee-] ^J+= K*7lT]Ll.
ol +41= +dg 7l4ol B +s+ 9"lE ,*=+. qtr &E & afl4 l}fc+ ol
=g6l
.tI9 4-Bzl.ll 4oJ 9zl 4q t+¤ ++ 7}e Ee] olg+ -}+e+ = A+.
Kax Kb: r(, (zl$-{Hz|$ql q4q) [16.40]
qtr &9 q+(= K,<I) a q}gzl9 ,rllzlb qfolxlq(zle & a), + {t
g *6J *.^ll7l7l6zlEr9l
K,, KaE zs"C9l.r.l r.o x ro-'nol4. E 16.5e1 {tE.e. ol +41= Bq ol
CHs
ALLERGY
oJtrllEltrJ
-NHa* Cl-(aq)
;;(n
A.rihnrrminc
.BxtPsE^Ls
ffi ISWl^n,
CHe
gEl+a
"JtrllEt"J a rH 16.16 iIBJE S,0l ¤ + fl= ol-"J EEI+^= +e d
tlge +lgCol ,]]* z+sq, B+ q .JA6la, 6^d ot"J E-e.E6lEgqtEE =8
qHl
F 16.17
E/|I_E J?l $¤ oltBt I(, s.ts ,(pl Alt
(a)EFgaJEt ol¤(F-)el Ko, (b)SEts olE{NH4+)el K,= ?6|.119
6tl*
Eq HFE 4gzl"J F-eL NH3el zi4}oJ NH4*E 6I?-l {}+ 4teJ sq^l HFe+NH3E Zig Bl
K,*Ku +41= ol+5IH,
+o,1+ Ealol4. fEE z+"J F-eI NH4*E
"l]rl ^J+= +¤. + 9t+.
=
E0l
(a) s. 16.24 ++ Dql el6}tr, *&'J HrE K,:6.8x l0-4ol+
Kb
K* _ r.o x ro-t.4 : 1.5 x l0_1r
al t0.aog ol+6}q 49zl.J r-9 raE +6J4. Ko 5.8 x 10-*
746 163 U gTt "J:d
+. ^l
aE .s to.sql 9lE F-e+ NH4*el r al4 +19 al+g <iol > .H= qlrll2
"J716l-=aeE+91+. (a) +olg No2-, poa3-, Na- ?91^l Hzl o1l4 $izl zl
>-E*q$1 4. = a_s_?(++ DE zlB= 0,l+6[4.)
(b) Bzl"J fltfl(quinoline)3 *az| rHr+ an, z|4lE
++ p9 zlEE ol+61q, q+ ^] gTlE z[1t ffi $zl
q^l d $zleli9.e +g6l^le-. p& {tg4.e0ol+. +ltsAE 9zl otl4 tr-+= gtr}oJ7}?
(il (cur)rN (iil Hcoo- (iiil sro- N
(a)i < ii < iii (b)ii < i < iii (c)iii < i < ii
(d)ii < iii < i (e)iii < ii < i
¤zlrl 8,.J,* oH-= +EE puE ¤4 ¤zlCol EIE+ gtrf. oP.llE& ol$(cH3coo-)
g qE EH, EtE u+971tr^J, Er+ HI+6IE o|.rJltr4}rl +&sl olgg $$eEal pH
zt 94zlz]l .J4.
cH3coo-(a4) + H2o(/) i- cH3cooH(aq) + oH-(aq) 116.44l
oJol*zl Eq ,J3
s+qlql i z1] oltr9 oJCzl-= zlzlt_:lE 4flzt "Jolge qf$zl9 4ItIeE ,J+g +
glq. gl= Eq NH4"= *¤zl.J NH:9 4&o14. NH4*E q}&oloe Hroql *dzl¤
L]]+r aiolsefi.(hydronium) olgg Bd6lq puE *=4.
NHn+(aq) : NH3(a4) + urO+(a4)
+ H2O(/) [16.4s]
qtr ++eql^l= + q qld-6}71 qqg tlqlg "J+zl q=ql, qE EE pe(No,),E Eq
+Hg ql r +.lg tr-Bql &dg lrlrll ¤+. qBrll olfl oJol rJzlzll qYtl?
+^l a& olgol e&g EIE aol olBzl6l-= ^J4g B +E gl4leL}, :L1e +* ^J
4fl 4o14. e& olgol ,Jtql e4}e-l Aflzl"Jg ^J46lE 849 Hls"$ +^lg+ ?l
4. : 4tl9l re3n olgg HI+g rqg gszl 9l+. Fe3*e+ ?ol, 49 rTlql d6l-=
zfzl:L *E olgEg pe3+ ole.rl u[!z]-zlE, ++alql^J ^]']+
=
4]^.ig +Eu+
^ll7l9 .816.6 2s'Cq^1 ]{ o;'o1g
(E 16.6). sql^J Fe'*q Fe3*9 4g ulla| BH, olgE d6tzl ?zlEtfll ui4 &szl ol
+¤-o4eltlqalt+
¤z{ ?zlal.izl= .J + 9l+.
g0lE
s 16.6q1^l :+ ole.59 & {Iol Et"J o},rllE&(&:1.8x10-)r+ =zll r}az1 gs- Ka
g g + gl+. grJ4 ++4 +4g oJaq E-.+ olgg ^Jq4sE r-r. d6I= 4oBj Fe3* 6.3x10 3
E4 Hlso6|zl g:e-q+ pHql g6&3 +zl ?+=+. old A ? ,JgTlql^l E f 914(r0.s Cr3+ 1.6x10 a
=
¤). ql zlxl ololgol pHE *+= ^l.e += a6oEg f.s 16.17q1 zll;.la|g{Q. AI3+ 1.4 x l0-'
++ olgol &c +Eg "JE= ql4q+g rEJ 16.18q1^J E + gl+. ?+ olg+ oJa 3.2 x ro
10
Fe2*
2.5 x ro
1o
6l¤- ztzlE e E +^IE Elo" S dzl-tg gqBA^J +slgrl ,,r.i,i, (13. r E). #4 olgel A Zn2*
6t7I olgr+ +sl6|r 9l= E ezr.el &l:.,,1o1e-1 t}E 4l¤+ trJ rzl g+. r Ni2* 2.5xl0 "
^Jn
=++
0l :1*0114 +alb e|| tl-g7l r|,r|q¤ gae .fb7i?
^llE+9
lffi'::<.%h
lIo'P
J *
NaN03 Ca(NO3)2
H=BtrlE E= ueqelE EF
pH:7.0
afB 16.17 golEol eEe.{ pHoll Elxl= B:Br Lll 7[rl Etg t.o nz 8._!sl rH+4oJ pH zt= ti-E7l
+861?rl.
^l^lEoE
748 163 u-g7tEtr
^tE
O-H E6tll -dtt. EEltrt. Etrt.
=g=
-lr*
l 2+
#;
+
4 +
afg 16.18 #qlE Fes* olSol +Jee 4t86l.= 7ig Fe3+oll EE|.E E Extoll,\l Enll?.! Hzo E^loll H*= rll=6|.q Hso*E u=71 nllEolrt
zi*ol 4dq qq +cI6Ir. 9l= E +zlE o-H At}e E6llzlr., q4^J +ql E B4s
oobdzl-=
dzl 4+al g+.
Eo4qF1 %fols_rl golgq Ezl qrfi
¤ol Eql +9tg trll &d, ?d, gzld 6 qE +"-49 "JEzl .J7l 9l8ll^l= oJolg+ *ol8
g q.Jg E+ "Jolo}6J+. +¤-n+ ae ql zgl ':.cgE sqts"J + gl+.
l. *olgr+ ¤.olgol E+ E4 HI-qo6lzl ?+g rI pHE 6col B aeE qlt}.J + gltrI.
,JtIg zlgTl.J ¤.olg4 1+g "Jolg E.= 2+g +ag g^q oJ'olg(ca2+, sr2+,
Ba2*)o1 olql +.J+. {l: Nact, sa(NoJr, Rbclo4
2. gol E4 Hi¤.6|q +tl+ olgg "JE: 9o189 s.Ei6l.r., oJolge 54 Els" 6}zl
?+=+8, puE ¤zldol E 1"e ql^J6J + 91trt. E4Iei 4¤zl.J solgrl l+E
oJolg E= 2+el +rlg giel oJ=ol$(ca2+, sr2*, Ba2+)9e +cg flol ololl {af,
4. {l: Nacto, RbF, BaSo3
3. gol Er+ HI+4q ololcgS ols-g "JE: "Jolgg E¤i6Ir., ¤-"19¤ E4 HI¤:
6I^l ?*=trIH, pH= &^dol g 4-qE qltlg + g+. ._Igzlg 44I.J oJolg E=
d6l7}2+ ol^Jql olql +6J+. ql: NH4NO3, AlCl3, re(NOJ:
^+g "Jolgol
4. gol iE6'J6lr. glE "Jolgr+ +olgol E+ Er+ EI+g + gl+8, +^IE+ ol$$ alol
E_trE olgg E+ dc6J+. ¤:"-4ol &^J, +d, EzlB * q! aol qizlE olgol
E4 Hi*61+ ^J'I4e ,{zl"ll grl gl'}. ql: NH4clo, Al(cH3coo):, crF:
\T qEl 16.18
tn "J to4E.4^J(tt^J, 6ti, "J7l^"i)
,l8nl7l
8ll'J
E^l +q{ szll$ olg a.J s}E}E(g)E +E}4sE+q + +E +ql q¤ olgEol 9lsq, 4 olgol pH9l ol¤
flt=j
q.q qCg aC6I= E^llol+. B6Jg +=zl= 'Jts +"-qE aqdg ACB + 9l+.
16.10 I C Z)l )1!jrl alqi +^ 749
qHl 16.1e
oJffi $rjzpx gol*. ¤.o{ol {i8"Ja[, g7l¤oJ4 qEolTl
NazHPO+E Eoll+fi= til! {ld E-401 EJ^l E= E7l¤ E"-qol EJ^l ql=61^le.
744 +49 olgol tlc"Jxl, ¤zlc"Jzl= oJotol ++. Kb(HPo4z): !9I it^-: :
6.2 x 10-6
1.6 x 1o-7
Na*E 14 #49 olgolE-tr pH9l g6J.9 +zl g:=tr].. u+
ol Kb <lg Hpo42-ql ql+ & tl9 rosu11z1-9+. tr14^-l
4^l +"lE q4C* nponr- ole.9 HI¤¤ +qtro}"t ++. ^l
16.46-H-+ +^116}+. u+e}^l ol ¤."-43
HPoa2 4is-tr. E= gTlE zI+B + 9l+. 16.470l
^l
¤zlCol4.
=
4I9E ++g q HPo42 (aq) ;- H+(aq) + Po;-(aq) > -H.6 qF.ll 1
tE ^llTlql
oJEJS
+t_s_oJE
&E ^llzl= 7e 4l zlzl eoJgl E6il^l ¤6&9 *=+.
. H-A E!fl=+¤ +^ gzl-(H)E zl4 Ezl= H-e pa;o1 +q-r} ,Jol f+ 94 +ql +
+4.J "JAq¤ r*4\ 4.41 SdzI ?4l(&)e 4+qt+ :i.:i-:: (8.4.21). tsz|gl +Col ^J7l
E ag ++r+ pol Erla[flH ag tzla]4.
,1r;
Ag olg^d faElE(ionic hydride)g +Col HlqlE ¤+. + H fl4* +d6l¤
NaH4
?*4lEla *Cxt gzll(gzl)e. qiL"o.J+. cH+9 H-c ¤6Jll Ag ++C u-e ¤aJ*
ticol4 Ezlc f*qlg Y}Ezl 9+=+. 9HI4 0e H-a dtl9 +col 4a++ HE
dz} gEE Sqqq 4 d +Iol ¤4.
. H-A s-e ¤!19 zlfl $zlzl ootdzl-= E i gEzl oI= ql E$ol rlu
=!E|glrllzl ,,:, ls.8d). ol]+,Jq} a6Jg
+H"ll "Jal-= Ad.g
^llzlolr{ "+6J AaJql
El6l] +?,lq
7l qBq. ol soJg ql= EE 6Je4lq} +iql^l q]+ +,q6I+. H_F aq+e +col 7l
tL 3 u-e aqlol4. A6JE +^d"Je-e ^J4.JtrIE, HF= ,ll+ ,JoJ &e-.+. ql^J6J +
ql4. :44 H-Ag 4.J 4lzlE eg +ql^l +ls g+a++ 441+. 4 Hr* 2ee ktl
mol, HBrS 366 kJlmol, HclS 431 kllmol, HF= s67 kflmololQ. HFg eqlqol g.tr.
4ls+ +i 3 zl* ^Jlrr_E, r+E gtrt}+ +iE ++Eol ,J&.JqlE ¤+6Ir HF= E
tol+. "JHI4sE u-e ¤89 ,xlzlzl Eqle++ &el ^tlzl= r+4{l+.
. slETlel elE¤ HA-tr+El +4 fl^l7lg"Iu| dzl olgar6J i
?lEzlE ea6r= ^ll H
zll .JzlE elgzl(e )zI 9"I4 oJCdJzr 6r= aol4. 9HI4 o-e 49219 .JCCol 3
;4 +ls- q 'z3.444.
ol^J+t
olCe.$ HA9 ez| +zlgEql^l Ae +ql +.J A+ql, .JHlzlstr H_e ?6J9 4lzlzl
t}g ^l7l= ac6}= TrtI +s6J eoJol E+. gi
A! zzlzl4a++ u-n EB rllzl
Eolzl= A6Jol gl+. A4zlstr'* +ql^l oI4E 4ElrJ++ A6Jqe qr"11x1-r.. 4Ig
=
rJlzlE rJ6llll+. trl+^J sclS HF_H_+, H2s= H2oE+ rl6.J &ol 84.
ag +7lql^j olce4l HAq &el ^ilzlE ac6l.= +g -sqlg aEIg +colr}. g^ A
9 421*CszI f;zlaJffi 4ICg z.rollzl-|ull, zJ$ ?zlglrl sEqsE ?J++ trl+ r
$r{,:o:- ia.+¤). qE EH 2+71 flA.tr +Cg &E cHa ( NH: <( H2o < HFel
^ll7l=
+^J7| ¤4. c-u A6Jg +dol S,7l qlEql u*4 cu,-= ElExl= ?+=+. N_H EQI
g +col7l= 6|zlu3, NHr9 ei gzl.ll ul++ dz]t]9 zlz]|t- glr, +q]4 cag +
E 449 Ela6J dzHlll E6H^l acqI,e, NHrE &eE +¤-6I71-H-+= gzle zl8
'J+.
+^e+ 2+71,3+71 Hl++ 94tr +dg olc+4}E ^]7lql 4EI izl4 a6}ol :lH
rc.lgql eEqq 9l+.
16.10 I t_g7l ZErl s[+ +^ 751
74 15 16 t7
tlol
siH4 PHs H,S HCI -l
Hrse HBr
ol I Tl-,\l
Ko=1.3 x 1o-a
t9 ^ll7l67f
I
rts 16.19 2*44tl0ldE t4ilEoll tHEl tjel fi-Bt
^ll7l
t^t
ge &e *&q zJol ,* Zl ol^J$ o_H AElg zlzlL lle
:o:
oHTl= 7l4a- 9la+ 6d flz}9l &r flzlz| AaJoJ &9 tt+t(oxyacid)olzp {Q.
oHTl= ¤zl"ils 5q 9lq. oHtlzl Ezle 4+614+ &eE ++61+ ae qE e?l
ullE"Jzl oJotExl.
oH7l7l qH g^ yql A6JdI*,+:t zlCtll tr4. yqlb += a.JE 9lg + 9l+.
)r-o-,
,/
6['+9 +*4.J 91E Ae ++.J 49o14. olEil= ++9 {zl ${;z} ull
vzl Nar-] Mg
**zl qlEq Yel o ^lolel dzHlS gd6l &i +s-E "J?.141 qa, rl+^J oH-= r*
olg ¤6J ElElE"l gEI. "Ifl cl6J+E=g NaoH+ vrg(oH)ze+ ,Jol oH-E .li++ +
=
?l o I]-E ¤zls 4s" t4.
yz[ u]frgolg oe]E ArJol ++ gr';olr. oH-= 4$zl g*84. q4lql p]q]Ee t
gtrl. .JHI4eE v9 dzl *cs_zt +TtElql q+ &E .{zlE +7}*4.
^dol4* 6col
olag + 7Vl olf ullEtrll, a4= d4 EJEzt yql g4ril E"l o-n e6Jg rl E6ll
zlr +^dg 44^J H*= drll 4+rll g+. Ezll= yoH +== ,*= +E 4EzlE 4zl]
*ol$.Jql, v9 dzl $Cszt 4e++ .JCcllzl ull$ol4. ol A6Jg a}olEgtr.dltl
(vou cglrl y= gE4ls+ olgol+)E & aq^l "J f 9,liull, 6JE4l gx[e.] dzl *cs
7I ArElql q4 zJaaJ4Es ro.zo).
s+g &a&9 6d 9zl Yql +TIzloJ &4 flzl¤ol A6J6}z ?14. rl Eq fl= 4I^
fl4* trl+ o-Hg dzl¤ Eq%I7lotr +dg 4 rtzl4z1q. flzlql a!+.J 4Id
=:d
752 168 C-E7tE-d
+ +
Ell
== Y-OH YgITTIEdE .1al 8+
6folEg^tt CI-OH 3.0 Ka 3.0 x 10-8
6f0l+u+o15 Br-OH 2.8 Ko 2.5 x10 e
H-O -cl-o:
t..
I
i9:
:::#
^tel ^il71 =7t
yE flx}gl o gzITI gol a6J6J+E zlzlzll 93rll, "l *4le 419 ^ll7l=
&p++:6d
¤E6J+8, 4I^&ql^J 6d flzl9 410]fz[ ae++ &9 ^]l7lz[ zJ6l]dq-r. g + 9lEi.
tr Hlo2elHBrOs 6 qE aol tl
=
t 6Hal Ai+= 4E7l?
qHl 16.20
tE ¤Eal +I.E $c14o..1 te.l qE8l7l
^1171
-[u
+Htrl-
Eq + rEE El.J+q 7l+ e+.J &ql^'l ^l4L6I¤ ,JullzlE fit¤t olC+ 4qlEEql ql6ll^]= HE d7l +dEe+ As, Br,
+-e-E +g6lEE4lol+. (a)E HE E6JaJ olt$ pl!]Eol K, Se9 dzl *CsE Hli+trI. ol gzl¤E $zl $$rzl
n, 0)= &44}ol+. 3;$ Hi old6l¤ trlzl qn, q4^l ,JsL&col ¤4.
ro.ro I C Z7l )1Ejtl olqj +T 753
&^tq^l:6d flz}9 dzl +Csp* +d gzlql A6J -+(z.s 4 2.4), H2so47l urseon-B4 ,J4}ol+:il ql=6J
6J 4I4E += :lel+q. -A dlrl
-T
^1"1.
E^l
EVI +4 9{¤ zld Ell=, +d g4ql A"J+ &^
?J2
(a) KE +7lgsq^-l g+q fl" oE, 'l]+ 43 dzl *c gztE +7I y+3 +ol q ,JoJ t}"l4. rle|.r.1 H2seoa
E= r*=+(rH a.sglrl o.e). IrI4d KHE H= gd6l z| HrSeo3B+ ,J+ &ol+. &sz} ?zlol-i +^J:
E trl_Z, +qa +qlE 6 rszl zl^J .JaJ $(z|1i zJaj H2SeO3 ( H2SeOa < H2SO47I ¤+.
Hzl)o14. > H.8 filr'li1
ullo] fcel d7l g^.lE= z.ot] zJe_, Hl+6J rrlg 49 p+.JEp$ E4}ql^l z"r4l$ f,eE +g6}^le-.
,*=+. rlz]..r.1 As-H A.Jg ++Coll, AsH:E f8o_4 HCIO3, HOI, HBrO2, HCIO2, HIO2
ql^J 4el 4+rl 9+=+.
"J^dxl-= (a) HIO2 < HOI < HCIO3 < HBrO2 < HCIO2
(b) HOI < HIO2 < HBrO2 < HC1O2 <
Se9 dzl ¤.^dE= 2.4, W2 2.8o1+. s-Br ?*ol HCIO3
(c) < HIO2 < HCIO2 < HOI <
u-Se ?6J!_+ q +^dolsE, HBrol .JCzl-= ,.ll*
HBrO2 HCIO3
(d) HCIO3 < HCIO2 < HBrO2 < HIO2 < HOI
A6Jol trJ r+(ol q=e rH t6.teql^.1 q.J.J + 9l=
(e) HOI < HCIO2 < HBrO2 < HIO2 < HCIO3
rll, H2SeE eI&oll Hsrg zJ&ol+). tr-}+^l *E7l + > Ir.& frlr{|2
7I6t= +^l= KH < AsH3 ( H2Se< uBrol4. +q44+E ElqlE %r-ql^.] tlCol t*(s= g7l^Jol E
(b)H2so4e+ HzSeo+E gg +9 o gzte+ oHTl= 7l7lj1 6ll zlg ]l =,,.l Q
91tr1. olfl A+ql &E +d flzl9 dzl *Cszl (a) HBr, HF (b) PH3, H2S
^ll7l=
+7I+++ rJullTlr+. szl. see_4 $tl $$e.zl eIrJ =e (c) HNOz, HNOr (d) H2SO3, HzSeO:
,l+ut
+I9 E +E 6}+e-l
=
+fr E&"J o[,tJlE4](&:1.8 x t0 ')4 zJ$ z[${$o]r}
H :o:
H- C C-O-H
I il ..
+19 +aq^J *g4sE E^lg +Eg zl$dzl(carboxyl group)$-z 614, cooH.s .tr
zl++. o}^llE4}el p+ql4g cH3cooH-+ _Ezl6lq, zt+dzl9 +i"J olgplg + 9l+.
z}$dzlE E6J6l= 4Ig 7tE-Ht}(carborylicacid)olzp alE, fzl{lE +eg 4z16}
= ,lz16}= 7I
r 9l+. *&(formic acid, zllul4ll4 H1=4I3 4I9 H+olr +.q+ 9lzl=
=
+d1I9 qol+.
:O:
o:
I
il
C-O-H
..
H-C-O-H
El^t
-gt
H H
754 163 g7t EB
^J
ffi
I
71.+¤t Gol+Eo_qE Eoil
==
ttll u.50ll_|.E7l¤ E.-4= oJEETl?
H-N -C-C-
I til o-H
^l
cooH= 4I9--E ++68 NHzts gTlE 4so 6E-9, olulh
I &g + tszI Lilql Bronsted-Lowry 4I-9215 E+ 7lxljl
H qq^.] 7l+d719 oJCZITI EzlCql ei fl4E dgg+.
0l'J7l )l=E7l
HO
H H
(g7td)
9zlr] 6d9 tsr gzlql aB+ Rql q-4 oluli.&9 =oF
(^td)
H-N- C-C -OH ;-
I ttl H-
I
N
-o
7144qq. ql= E.E zl-|r a+6J o}trl H
I I
H
=4ol4lGlycine)$
L&s-tr, Rol i+ flxlol4, g4u(danine)$ Rol c11rol OIAITL IIEI
o d/'l r=
H H +
H- N-
I I
H+ +:N -H --------> H
I I
H H
G. N. LewisE +*ql ql4q ilg_e_-tr, olfl +dq] +E_6lBr+. r= 4I4 EzlE
a"
* ^}-¤zl dg,J 49 zllqlal94.
dzl%Ig +deE
' Lewis t!(Lewis acid)$ dzlal Bzllol4.
' Lewis Ezl(Lewis base)t: dzltt ?zllol4.
16.11 | Lewis ltrl g7l 755
-+ Eq BF3i flxlz| AAql Hlq fl= sHlBg zlzla- 9o Ir e, NH:el BF3el {!-$ol g
q\l+ .r:., (s.7p). BF3i {zl-r6lt +7ll"J NH:91 4a}¤ dxl+} pzll(Lewis 4}).E 4}e"++.
H F HF
lr>l I
H-N: + B-F -------+ H-N-B-F
I
H F
tttr HF
Lewis Lewis
Grl
t
,...A?' J-'?'H-O-C
:-?'
,i ,A' ,A, "
O: H-O-C Q
-
" -------+
,A'
,! uzo9 dzl-t}g tsg + glzl g+. &-Hzl dlg Bc6J +"il +I+9 .Jd^I7I +=
olEa}q +tlol EiEqdq. ^i
^-E
[re(uro)u]'*4 ag +s[g oJolgg oJolgol
xllro.s¤91r.l tr9l=ol, :.H ro.rs9
Lewis t}eE, E +zl+ Lewis Ezl-tr z++6lq "JEqA+. E EzlTl "JdEl¤ q= ++
gol- H-o
zsl g:d¤
=-Efsl
El^l^l
^ll7l0ll
oJi -QOHq
=/\ln
lrt
++
Ttet
oL
rlllTtxl
ou-t- o-t= I't-e.-q
-oL
g0l80eq drl "JE
01501 a:stg elolEltrl.
gfol8ol H-o
o
e,6t1l 6l-n, #=lE=Et=e
Hzo
: H+= Lil5= + ?le
Ea -e.oH-q t,\lnl Elrl ( ,il
ullH+ rl &dol ¤4. ol E4= oJolgg d6I7I 44++ rl zlall4lQ. ol{e_e.3+ oJol
gol d6I7I zlg ololgB+ q ,J,tl &Cg ?*Y Ag ¤H"J + 914.
Lewis tI-H7l zl]'Jg ol +gql^-l El]g qel Lll+# + q ".r-H+lt ?*(zlB Eol ol
U +qlql^l 'JqLI: HI+ilH)qlE 4eoB + 9lrll 6il=+. .,?zl EleL r+Cg Ell+AI g+
H, EISE Tl4g +l6}q Lewis tlol gs6J qP +_s_6J ql= g + glg 4,o14. aJ EzI4
olg9 El++ dzl-1}4, +E E^I+ olgel Hl e_HlB {-E z}+e s}qq^"1 7l.t}
^tolel
+st ,l]H +E a}4olH, *_e.EE al+ ¤qBZl E lolrl.
tgt qHl
F .a"tl
o E
TIIL{
-llE
NaOH $e{o+ 486lfltl'. 23.3 mL9 NaOH Ee4ol F Sd^l'-EF= tll As!fl4E, HsPoa
:9-H
I
=al/.lTE
Ee4e] EE.E= gol?l7l'? (c)Sq E^il (b)ollll 48 del H3PO3 Ee4e.l pH= 1.59flt1'. Ks1)) Ka2tl 7E
6[l, H3PO3el oEa[ u4EE"lK.rE 7olrl9. (d)0.050 M HCI Eo-4ol AFgt= 0.050 M H3PO3 EsIr[ 8d4ee H|E6E, 0l
+E ¤E6l^le.
6}lS
E4l (a)ql^l: &e-e ++6IelE q¤ p+qt +a7l gs-f,4 +El (b)e+(c)9 BS ++El. (d)ql^li tF"Jg Hl.il.6fTl
*ql^l E]]g 1¤ ole"t4. +El%iE, pHe+ [H*]9 +Al.E flofl olgp+ EE.$*g.Tqg aolq.
(b) +s+ +*ql qq} +oI HI+^le q-s4 a+. H3POs(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Na2HPOs(aq) + 2H2O(l)
-
$]-oE$ CEE+Q M:moUL, mol=MxLol4
* ia.sB). trl+^l +Eql dzloJ NaosE g+=
q-s=+a+. (0.0233 L)(0.102mol/L) : 2.3S x 10-3molNaOH
(c) 899 pH = l.Se-ESq ¤¤q^l [H*]= +6J+. [H*] : antilog(-1.s9) : 10-1se : 0.026M (+a. iz] + ^]E)
K,r)) &zoleE ql+Eq olgg &E I Hr,ll ol
epl +Zlql^l "JEqd+.
H2Po3- olg 6J 7H7t "J=qe ul u*s 6I+4 "J
H3PO3(a4) :- H+(aq) + H2PO3@q)
sE "i 6s tq
Arrhenius +Et g7l(16.1tr)&4 Hzl ++"-4EdAg B^l S+ ol+.
tr*r+. ql= 4Ie q=Irl^E g+41, gTlb 4E"l^E ul+ Bronsted-Lowry t(Bronsted-Lowry acid)3 trIE
Eeql "Jd
=E zf= += SAol j1, Bronsted-Lowry E7l(Bronsted-Lowry base)
4l Hsl^Iil+. Arrheniust &C +a4el 44Zu*1aq)olg trllE
olq, gTld +.-qgl ceg oH (aq) ol+q Tl.Jtlg "J9Ir+. : 4= Eetr+El oJC^l¤ gol=ol= EAolEI. Eg gqg g.¤
rltl(amphiprotic) Ede., El*61-= EAq q+ Bronsted-Lowry
Bronsted-Lowry tl4
g7l(16.2tr) Bronsted-Lowry zllS$
4I E.= gTlE z++6J+.
Arrhenius TI]H.H-+ trl Eq 4+B + 9tE a otr, tlql^l oJ^JzI
(u")z} +e+ gTls olFq: ag rJ46l-fltri. 1-1+ ol$$ $zlzi Bronsted-Low.y tI9 rfSTl(conjugate base)E 4}q^l oJC^f7l
4zl3 zlzl ?*e ++6J "JC4tr, E E^Iql ,J6f4 AaJ+q. q- aoli1,
^{Zgolc^l7}
Bronsted-Lowry Szl$ Ett(conjugateacid)S E
ql++g il^l6l+ B4oJ Tlql a6J6J BE]lol+. tn+ raE 4g7l(EE szlp]:
+^l E+E H*= E+6J H+(aq)-E-4b
ag 4r-{})E stt!*slg7l 8(conjugate acid-base pair)olzp ;jc.1-.
aq)) o E -sB6l= a ol EE
+
slol-EEE olE(hydronium ion, H3O (
758 163 C g7t E-g
4*-4gzl xt9 &-¤zl ^Jlzl= ^lE g+qq 9l+. +^I *¤zlE NH3. olEJ(amine), s+&9 +olgE¤ E.J.J+. "+g
ol ,J6Ha+E r 4}g7l= E6llzlr., 4lol E6He++ r 4g 7171E+ !lg"6}q r gTlql ql+61:8141+ oH E.]l=Ell. r
7l= rJ6ll{tr}. E= 4}-g7l Hi*ql^l ¤¤9 9l^l= lrr-f zJ-aj g7l 5121 g(base-dissociation constant, fr)e 44{4.
^]l7lE
+ql^l B+ zSoJ $zltr "JCzlzt 0156l= B!6Je-s olEo*4. KaE Hl* B(aq) + H2o(/) -- HB* (aq) + oH-(aq)9 ¤B tl-+
ol+. olEll B: gTlE +EUrl.
Esl xlill 0l8Et(16.3tr)Eg 49 oJol 6llq6}q s*(aq)4 ou-
(aq)E ¤C't14. rldlolEi{autoionization)9 AEE Eq oleB K,il
Koel E4l(16.89 4IE
^l7le].
rAE 4g7lE ^ll7l= a*
1p;(ion-productconstant, K,: [H*][OH ]:1.0 x 10 14, 25'C) 49A K, x 1(r:K*tr +E}9 + 9lEl.
^lql^]
&4 Kai 4^l-4
e _*.^lt+. ol +41= ++{} Eol+ +._4ql^l E+ ^l-8:¤+. K. ol
9zl %}9 dlr_l c-+.1+. 49 4}e] ^ll7le+ rae.l 4g7lE ^{
trq E]4^l [H+]7] 4 7171^lE HI'il"J +4lE ¤B+r+.
^lg [H.]e+ [oH ]el Elol ^]+.Jg =+.
zlH [oH-]7] atoi+]4. &d +"Ig oH-(aq)-u4 H*(aq)E rJ g Es4el t-E7l ctr(16.9tr) gE "qde gE 44q oJolgr+
glol E$aln, ¤zlc *o_49 u*1a4)84 os (aq)3 4 Bol s
+olgE HI*^Jq e.l6I^J 44d4. olgol EI} BJ+6Iq pHql g
6J6JtrI. [H*]: [oH-]"J .11 +.lg +Colr+. 6Jg ++ A* zW Eafl(hydrolysis)ail a34. .Ja?-] ++r+
"JrJ
pH ,*(16.4tr) H* (oq)q
E!- pH.f, Jt^l6I7lE +4. pH - -log
Eo r,l tr++q olol.g4 cl , Br , r , No3 e+ ag ,JtE ¤-olg
[H"]. 2s"cql^l +^J 899 psE 7.0001+. 4]d 8q49 pHE 2 zli E6ll6}^l gttsE+. olasg t}-Bzl slqlq^J t4lq +a
7.00-H-EI l1]q, BzlC 899 pHE 7.008r| E olgolE|. Eg7l9 zl-^I.J "Jolgg 7L+ eolql EEI H*E ^J
=4. poH4 d6J+. Etg qlgzl"J gol¤e zl+ Edlq e.l6ll oH-= ^Jd6J
pK,e+ aol 49.Jql ql6lq gq log= +lSL L9 pxE -E^l6I
7lE'*+. 8'19 puE pH ulQE +C6Irl+ t}-$zl x1,'.1qt +. Fe3*eI Aol d6IzI ++ *olgg gql^l +Elqq 9+. +
o+ eg + 9l+. +4 ei}¤ E Ezl+ =4g-Es E+ Hlg"atq H:o*E RlEoe.
=*{}g &rdol4.
*ljl) rJE7l(16.5E) rltg
rlddHaolq, ++"Iq^] sd6l
olg+++. !-F rJ&ol+ 6J9 uct, HBr, HI, HNo3, HClo3, +!-E7l ZErlEl-qt +4(16.10tr) qE Eeol ++"qql^l tI^Jg
HClo4, H2So4E "J6JE}. ,J4IE a]¤zl= +^lts AEE gTlEE +4gzl, ¤zlCg L+48^lb pI+ ++++q .J + :14. +iCol
,*=+. q7l fl6l^J= H-x palol +dg 444ot +4. tl¤g s-x
"*ol ^l-.&q= tHTl= "JrJq ++rl +4g.JrJrl E+ =
d,*ol e+6J r1l, +. x-21 $C.J uI ,J6lltl+.
+q olgd +&n+Eol+.
eg +9 o gzl= .E.*oJ t!41!(oxyacid)oll.<15 64
oHTle+
Eu"t EETl(16.6tr, 16.7tr) E4Ie Ed6fleolq, +'-q +9 + 9uI9 dzl g^JE7l 4A++ t^Jol 411+. Ae +C flzl-E z*
+ .J+B"J olgF+61= CE=
4_= "lg++ Bql_e
=4+4. 4}^&ql^l= +c g4-ql a.J6J &^ g^IE +7l."*ole'i'E
g flf(acid-dissociation constant, K,)E S,r1a3q. IG= Hl+ =
51a1
&rJ.l zlt14. CooHzlE += rFfeL(carboxylicacid)g *zlt}
HA(aq) -- U+ (aq) + e- 6q) Eb . - HtO* (aq)
HA(aq) + H2O(I) ql^l TI1I fefl ffio1r1-. elBzl9 Hl¤48+¤ z.d6Jg ol ploJ
+e-(aq)9 ¤B tfol4. K,7l a&olE+. ag r-"Eql^] EE &Eq g63.9
,Jtg =++ ,*=+. E4I9 =E|.
&9 o|¤+ EsES(percent ionization)S
=
L"Eel &EPEI +aqel pHE f¤l + 9lEl. Lewis tlal g7l(16.11tr) Lewis9 .li-Ezl zl]Hg 'JCzlTI ol-U
E'[a a{P
-r tl O-l I 0l 8E -!+:d +ofl qalEe +=E:g + ?lol0}:drt
. Arrhenius &4 BzlE Cflo}n Tgqfe(r6.r¤). . "JdzI olE *+ql^lE B¤g +lil7f t E= gTlg ¤
^llTlql
+d g+E4l: 16.13,16.14 +qq ilE^l ¤E++(16.3e). +H ¤+E4l: 16.2s,16.26
. Bronsted-Lowry,tlrl Bzl "l 4t}-a]gzlE {elap 7g;j . Eg z}4l olgffi ¤H6Ir, [sro*]et [ou-121K,^a] Sdqq
EI(16.2e). +H g+ E4l: ld.l7, 16.18 9l=^l ¤B++(to.:¤). +E g+ +^\:16.27,16.28
. &9 . [u,o*] Ei [ou-]z] +qd +"lq puE 414Hi4(ro.+¤).
^jlzlelelgzl9 ^]zlE ¤+Ab4(ro.zd).
+H g+¤i4l: 16.23,16.24 +¤ ¤+ ¤i4l: 16.37, 16.38
E6 Er,ll 759
-=.o HFe- l
OI- r- O i
. K* : [H3O+]tOH-l : [H+][OH ] : 1.0 x 10 ra
[ro. ro] 2s.cql^l EE olg+++
. pH : -log[H*] ja.v) PHel a9
. pOH : -log[oH ] [ro. ral POHE AE
. pH + pOH : 14.00 je .zo) puelpou9 *41
tH,o*llA-l tH'ltA I
ja.zs)
r\d - !L r\a E4I HAE 416114 ^J+
LHAI [HA]
H'l ,,
. olgpl EEA : I
x l00o/o la.zz) 't4I9 olge+ Etsg
lr-[[
IBH+lioH l
r,
. k.
-
tBl
le .t+) E& Bel Ezl a14 tf
.KoxK6:K* Iro.ao] ai&-a*¤zl 6[ql^] 6fl?-l
^J.+e+ ¤zl dl4 t'-+9 +al
^]
' p&: -logK,, pKr: logK6 Iro.+r] p&$pra9 C9
-
oJf +41
tsOE Ets 7]ILJ
16.l (a) rl-S +*ql^l Brsnsted-Lowry,lF| ¤zlE *oJolr.lg. q++ sE5- e_e(& > l) 4lB6l+zl, g+_qE(& < l)
+ aqq+7|? je.zg)
*## HX HY
o =i'!
o (t
tu*:H !=N O:.,
ol H}+ql^] tewis 4lnl gTlE qoJ6},tle. [t6.2¤,
(b)
16.llel
-4, o
16.2 El-¤- r.Bg + .J"J^Jzl& ux(a:x E= y)el ++"lg +
e =i
o
4U aolq. zfi|al 44421 9l6}q E +^l= d+6i9+.
(a) Hxe| HY +ql^l qe aol q ,J+ &.J71? 16.3 trI+ F +Eq qlB s-{lzl ^l^lEg ?z}a}S.4. ^qql
(b) x-e+ Y- +ql4 q! aol trl ,Jd E7l"J7l? qg =4
+q. 4+ol +"J^l 7l1l.J^lE EJ6l^le_. [re.+¤]
(c)FgoJ r-oEe-l Hxe+ NavE 41fl9 EI ¤Bg q+r+ e (a) e S"I9 puE Sdol 7.oo-H-+ 44.
:a ,
1
i-
d
a .g.oH D .Q.OH 0
0 0.060 0.12 0.18
0
12,e8
2a n
c.f, E
:a ' "u==
t- (a) &i
+Eql E+6Irl ?*zl 4lE9l A-3ol 7I^J c+6IEt.
G) +q olg+ El{lE7} EoEq E=6}7l Szl 4lEoil ed
ol 7I+ A+6I+.
o + o* "otI
C #O
(a)olg $zlz| szlglzl?
0) q! $ulz| {lolz}!
ell ol $zlq! $zlolz|!
[ro.e¤, rc.74]
4l&6}^le_.
(c)io]{ col r4Eel
^l+dg cq6l Er+g+ 9li7}? A E^I B ETI C EII
Srll 761
=*
16.9 4lBollgfl(ptrenylephrine)$ cqHrsNoz9 Ez}4g '/*E + 16.14 q+ dE 6 *4 ?*e ae?
zl EltlEe, ilrlLd Hol +E6J + 9l=, ?ql zI+61+ + ¤zlLEgl,tl oH-.q r-oEE" +714?Jq.
(a) Arrhenius
o o
oc, o o (c) HCooH(aq) + Pof-(aq) .
(CH3)3NH+(44) + oH-(a4)
o o oo I
o oa oe
-
HCOO-(a4) + HPOn2-(aq)
p .Q.ofl
(a) HBrO(a4) + H2O(/) : H3O+(4q) + BrO-(aq)
A -QOH
n6-uo-Lo- /- Q.OH
(b) Hsof(a4) + HCo3 (a4) ;-
O *u* | r- ($ o*r- lt) ur So42'(aq) + Hzco3@q)
ro.rr rl-* rHql^l x= gsd flzlol4. [r0.ro3] (c) HSOi(aq) + H3O+(aq) : H2SO3(a4) + HrO(l)
(a) f $zloll,r.l x7l *z gzlzlE
"t! ael +dol q ,Jts rerg ("1oF]{! ol$(Hsor-)g "}+^J "}^JatCol+. J¤ *+
,l? Elq Els"^]g,i{.i^.], ol olgol Eql 46}q A}gE^J z}+6t
(b)x9 dzl gdETl +7IE++ 4 B^IE &E= +7}dt ar+, g7ltr^l 4+61+ ag trol^ls.
}7l, rJ|t;]p.7l? =
(b) HSo3 el 4+&g .+9..Jzl? f- zrgTlb +9..J71?
(c) [Al(HzO)r]3+ + HzO + [AI(H2O)sOH]2* + H3O+ 16.22 L++ EAol +4loJzl, EtI.J^1, +^l6J CEq &s.¤i zlzl
-'zlE EJ3.l^le. 4 A+q a-zlg7l= *t-. *Hzltl z*E
Arrhenius "J Bronsted - Lortrrv9 tEt E7 l(16.1tr, 16.2E) TloJzl, EgTloJzl, +^lg aEE eTlEE 7t^lEzl= EJ
16.13 NHrk)e* HCI(g)E HI+6Iq ol$^J lx.|l NH+Cl(s)E B 6f^19.
^J-J+.
ol H}*ql^l Bronsted-Lowry ,tI3 olr 4.JzI? (a) HCOOH (b) Hz (c) CH4 (d) HF (e) NHr*
Bronsted-Lowry ¤zlE qL a'J7I?
762 168 t-g7tE:d
q+ sql^l Hf4l o;5-g ill+r, $"lol &^d.Jzl, ¤zl^J.J (c) Mg(oHLE 3 +^l ?*71 EIEqI ,Jg7l7I ¤ + Htrl.
16.56 4Ele&g iEtr 59 4.J+ql Eq fl=,tlss, EE+g (a) 41ts9 HI*ql 4+ & 'rA^le.
nB Ceq6}+0l+. o.2so M qEtet*99 pHcI, 44 ^lg
qlEq zl¤21.il 46J KoE
(b) +61^le.
e{ ol$(CaH.ou'-)9 +EE +61^19. ,l} 611"-l tri= e (c) 9lE=* Etr+ ,J'* &oJ7l,
'+t t}9l7|?
16.39 0l+61-r., 4l4}q^l TIAol 9I"E tI61lE C+E ol+6}q
^F*6'J =^IBr+ 16.76 -s. 16.39 4lcg z11g
E}s-r+ rJol
¤E6I^le. olgg gzlrjol ,J6J aql^l "+* ag +^ls +gdl^le.
e+E7l(16.78) so42-, co32-, so32-, po43-
16.67 ofol E gdol-nJ(NHroH) ql ql ql^l
^J4oil -e_z}. retz Olo},r]lEtIg &E r.e x 16-5ola, s}olsgi4}E &E
ololg${of"JE 4^}g Fl"Jzt?
(a)
3.0 x l0-8ol+. qL aol q ,J-J,tl.Jzl?
(b) gTlE z++g q 610leqdo}trJg qE flulzf o]rjz[
(b) oI^JlE& ol$$ alolEsi& olg + qL aol q ,J6J
E H}ol¤olb7p E7l"J7l?
(c) ofolg${o}Elql=
"}cz}E Bol-E9 + fl=, a!}ql cHrcoo-el clo-E r(bE +6t^19.
(c)
4olzl 9*g F zll9 gzlT} 9lEI. Lewis *.44 ¤^l d6I
16.78 (a) "JEqol9 KaE t.s x 1s-sol7, alolE$:joful9 rrb
-: (8.s4)s ol+6}q gH flzlzf 4E flzls4 "Jt l.l x l0-8o14. qe aol q ,Jg719l7I?
e- tsolEolbzl ¤B6I^le_.
^IE (b) "JE.ts ol$$ alolE$¤ssts ole + ol- {o1 q z3-
15.6s 6}olsg4.& olg(clo-)g EgTlE ++6J+. ,tI.JzI?
(a) clo- ol$$ rlolE${o}"Jtr+ zffi $zl olz}, qh"J g
(c)NHn+eI H3NOH+E
&E +6I^19-.
7loJ7l?
..re 5-q D9 ^I.BE ol+4q +g +EEg toH-lel pHE +
(b) clo-7} gTlE zl+g r{. cte} o + qE gz}7} oJ^Jz}
6.I^19.
$zllz| rliz|!
(a) 0.l0 M NaBrO (b) 0.080 M NaHS
(c)¤4 d6l¤ ^l-8-+q O)q Bg ¤Hg + 9lE7t? g*E
(c) 0.10 M NaNo2 894 o.zo u ca(ttoJz +eqq
r1g- BzlEg +$Eq^lel HI8{4 Ka !g ,
(a) rlolq1 go1{((cHr)rt tH)
^le. 16.s0 ++ DE zlEE "l+4q El-+ +"-4EE toH-le} pH= +
-turr(b) +tI olg(co3r-) 6l^19.
16.86 El^19 ¤9 rs., NH4C], KCN, K2co3 f aluiolr|. ol $ (c)EFsfl¤ {zl $rJez} 7l* giolEtr, HF: .J
=
9 o.too M +Eg +sqol +Col+H, ol gg Ft'JzI? 44zl* rJ+ 4IolEI.
16.e2 Efgql +"141 ¤Eol "*Yzl E:el+zl Slalr., E?]E *rll r6.e7 q-gql +q44 *ql^l q! 101 rl d ++"-qg "JE
til^19_. zl$ {q;}.rle. ^Ic
(a) H-A +zI 4lgel 4Ie Ael a7l7l 44i= t}g (a) K*4 Cu2* (b) Fe2*9+ Fe3* (c) Al3+9I Ga3+
^ll7l
+7Etq. r6.e8 tri.gql +q44 *q^l q! aol q d t{ ++"-qg "JE
7l
(b) +d SzI9 dzl gdE= 4e^loJ Ag +=E ,*= &
E^l= ne^lg.
e +c flxl9 dzl gdETI ad++ a9 ,qlzlz| frr (a)ZnBr2 CdCl, (b)CuCl4Cu(NOJz
.JtrI.
(c) Ca(Nor)zel Nisrz
?l ?1+ +41
l6.ee El-g 4$ol "*Ezl, .=qxl qoJ6}^le. 16.r00 0.30099 Ca(oH)z(s) "l 1.40 M HNo3 s0.0 mLeI *ts
(a) EE Bronsted-Lowry t9 Lewis 4lol4. si "JE +E+E-gq]6}q "JE zs.o mr9 *9ol ?14.
(b) E.E Lewis t9 Bronsted-Lowry 4}ol4. E! aillzf +9I+H, 4+ +qq puE guf.Jz}?
(c)
"-I9zl9 44Ie rlgrlE 4,tlu4 trl {l &c *99 "J l6.l0l ^Jdgl ts^l]= gi}4e-trb olul rll$Qlrll, 561 ,lleo}"J
^Jdg ^lqlql H
Etr}. (curun;o1 flelol4. Eil 4E a4
(d)K* ol8g E+ +s+ HI¤¤ 6IE-E ++sqql^l &Col I ¤Eolirll, qleqE 5q 9iq. oL"Jg
^lEe4}ol
+. r+ HI*6lq .J^H7l $.= trI+ql 'J tds} ^I
^JCES ".lE7l
(e) "J& ++sqE olg+ E+gg &q t:ETI *ofdt=
^JdE "J*g "Jtzlzll t4. ++ DE
zlEE ole-o6}q
^l
bolal4. trs4}E,llE"I"J9 HI+q ql'J B¤ ^J+= +6}^le. ol
+pI HI*ql^lE a H4l +4"J(&,) zl{aJQr r}C6Jtr}.
766 163 t!-g7lgE
IQz:2.5 x t0-6o14.
HzN COOH (a) dH4l "ll4qlol elulz| llQL zf{a}r., 25.cql^l
0.32 M 4,tl4}+qel pHE falrle.
(d) rNr(e4ol+ol=EE+q1) (b) (a)9 ,ll&ql^l Suc2-9 +!-"EE +6}^ls.
(c) 9* ¤4zI (b)el a+ql 9at{ ¤ErlEz}?
(a)oll.!
orN (d)NaHSuc g ++qqg &^J, 6^J, ¤zlt 6 qL
^de
g EolETp
HH
NO,
(e) w-ull¤ul4eb
H
l6.l0e +q-a4}(buryric acid)e tslElE B3]|+.J^ll¤ Lllb CE
oltrl. +E] E,tI9 p&E 4.8401+.
N*'
(a) B4 E4I olg9 pKaE +6i^le.
I
+qe4l *99 pu= 9"I?lzl?
(b) 0.0s0 M
[16.104]z.so99 t]E] 4¤'(Liro)o-s 1.s00 Lq ++"-49 "J5fl (c) 0.0s0 M +q etl4E +'lE pHE Zl4}alrle.
I4lps¤ ZltI6I^le. r6.n0 Elg slEtEe 0.10 M +.-qg "J¤99 rll &s7l +ztol
l6.l0s HIaII(c6HscooH)r+ oiBfl(cuurNHrg E+ Hl4l il : +^lE uiga|.rle(pH ,Ji +).
+ill"l+. Hla4}g Ko:6.3 x ro-soJ t}"ln, olHflg (i) NH4No3 (iil NaNo: (iiil cH3cooNH4
Ku:4.3 x lo-rooJ gzlol4. (iv) Nar (v)cu:cooNa
16.111 0.2s ME NaA ¤ *93 pu :e.2eol4.4l HAE & A
H I EuloJzI?
16. I l9 4zl9 cozi r+Z 40H ,tlololl 320 ppmql^J 400 ppmo + +* E+ gg t}Stzl? ol AEg E+silq+^&
9 2oo/o zl7lol rtzlalflrJ. + g4lE ^-llzl zlole+ qtr +4lzl9liz}?
(a) eEts +*6l]
^J4ql^l
qrl= HIE pHi s.4olQ. +o 16.124 ?zloJg .ftl #zl gTlola, gx}^lg CrTH2rNO4olEl.
LJ d ++6lj tLql.J BIE pHE? cozq Eol E]+4q
qtr nT}ql ++slq pHTI8.s3oln, ls.cql^l +F"Jol
E4i(HrCO3)g I'JEE Hlgo
I'J pU9l ¤t"rg +q1L 7l 52.7 torrfl4. ?71-oJE KeE +6l.^19.
4+4.
U6.l2sl o1ol9Q,t} ol$(iodate ion, ror-)¤ op]{$(sulfite)Ql
CO2(g) + H2O(/) i- H2COs(aq)
E6ll trl..S4 Aol +fl¤+.
o)stsBq {E zo.o Lql Eq flE co,g] 9u13 IQ r-(aq) + 35o42-(aq)
@Q + 3 S}3z-(aq)
2s'C, 1.0 atmgl^l g"IQ_lzI?
-
"l +-&E +E= ro3-ql ql6}q g^L ql6|q
So'2-91 .J
16-120 gE EE olg# t+ k:s.48 x r0 "o14.
s0"cql^J
i1, n*91 r.ll6}q "Jal"Jg.Jqt+.
(a) so'cql^l ++6J EE pnE guloJzl?
(a) ol Hl+E +E Hzlg rA^le.
o)gEql rlE r,9 HE+= iLEJ6lq, EE zl4l olgsl
4 tuzl o}+oJ^l, sf"Jzl, olqB 0tzl ql+6}^le.
(b) pHzl s.ooql^l 3.s0 o s *oltrlH, HI+ +EE H6I
zHzo(l) : H3O+(a4) + OH-(aq)
,ll 6l+ oJxl-b *qoJzp *e pH9lrl ol +¤e BrI
^l=7f.
*q^lE7I?
t6.t2l "*g E}+ql^l Alcl3E: Bzlalfl9 trll= H*E Bzla}99
qle+ Er+rI a+.
(c) rJlta.od9l,t'l 4S 4¤¤ ol+6}q. dill EI+^lql H*
ol Lfel 9l^l ?*gqlE ol Hl*ol 9$zll pu9 ¤'J9
(a)sE 9zlzl-Bal d6l-= ,*zl g*Eq 4q Arcl3el
ts=^l d$6t^ls.
Lewis +EE rE]^19. VSEPR HJBgtr +aE ¤C
16.126 (a) P* DE 6llr.l t+= ol+6|q 49 4 HI-3e1 ¤B tl
6I^lg.
(b) (a)oll,tJ AA6J +4 6 q¤ 3o1 elcl:9 ol6ll +E +6h^le-.
6l+ Ell E-sg +=7p ^ICg
768 16t
^t-97t8:d
(i) HCo3 (a4) + OH (aq) Co3z-(aq) + H2O(/) qBol g4 tI4E ElEola + sg ul, +"J pl¤s
=-
CO32-(aq): NH3(a4) + HCO3 (a4)
(ii) NHa+(a4) + E ^l-.soJ+. ol *E4E "J+H, +lel qtr BBql +
(b)+ul= Bti ¤Bol aHI+ +qtr E*ol il+il7l+(I( g gH-EE + 9lb7l?
^l-&g
zI tts4,ll+ oll), ,llaElq
= ^8CE.l HI+4q^l
I
/
#* --
tril
¤*-
xcP -*
b tg t
$ akr# {*E
E4r .(If
e :tE
ff
-=ai #
--t-
sF,3ff
+-
ii;-=3 t- *"
5t
IJ L
F*
I
r;t
\ 'l
*oi 't
*
i
17.1 > 85 018 Ert +F ol$ a$zlr. I
441 re chatelier g4e] 5E+ qE
. gqeE^l ^l+oJ+.
17.2 > S= EE S+ +.-q9 4Cg tqtr
n, Ae}el ,J4I"l+ z!$zl$ fizlz;)
ar\
T o-I .e.oH JII
o
-l -(D o E, l- h-r- ,ll, s+ *olol pH Hclql qBal
6J6l+^lE HHg+. ^l
EJ I{
EI
-
17.3 > t!-g7l 48 4}-g7l 4C9 xl,tlltJ
4+g ++q, +l-Bzl 44 6 5C
puE TalE %tBg .JoI
^ldql^lE
84.
17.4 > E"-llE gE +4E+ {-+=
Eg I l+80llll 7 l+l !tE4o rr, 7 fB ¤ie-d E,rrE, r so I E ^}¤-q-q
\++^d gol Eql qL CE +:^lE
+-g E'J olLlal qal 7l^l EtrE +01= tsal q=q 6e-d +liloil 9l +61-= Bg Ellg+.
q. ttEn= =+El qlolrl'. #trjE=
El+ rtEoil rl1-d Etaalr.
6l=
^80il^1E9
EEoll el6t| U=olfir, r'I=3 =:3
'JE-d
EJtl +A q=4o + ol+q 17.5 > E6}|E0ll E:BF$+ts oJxt Er+e+
^tg F
a" olg c.4=. sB6Iq ^lE
+6l]Eq g
firl. qel=t]E= sazl E5qo] EJt Ploil u 6J¤ Elil.= oJzlf$ e^Idl gq.
^lrJol ^1,-J011
Eg+oll
=#tsHalol=alEollll
rallolE ^4E E
E+. 0lalEl +6e.1371= 0l 89 ?]ts
ol= a^lH 4rll-g + 9lrl. 17.6 > 0l8ol tsErlEal ¤-6llEE ;|ol$ ol
+6Iq olgg qg4 dq4-s.e ed
^\rJ
+ ?lizl= Eie+.
54ls= +"Ig '[+ olg(car")r+ B& olg(cof ) "tr rEg e.] 17.7 fl40t8¤ E{ +6ilE9 g4e+
g4g"J=+. ql"JE q+Eql co32 L.ETI4sslqq gl4=^l =+
+Ep+ BBE fl4= ol+6}q +'-4 +
dol ol rldql E+ol 94. 4zl9l co27lfztal$ Etazl E= E "Jolgg qBr]l CC4ee +.J6I
6l+ Eel qlq}g sEJ-s_-+ "JE *=lz\ ll4. 4zl *4 corzl <]l ¤B.Jrf.
=zlE
6lE ql.Jql +6llqb cozg olE +7l.*r+. olag ql.JE pHE * m
+a-, co32 I *EE ,JA^lrJ+. :L 44, E4IEel trI= +'q+ 6ll
oJ
^JEol
r=q qg4g +z16l+ a.l qBrll 94. zflrsar9 s
HI+q^l= ql"J {I^JEle] A+= +9 rf,Al ¤Elg 4o14.
&sa +dE zlzzl q= c1+g olallalzl +16ll^1= ++'-q ¤B
9 {H$ ol6ll6llol oJEl. ol Alql^J= *d &-Ezl ¤BE +8¤
rJ $fl!-r, rqqt +d-6J +.-49 olallalzl +l+ gA+g qqg
4o14. olae +"J +eol +ol 9l= a++ olq4, ¤4 *dol s
d.g +.-qg ]EJ6l] Ezl flall.rlol4. :4¤-, +a4q ErJ += g+
I ¤84. ++ ]¤g ^J{6}: 849 ++.1 ¤Eg qt}6ll^l d
Htr 1o14. .]++E 4*, ol tlql^Jq Eele} 4l&e rszlr+ r6t}
9 SzJol4.
771
1 7 1
rtE
oo o 9-
t- tral
4lr01tql,! E&r+ eIEzlE EE.61+ +"-q + olgE B¤ +-EE ¤rltrgl+. olzll= ot^Jl
E4I(cH3CoOH)r+ Ag E{}r+ ol.,$lEt: 4E:(cH3cooNa)4 t2 t 4}e-l +6flC gg
Eel6I= +"_qg aq6ll -trzl olE +Eg E+ +F ol$(common ion)oJ cH3coo-= -jr
B++. qer^J Le Chdtelier g?-lel +dg zlz\t- ol .trffi Aqtr= {ol -gela}r} re
1rs.zd).
o[,\1]c.& olg AB e[a]golEg zJd"lldol4 re (4.1¤). AEzis.E.
iEg z]-&C
cH3cooNa= ++..4q^l $d6l 6I?-l6Iq Na* olsrl cH3coo- ols-g
^Jc.Jrt.
CH3COONa(aQ) Na+(44) + CH3COO-(a4)
rq El6lq otrllEt}S -
ojf-{fuJ olg+6}=
¤¤ tr-qlql^l Edqleol+.
CH3CooH(aS) .- H*(aq) + CH.COO-(a4) [17.U
al tz. 2s'Cql^l I(, : 1.8 x to-sol4(E 16.2). o[,$le& ++"-qql oP.]l-E&
t9 BB tI+=
dzlalE, cH3cooNaq^J +g cH3coo--tr "J6ll B¤ LoEE g+ss ol$;|E
^.E¤
E-H+(aq)4 *u.THII;s)
: H*(aq)+ cH3coo-(a4)
cHlcoo-Ei E7t6tE lH l=
zJ+xl/ EEol0lE-.Jrl.
trI^l "J5t8, ot^jlE4} olgg dztalB ot^llE4l9 olgcl: Ai6J4. olag B= ole Ert
(commom ion efiect)4r 6J+.
EA4eq +F olgg sE}6tr. 9l= zla4eol +.1 4q ,Jol qg q= eld4e
ol gs qg qtr+ olSclz| a^+q.
S¤ ^J+ xlill= H6lzl 9+=+. ¤B^lq il= tr-ql4e ^JCEI+ Hi¤¤E tlq4.J tE
{t"J E6}r]l g+.
qHl 17.1
+t ol*ol -{"EJs{q glb A+q pH 4lt
0l^llEt 0.30 mor.zl 0l^llE^l 4E 0.30 motE 1{r ts71-6|.q 1.0 L7[ EIE= trJE E%ol pHts grl?]71-?
=¤ =Edl
Ttlff
E4 +E olgt
cH3coo-= s+61-= EdqleoJ o}^llE E E= EzlE.E aEl6t4.
4I(CH3CooH)r+ rldd e ?l oi^,ll E+ iE (CH3CO oNa) * (2) H*E +gol qr, 44^l pHE ae6}7ll q5 6erJ ¤
99 pnE +61+ Exllol4. ¤ Ei*g q.J6I+.
Ilel +a sqi+$.ILoJal+ 899 puE +6llot 6t= qq (3) ¤Bql +q6l+ 4 Elu++E azl r-oEeI *¤ r-"E= 4l
6J +xll4E, Elg.+ ae gEg br]4 +4ql IrI4 {86} 41614.
aol sagol s+. (4) [H*]e]pu= 4lta]zl 96]q ¤B t]+^lg g.s"6[4.
=
(r) +"1 ++71q=slq}+gq"J6l-4. r?-l-ar5e]
^IC
772
rz.r I 35 olP 6z1 773
.: H+lIcH3coo-]
B¤ ^J+^lg 4*4,Jol + + 9l+
f
olzll K, = 1.8 x lo-s
lciltooHj_
2s'cql^l cH3cooHq "l]el ,^J.+= s. 16.2e+ ++ o9l ?14.
CHrCooNaE Ezlolls ol ^J+ Alg H6izl ?*=4. ¤B t+ : ": r(0.30 + x)
x
^-lql
EE ¤e bE= ql"J6}H trlg-r+ A+. Ko 1.8 10-s
irr, _,
x.zl $9v-tr- rE CHgCooHeI CH3Coo-g E4 tE(0.30
Mql El6ll 44.2 zfCt+. u|+^J 0.30 Mql Bldl otf 43 x .: x(0.30)
E +^lg f 9lo oe +¤¤ e=q.
Kr: 1.8 x 10-s
ir-
x9 ?4 <lg dzlle o.aoql uloll z}l., o1--- ErllE ,Jt6l4
qI= $Bdl+= 49 9'1t4. x : 1.8 x lO-sM: [H+]
=^IHol
ulxlu-|etr H*(aq)9 S¤ EoEtrPel pHE 4l&6JE|. pH : -1og(1.8 x t0 s; : 4.74
ql4l17.2
+g olgol -s.E'Js.lq g* ?+e.l olfl g-E 4lt
0.20 A/t HFet0.10 At HCt= s:-.6l= E-qq 018 SE.elpHE Zl+16l^19.
=+9.al+
Etlff
E{ Et}.J HClg E6J5l+ 8"-!9 r- olg t
HFe+ rJ&oJ 4q qlxll 17.1q]^l -E_"J 4+41 r+ag +^l gs"oJ+
Ee| pHE zlt}6l+ Exllol+. ol a+ H+21;5 olgol+.
774 173 +Eo-q g:dE += rJE
^l ^Ja
tr-lE EE4. El+^l +s"J *¤e +++ eEI. HF(a4) ;- H+(aq) + F-(aq)
+et d4lE +d olg EoEE EF HCI-E+q ^Ja aql + b) a.$ M (b) 0.0800 M (c)z.txto 3
M
916}?+. HF= Hliilzl +^l6J 4Eel ¤.Jg (d) 3.6s x l0-3 M (e) 1.73 xto 4 M
=EI.
> .H.= qlr{|1 > E=qH2
0.100 M qtrt} +s!(CH3CH(oH)CooH, pK,:3.86)r+ 0.050 M +4}(HCooH, Ko: r.8 x 10-4)r+ 0.100 M
0.08M Hclel gt'J-gq + +tr& ole-el :-"E5 4lt}6i^le-. HNo3E gE. +E + +4I olg +Eel puE 4l4latrls.
a NH+Cl(aq)rl NHs(aq)zt e:Er'ElE, tl-g7l EI+ol golLl'ts E"4 +el qE olSol +eE
I oLgot s;l=)l? oltr BE HJBoI toH-lel.r Eo4el pHE ZdolEzl?
"+* 4l&-4}¤zl aJg Egr-d+ = *'E(10-3 M ol^J)g +"-qg EJg ,J4lol+ zlgzl*
dzt6J trllg a4^fl pH Hs+ql xl6J6J+. olBl6J +"_qg eJE E4(butrer sotution E= A
Elal buffer4]l 6J)ol+r..J+. ql= cEg * pH7.atr_ #zl9= +}.6 +E
=q ^I+lE
1i.2 E6 E'-4 775
n, : tllllfl F7.41
IHA]
ol 49 lH*lql ql6H EE
[H*] : o,,++
[A]
t17.sl
776 173 +8.-4 E:del rl= BE
6sl HISg tHal= +L^l7la-, tA-lE rtzl\t1q. rel+ s+ +.-4 + HAe+ A-E
ol
"Jol e7[g oH el
oJq Hl6l]
"*str tHAl/tA-l EI= uzl E6tzl 9*=r+. q+^l pH H4
714Ll.
H* ol89 ?zleltr, $+ +'-4el Bzl CE4 Hlq"d+.
+ A-(aq) uA(aq) tt7.7)
X:gr) -
ol HI¤+ H30*= ++B +E 9l+.
^l-&6}q
H3O+(aq) + n*(aq) nA@q) + H2O(l)
qL Hi+4g,tf$alQrls. te-l= Aa6[r.,- tHA]= +7ti'Jtrt. tHAl/tA-l ul9 HE]z[ z]
zluJ a|fl pH Eel-L 4[r]l g+.
azJ fl.2+ a3 r-"EE g+s_fl+ +4&(HF)r+ olg(F-x+t)o e ol+gd
=+sfle+
HA/A- $+ +eqg +qU 4o14. oH-= dzlalB [Hp]z] ,J46]r., [F-]z] +7[6J+.
HlEql H*E e7l6IE [F-]7] z]46[.7, [ur]z]
6z]t4.
q+ "te rltol+ z*$zl$ g++"lg Hq¤ + 91tr1. ol tel A++ql^J
^l-&6IE
4"J ql¤¤ Q z|,tllol gqg 4.o14.
LaA 17.2 g= AtA HF/F eJA E-49 puts tirl g7l= E7[d|'tialE 219 E"=lxl *EtErL
tz.z I Se 8o-4 777
qH 17.3
t+ t'{E pH 4t
0.12 M q-Ed{CH3CH(OH)COOH IE= HC3HsOsll[O.tO n4 q4 AE(CH3CH(OH)COONa lEE NaCsHsO3)E sEt6lts eJE
Eo-4e] pHE Zlt!6l^19(trJ, +Etel Ka:1.4x to-40;r9.
6Ht
.84 qE&(HC3HsO3)r+ t4gzl qElI olg(CrHrOr-)9 99 fz| q= PI++g HC3H5O3, Na+, CrHros-o]4.
Eqld-= $+ +"+9 pHE Zl&ol-b Exllol+. Nan ol$9 +aE olgolq. HC3H5O3/C3H5O3-E 41I_
rflq +C 17.l¤ql ¤B+ %Ltsg pHE ?C6J4. 4Ezl A}"l [H*], + pu= EC6J4. [H*]= +E&q & 6ll
^l-S6rq r,l BBg g+6}q +6J + 9l+.
HC3H5O3= Ed4aol.I., NaC:HsOrE rJd4eolEe, +
CH3CH(oH)CooH(a4) .- H+(aq) + CH3CH(oH)Coo-(aq)
Eot ol ¤¤ql +q+ aF++E a7l r-oEe+
pt(M) o.l2 0 0.10
¤¤ tE= tri.gr} e+.
EEt(M) -x +x +.x
$+ +"1 'I9 4I C++ at¤zl CE9 tlql4 r-"Eql (e) Ezl cBg r-oE= {i ¤BE tEql El6ll 2.3HH r4.
=
+4q +ig 94 ?tsz|? > H= qlril2
(a) CE9 :-" E= 0ol+.
4I o.t2M Hl4+4 o.2oM HIa^} lE oe ol+qd $e+
(b) g7l d+E r-"E= 0o14.
99 psE 4l+a}^le(++ D +6).
qFil
F 17.4
Henderson-Hasselbalch 4lol ¤qlq gxl ?Jg qE pH 4lt
ttdl^le.
(a)Henderson-Hasselbalch 0lE6tq Z|t!, (b)g0ll tllEt 7l.8 B.0l Zlt(olil'J8^.lE -Brg elol)(E, CH3COOH9
^l= ^tE6H0[
K,= 1.8ox1o-5olrl.)
E^l
EUI
lcd zl I
(i) Henderson-Hasselbalch pH: p& + rosftf
^]9
+9 & <l(t.sox to-s)¤ oJ:z 9o og, p&(p&:
-tosKo:4.74)='J + 9l+. E.+ e7lfl of.$lE4I
dEr+ &.J o|,<ll-E&9 a7l bE= oJa gla, o1
<iSg *l¤ E.EE 714*4.
trI{^l ol$ (1.00 x l0 {)
CE6ll-HE. oH:4.74 llos-
r" --'(l'oo
x 10 3)
: 4.74 - t.OO - 3.74
(ii) olz'llL 7td S.ol 4l&g tri^l +q6J 1o14. ¤¤ CH3COOH (a4) i- CH.COO (a4) + U+ 1aq)
IcH3coo-][H+] :KO
IcH3cooH]
(1.ooxto-a+x;1r;
: 1.8 x 10-s
(1.ooxlo3-x)
17.2 | eJ= Eo-4 779
x: -1'18x19-+1@ 2(r)
-1.18 x ro-n + Vsit ar lo{
2
: 8.76 x tO-s = [H*]
pH : 4.06
+g ql4l r7.3ql^.1= olil %IC4g E6I Zl&+ pHei, azl > !a= qF{ 1
*Ee+ BB L"E7l zl+izlzJo tr rJ+61-ll al,l}* <lol ^-l s+ +._qol o[,r]le.& 4E(cn,cooNa)4 o[,r.]lE4]
-q .Jzl6I9+. ol a+q= 44}-el¤zl ,it9 EoETt KoAkE (cH3cooH)otr "JEqA+1*, o[^]1tr&9 &= r.eo,
+ a uH o1* ilzl qlEql Tlaol *aa1qq-. oIzlEJ olH ql t0 sol+). ol S+ *99 pu} 3.e8ol+. ¤E ^J49 "l
zltl-4gzl9 bETI &-E_+ t0-l00HH r7l qlE }.Erl o}^]lE4I9 bEHl= 9"toJzt?
^llql^l: ^lltr4}
4r,, xtl a7l l-oEql Hl6Iq ++61 z}4a 21443 f fl4(ol (a)-0.760 (b) 0.174 (c) 0.840 @) s.7s (e) 99 Talzl
+= BE, azl tEel ¤q tE7[,J4r z]Cts + fl+ ql= +q4l C-H-7].+E6lzl ?t4.
=
Etrlol+). ol ql4lE 7I+ c+.J B9 r9l ql6J 7la sol > .H.= qlr.il 2
=
?oltl pH : A+zl9E Henderson-Hasselbalch
4.0601+. aTlql 6.s0 M Naoclg E
xto-4 M Hoclr+ 7.50 x l0-4
4e "+6J 4l(E= ¤zl)9 z71EE7l &(E= KrB+ ztg g.d $+ +E9 BB tlEilE al+ puE Zl4}of^ls(+,
qlql: AqETI Eqdqa g + 9l+. Hoclg & atg 3.ox lo-solEl).
^tE
qlzll 17.3q1^.1 +F +gE pHE 4l&61fl4. :44 ++ Hiql HJ6J9 zlEE gs-tr B
1o14. +C pu5 921 +16ll &4: zlEzl9 .&g 41416l+ 4*o14. ol 4&g qlrll
=
17.sql ++4fi,+.
qH 17.s
tt+ 8.{ tJETl
0.10 M NHe 2.0 Loll NHaCr H E7l-dtE pH 9.009 sJ= E"-48'JE + ?1ts71.?(.J, NH4C|ol ts7IE Ee4el +El7l EAl6f^l
=¤
Lr=rE 7t8-drt.)
rfls
E{ pu 89¤. "JEzl glal] get NH4*E o}g +6} EBll+q4lq.
=4
Eallol+. NH3(a4) + HzO(/) r- NHr+(a4) + OH-(aq)
=
+E ++71q=3I}4+gNH4+, Cl*, NH3ol+. ol5
4lEl I(r: [NHr*][oH-l
- - -lNH3- : 1.8 x 10 r
+ cl- olgg *z+ol4(olag rJ&E {$zlolQ). u}z},rl
ol qlElg 4d3 [NH+*]= 4l,|!6]zl glifl ra
NH4+/NH3e_l 4&-4971 *Jol $+ *99 pHE a4+q. ^lg ^l-*61+
^Iolq ¤¤ +41=
NHa*4 NH3 NH3el Szl 6l]?-l EI*ql 4.o14.
[oH-] :1.0x10-sM
K6tl r.Nl zln. uHn*z| +si ol$9E ¤Z]]6IE-E NH3E
B¤ t.E= a7l r-o EeI o E e+.
[NH.1 :6.16'
=84
INH"I
[NHn*]= +6]71 fl6ll Ku 49
^l-sooJ4. [NH/] : Krffi = (1.8 x
(0.10)
: 0.18M
(1.0 x 10-s)
780 173 +Eo-I E:dE Ll= r+E
¤+6llHrJ xlloJ6J+.
> E= qlrll2
pH a.00oJ *99 ".h==lz}6J ull, o.zou Hl=d(qH5cooH)
*q491 ¤zllol-L da4} rEE r-o E= 4l.tl6t^ls.
t+ t%Fal pH H+l
$|6 +"-qel + 7l^1+sq} ECg +16 +=*4 pH Hglo14. t!= AEJ(buffer capacity)
e *F +EE pHzl- flzial Hpl6lTl 47lzl4 ¤F +.lg +plg + 9l= tlol4 ¤zl
9 oJol+. ol g+ +ed'e +}¤= +._qg "JE trll ^l^soJ tI4 Ezl9 "Jq E=drI. qlE E
"l r u CH3CooHe+ 1 M CH3CooNa gajg l L +q pHb 0.1 M CH3CooHeI 0.1 M
CHaCooNa gqlE 1 L +9 pHel ?4E ag l7.s-++El "J + 91trI. rBl+ a Ball
^l
*a4E +F +%Iol q =q. q '*g cH3cooHe} cH3coo-E Egralzl "llE"l4.
S+ +Eq pH Hgl(pn range)i-r $+ 8.-4ol g.44 oE 4e"B + 9l= pu HflE
"J.J+. ¤15t +Eg E&r+ :z qr¤zlg bETr 4E +3 Eil qL B"6Je_+.= pu Eolgl zI
1r En+zl oE zl6J6J+. u.eql^l E4I4 : qi¤zl9 *E7l Ag ql pH:p&"JS "J
^l
gl4. ol +AlE $+ +.-4el +14 puE +4Utr1 tr|+^J S+ +sqq tI ¤4zl 7*i pK,
&ol gd-= pH4l zl*E+ S+ +"-qg dq+q. d4s $+ +"iE * Ce $Ez| Q-q
CEr+ t0Hll olt}zlolTl. t+E ¤le bqg H+ A Sril gtl.. logl0:1olE-e, $+ +Eg
pK, Ael tl qql^l 4E+ H+lE ,*+q(= pH:pK, t 1).
^l^+
0l pH =7.0 E= Eo-4oe ,\18617101l t1 4BEPI? S= E4E trJE= tll =J9-.J tl= EEg +
1?l7l'?
tt E7l
I
A- (aq) + H+ (aq) ----) HA(aq)
'7J%)l d)t
I
HA(aq) + OH-(aq)---->A-(aq) + H2O(l) I
7l(J4llL ql= .Q.oHOl
ol^l 2\lqf,L Hlgelr!
;16Elerl EB Xltl
4ttl
ol a+q tuelE rJa6}J tA-l= +rI.J+(^l 17.6 +z). olelfl ^J+g rH r7.2
=rf.
q,qE6lfl4.
,JAIol+ ztgzl= dzlB ql ¤I,e +.-I9 pH Aol qBal ,Jg""l=71-= 41416l-= ag =
eJ f.3ql 4^16} rJBg tr|=trt.
r. ,il-g7l +3rl-HI¤¤ nq6t-r., tHAle+ tA-lq Elil= ¤6&9 AA'J{. ol +rll= +
4l Hl¤¤ +qqfE4 4l&(limiting reactant stoichometry calculation)olr|.-n:' (3 6d.
3.7 4).
2. [H*]= ,114]6]71 +laH &e+ Zl4]g [HA], [A ]9 ftg ^l-Se+. ol ,JHe SB 4l
&(equilibrium calculatio")o14, Henderson-Hasselbalch ol+ drll +
^lg ^|S6Iq
B + g+(E&-gzl gg Lo E7I &E K,ql Hldl ,l]+ trll).
=
hN qH 17.6
/7 t+ t'4E PH Hriizlt
0.300 mol cH3cooHe|" 0.300 mol cH3cooNaE ts71.6|.q 1.00 L7l EIE= E_+ Fa gt= Ee4E uEfl+. E= E"-4el
pH =4.7401r(qFll 17.1). (a)4.0M NaoH(aq) Eo-{ s.o mLE tszl'-et F 0l Eo49 pHE Zltlottlq O) HIE= 9l6tot, ++-d E 1.000 L
oll4.o M NaoH(aq) E"-4 s.o mLE tszl-d + Es4el pHE Zltbl,tl9..
E0l
(a) Eltffi54 4l&: NaoH"ll^l 49 oH-zI cH,cooH
(e+ *Ee] E4I d$e+ .$d6l HI+*4. Fvlzt
H6lzl qlEql Hi*ErI ^JCEol 9"t4 ^JdqE
782 173 +3"-4 "J-dE Ll= rJE
,I= ++ql e3 b
tl+6}41 4lt}6llot 6JtrI. CH3CooH(a4) + OH (aq) HzO(/) + CH3COO (a4)
EE !+ +E= +btrI. olag +p+ Hl+e Ei8 E(mol) 0.300 0.020
- 0.300
-tr, cH3cooHe+cH3coo-+44 0.300 mol EeHzr4l
0.020 o.o20 +0.020
ol4. dzlB ¤zl9 oJ9 o.oos L x 4.0 mol/ UBEXmol)
Hl8 F(mol) 0.280 0 0.320
L:0.020 molol4. 0.020 mol OH 6+^l
7l= ql= 0.020 mol9 cH3cooHTi =
9s-a14.
¤4498 CH3COOHE "J3 o.ozo mot #A
t+. r4n cH3coo-e.l +p+tr d¤q=.J
3 o.ozo mol f;zfaJr|. oH-9 HI* ?4s,,.1.
S+ +aqgl E+ CE# EsE 4C6IE trI
*4 Aq.
S¤ 4l&: olzfl| gi 8._I9 pHE +6}al ¤
o},rllE&9 olgslql q6J ¤Bg gqEz}. CH3COOH(a4) ;- H+(aq) + CH3COO (dq)
4.0MNaOH(aq) 4.0MNaOH(a4)
5.0 mL tszl 50mLBzt
+
0.300 M cH3cooH
0.300
1.000
M cH3coo-
L s= EE
pH
4.74
pH
4.80
1.000 L H2o pH
7.O0
,+ pH
"12.30
+9 zlg o"t$ NaoHE fizlolQels. EE pH= r4l EoJ 4 *=4. (d) r6+tiol+ g7l
EI¤:6I+ Etlr+= Hlg"6l-zl
+. HlEql NaoHz| Ez}9flg uil $+ 899 pHi:aJ $+ 8'-491 Ezf4E ¤F 899 p& EE pKab Hsl
f.4ql ++U a^lfl ,l]+ a+ H6J+. =
4. 1e;2341o1* 9zlE ¤}6 +aqq e7ftr trIE al4}e 6
> !r8 ql8l1 + Els"n+ B"3zlltr+El EaE oJg 4l4I6HoF 6J+.
ol= + qL aol dd.Jz}? (a) g.# +.lg ,J4Iol+ g > .E= qF{|2
zlg frzlallE pH: A.z H6Izl ?+=+. (b) S+ +qql qlxll tz.0oll E"J (a) +l+ +.+q 0.020 mol9 HCtg 7I
,J{Iol+ Szl$ flzla|{ pHE 414}6}71 +l6ll^J= t{ 6}flg trllE pHE Talrl-c-. (b) ffio3 E r.ooo Lql HCI
Henderson-Hasselbalch 996l+. (c) zj$zli zj4! 0.020 mot9 dzla}Hg oll9 puE 4l4}6t^le.
^lol
17.2 I gr= 804 793
t+ ¤_q{-e_-a^1E eJn4
H*(aq) + HCQ @fl : H2CO3@q) ol s"J=g azlql^l ozE *¤rlrJ .g"J olq4, pHE rJr
: CO2(5) U7.101
H2O(/) +
dE+E +71-= zHdl q Be 02= :=-6}r, cozE
ol ¤¤4ql= +-E_aJ aSol 914. a4l, +&ol ololCzl ^lrJ
zlla*q. ¤¤ ol54 pH Helzl. ol+41 aj/6}zl flaqxl
&.JqlE ¤+6ta, ol alql^l g4i ol$(co,, )* +s-a1^1 s=+8, azlql^l ozE #46}2il ed^14 trl oltE g¤¤
s+. E4ll, ol ¤B4g 6J cE.J co2= Tli.lloJql, "JillE "JE= aol Ezl-bal4.
old aa=-ql^l tr._4E s+ +rJ+
6l-.1+ B¤g a¤61+ ql4q+9 6J+. + Eg:g coz9 tsi}g E4 qlq pHTr q+ *ril Bq4 +¤+g +
'*E+
¤:4q corE %Ie"Jgeal BBg eE+g.g olf,^lzl_r., g^l7l: .Jol .Jgqzl ?*s4 puE +z16}= 4ol Ei4ol
&g iBl6IE+ 6J+. {x11, ¤E Lllg ¤}e4l= pH 7.4q1^l +.
4Eq+q, ol Alg H2co3el p&, ,,i(S444"J 9-rq1,<i +A g+ #^n: 17.2e
g4 Bq4 gl+. *+4l7lpH7.a*z)
6.r)o_tr+El ^J"J6l
7l +l6fl^l= t$zll/t+ll9 HlzI E 20ol qqot
"J+. Ctle
I r F-f
.l
17.3 lt-"J71 4x
g-de
NaOHE HCI EEoll ts7lg nl| olE
tr PHzf HilE zio+ q661=7i?
44e Ei¤¤ql El= HI*ES ^l^J6l
A716I= 4Col4, r rl4ql^l B¤
voETl E.qqBg+ ,,4dql= + 7l^l ol#z| il4.
*," (4.68).
. Hl¤¤ + 6t+el +E= "J.tot 6l= a+
5i5.= ot'=
NaOH(aq)u 1 . Hl*e.l BB tr-+E.Jo|"I6l+ a+
-ra
I-l
II
tt
1r
tl-Bzl 4aql^l= +E= .Jr 9l= Hzl 899 &ql ^J^l6l EzlEI4
tl (E= &g Ezl9l dzt;J4) ,", (4.64). &-Ezl ziAE
lltt
ir ^l^lEg oJql B=&d
ti
}T
lr
(equivalence point, a|$ale-4se. &4 Ezlz\ +zl +rJg Eg6l+
II
ir
II
tl
1: d)9 da-e ^l-S6J + 9l+. E= e7I* !{xll(titrant)q +qq 4t pH 4
'la E:ld(pH titration curve)9-tr El*E dB 4A(r=J 17.6)9 oJolBzl 9l6l.q
I
pH ElEl pH trlEl=
^l-s"oJ
4a +dE Eolg 4cq B=Jag acg +
+E glEl.
ol^l SEel 9lril 'J+. +de 4e+ 7'l^lEg dqg + 9lril 61i1, zld6J E&E
zJA
HCI(aq)tl
E HI71
r,4 Ezl9 KoE itB + 9lE+ ei+.
44 +dol ell qB 5ol6.J EoJg ,*y7l= olollalzl g16l trl+el ^ll ao #9
a 4dql ql.J +dg gEltrE+ 6IzL (r) ?yJ-]tq7l|. (z) .Jt-zJ¤71, o)
.t7.6
4oJ^Jz].&-ztgzl. olE +dol "JEzlzi E'Jg a+e+= qBrll +Aol 9l
afB 4E ?+49 pH 4E z+61 ¤qBE+ ++.
=zlE
\ E7l--J gTle-ItsE7[ 0.200 MolE, =JaJtroll-E-J6l.7l +l6tl E9.el NaoH9 +tr|= go[?.]7p
1.4
1.2
10
.Jgtroll,'.l pH: 7.0,
NaCl(cq) E Eo-4
8
pH
6
Etatxl
0102030405060 80
NaOH(mI)
e"\ o4 e o e
o
!
Na+
CI
o o c oc
486t71 d Olfq ETle H* ,J4, orrol Eal u*zt Orrq BJ36tr.
SE6l=Et (pH:7.0) "PJEH+21-flE{pH > 7.0)
HCI(aq)trJ Ert| H2O $d(pH < 7.0) 'JP
Lad 17.7 ?&!Z rJETle 48 o.too A/ Et 50.0 mLE 0.100 Azl NaoH(aq)-+ 4561ts pH *d. BqfdlTll 6171 916l.q E E^lE reql^.1
8+6lfitl'.
17.3 t g7l 45 785
ou oE'l-1*vl0
7l^l-7lo17l
z}fitl= rJtq Ez|tr oll EqzlE 4A +de_l "JHI4 E.Jg rEJ 17.7q1 444S.4. ol
4¤ +dg 0.100 M NaoHE 50.0 mL9 0.100 M Hclql 7IB trll Lt4+E pH Hffi -H
eq. qel zl4 +4lql^J9 puE 4l4}g + glq. .l 4l&ql 4* olal]S d4l 6}zl +l6lq
+dg q1 5-$q+ ++s+.
r. EztpH: 9zlE dE +Eq pHb rJ&9 a7l +Eql 96ll a4¤+. 0.100 M
471.;17\
HCI +o-qq [n*] : 0.100 M, pH : -log(0. too):1.00001E]. Ir]+^l azl pHb *+.
2. a7l pHet =JEE NaOHE Ezl*ql pHts. zl+ql :1 trIs
^]ol: "14 ^l^j6l +716Ir.,
q 'J+d uule4l ?7i.J+. B+d d9 +._4 puE 64921 ?+e &E +E
=7lql^l
q q4 acg+. ol zl&g qlxl rz.z(a)91 Hgtrl.
3. tr-BEl: 'J=*Aq^JE NaOHq Hclol eg E+e Hls" 6E, rE:g ¤(NaCr)4 +qEI
ts=+. zlgz\4 oJolg(ol ?* Na*)4 ,J4Iel ¤.ol9(ol 49 cr-)g 7I+ +6l]6tzl
g:sE_g pugl S6JB +zl g:e rrg +.-qq pH : z.ooolQ .-_= (ro.l¤).
4. =JSE 0t+: B*A ol+9 +"-4 puE 8"4
'j]
r+*E NaoH Eo E9l rl4 ¤d94. "l
zlAle ql^ll 17.7G)q trq+.
\\ ql4l17.7
Z Tt_Todzl x{e-lpH 4lt
tl= +tr|"1 0.100 A/ NaOH EqIE 0j00 fil HCI 50.0 mloll tszl-d rq1ol plE Zlt6l.,\l9. (a)a9.0 mL, (b)51.0 mL
6[l.J
E4t ,J4lg *q7ltr 4a6l+ r+cE + ^ldql^l pHE 4l ffi +4. zc}.* +p+ +3 + Be 4 olgg moli
oJolo|
tl6l-bE4lol+. a H4 rldgBeld zldol+. IrI4^l ot4 4l+B + 9l+. [H*], + puE 4l&a]zl +16[q 4a^]l
=
E EzI.J9l rt4 6z|tJ +"lE +!l= Tlqoflot +4. +
6pl9zl ?+g zlg oJg ,Hiq E6l] pHTt 449 4e_e 9l
4]ali E! +aq *'ETl #qag 7lq4ot il+. rBIEE =
+e + fl+. + dzll zldg B?*d ol+o14. trfE+^l AeJg
ar+61+ zJ¤zlofl 96l| pHTf ?48 4ee ql+B + 9l+. tr^l +++ aol 3ldol4. r4:/ di.ll +"_4E +q=
=+= EE H]-Er+(^]E
r{lc! (a) NaoH 899 Ho +Eql dzl.4}91 ul.4 H*(aq)E ^FS6[q
Er-o Bul9l Ezl +fl$ E]6J+).
oH Na*elCl-=+E9
(aq)q Els"4q H2OE^JC6J+. (b) 'J=td olgolug +q +ql oH 7l-H*.H-+ *+: a
pu9l zl9 golg +zl ?*= +aE "lgolE}. *"-49 pHE $ zll$op. (a)qlr]e| e3 %r-Hee 6IE g+.
+6f71 +l6}q 94 glH H+9 moliel EzlE ou-9 mol
^l
+"lE +4= 50.0mL + 49.0mL : 99.0mL : 0.0990L
+sl +tls+ 4.E +"-q 4e mLzl zl* Bzt¤ Foll pszl t.oo (a) HCI $o-{ol NaoH +EBtr} toET} z}4.
ql^l 3.002-zl $zl 2 pH +9 (b) NaoH 25 mLE dzlatB pHTlTHq 4q.
"J+"J +7li,J aql +E6I4.
fel+ B*d Ezl¤ 89ol 2.0 mL Bz}qfl,g ull (c)'J*d "ll,tl pHE 7.00014.
=^lql^l
3.00q1^l 11.004x1 puz[ sEJt +Ifl+. .]"+d (d)'Jeld ol-goll NaoH *9 r.oo mrE Ezta}fl+H,
=
pHel oleloj #4el ?zI= *.*1+ *e7l= Ee-61= 4aE
=aql^l pH= 7.00-tr+ r4.
Saol+. (e) B*d9ld *"-49 os- EoEE 3.67xto-3 Molq.
> ts¤ qrlll > .E+ qlril 2
0.1000 M NaoH ++ol og
ulzl {'E$ HCl 2s0.0 mL= 0.100 M KoH 2s.0 mL *Eq 0.100 M HNo37t trl^e--i+
44B trI **4t\2136.7 mLzl dHlq$,+. tr+-S rll+ + zJol Ez}9flg trI$ pHE 4l&alrls.
*^l ?+3 ae? (a) 24.9 mL (b) 2s.1 mL
8
pH --+ A o.1o h/tHNos'tl 0.3 s9 KoH= s:B[6lE Eo+E E7l=*E
q. .JaJEoll,llel pHts Eo loJz l?
6
Elal^l
4 il
oFAl--7lo{71 z{z{
-rU OE-l-O
2 + zt9zl3 0l+* E&9 4C +de :74 u.71+ Ag rJgTl=
ol++ ,J4lel zla +d E"Jr+ ql+ Hlt6I+. qlE Eq f=J
01020304050607080 r.9e] zjol 0.100 M op.lle{l(cH3cooH) 50.0 mLE 0.100 M
t(mL)
NaoHtr zlC6I= 44 +dg ^J46ll !-z|. olrl ¤H+ glg
:r.H 17.8 zJE7l= a&e-+ 48 'J8710.1004,4 50 mLE 4+6Iq ol +d^Jg dEql 46J pHE 4l4}g + 9l+. zl9zl3
,Jtt o.roo A/e 4g6l.E pH 4d ol++ rJtI 449 a+e+ ?ol *dg ql gEss Lth"l Bzl.
r. izl pni ol pHE uftr- 0.100 M CH3CooHq pHol+. z1lr0.0¤9lrl olel6J ++E
4l4l6}flrt. Al4lg 0.100 M cH3cooHE pH= 2.8eolE}.
17.3 t-g7l 45 787
EJE q7loll 4¤Elts of^ilEtlol E{Js..e .a'illElE, BHE EElo{l E=J6IE r1l Bg-d ETle-l g3 gElg!7|? .JtsFtr Hiloil^j
PHts?
BBE EelE
=ilslpH rrlHrL
TlLl-71(A1l xlrt
-o *U.!"t -"t.
ou oE. t ^lxl
1.4
12
10
cH3coo o+g7lE^l Eat
EtalIl
=
HJ36|q OH-E.g.36lqE
'JaJE0ll^.lel pH > 7.0
8
pH
6
) I
2
o i
ETlelE+:&E
t
0102030,10,607080
E+"J nli .JaJEolrt
NaOH(mL)
!
J.
!. cH?coo
@
T
4¤6t71 I oH-= 7l6fE cHrcooH(aq) ETlol ETfe tol rleJel OH et HJB
CHTCOOH(aq) Tf CH3COO-(aa)E EE!, eJd6l r :Lr Ltq lta
vt{ELeLu-
q9
4"4 9l= o- a/\l
uo -QoH 60
=EL =af
CHTCOONa(aq) E Es4
A.fB 17.9 e+ttg egTlE 4¤ o.too A/ 0l^llEtr #E-4 so.o mLE 0.100 Azl NaoH(aq)Eq4o+ 4¤6l'= pH *N. Eq6l.4] 617l Pl6H E
E^t= reql^1 8ej6tfi+.
7gg 179 +Esq'J:.Jg Lt= gE
5et u3:
tHAl'2J4
tA-l=7t
o!,^'l9
le= HA(aq) + OH-(aq)----> tIrAIel IA-l et &, tHAl, tA-l=
I8ELL.
4tsvtL .e.O[
)lcxa A-(aq) + HzO(l) ,J= rll4lt! [H+]=
o-
od.
I
I ^[86H
4tt!
a)l
it-.faJEI EE Zlt
zlt
\\ qH 17.8
B oJ{._rJroJTl
4¤sl 4lt
0.100 A/ NaoH 45.0 mLE 0.100 M CH3COOH (K"= 1 .8 x r 0-5) 50.0 ml0ll E7i-.J +, Eq{9 pHE Zllt6l'119.
6tl3
E4 E4Iel zJflzl 4C9l^l 'J*d d9 puE 4l+61^= E 4lEl trzl ++ qI¤. *gl ¤zHolE cH3cooHe+ cH3coo-
zllol+. E _5+E Zl&6}lot ++. oltrll [cH3cooH]e+ [cH3coo-]
"J4l &= ^ls"4q pu5 44}f,4.
e+
Eat(-LrZl U35)
(mol) -4.50 x L0-3 -4.50 x 10-3 +4.50 x 10 3
d8l+q=
*"-qE 45.0mL + 50.0mL : 95.0mL : 0.0950L
+ ola{g 8t7l +16J 7t* +g *H3 F{"Jz}? 7lg trll *99 psE Al4I6I^le.
Ezlg Bzlg 4rs"-s--e pHg Hsl¤ olallalzl gl"ll^J= BF*dql^lel pHE 4llIB i ?l
9ot aJ4.
ll qFil 17.e
E taJilo1^lslpH 4lt
0.100 A/ CH3COOH 50 mL= 0.100 A/ NaOH-E 4¤-'J tttl =JaJE9 pHE Zltol,tle.
ail=J
E4 E4¤ z}Szltr 48g EI B+dq^lE pHE 4l&al-L azl9 E.++ B*dql^l ot^:llE4} olg9
,11q of.r]lE_,t}9
E4lol4. E&E +E= r-ael +olgg ^}cq-=ql, olae E+e+ z+r|. of.'.-lle{} olg9 bEE al4}6}71 96fl '}=}dql
.J¤zle Erl Hls"g + 91trI. u++^l B*aoll.!$ pHts z o|,!lEAI olge EgTlolIre,
^l +"_qE +fl= ^l-s+4.
tr+ ag el+g + 914. Kre+ [CH3Coo-]= pHE Zlt]g + 914.
^l-s'o6f¤
=
gur
,JE ,Jg7le+ E4IE gql ql6il qltl6J rl-E pHE 7 ol{r-ol (d)'J%Idql^] qls"+4.
^Jcq= elgzlts Er+
4. (e) **d{lll pHE 6Jt ol
7ol+. A+g 41014.
> s6 qlr1l1 > H= qlrll2
e}+g zJgzle 4eB ql, 'J'JAql^J9 pHzI THL| v)^l +'$ A+ql 'J*dE PHE 4ltloirle'
olf+ FLqlz}? (a)0.02s u Hla&(coHscooH. Ko:6.3 x 10-s) 40.0
=
(a)'J*d 9l^l 4*9 zJ¤ zl 7t mLE 0.050 M NaoH-E 44ts ql
=41,*tr1. zjc6J
(b) *elaql^l 4=J9 "*tlol (b) 0.100 M NH3 40.0 mLE 0.100 M HCIE tril
K,,7t 2JLEI+=
10 *zl pHE 5zl 4H so mlel z"l$zl7| gs-6[+. "lag HA E4= 4¤zl.J
: A- golgqe H+t^l7l: rll s0 mL9 Ezlzl9s-o1ui5 U
Ka 10-8
8 9 9olaJ4. EEI HIB*d(zs mr9 Bzlzl EztB zld)ql^l
pH +"-4E pHTl pK,q 49 e+= aq +E6l-4. +gE
K,,71
6 'JL"J+4
.JBE(Be-e s gzlqlzt? fBzl ^lE srl. ¤¤ 6,:[u+][e-]/tHAl.J
^Jqlql^J
g ^J46tl trz}. E}'Jeldql^]= tHAlg 3q1ol [e-]E H++g
rl)el pHE 3zl
4
4. ? tuel:[e-]o14, iHAl/tA l:tol g+. ol 4+, K,:
2 [u+]oll, q+^J p& : pHol+.
olxll pH 44 +dg ol+6}q
"+"J {IE p&E }fl-b 4
0-0 ol z]g.ale. oJS q.J+
10 20 30 40 50 60 'J=*dql EE:"|E r1l S-9el ¤zl9
NaOH(mL) +, EI'J=+dq1,<Jg pHE *=4. r zldql^lE pHZI E,|}q
A:18 17.11
=d=ol.Hq
+E ae Et='JE7|E 4¤6tg p&91
"ll%+oJq.
rqq 4I9 E"E7t q+ *eH EE zlill ol
trfl tlE +cE ul^|= a4olrl'. 4 +d3
= ^ll7t7l-4E =80il
O.1O lV tI50.0 mLE O.1O l\l NaOHe LfElL.! ?i0l
e+= +^l6J f Szl trI$ql, "l %L^lg 541 d++ p&= e
r[. =8Pt '/i= aol qBl9lrltrI.
=
17.3 l|| gTllE 791
++ +-E7l 4Cql^J pH trlEltr+= zl,tloJol rl z| Atloll 3g7l= 4tr-g rtt|. stlEJ aJl=E E.JEI .JE ¤E
+ ^l-.&g+. zl^lE3 ScaJ pH H99 +._qql^l 4ol 6i,\l9.
^l^ls+oJ7l'?
=i].J
zl -"4fl Hs+fl+ +dE +! ++g g + 9l+. trI 0 10 20 30 40 s0 60 70 80
HCI(mL)
+^J ol 4dql^Jg 4^lEg ol H+lel E= Tldql^l
44HEl¤ g + 91rI. 4++9 7yJ-rlq7l 4C3 ol L aH 4{jal AE7 lel 4¤0il^lsl r Nqr
17.12 trll=s ?.lrf
oll=4lE -E= 5d +N9 E4-d 671+Eoll^l ^4 ^lE
E-Lrtl-.
=all
H+l qlql^.] 4ol H6I7l uil+ql. zl.(ltr!L-+ qlEEgEil ^!01
q_lg rl-s"6J + glq(rB 16.8 +a). qlB qlsE erJ
6Iq Hq r+= zl^lEE "J+.8+. tfl 12.129 q *3 BE pu Hfl a.ze*
^4tr1E ^qe
6.0
^Iolql^l
H6lrl ql$ql ^F&g + 91trI.
t4 tz.llql^l _H-= EI9I zJol, B=Jd pH Holzt K,el a^"J+ 9 zlotdzl ull
=rlel
,J^Irl ztgtlq 44 trllH+ + q +s6[+.
+ql, E^l-rJ¤zl 4C"Ir] zl^lEel dqe
ql= 0.100 M cH3cooH(& : 1.8 x r0-)E 0.r00 M NaoH-tr 446J ull, pHE zg]
=q
LtvlTlg pH Hglql 6J6ll^J+ ,ll+ tl+61 +7I6JE|(rg 17.13). .lBlEE ql=sgrll"J
^)
g oltl4ol zl;.1qro1r1. ell+6tH slltsEBql"Jol 'J*d pH TlvloloJ pH 8.3g1rl 10.0
^l-
olql^l 4ol HslbtTl ull.tsol4. rq+ I}llg qlE= %}"*dql Ep:olzl d"J pH a.2oll,! 6.0
^Iolql^l
4E:ilz} ^l4}6i7l qEql 49 d4.14.
z3{$o-!(o.e00M HCt A9r+ *Ezl(0.100M NH3 eg)E 4d +dg fal f.14ql +
El-'IH+. ol qlql^l B=+dg pH s.28ol+. Irl-+^J ,lle qlE= oltr-49,1 zl^lEolzlEl, sll
SsBEll.Jg 4S d4ol4.
trl.J*JaltE 4t
e+4lol * 7l] oltl.E "lgs+g +^ fl4-= Eelg ql" ¤414e t4lEql^J :1 HI+g oH-E
s6J*+. ql= EE H3po3E +Csl= + +Altr .Jq*q(pe+ A6'J6.J
^ll
H4l Hg olgsl
6lzl *=r+).
id
I
12 12
i&
Elal^{
10
8
tt m ;
10
8
PH pH
6 6
4 4
2 2
0
10 20 30 40 50 60 80
0
10 20 30 40 50 80
NaOH(mL) NaOH(mL)
gH[= dEj. g-JEol +Zoll E017lqe E=E dq.'JeJEoll 0le7l dql Edlse
Ett+ eg7l9 4E0ll^qEs]
flol 4E:.J xl^lo+ Ettr+ agTlel 48011
^q0l
?lcl +4E-.J r|,t|9t
12 t2
10 10
8 8
pH PH
6 6
2
\
l \
4
2
Elat^{
I
0 10 20 30 40 50 80 01020304050 70 80
HC(mL) HCI(mL)
s=E d.i.'JaJE0ll 0le7l Eoll qol E6[se gHl= dE+. BaJEol TrJoll
EETlel etlq 48011 91ol +4tr-Lt ll^le+ qETtet,J tel 450il^48+
?tot 4tr:d =ol7tsB
^t^tE
alB 17.14 qtgTlel3+Iel 48011^1el 4tr61-ZLI +4tr-d
^l^leJ
14
12
10
8
pH
6
0
0 10 20 30 40 s0 60 70 80 90 100 110
NaOH(mL)
ArH 17.15 olgdrtt"l 48 +d +Ce 0.10 Azl H3Po3 50 mLE 0j0l\/lNaoHE 4E6lfiE tttlel
pH flelE -Eq E+.
IHPO32-][H+]
H2Po3 @Q i- HPo32 @fl + H+(aq) Kaz:
IHrPOt]
olE ¤e49 4lA?]6[8, Henderson-Hasselbalch ^]g E=tl-.
PH:PK,r+loglElotl
2il B"JA9 NaOH 100 mLE Ezlalf.9 0llol4. +?Jde NaoHS 75 mL dzlatH9
ollol4. rellEglrl NaoH 75 mL 4zl tl pHE a.sE 7lqvJq. l4 oe. olol{l(H3poJ
pK,zq 6.sp] ,J4. F Tllel pK"! 2tr2tr9 {19 p&, : r.3, pKo2:6.7o14(ieilql
=d).
ql+4o+ :aln,
A IIE= Na2co3E HcrE 4d61.= e+el4E +c= HCos-7| +EJ El+=oJ
"J6l^le.
I
t"tlsg tf+(K,p)
eEl SgGaturated solution)$ *'lol tl ol^J +6]]Elzl ?+g +er} d+6t-/ :lE .$9ol
+= Ag tzlal4 ,,,-., (13.2¤). ql= jr.il saso*q d+6l.a gl= BaSo4 ++"-Ig
=q ad6Heolr,
olg aE.s]*EolIr+ +
^J46ll Bz[. easo+E Eql ull na2*1a4;e]son2
(aq)0199 ^J^d6lq, +*E ¤¤ol d4l CBg+.
BaSOa(s) ;- SOnz-1aq)
Baz+(aq1 + t17.151
+= qrq+ ¤Br+ u[4lz[x]E, +uI t]¤.ol "Jq+= dEtr ¤B ^J+9] zz)tr ++g +
?14. ol B¤ Hi*^le r,ll9 +611= ++Lll= aoloE, r qlB ^J+= rllllTl Eql +=
AEE +Elqlq, E"=llEEi tlf(solubility-product constant) E= ++61 Eoll-EEi(solubility
product)ole|-r. +4. oli K,p-+. -EBqq, spi Sal]E*.Jg +4U+.
rille+:a rill= +c6l+ olg=E ++.1 ^J+4e E +e ¤
^rolE ¤Bq
Ell6J ¤B
\\ ql4l 17.10
/-/ t"tlsg t*ll
S¤ caFzzf Eql += 4Aq 4+ ¤¤ t}+4g L= E^ll E|g + ++.lql^] Ag:Poe9 +6llE# tl+= Cqd E¤
,* 4g-?
"14.
;"tiq ¤¤ ^J+^lg 4= +4g 4+614, ^rql^l jlill
.JHI (a) [Ag][POa] @) [Ag+][pOa3-] (c) [A8+]3[pO43-]
(d) [Ag+]fpoaf-]3 (e) [A8+]3[po43-]3
qI*E-g ol o}oJ$ol r +c cE olgoe sd
^llel{Lrl.
61 6llalg+_r.7Ia5J+. F H,* Siili2
CaF2(s) ;- Ca2*(aq) + zF-(aq) ++ e+.JEql qlfl +6IE# tl+^lr+ +611E# t+ At(+
* oe+q;g zll.tlofr.le.
H*i K,p 49 q-.gn+ eq. (a) E& HtE
(,p : [Ca2+][F ]2 G) qI& e
++ Dql^l K,p {i3 3.e x lo-11olq-.
EuHEel Ksp
+6HEe+ +6l]E*. rr-+E +4 4Al +E6l+ Ae +s6t+. E4E +6llE= EeI +._qg
+e
^J^.rg el
o&g
"J*+ ,, (r3.2d_). qlqls +dllE= +E 4Ei'J +e9 _zB*G/r)
tr s^lg+. +salE(motar solubility)= +e9 ssl +E 1 LE EJE trll gsoJ +eel E
iol4. +6l]E+ ^J+(K,p)= ol$.<J -]L^ile| raq Esl8"-4 ^iolE ¤¤ tr-+olq, E+lz[
sb rJi"l4. trI+^l KspE =.71= EsI +.-49 "JE trll += r.illel .&g goJ4.
n Eeq
ZltE 6lxl Ea. qB aE'E e Eql^1elEEdHE7l7l8
AgCl (K.r:1.8x10-10), AgBr(K",
=
=z]]6l=
+E tr3rlq qq +qa *{ql rll't} +6]|E +71
ilol= _H."J4. HlEql, +qd +eql q+ +611E+ ^J+.J
K,p= 5C gEql^l 'J4.J AFl4.. r.al 17.169 {4 z}zl I
4l +Hel
=L6lgol
1l611l
0l3E
E6l]E EC
"llE ^14
K,p
^tol9 +41= sqts"J aol+. EE;llE.(mol/L)
--E(moYL)
fl44sE ¤9 #g +"JqL aaofql^Jel +6l]E= 4l
K,p
arg 17.16 t6tlEeiKsp E+7l.8 o/Le rlE1.LJ apg
t}6t= Ell ol+.J + 9l'I. dxlle ol eq "IzlE ++ql 9l: I pg $afl-rts +^q al¤r=
^l.ole.l KspE
4af +61= til ,\ltEtl. Ksp
'+dlE+E +rll'q^J 44oJ ol+ trllEql, r+r,ll tr q Bg e+El 5=^q q¤tr= rtal pg $afl=E zlt]-g +
=8aIiEL1
aqzl gs6}+. ol$el {a}zt z}r(1+e+ 1-) 7l.+ E"}]slzl olr!
qFjl 17.11
t"flsege'1 4tt
-eE
25"c0ll4 nrll e(Agzcro+(s)E ++-d Eoll E7l'6lHtrlll e+7Jel rr1l7l=al^r Hlqoll ?Jr H9trl-. +rl -gJP
=-eEAl =^l
AgzCOa(sEl'Eo-4/.l'ololtrJEoleJ=ElE=qEZ^Jq +flqr E:d Es4gE4diHtlLl, S ol8e.lEETl'1.3x10-4 A/olfltl-. AgzCrO+
Eo-4ol EEfElflr, ae4 60ll Ag*e1croo2- ol8ol IJBEJ olE rl-E 6i9-d
EJEE glrl? 7f8:g nfl, Ag2coael Ksp= zlc6t,\|9"
\a qFll 17.12
fr t*fls 4lt
25'Coll^l caFzg K"pE 3.9 x 10-11olrf. rillel E6flE caFz zJ0ll EEol oFq^E, E6llE0ll gBE Elil= rl.= EEol
=9-d
flqr 7f8-'J rfl. CaFz9 E6}|E= g/LE Zlt6[,\le.
r 19 8"-49 EI=71 +lall Eql + caFz9 4eJ3 / 2.1 x mol \ / 78.1 s CaF, \ :'
+gr+ eq. (ffi)(ffi
1.O-4 CaF,
)
u x to-2gcaF2ll$o-!
As kl+C ge-l +q]Etr+El Ale <ig qltl-6}fl4. qss tr-qlola, olg=g ++"_qql^l "1ts Bz[ H]cor r1z1 gg1
4l4I6lE, rr--(z.t x to-a)(a.z x 10-4)2 :3.7 xto-t1ol4, 4r zlCt4.)
ol= r,r:3.e x ro-,,91 Tlvl& *o\r+. K,p:2.8 x l0-13
^l+ql io14l =-e,E{l *(10,
(a)
+6flli+E 6J4t
K,pEPH Alt}g olgE *-E= ++ ¤E*r+ ^lol= ts-oJ E g.Je *.-4ql^l 5^lql .Jq+= 4= ++E B¤g +
4. 5g{ oE ol4+ Eil+ +.-41}E olg= ^}olE CdTl aol+. ql= 5q +l-g7l BBg +6llE B¤r+ E^l
^l"J
tl-E 4+q 96J olgt}g ¤^d trllEol4=a.'(r3.5¤el "T-l ql "Jqts + 9l+. +3 d6I ql =.zlElE. zlzl= g
6l]e +Eel +"JC" e3). ol4,* tln zl+g olgE tE zl9 +olgr+ "Jolgg 7t+ Boll HI¤¤ oJozltsrJl, zlf
=61.
zI=!zle:9l u+4 ,lzlq, ElEq olg9 d6}7t +7IB trllE +6il HI*e gEE +6]]E= tl$6l rtzlxlzS + fl4. ql
44+. olel+ olgE ^Iole.l .tc.4¤¤ le1a1q !-46}zl E Eq cacoet: Eql^l 7t+ Eflq= HzlC9 et} olg
?tetr, K,pBPEl 4l4I¤ +6l]E7l zlol^l= a.Jol 91trI. (&: r.s x ro-a)S .*'E-61-r. 9l+.
olE.J olg l*E 4+9 sr+q qlE^l CaCo3(uJ6ll4)7I corz- (aq) + H2o(,) : Hcot(aq) + o[-(aq)
?lErll, +uilEt: K*:4.5 x ro-ee-e+El zl4lg +ol]E=
8._4ql^Je.l olg ++ ar+e+ +"lE q ,I+ E6ll ¤¤
^JE
6.7 x l0-s mol/ro14. +Etl-E olg tls 4I+g 7q+ tr
Er+= t^lql r46tB, 1.4 x 10-4 mol/19 +8llE= 4l&
4g d^l6IE. E+ 4&rtB4 te +qlE zl.J 7.3xro-s B + 9l:q. ol= +4l}r+ g .Jil++.
mol/LE g=r+. 6}zltlJ !--ag +6]|E= olB+ + H|] AE
"JHlzlstr olg a6J s+.J¤e +ql¤ ql, rEel +c c
+g Zi"J 1.4 x 10-4 mot/LoJrll, ol= 6t+ ol^J-g +7[ S_^ g ol$g--tr gd6l +6il841z14a3q. ol*ldJ Tlaol 6}tr-
7I +Eqq fl*$ 9"1.J4.
4'&6J Ag otqq. qE Eq MgF2zl *6llg trll, +"_44-ql
K,pEBq olg bE= 4l4I6J trll szl-= g o 7l= E + olgE
E Mg2*e| F- olg+trJ olL-le| MgF*
=^ll{}tri.
Elgel +"Hql ql6ll +Eltrgt4. ol ¤9lrl: olg a6J E+.JEE +6l]E7I (r) ffi olgol
9lg trL (2) +Eq pHTI Eg oll, (3) +p+4lrl. qlql qE g6&9 *Ezl9l q"l] ¤
=4g
tlE+. E6J pH4 atslzll9 + E4e+ +fl¤ oj${(amphoterism)oll ql6l^l-E "Jotts4.
798 173 +3"-4 E:de.l rtE 3E
N ql4l 17.1s
12 tBllEoltqt tt ol*.E odEJ
4lt
25'Coll^i (a)0.010 M Ca(NOs)2, (b)0.010 A/ NaF Ee{ +0ll 915 carrq EE6[|E= Zl{!6|'^19.
6tl'J
E4 caFz9 *F olgg EEI6I= + Tl4 rld6tleq^l K,p{i"J 3.ex l0 "g ^l-.&6llot yL4. K,p <}g +E +eg
caFz9 +dlE= +61-= Erqlol4. (a)91,H +E olgg Ca2* q Hq +qE. H6tzl 9*=+. 6Izl"J +F olg E4 trllEql
olr, Nor-E +at olgol+. o)ql^lE +¤r olgol F-ol *=r olgol +^H.J trll gg g"llE= rJ46J+. caFz ¤¤ EI
{, Na+E +AE olgoltrt. *^letr+q ^146[q ?l ") ¤¤ +Eq s.= EJ=_i1, K,p
Al4 carrzl E+C s1'J¤oloE, ++ Dq 4lz.lg carz9 49 ol+a}q caFrq^jEJ 4s_5 o1c- bEE aC6J+.
CaF2(s) i- CaZ* (aq) + ZF-(aq)
=01 ill
(a) Ca(NoJzE +Hrl qEql C"'* 9 =71
r-o E= 0.010 Mol+. EE(M) 0.010 0
EEt(M) +x +2x
Ee tsE(M) (0.010 + x) 2x
x9 il"l ,Il* zlzl qlEql, gq^l Ezil= ++6tzl "J= :'';(;J,o;" : e8 x 1o-ro
TtAg +'o}6itrI. ol 4l&g 0.010 M ca(NoJz +.1 I L%+ "
3.1 x 10-s molel -Lill CaF27l +=+= 49 9oltJ4. ,: t/g.e x 10-ro : 3.1 x 10 sM
+g Eql^J caFzg 5+611E= 2.rxr0-4 Mol+(ql7ll 6l-= ,+= *o199 MA3g so] .sqol 9l+. trl-S + ++
rz.rz). +lql^] Eg 449} ullalH, o.oto M Caz*zl ? q4ql^.1 MA39 K,pq ¤6Jg trlil= a+L_?
ull CaFzg +ullE= 3.1 x l0-s Mo\jL, 0.010 M F- ol (a) g.4.ll M3*E rl ?zlaJ4.
^Hg
gol ull CaFzg +6l]E= 3.9 x l0 ? uol4. r}4rl G) +Eq e-E rl dzlaJ4.
=4]6'J
cu'*4 F-E caFz +.-qql q6l] +E +dlE7t zJ^tt4. : (c) *99 #f,+.
q+ +6l]Eql 46J F-E Solg ca2*e-l g6}tr+ +l,|s EB (d) +'+9 gEE r-?I+.
6[+. ol: CaFz9 K,p [F-]= 2^ll*.e.e 44421"J, (e)919 a^+6I+ol'Bol4.
^]ollr.l
ca2*E l^lltos sEqTl ull+ol+.
> H=qd2
> H* qlrJll tvtn(oH)r9 K,p ll9 l.6xt0-t3ol+. 0.020M NaoHE
2e8 Kql^l ++qql l+ dal¤ r*= "Jolg ++rI 1- d E*sl+ +Eql^l un(on)29 E+dlE= 4l4}6i^l9-.
t"HEgl pH
+"lg +E+ &col.* ¤zlc o-s "J=H, aE E= olg a6J 9+6JEE Sollszl g+3
*=q. +q.J 6I+ E= + 714 olgol q- 4E &Col4't EzlC"J trI, r ¤6Je tB
6l rq. ug(os)r$ ee ++ +tI+Ee zlfizlC olgoJ +4l3tl olgg sEI+ El.JEq
+e qol+. ql= 5q +4E B¤ol 4¤. ^l!+ ae ug(oH)rE gEltrz}.
Mg(OH)2(s) ;- Mg2+(aq) + }OH-(aq) K,p: 1.8 x 10-11 U7.l7l
Nag(oH), ssl +E9 pH= r0.s2oll, Mg2+9 tE= t.7xr0-4 Molq. olll zzll
ug(on)zzl pHzI e.oql ¤}+ +qr+ ¤Bql fl41 zlAq -H-z|. lelp e poH &$ 5.sol
i1, n}4^l [oH-]:1.s x 10-5 Mo]+. "l+ZI +6.J [oH-] {tg +6ilE# q"J6}H +
^lql
gn+ eq.
Ksp : -
[Mgz+][oH-12 1.8 x 10-11
rMs,-r:#+#,:018M
ut4rl [Me'*]:0.18Mol g ullz[zl Mg(oH)rE *.]"ll +=+. +E'J
g ^]dg Aag(oH)zzl
+._4q tr.'J.61 +=+= Lo14.
+.lg gd q $dss uJseEal [ou-15 *=+8, ¤¤ aag +7]^l7l7l +]dl
Ms'"9 *EE rtzl\4oy.Jrt. trI4^l -74 4.e(r47+)q^Je+ Aol +E".J &ol BzIqE
Mg(oH)z(s) ,tl-Ets sd6l +6119+.
ol"l A9E utc+ rJ"l, tvtg(ou)29 +dlE= +Eq *szl +Tlelql u}+ rrll +7loJ+.
rls_r+ eg "JElElE sdg + 9l+.
"lq6J ^idg
oJHI4 0 e 4ElEol BzlC 9018(= E^tel 9013)9 s*6l+ 4*, *q{9 +}s
.HF o
H+ ts7l
o 0 H* E)l
_.oI-
F_
o o
Op6r*
+
a+bQ +F-(aq)
o Fa
o o I
I*
e o
+
Ht.q olq oo
Pb2+
1i+ *, Pb2+ -'
-HF(aq) 3 o aaooo
lF-la+ I
lPb2+l=7t I"I.I
PbF2 PbF2 PbIz PbI2
(a) (b)
areJ 17.18e.|lg ts7loil rH-.J F 018 AI-Ef=el oJ8 (a)t= ETldlE pbF29 86il_E= (b) pbr2ol 86|lE= cel E7l0ll gBF=
=--J
raJql^l 8+Elfltl. =7|-drl.
'J^l ?J=rl. E E^lelrJcsl=01E=
H
lF
qHl 17.14
*,{Eql nlilt +P.lo"ff qB
rlgEtr 6 ETld 8e4oil^lErl'{J¤ Es{0il^] q ts+ a= q! z,la7f?
(a) Ni(oH)z(s) (b) CaCoe(s) (c) BaFz(s) (d)AgCl(s)
rfit
Eq Exllql^l ull zlzl t+d gg 9z16}r, t3 pH-B4ts ltq 4"]4q Ezlc ¤-o199 ^Jc6l-= olg aoJ FlElEol
*9 pHoll,i] q! aol $ \$zl$ ac6}= +7llol4. +s4q^l ul p \|c[.
^ld
501
on-e] EzlC ullE"ll
(a) Ni(oH)2(s)ts +"-qql^l Ni(OH)2(s) 3 5iz+144; +2OH-(aq)
e +=+. H* olgg oH- olga} ^Ic
HI86Iq +g 2 OH- (aq) + zH* (aq) 2HzO(l)
-
^JC6J4.
(b) +^1614l, CaCo:(s)ts Co32-zl $zl.! ol$olzl ull ;-
CaCO3(s) Ca2*7aq1 + COrz-(aq)
+OIgE B¤
++ olgg Lewis $zl, dzHr izH 9¤¤ 6l+ E +xlq ql6}q Lewis 4I, + dzlt
*{E zl+g + 9l= +4ol = ?lrl <rc (r0.rrE). E ole.lE Lewis $zli ++ ols-, -E-61
dol #4 0184 ^Jn zleo EI + 91trI. ol7lq} {-g zt¤+ ++ge-l +qlEq t].}g
=
+. qlE E.9 K,p7I 1.8x 10-r0oJ Agclg oJEqo| +SEql +=+. oli:aJ 17.19q1 BoJ
=
AlH, As*tl Lewis $zlol NH:eltls 4+?'171 ull+.l4. ol 449 + HI+s] 6Je--tr
E + el+.
;- Ag+(aq) + Cl-(aq)
Agcl(s) 17.211
Ag*(aq) + 2NH3(a4) ;- Ag(NH)z*@q) u7.22)
{zll: AgCI(s) + 2NH3(dq) : Ag(NH3)2+(aq) + Cl-(aq) 117.23)
+
EzlatE Agclol
s+
Ag(NH1)2+= 88^lZ
gE6tE6ilE
/ \
M: e%t ,-r' NH3= Ac+q 5EE Lf+.n
AgCl9 EaHEE Ztlxlzl
o ¤
.a I
oo
+.+ +.+
+'+ +"+
t+ +.+
AgCl
Ag(NH3)2 + NHs
a lB'l 7.1 I Tl-d tsE9 NHskq)E o l8-d Ascl(s)9 Eatl AsCl(sE E0ll^19 E6t|E7 f rt|+ 4tl.
s-eulolE 0.010 M AsNos Eqql E7i6l. E ril [NHg]9 EE tsE7l-0.20 A/0lflri. gE"J
{.!-d nll E.-4011=r|16l'= As+oltsE
E Zltdl^ls(.J, NtH.g ts7l6lflE ttll 871= +trl Esl-= +^l-.Jtt).
6tlU
EI eg*(a4;91 Ns:(aq)E tz.zzqlrle; zgol
Azt6IE, 4 9 E"E5 falf $z.llolr|.
eg(NHr)r*z[ 4Cgtr]. azl9 o.oto M AgNo3 +s4ql^l 4|q H4 AgNO3z| .sd6l dllclq{ o.oro M Ag+E
^Jc+
NH3g ]FE= o.2o Me 4gg ql a6J6}zl ?*9 eg*1aq; 4l zl-d,*4. eg(NH)r* ^JCql 46J Ki= ,11+ r7l Ell+
17.5 L S6tlEoll E-Bf= += oJ^l 803
f : ----l-=: 5.9 x lo-8 e& zEE(III) ++.-qg +&cl a-$ +g-q oE zla6t
Kf 7.7 x lot
,I. 44 oJS BzI'* +ql edE
^JCg +
^lEE "JC6J
501 aTlql [Ag+]7[ 0.010 Mol+H, NurS a7t6Jos,R'l q
$6}zl. Be.JE +4IEr ++"-qg d7t6|r, El^l
[es(t.IHJr*]i 0.010 Mol g aol+. olxll ol ¤B Er{q ql ^E
+Eol qE+ adE¤- +q Hzl. T a .Jol "Jq*iz|?
6J s= ztC+trI. ol E^llql^J +q{
"JEqo}el
:-oEi a (a) ?dEe +Elql 4^l +g +&+ 4-E ol+.
=cr3+(aq)zl
zl f,E7l +qrl E¤ *.E"Jql+96t4. O) edEg dCqE+ 6J H q *e "Jq +
Ag(NH3)r+ (aq): Ag*@q) + 2NH3(a4) 99 Eztat¤ +e +4IEI =E$o14.
*71(M) 0.010 0 (c) ddES 7l-8rd EloJ¤ olgoJ cr(os)n-bdE Szl gl
oil rl el*
EEI(M) -x +x "JE +tlqE4 Hlg" 6l= f^JEI =.eE-ol+.
E:d(M) (0.010 -.x) x o.20 (d) adEe 7l-*C s+.JE olgt Na(Noz)z-@dZ Pzl
glal] cl Ele "J9 e&94 Hl*6I= d& a5014.
As*E *ETI ull$ z|e,,E, x 419. +^lB + 9l+. trt4^l
0.010-r:0.010 Moltrt. ol <lg eg(NHJr*9 > sa= qlr.il 2
"]|r-lql 4aJ
¤¤ tl+^lql ql.J6Iq +q. 0.010 mol Cr(NoJrE pH l0.0el S+ +E I Lql +fl9
Ell, Cr(oH)4-(as)e+ B¤ ^J4q fl= [Cr3*]= ah]6]^le.
OJry8
rLL EA L
Al(OH)j=,J-d ttd
LIE
(ffr
^vtLt. Es{oil=:trt.
OH- ts7t
fl +0t89 ad qEqt
Al(oH)3: e:d
Gll/q
Eu lO
-QoHdl
o-vll
-!-!rl
-L-1.
[j
At3+ 1aq\ + 3 H2O(/) -- 3 H* (aq) + Al(OH)3(s)
E*+E'J gg
4l*t +++= E= 4e q+ee] 4}Bolg ill4lE ^I zl+ ¤! ot4E "l{o}olql4 .Jzl ^J"HE "Jezly 4o14.
g=ol *tr6}4 q7l= dol4. +a.Br|E. zorsEgl B sl.JEs ,floll zl¤fl dzfzll, 4^, &++. +4 "t +E
Michigan f Flint ++g ^l+ql^le.l B 6z19 9l"tl,tl + 5 +"&* +re.,.1-3-51*.zl"J, tszoH4ql C* zl*ol
^19
i.lH, +t¤ol El^l7lql .Jd6}zl ?*9 g+ dfzl ll4. qlel rt=ol ¤461 ¤q=
^l-8¤ +^11617l ^lzl6}E^-l Bql
Bg "Ji]el Y+e trlql oilEzl"J, qe+ ++ta4lE r B.+. +"JarJ B.Ja^|q qsE, ¤t ,l* 4fz}9 tr._!
+61 "Je6lq. qql^1, pb2+ olgg olgg E*
ca2* Lll B +E= rsz0EglE 150 ppb +=olflo+, zoozuJgli
=7Hql
6Iq
^ilE *AlrI ^dtg uJ6H6J+. ts ++9 7t* d46J + 16 ppb-E 219 roull4 Ai49+.
*o}44l(amphoteric)o1g
*r' .tldol+ g7l^d +"lql + + 9l: B*C ,1F19.14 flIq¤g ,l5ql 4+¤4= a
g +E6l+. 4116.2¤ql^J tr?lEJ oJ+41 oj,$2ffi(amphiprotic)ol+ +^I +q= olCzl-= gZ+ Eg + "JE Bz|+
olg
ql 4+¤4.
17.5 | $aflEoll BBF= += ?]^l 805
trl+ ++AEEt(EPe;o1 *¤+ql -d+61+ Bq 4ql 6JE Pb3(POr2, PbHSO4, PbCO3eI a-e- +Eoq+g ¤c6l+ E
ls ppbol4. EPA +4ql qsH, so,oooB .l^Jqlrll ++ +^d B 93 .Jgzle 1t+.J + gl= *.olg-g galalzl 4l
=
+E xlllo 6l^= ++ ^ldg E+ B +E= EqElB6I-,r, se Eql Eol 4}dclqE gE +6l]E7I +7tJ+.
i=El zF9 t0yo oltol 15 ppb 6J4l= ar+-J A+, ^ld E += s-?lg +g bEq gq- ol$(cl )9
=xHS.4.
arl= +l6l]ot aJr[. Virginia Tech9 ts+SEol 201sLJ eg Detroirql^l xl46J Eg BpI ol3 +E7I E tl ppm9 ii
ql +d+ q1xe6J ar+. Flint rlg 2524 +4 + ol99Lt, 2olsLJ 8991 Flint xl46J 5g gc} olg +
^le5 ^lzI
lsoTotl25 ppbE a4al ts bE= Bga, -flxlol 100 ppbE rz| as ppmolfr,+. pbcl2= ^.1'J6l E+C(K,p :1.7x to-s)
ar++ a+E tsaqfl+. oiel5^lq, zl$ lop] $.rlzl. olzluJ, +g r-"EE ¤p] ol83 pbcl3- 9 lUcto2-e1 z;-g
+olE C"_q ?^t Ar+E.E46Lgqq, e+ Lil B +E7t + ++C Eeq ¤Cg +E6J4. 6zl¤ 9ah olES ++4e
g ol+9 ul$ol 2013H z,ay"4lq,2OlsLJ 4.eo/oa2]c,ll +71 -tr FeCl:9 dzl. ullEolq, FeCl:t 4tr+ -eg +^ll= .J9.
*+s safl+. 7l= gzl *E szlE¤ +il^l7la ?el4zl +l"ll
^hsq9.
trI. Etl gE+ olgg 4l+3 +ol7l +l"l] 3zI9E bIolEoI
'Jg ^lE *¤+
ol +zll= 20141J 4H, Qll$ Flint
^l7l
flos ^l-*6J
ql+El
^lzlqfl4.
: oldqlE Hint rlzl 4 ei&g olgql E"l] g6l-^l ?+= *zlEol t}slg trI ^JCq
EEolEql^l +3 9fr.4, Efil^l q{ E3 rlint
Huron zlr aj4. Agq ,J+?9 xllBolE Ell
^F&E ¤::].18
oll
BE +5q6 84 Pb(s)
La{17.21 rrEE -J trlolse| HEEI^I ?J= -J trlolE (a) +68 +$trt=E TfTl LJ trfoln, (b) oJ&E +^l qllllllsl ++_of oJ6H
5rl-
601 +lq EGI^1 Oz "! OCrq 233 .tJalxlloll !L=E g trlolE
806 173 +Eo-4 B-de.l rt= gtr
8.Ox'l0-3 M pb(NO3)2 0.10 L= 5.0x10-3M Na2SOa 0.40 L0llE7l6l- n}l, dCol 8¤El=71?
=
Ttl'J
E{ + g +.-qol sq+El9-g q adel ^Jc q+E E= E K,p= Elit6llo} 6J+. zfi.al rln il+| ^JcEg pbso4e+
4lol+. NaNo:o14. nE¤(NaNor)S 4E6l g +gLL pbso4g
4C +aq=¤ gq+61= +7J9 ,+ olgE t.EE "Jol"t 6r K,pE 6.3 r rO-'ol4(Y E D), Q7I K,pE irl¤ "J+ pb'*e+
7, eel ..JCol Sltq= E+C ^JCEE +6llE+. ^J+ Soo' ol$e-l $rzf +eq rts, adol ^Ja X.ol4.
s0l
+ +sqg s.Jg ql, dill +"1=
0.10 L+0.40 L:0.50 L7t g+. 8.0 x t0-3 M pb(NO3)2 /8.0 x 10-3mol\
o.lo L +9 Pb2*g E+-5 trhgrl a+.
(0.102) (r/ : 8.0 x 10-a mol
olgg r
gE +6llEql E4g + glrt. As*el cu2*E E_+ E6J6l= ¤-
sqg =46Iq ^J.+
ezl. HClg +Eql EzlaJ4fl, Agct(K,r:1.8x,0-to;ol 3dgJ. cuclz
ol
^J461|
+e EE, Cu2*E +.lql qd61 *=El. t zlzl EE q zlzl(e;5 olH) olgr+ a
=
ag ^Jc6J + gl: ^lEg ^l_eoE-e_Er^l, ++"+ 4 ols# +46l+ ag cqc ea
(selective precipitation) ol +-I' 6Jq.
++E g+q +d]E= "*H+l6ir, +"-qE pHglE aAl 9+6171 trIEql +E] olgol *
4 olgg er_lq zI+ ol+g+. ql==q cur*el zn*E.n6J6l+4Ic +Eql H2s Tlxll
Efl6J+ ?l+. cus(K*:ox ro-37)E zns(K*:zx ro-25)H4 E +ooe,
=Eor+^14
ait gqqbH - 1)gl^l cuSE ddgzl"J, Znsi adgzl sE+(f.EJ 17.22).
Cuz*(aq) + H2S(aq) i- CuS(s) +2H+(aq) U7.271
cuSb Zn2* gojotr+q Aezl= F"l Eqg + gltrl. r +qql cuSE 4l+ H*= ^l-.&
6Iq t7.27ql +4u ¤¤g g+qE olt^14 +"J + 9l+.
^l
q14117.17
7f dq¤ il{
1.Ox1O-2 M Ag+(aq)ef 2.Ox1O-2 M pb2+(aqE E:961.= E.+ol ?lrl.. Ct-(aq)E ol E.-4oll E7l-g nll Agct(K"o:1.8 x ro-10)ll
Pbcl2(K"r:1.7x10-5)7[ trF tsEElflrl.2f2fel Eol tsdEl7l /.l4r-J rr]l -J9-d ct-(aq)e.l 5E= grl.oJTl-? Eol EE ad ql
EIETI?
E4 Ag*(aq)e] pb2*(aq) ol$$ Lolol-i +"19e+E a AgClol +aqsE+q ?dqzl pbcl2E Elid %I
^lzI6J+.
dol ^lzlg ull9 cl-(aq) +Ee+ q- #+ $ffiol H4 a BoE4l&e+91+.
dq=rl= q+q-= Ezllolr}. Krp : [Pb2+][Cl-12 : 1.7 I 1g-s
fi|q F adEql 4dJ K+ <iol iqd4. *4 ol ++ ols 1z.o x ro-211c1-12: 1.7 Y 16-s
E *E= ol+4q 4 ddol ^lzlB trlE ct-(aq) olg tE tct-12 :
l'z x to-l :
8.5 x 1o-a
al+B + gltrt. *? ct- (aq) olg r-" EE gee ap g z.o x lo-z
=
ol Ezl adg aolE+. lct-l : Vsir-to= :2.e x 7o-2M
Sol Agclgl 4oI{ K,p:[Ag+][cl ]:l.sx l0-tool+. trf+^l 2.e xto-2 M¤ ar+61+ Ct-(aq) bEq^l= pbctzTl
[,tg*] = 1.0 x t0-2 MoIEe. AgCl¤ ad^l7lzl ?*-L 3443 adg aol+.
+ 9t= ct- (aq)A 44 L" EE r* 11eE1q A141aJ + 9l+. 4 gE adql Bs6J ct-(aq)4 *E<tg Hlr6tH ct-(aq)
K,, = (1.0 x 10-2)[Cr] : 1.8 x 10-10 +"qql dzl* 4l Agclol H4 ad¤ aolq. ol= gt
=
q *g *E4 ct-(aq)7t gs-6}71 ollEol4. trI4^l tct-l7t
r'e x to-tl: x
ICr-l = 1.8 1o-8M 1.8 x l0-8 M+ 2.9xrO M rlolz[ r]E$ Cl-(aq)$ r.l,q
2
1.0 x 10-z
808 173 +8"-4 Eeel rt= +E
al lzlalS pb2*(a4)9lrl /rg*(aq)¤ +4B+ 9ltrL ft) e:K,pE 4l (c) e > K,pB tril (d) a < K,pE
(a)
"*t
ull (e) El]+ *+sH rJC9zl S=tr}.
+st AsclE ade q6l4E
cr-(aq)$ E+7I +"-qq
af; eg*(aq)E E+¤. =46171 44ttzl 414¤ dol4.=4 4 > .s= qlfl 2
dql gsoJ tg*(aq)zl EF S.q4E, [ct-15 n+EAl +7[ tvtg2*(aq)* cu2*(aq)e ol+q{
0.0s0 M *Eq +"1
6Ia, + Pbct2E Adol ol 9l+. *9q ott-(as)= 47114_ ql qe ol$ol flzJ fl
^lz+¤+.
d9Ezl-? 4 "JolgE edol Ell gs* oH (aq)
> E6ql&1 ^l4g
El.gel qtr aa6lql^] olg ai+ E+qlEol ,(dE olg *"-4 E tE= 9"ltzl? (t, ug(oH)r9 K,p:1.8x10-1r,
.ilrl ?dqEz}? Cu(OH)29 K,, :4.8 x to-2ool4.)
\irJ
CUS= rilTldfr
H2S ts71 pHE 67f^lz
'n) rIlffirr+
I h-rt
,O o'o \, o o o
ooo
ar)
H J o
o (D
o o
dt, " f' t'
o CuS(s) ZnS(s)
Cuz+(aq)Z pH 0.63 :trlolts
Zn2+(aq)9! H2S= Eo-4011 CUS= IllZ-.J P pHE
s_d_d Eo+ g7l6t$ Cuszf fllt e7l^l7lE znSzl EEE
Laal17.22 dEld AE olqlo1l,(.1Cu2* ol8olzn2* olg-oe+El EalElflrl.
cu2+(aq)e[ zn2*(aq) olSol Ee{ol 9iE rttl, 0lal-et Eal n+8ol {14e. ol*olrlb
=-stE!
7l-? I flfllaflEe qL Ezlol+oil sgEE7t?
nlTlol -A
E-
oFnlQg
OvlL=
"l"ll
o t-=. -90fi
6 M HCle= 4tya;
rE1
EEd E6IE: "Je gol3
AgCl, PbCl2, Hg2Cl2
^
lIl 7lgq qeTl
JE'
-a,
u-EEd =J6iE:
"Je golt
CuS, CdS, Bi2Sj, PbS, HgS,
As2S3, Sb2S1. SnSr
7lgq qeTl
I=" I
JEIJ
-=1
E7l"E8d Etal-E4 ft6.l-3:
HC go|t
et(OH).r, Fe(OH)r, Cr(OH)s, ZnS,
NiS, MnS, CoS
a=4 fE5
E-Qll
aoo otltG.
uuo. gS4 a+ 0l8rf
Caj(POa)2, S13(POa)2, Baj(POa)2,
NH+*
MgNHaPOa
+g+. 4g4t e4He ++9 ^ll +41tr Tl6Jgrt. (r) olgg +"1]E CAql zl
olEloJ
a6}ol r+E=E Bel.J+. (2) 4 rBql^J 7HE4oJ olgg dq4ee +q .ts4e4.
(:) :d =ffi ol$$ 5c
^lB ',JH9E +ql6J+.
ad E4q ^h&6[= .JH]zl?l zJol oJolgg r+d rEoE
'JHql^l= fEt 17.23ql^J4
+Y+. ol "JBql^J= rle}9 dz| +^l7I +s6[+. 7]f] dq4 +?j, + ,}d] +e +el
olgg E+6tE Eq= +d d6J++. +"1 +q ts4l El= quloJ oJolgE +EE, ++
+41 ,'J6I]7I 9zl s9 atr e i%iol ¤ rllzlzl Eq4zl E4^l4ot ++.
^leq
ol +& rBq "Jols_g trq- q zl^116l ¤ElEi1, c^d E^lq] ol E4= ,J+
^l-.s61+
6l oJoll!-^I.
A e, +ar7t +of oJ= +s-Eor HC,E E7r"6r-HE q EEor ddEJrtE, ortr orgor =
Hr.E,
I ^nt'ot z;E7l?
Etsr qHl
E"6l 7UL{
o g'tlE
21'C, 0.950 atm9 HCI )11111.25 L= 0.150 A/ NH3 Eq 0.500 Loll Eirl,\l7tl. E= HClol E6I|Elr, E"-4el +tr|= 0.500 LE
r+tr +^l-dtl.r TlEg q, r Eo-4ol pH= Zl^idl^lg.
6fl.J
HCI 7lillg g+= ol^J zl;'ll Szlog+q 4l1l ,l
PV (0.950atm)(1.2s L)
: 0.0492 mol HCI
6J+. RT (0.08211-atm/mol-K)(294K)
8'-!9 pHE 44617]1 9lufl, Hzl t}Sol 9¤9 HCI(g) + NH3(aq) -+ NH+*(a4) + Cl (aq)
flg qlg 4 +*Er+ {dEE .}g 4lt}.J+. ol UB E(mol) 0.0492 0.07s0 0 0
tr. NH4+= r
4&olq. Cl-= &E Bzlr o1qr4. 0.0492 mol NHa+
tNH4*l : : 0.0984 M
A44ee pH= INHJe+ [NHu*]ql E={}+. o.sooL+E
: (0.0516)(1.8 x 10-s)
x: ioHf ,i"*at:e.-1x 10-6M
ut4^l poH : -log(9.4 x 10-6) : s.03olF +
pH : 14.00 - pOH : 14.00 - 5.03 : 8.9701+.
s"J "i 6e tq
BE 018 4rK17.1tr) ol ttql^J ++.-qql^J "Jqt+= qBl
++ e6lEJ 6E+ H}+ql^l rJzlE49zl EE +9 g +.-49 pu"ll 6ll
E +s6J ¤Bg golB9t4. zl* 6,s_+ de F ,I ol^Jel +e B*4. .14;J ol$e. lSrp E4l +g e}¤zlE _iE6J6J 4AE
g s+6I= +._qql^Jg tI-¤zl B¤4 +.llE ¤BolE+. ._I,tl e t+dql^l9 pH91 zlzl& ^l^lEg dq6l+ 4ol 6sat4. 48
E s+9219 6llr-lE ¤¤ql +F ol+g ^ll+61+ ,Jdqlee.l +dtlE qqQI dq^le.l pHE {x.l t}4 grlq ¤6}9 reJ6}-r.,
ql E6ll 9xll¤4. olq{} E^}g BE olE E4(common-ion =zl]
effect) r El-e- Be+e p}4tol+q6l+ ¤¤ggq 411.J+ 9l+.
Eljl +tr}.
E6llE EJe(17.4tr) +.-lql^l axll s+qlE4 rzil slqlEE ol r
eJ= E4(17.2tr) +e+ BEIE &-9zl et+Ee "+{} 4 g B¤g E+"J BBE ql"l+. E6ils.El$(solubility_
=Eol ^Iolg
t-4971 trol4. olBl+ gBEg E* te4(buffered solution, E: 'J+61 t6llEEl(solubility product, K,o)$
product constant)
buffer)oE 4+{}+. ie"}E ,J& E= r}gzlE $e *"-!91 dz} plqlEol += cE= a*4e-E. s.¤.J ¤B tfol4. K,pi olg
6IH ¤}+ +"_qol .tI eb ¤zle} HI+6f71 ullEgl puzl4+sI H a6J EletEg +61lEE Zl4I6lE E] ol+6J + ?1i1, +6llE= Ke
++eJ^l-rlg7l. rJ&-Eg7l, Et}-rlg7l HI+g zlE4 oE E +61+ Ell ^F&E + 9l+.
seg+). s+ +Qq* .JHI4ee E^I+ r 4Ig g E: EgTl t6llE0ll g:dE +ts ?.!r}(17.5E) ge.g ga;t'j 9. zlzl ¤E t
e|: Bzl9 g oE xllssLrl. ¤16 +qE + 7l^l Ecg $+ + olg a'J Ele.89 +6lEql g6J19 ar+. rl+c ol8
*(buffer capacity)4 r9 pH ge(pH range)olr]. pHt-
&4 ,Ka ^l+ Eql^l
a'J cltlEe.l +61]E= *E ol89 4+= +e +aol +zI6fH
E ^l-&6fq Zl&6J + 914. pu4 p&, 4}Il raE 4gzlq bE ,J}6J+(+¤r olg E+). ¤zld *ols¤ jL6J6I= SIdJEE +6ll
Aq +41t. Henderson-Hasselbalch Al(Henderson-Hasselbalch
Eb +o-lol tr+ tdsl+l++(pHz} zJiaJie-) +zf6J+. +^]ts
equation)9-E +Et'J + 914. Henderson-Hasselbalch 49 i AEel gzld 9o199 g+eH}g golg)b pu Hal9l ¤6.t9
E"Jg oJ^l6l+ =
{ol fea}:r. Htrf tr-^]e 4tg BB +.EE + E^l e+E+.
6171 9.16I +48 + 9l+.
++gE +6llE= ++ oleq EI+6Iq .Jc6J eoE(complex
{!-E7l 48(17.3tr) t}(E= gzl)el pHE ?z}e! Ezl(s} t}) ion)$ uJgg tewis Ezl9 +xHql 96ll^]E g.Fg E=E+. ++
el +ul ++E ++B rflg pH 4E+d(pHtitrationcurve)ol4 "_lq^l +olgg ^J^Jg ++
olgql aqlg E EziTt NH3e+ cN-
_n 6JE+. 44 +de t}-Bzl 4aql rI6J 4¤6J pH ^l^lEq d e+ rJg Lewis szl-E il+q= uJg"4 *dol gl+. r4dJ 4¤
^J
qq ESg AL+. ?t+-,Jgzl 4C9 +l¤L zld +de *+d Hl Col "Jq+E AE= zlolg9 AC A#(formation constant)E,
e 3 pu Hq¤ +4U+. ol 4aE Beld9lrJ9 pHE A*49e -*.^l¤tr}. HtC tEE(amphoteric oxide) 4 +tElf
=i.lql^J (hydroxide)e EqE e +zl ?*zl"J, .tlol+ EzlE Szig 4*
7olr}. ,J4I-"+g7l E= E&-rlg7l 449 "J=Jd
=xlql^Jel
pH Hsl+ rzl ?+r+. zll4zl. **891,<lel pHi E 4 zol otqq. +=trl-.
812 176r +Eo-4 ECe-t rt= SE
-=.o HFe_ l
OJJ- r- O i
. pH : nX, + foSff Itz.gl Henderson-Hasselbalch zlg zl4i-4gzl tr9 t.s=e-PE S
+ +slE puE 4l&al,E EJI
^l-&9tr1.
oJ+ +41
tsoE.H.ts 7flLJ t o.r u o}^JlEtlol 9ttr1. g+ HlTlql= qlB s{l^1, 0.1
**q. qe 89ol zI^J pHTI +g7I? :a ol+= ¤E6t^l (a) :H 16.89 +r6lq g ql, qe ¤-99 pszl A ?zl?
e_. [17.]¤] (b) NaoHE dzlal*.g 41, pH9 {0}z} z}$ 4g
^*q
qL +.-ltzl
$r: He Q: e- ¤E6I^ls.
'c g
e (} 3;.t as ffir
-"'rtfl
ry t;""*
17.2
%
El-¤- Hl4
.$D
";;
Celr
+ e-=4 El4ql ^l^lEe_tr qlB e_{lzl= E+
T ffi
Ee E^,ll 813
17.3 E& HAe+ r 4+g7l-tr 'l+q4l S+ +Eol 9i4. E'tI t7.z ,Jg +Elg F zllg tI9 o.to M NaoH-E 446|Hqq +
g p& *¤ 4.solr, g+ +"lq pH <ig 4.3o1tr|. zl& + rBg + 44 +des LIEIH'I. lrz.t4)
g 6}.xl "J?, EI.g + *e 191=1, ol+E ¤B6l^le. (a) oll +Col ts+:-osz[ {oJ,ti+Eql 6l]B6h=71?
Iv z4l (b) qL +dol & Ztol tlql 6llB6l+7|? ¤H6l^le.
=
(a) iHel:[e ] O) tHAl > [A-] (c) [He]< [e-]
17.4 Elg rgg rJS soEg E& HAe+ -aEE7]| A--e EJ¤q 12
10
1i +QIg +Elu4. T]FE tsoli 96 +ol9 3C E
s+
49 r-"EE +ElU+. ltz.zA) A
o.
8
(b)
^'ll
rB 6 qe z1o1 ztszl$ arlql +q $+ +slg 2
+4lll=rt? 0
0 10 20 30 40 50
(c).{l rfl + qL aol &ol+ g7l= a7}'* ?92} o}H NaOH(mL)
tr*9 444Lzl?
17.8 El-g rB9 El4= cd(oH), esl +"19,+4u a
7t+Ell
olEl. ol +a4ql HCl *.-19 EzlalH, ca(oH)rE +6llE7l
+7l6lq r.,ll7f +41 grl. A Hl4e+ B Hl4 +q^l BBql
+"lg L+ElLilE 19 *q..JzI? (E e^Ie+ ct- ol$3
^-te_l
rBql^l ^J+qfl+.) lrz.+4, rzj4)
sEtAE
HA A- HAA- HAA_ HA A_
(1) (2) (3) Cdz+(aq)
, c
Or{-(aq)
t7.s Etg
9.161]
rHg
*"lg trq i;r
^Jqgfl+).
E+I HAg NaoHB
trl-g
glci(Na+
449
olgq E gxlg $$of, s.'flg
44el rflg 4c qigE ol: B9
ol dllB-61+zt? (a) NaoHE 471617l d, 0) NaoHE A7l
elel trI-}ql +Al9
A HIZ
xr? ,
x HCl(aa\
B HIl
C
*^l"J "Je*dql Eg6I7l d, (c) *=*d, (d) 'J=Jdg alB ,
gqgrz.:dJ a
O:He t:a- O:ou-
oo o oo tz.s q-e-r4-s.= +E +a6lq^19 naco:9 ZE9 L|4.lln
Cd(oH)2(s)
o' o ¤ oo x=.g 4=
^lEq *.E=
(a) HNO:
gg qL
s.^l6JtrI. [rz.sd]
?z}9l ulE
4"J71?
BaCOE9 a"o1S. Hal¤ 444E:
(i) (ii) (iii) (iv)
(b)Nazco: 3z}"ll rlE BaCOr9 +611E Hs+¤ +Elrll=
17.6 trl-g ¤Bq 4* * qgElE 4a +dg ;r e,rle. lrz.tgl rHg qe A*l?
(a) rlgzlql dzla}fl4.
*tl$ (c) NaNO: dz}.ll alE BaCOr9 +6IE Eq¤ *448 r
(b) zj$zl$ "J4I9l dzFl*,4. Bg q! aoJTl?
(c) ,Jg7l= 234!oil flzla|flr|.
(d) ,Jg7l= El'Jtzl&ql dzla}fl{. .? -e. -e
6ll 6l|
"=tl
.E _E _E
pH pH pH pH
5-E 5-E 5E
(b) (a)91.<J gq{ +"-qg +-gE Hl4q 50 mLA E}9t+8. EE olE A{17.191
qL Elaql Sdol rJzlEzI? adEol
^JdEl= a+, r7.r3 trtg *¤ olg Er+ql +* dB + TI1I4B.J ag?
ulzloll fxNqi AdEg *q..JzI? (a) ¤ ue9 +6llEb olul M* q= A-7| E.Jg +"qtlql
A46JEI.
^J
(b) +F ole+ Eql^l ol$.rJ rxllel HI¤.ql qlal E¤ dL+
E g4^lal e.}Et.
(c) EF olg Er+= Sor'-4 eg olgql 4+q^l
g=+. =oldJ
(d) g MAE +6llEE A-+ El+=r ol99 ?zl-91 *+6l.rll
1..0 MHCI(aq) SO mL 1.0 M NaCl(aq) 50 mL S6&9 E=trI.
(i) (ii)
rz.r+ BB *4t
i- HB+(aq) + oH-(aq)
B(aq) + H2O(/)
ql^l HB+(oq) 4*s(aq) *991 Bzlel+n 7IA6l tr^I.
(a) Hl*"ll,rJ BB tt+* +71, +t, olqH +zlg AoJTl?
(b) s(aq)9 E"Eb?zL +4, -r.ql-E *zl9l.JzI?
(c) *99 pHE ?zl, ai, rql-e. #zl¤ lqlzl-?
(c) 0.100 M cH3cooH 100 mlq 0.100 M HCI 50 mLE 17.28 qts $+ +q 1.20 L= 0.15 mol9 E+irlg(c2HscooH)
4q "JE+"-4 + 0.10 mol9 sEqS^J Ee-6}-l1
(d) 0.100 M cH3cooK 100 mLeI0.100 M KCI 50 mLE ^E(c2HscooNa)g
9t+.
4lq "JE +aq (a) o1 g5' *99 pui g"l-.Jz|?
v.z*l o.t2 M +E^Ir+ o.rr M qEt 4E 9+ *"-!9 pn=. (b) 0.01 mol9 NaoHE TfsL + s+ +Eg pHE gut9l
4l4l6f^le. (b) 0.13 M qE^l85 mL4 o.ts M qE4I i 7l?
E es mLE 4Je $+ 899 pHE 4l&6}^le. (c) 0.01 mol9 HrE TI6J + $+ +._qel pHE gnloJzl?
17.22 (a) 0.105 M NaHCOgq 0.12s M Na2CO3-tr ol+q{ S+ v.zs (^l patl t.4oJ c"-q + HCo3-e+ H2co39 Hl= gEloJ
*99 puE 4l&6I^19-. (b) 0.20 M NaHCo3 6s mlel0.ls 7I? (b) zltl utzlE d+E B.l puzf z.roJ Ell HCo3-e+
M Na2Co3 75 mLE 4lq^.1 "JEq{ *99 ps9 Zl&6}^I H2CO3el ul| $ulolzP
9. +^JE $+ +aqg ^Julq}4 +illE
17.30 H2PO4-4 HPOr2--e.
,ro o1,r1E& zo.o g¤ 0.1s0 M oI^]lE,lI pHE a¤al* qelg'J+. "*e *41*e.s olqa 95
^E(cH3cooNa)
(cH3cooH) 500 mloll eT}dlq $+ +.-qg "JE9+. +'-q4lE
^l-&6J+.
*9 :ss mLB e.s g9 t{aHzpore} s.o g
(a) 9* 899 puE 4l.tl6l-^ls. E Na2HPo4zI BzI¤ EtI *-e.9 psE g"I"Jzt?
(b) g^I H HJgg $+ +"-qq dzFt*.g "Jq+= HI*
"I
el Sa olg U*4g r
^ls. H:POr, HCOONa, CH3COONa, NaH2POa EdE O.tO AZ
(c) i^Jc| 4E +"-q H *gg g+ +Eql dzt*I9 4l 9 -rz-rryu3.s09$+$Egeul6tl+6IL-ql,ucoou,cH3cooH,
3 44 7lzlr. gl4. q¤ +.+g ^l-8-dl"t 6I=7I? qI r lg
q+= HI*ei $d olg BJ+^lg r^^le. $++.lg"JEEIH, 4+Eol H mL4 gs-6J^l+6}^le.
v.24 q* g-EE(NH4cl) ro.o gg 1.00 M oJEqoI(NH3) *o_q 17.32 pH s.00el g+ +"-qg 6l.e-ql, HCooH, HCooNa,
2so ml9l a7I6Iq $+ +"-qg "J5flE+. =Hl6lloL
CH3COOH. CH3COONa, HCN. NaCN EdE O.ro ug
(a) 9* S"-49 pnE 4l&61-^le-.
44 7l4a_ 9lq. qH 6I:7I? E I LE S
$e!$.'.1-$o11o}
O) a4I E *gg S++"-4ql e7}6l9g trI 'Jq+= Hl* + +"_qg "JEaJE 4 +"_qol H mL4 gs6Jzl +6f^le-.
E $A olg HJ+^lg ^A^ls.
t-E7148(17.3E)
f^JcI E++ +e! q %lgg $+ +Eql dztalfr$ rll
(c)
t7J3 c+* f4sY + 7l^l "J.J^Jzltlel 4A +dg +4qln
"Jq+= Hl+E SA olg HI+^19.4.<le.
91trI.
v.N r.oo pl EFefla:l+a&(HF) +E r.25 Ls+r}*el
=+s (a) 9!
+dol ,HIe.l 44 *d.JzI?
flF] cE(NaF)oe pH::.oooJ $+ +.49 "J==it^I 6-JrI.
G) 4 4aql^l *"*dE pub 44 gEloJTi?
(a) NaFE 471617l dql HF *99 psi gEI"JTf?
(b) o1 S+ *gg ".IEzl g.16ll^l= H r+E NaFE ?zt6ll
@ 449'$ ao.o mLE 0.100 M HT1E 4C619+. E;g
.tI6 EJ A+ ae?
of 6l+zl? (8, Nar= ?zfa}*.g rI +el Hq+ S+
(d) E&qP&E 2l&6}^19..
n 7IA'*+.) 14
17.26 0.0200 M Hla&(c6HscooH) +o-q l.so Lel4*E Hl=^I
72
dE:(c5HscooNa)o-tr pH=a.00oJ g+ +Eg uJSnz|
6JE}. 10
r7s4 te71q.-I4I, .J"JCzltIg 44617]| +lofl zJ¤zle+ a+&, 0) B"Jeql^l Bb qE BEIIE +z116l+zl?
g.Jd^lliel 4Ag Hlj/61^le. ilgql= rJ4Fl E& +"-q (c)
"J*dql^.] pH z9zl,
ol6IoJ^1, ol4-oJ^l El6l^le.
ol AgL"EE 7*b4n z|{afr., u}-9 4*ol *tzl, zl4 (d) sltssgrll?l EY qlE qlE 6ql^l ol 4aql tr+ 4.J
oJ^l 9^16}^19. t zlrlelS +9.oJ7I?
zj{lol E4}84 B=}dq EB.6l+ ql EJ
(a)
'}+ Ezltlg- .-19.e1 4 +"-qg 0.08s0 M NaoH-P **grtlxl4C"J trl
9-614. H mLzI $94f,2|!
O) 44 aTlql pHb,J&EEI E&ol q *E|.
-rz+r(a) 0.0900 M HNO3 40.0 mL
(c) B+dql^l pHb 7014, 4lE ++e+= tr*ol S4. (b) 0.08s0 M CH3COOH 35.0 mL
rHel e4}r+ ot^1lE& ^lE= 44 *9
0.100 M (c) l.8s g/19 HCI so.o mr
NaoH(a4) +'-4es 4C6IB.+. 17.42 L++4 4 +Qqg 0.10s M HCle. B=*dzlzl zla6J qq
-tt.tsr+* mLTI g-s-q}7t?
(a) 0.0950 M NaOH 45.0 mL
(b) 0.118 M NH3 22.5 mL
(c) 1.35 g/L9 NaOH 89 tzs.o mr
tz.n O.zOO M HBr 20.0 mL
^l-AE-0.200
M NaOH +'lg.f, 4
aq}4. +g pqg gzlE ?zHI *g pHE 4l^latrls.
(a) ls.0 mL O) 19.9 mL (c) 20.0 mL (d) 20.1 mL (e) 35.0 mL
1.0 M HNO3(aq) 25.0 rnL 1.0 M CH3COOH(aq) 25.0 mL
17.44 O.tsO M KOH 20.0 mL O.rZS M HCIO4 *99-e
^lEE
ol 4Aql 44q E}g.tl+ol ^I+l.Jzl, TllloJ^lE aC6I 4aql+. +g +slE 4!9 dzloJ F9 puE 4l4l6i^le_.
(a) 20.0 mL O) 23.0 mL (c) 2a.0 mL (d) 25.0 mL (e) 30.0 mL
^ls. El T*g
(a) HNogE 4{q-q B'*dql EB6I7] fl6ll^l= rz+s qrso y of,r-lle{!(cH3cooH) 3s.0 mLE 0.1s0 M
oJ9 Naou(aq)z|
BsaI4. ^ltr.
gg6tqg 4i9 pHi NaoHE 4AaJ+. q¤ +qq gTlE A7I6J $9 puE 4l
(b) HNo3E 4A6iq B=Jdql
t}6l^le_.
cH3cooH 44 ^l!-4 *+. (a) 0mL (b) l7.s mL (c) 34.5 mL
(c) {ltsgB4l'Je + 44 e+ql zlpf, zl,tlo-|o14. (d) 3s.0 mL (e) 3s.5 mL (0 s0.0 mL
17.36 E4l l7.3sql^.le.l 4Cql +'J +g ,ll+ol ^Id"Jzl, Zll"J 17.46 0.0s0 M NH3 30.0 mLE 0.025 M HC1E 4AqL+. ++ +
zlE AA4^]e. slE HCl9 EzfEI $t9 pHE 4l4}oirls.
(a) F 43 aTlq^lE pub59aI4.
(a) 0 mL (b) 20.0 mL (c) 5e.0 mL
(b) + 4C +Ce B*dg 4t +q
'Jot4 1014. (d) 60.0 mL (e) 61.0 mL (0 65.0 mL
(c) 4lE qlE= + 4C q+ql 4eo'J zl^lEol+.
tt.+t o.zooM HBrS 0.200 Mel 49 ¤zl
"l+6|q +"lg 44
tz.tz tl+el4 44E "Jeldol pH 7 ol.C-or^1, ola|$xl, 7$zl g EL pHE 4l&61^le.
'J.JBql^19
E El6l^l-e_. (a) TJsl^'E(NaoH)
(a) NaHCO:E NaOHE zl4E trI
(b) s'tol E+¤olql(NH2oH)
(b) NH3E HCI-? 4Ag ql
(c) olHfl(c6H5NHr)
(c) KOHE HBr-e {643 q1
0l+6}q 0.100 M9 EI-* 4I +.-qg 4A
17.48 0.080 M NaOHS
17.38 q+9 4 4AE 'J'6tdol pH z oltoJzl, olalolxl, 79zl tr1, r}r+eql.!el pHE 4l&61^ls.
"J
=
El6l^l_e_. (a) HEqlEl+^ }(HBr)
(a) ¤4!9 NaoHE 4C6J Ell (b) olga&(Hclor)
(b) +.$cI A+g r+g^ lsE zl46J trll
(c) Ua&(c6HscooH)
(c) 4alB9 44I_e--E zlCB trl
t4 r6.8ql +q{ zl^lE qE 5+E + z}zl 44 Bs}E t6|lE gB?t E6llE0ll g:el= +ts ?1r}(17.4tr, 17.5E)
t7.4s E++ 4*ol *"Jzl, 4ll"J^l g,<laf.rl9.
H.J+. qL 44 Hslzl "+&g 7tH7lE- 4a6J EI q 4e
-rz.ts6ia=7h? (a) t*d eq +61lEE alq*g+e LIEI'J + 9l+.
(b) t+d ggl +6IE*e+dlEE zll+ol+.
17.40 6J 7llg oJ^Jzl= Eol-=ol= o.to M "JBzl s *9 ro.o mr
(c) t*d EE +"llE= +F olgel ++elb EzllolQ.
o.ro M oJo}^d^l. *4I nne. zl4.J4a alzt.
E (d) t+C gE +6llE$e+F olgel ++e}= Ezllol4.
"J+Aql^J A7t¤ HAg E+=
(a) gEloJTf?
E# E^11 817
t7.so M2+ olgE + 7I^l t+C ¤.J Naec+ Mzre.l +El-E= e qr. olrll r4l Kr=+Eq dzEl4.
^J461^1.
tr, 4 x l0-4 mol/Lolc1. (a) Hl4 Hlqql .r.4l pbrrE olol +7ltiE7l, ?^al*zt,
(a)q:1o1 $aIeff {}+ <lol El Z7l? f4E 9lE7I?
o) Eql^l 44E gel sEt+o-4q^l qL aolM2*e1:-os G) +alql^Jel pb2* olg +.gE ?zlol+71, +r6lE7l?
7l L) (c) .¤-9"ilr]9 r- olg r-"E= 67161+71. +45lv_71?
=71?
(c\ MZz 8991 oI4zI Eslqzl 96ll MA +"lql E+E + tl-.-sl pHql^J Mn(oH[E sod]EE g/L +flE 4lt]6]^19-.
.r-"EE
"lel ag PulE dzt+4H, M2* "JolgE ¤B (a) pH:7.0 (b) pH=e.s (c) pH=11.8
duloluL? -v"ort+*4
17.62 pHql^l Ni(oH)29 g+6llEE g/r tr+le 4l&6i^l
rf8.4 olg AEI c+.JEg +dlEE tl+^lg 4^ls. 9.
AgI, SrSOa, Fe(OH)2, Hg2Br2 (a) pH:8.0 (b) pH=10.0 (c) pH:12.0
-rzsr(a)
17.s2 + +e 41: 7q1 pi'+Eql ql.t'+6llE'el'+6llE+ g + ++6J Etr+ 41C +"-qq^l rl g \g ae q
^J+'= Ag +o14. != 7-.9c7l?
(b) trF$ 4 olg a'J p++89 +6llE+ t'-+4g .*,rle. -vst'+*
(a) ZnCO3 @) ZnS (c) BiIr (d) AgCN (e) Ba:(POr)z
MnCoe, Hg(OH)2, Cu:(PO+)e gal ol¤ tl*zl
v.64 el+ 44q \++^J gol ,Jtlr+ HIeoBJ Ell
tz.s*l3s'cql^l caF2el E+6l] E7l t-24x10-3 mol/Lolfl, ol g o
^Al.l
gEql^] s.l K,ri gulQlzff (a) MnS (b) PbF2 (c) AuClr (d) Hg2CzOa (e) CuBr
(b) 2s'Cq^l SrF2i ffie{ 100 mLB l.1x lo-2 C4 +E
r7.6s s 17.lq1
^ll^lg
Kf<k+
^l=s"+q,
0.20 M NH:(aq) 100.0
4. srrz9 +"llE+g Zlt}sl^le. mlql Nicl2 r.zs g* +.J + B¤q ¤xllalb Ni2+(aq)q
(c)2s "c9lr.l Ba0oJzg K,p= 6.0x10 '0014. sa(IoJz9
Ni(NH3)62+9 r-o EE 4l,t}6t^l 9.
E-&611E= grf.Jz|?
17.66 0.020 mol NiC2O4(K,r=4xt0-t0)E 1.00 L $e!ol| $olzl
U.sa b) rcql^l PbBru9 5*6llE= l.0x mol/Lolr|. r,,
9l6H^l NH3= q! cEE tEzlzl
2s 10-2
6lrE7I? (6J
E +6|^le. ^I¤-6llot
E: +Eol ^j$;l szlrjolzl ullEgl czon2 I7I+e6ll=
(b) Agro:E ++.-q 1 L* 0.04e0 g4 $41 B Ell s" 6llE
+^16ilE ¤+.)
+ tI+¤ 4l4}6f^le_.
(c) P.+ Dq zlet K,p {19 ol+6}q s.s} ca(ouL *9
.ez egtg r,re| E Ki itg ^l-S4q
Ag(cN)z -
(a) trfaJEq^lE AsrE E-86llEE 4l4l6l-^le.
9 PUE Alt6l-^ls. -z (b) E+g +$ AgI(s) + zCN (aq) : Ag(CN)2 (a4) +
2s'cql^l +-E+ Lql= 0.0061
e-^J& ++(caCzo, *eq 1.00
r-(aq)! *B tI+E ZI4l6I^le.
cE +^JtI3+ol Eq fl4. zs'cql^] ol gE +6llE+ ^J
-tz.ss Al4}6l^le. +'-lql^l Agle.l +&6llEE al,t}6l^19-.
(c) 0.100 M NaCN
+E
r7.6s Ag2SE K,p, H2S9l K^4 K,r, Agclr-9 Ky:r.l xlos (lg
17.s6 2s "cql^J snl ololetrsl B(rD +q 1.00 LqlE o.s+ 99
Ehg EI+E EB tr-+= 4l4}6}^le.
pbr27}=iq flq. 2s'cql^l ol ge.l +.llE+ r}+= 4ltI6I ^hS6Iq
Ag2S(s) + 4 Cl- (aq) + ZH+(aq)
^lg. ;- 2AgCl2 @q) + H2S(aq)
44 DE
^l-8-6].q
+.9 4 +eqq^lg AgBrel +$dlE=
41416I^l9..
ot8et fl84 Eet(17.6tr)
-17.57(a) t7.6e (a) 0.0s0 M CaCh 899 pH= 8.0 o -e. 4¤618, +sqql^]
#f'* E
(b) 3.0x ro 2 M AgNo: *eq ca(oH)r7I AdElETI?
(b) 0.050 M AgNO3 100 mLE 5.9x10 2 M NazSOa *al
(c) 0.10 M NaBr *9
q¤ 4 +Eq^JE l0 mlq 4lg ql, Ag2SoazI ?dEEzI?
l7.ss LaF:9 *dl-=.E s/L Bge 4lt6t^le.
tf'tt *9 17.70 (a) 0.020 M co(NoJz 8"19 pHE 8.s-e.
(a) E O) 0.010 M KF +q (c) 0.0s0 M Laclr =.¤6IE +alql
r.l co(oH)rz| ?dq:z}?
rrul ,1aq1 caF2 se] +"I4 +al ?*3 currlr;z} BB tr-qlql (b) 0.010 M AgIO3 20 mLE 0.01s M NaIO: 89 to mt
9l4r. .U4alz}. f.d El-¤- .]r.ill cactzE ¤:9"11 dzl-+4. e+ dg oil agtorzl ?d9bzl-? (t}. egtorel K,p 7"IZ
(a) ul4 Btqq r{l CaF2el o}ol +7l6lY7l, zJia}iz},
3.1 x 10-801+.)
rr.il-e 9l=7I?
o) +elql^lel ca2* ol8 LoEi f;zlalg7l.. r}^16l+71?
Mn'*1aq)= Mn(oH)ze ?drlzl r t ETI r p.glLll ppb
(part per billion)l olafz| rlE.$ 6171 9.16ll p-e-a;! alA pH
(c) ¤:991r]9 F- olg 5.E= 67f6I=7L ,J461.=7p
-v.7tE 4l&61^le_.
17.60 Hlzql Pbr2 s.p+ +eqr} +^l 9*3 rtrr1s;z1E¤ tqlql 9l
818 173 +E'-4 "J:Bel tl= p3
?f oJ# +41
t7.83 S+ +'-qE poHE $+ +"-!E Ezl ^JE9 pKa4 flddl 17.8s +s4l(HCsH3O:)9 zs"Cql^J & l|ol a.za x 10-4014.
?E Henderson-Hasselbalch Ag +BE 49 +E 2s'cql^] +g +._!E pHE Zl&6}^ls.
^lr+
5I^19_. (a) #e& 2s.0 g4 +tr& r0.0 g9 H9
g-e- o.2so L7I qE+ ^E(NacsHro:)
tr7.84l 9lE:g cork)tl Eql +ol E4}(srcor)ol ^J^Jq,s & "J= +"-!
dol4. BlE"l Ll+ &^dol ,J6IE, 4sl.J "i 47lle+ HI* (b) 0.250 M HCsH:O: 30.0 mlgl 0.22 M NaC5H3O3 20.0
6J 4ol4("lH aol +E E^Ia#(cacoJg EJEbTi?). + +El l2s mLzI
mLE 4ol r]EB #6J +.1
glEq^lE +t +1!+^ ol$(Hco:-), 9.11o1$(co:, ) M NaOH *9 SO.O mLE 0.0850 M HC5H3O3
(c) l.6s
g E.+ Bd soEzI l.0x l0-5 yol{ pHzi 5.6solefa z} 0.s00 Lql ez}a}q
^ll=6J
+oq
c6lj1, +tI, ts&+^ ol.$(HCo: )r+ *4I olg(col-)9 17.S6 4l-g7l zl^lE.J +./a4l¤ 1fl(bromocresol green)$
u
r-oEE al4I6I^19_. EAIol+. ^l^lEg a1 qrfl(u*^l)e| 9zl EEI(B)b
+7l'Ea E^ll 919
pH 4.6soJ trll +'l qlql^l Ag Eo s-e. ue q= 17.95 d,¤g 6IEjj1 +qr. 7Ia6l^I. ol ¤eql^l pH
=,xguj4. ^J?,lpl
q1g:fl9 p&= +6l-^le. 6.s0E $+ +"lol gsg aol+. zlB fol gzli.{z} oJ
17.87 &(HA)rl 9zl(s)9 Lo.E'E. 44 0.010 M-e z;-211 x1a;|{ 4I Hre1f,, :2x10-2, &z:5.0x10 ?) E= raE iE
gql qla4^l ?++g .J9tr+. qBlBg r.0 M 4I +Erl
41fl4. g6J¤ *o-!9 pHz| e.2oltrl.
(a) HAe+89 Hl¤¤++U Be ++44¤q 'gagzl.rle. 1.0 M NaoH +olg olsog + ?l+. NaoH $e{ $ulg
(b) HAE K,7to18.0 x 10-soJ ql, HAe+ B H]*ql 1.0 LE 4}ql Hq igot pH 6,s0e.l g+ +slol El*7I?
^Iolel (+. +u19 HEI+ +^l+trI.)
+{} BB {'-+ Ag g"loJzt?
(c) B9 Kr Ztg +6i^le-. 17.96 0.1000 M qtr4}(cH3cH(ou)coou .E* HCaHso:) *
17.88 ae g+q +&(HCooH)4 +414.Ei(HCooNa)¤ B9 I zs.oo mlql 1.000 M NaoH H mLE -Jolo} pH::.zs
+El7I 1.00 L7I qEq + 7l^l g+ +"-49 x]aolfl+. A
q ¤F +"lg "JE + 9l=7P
17.97 +4I B(rr)(pbco:)9 B+ ql+g *E"46 CE + 6l-+
r.. B s+ +slg 44 0.010 mol4 ol+.
^l-s6l.s.+.
(a) F $6 *"-49 pHE Al4I6I^le. (a) pbco:9 K,p llol 7.4x 1s-tao3 ql, +41 B c.pl +.-4
(b) q! + $+ +"19 $+ +"*ol trl *71-? ql^JE Pb2+el E-+= gEloJTf?
(c) r.00 MHCI l.0mLE+++*9"11 Ezla}flgtrI H (b) E+ +"lql^lE pbz* oleE ppb+E= gsi.Jzl?
sI9 pH ZI(E= pu9 Hri*)9 4l&6}^le. (c) pHzI*ole el. pbco3g +6llE= f;zlafiz|, olr-l
(d) r.00 M}lcr l0 mLE + eF 8'-491 dzlol9g'I H E eld+7|?
4¤ pH Z}(EE pu9 HsleDS Zl&6}^le-. (d) EPATI -d+6I= Eql^19 B ol89 e}4l *sE rs
17.89 cE]qzl-zl pH a.s0el o}^llE^I-ol^llE& iE s+ ,nuo14. e4l B(rr) Ecl +"-qe EpAg +zl +EE
+ol 7s0 mL¤ ^I*6IBlr +El. rill ol-^llEtl 4E- =r+61+7p
(csrcooNa)4 Bat1cu3cooH)g ol$ol zl=5.alQ. 17.98 7+71r+E_ t}g alBS +q^l K,pE q +6llE
^l^*6lq =
B=tlE +E= ee'l"(e* v")o14, 'JsE t.os g/ mlol4. r*= ag +s^l9-.
e}=! +._qq^l cH3cooHE r-oE7I0.ls yol qe$ alel
=
(a) CdSeI CuS (b) PbCO3el BaCrOa
H, cH,cooNaG q]+l)e+ Ba&(mL ++l)g 9uI"J*4 (c) Ni(oH)re+ Nico3 (d) Agrs+ Ag2So4
al*zl? 17.99 ts& rJ6(caco3)E +dlE= puoll 966J4.
^l-.&6llot
t7.90 ulzlg oloyJz[4] 0.2140 gS zs.o mr_9 E9] H¤ (a) Ef& olgE t-g7l 5cg -7;.laf,., caCor9 E*
^lE
0.0es0 M NaoHE 4C6].fl4. tol "J*dql E$afi rll oIs.E al+Ialrlg(K,p:4.s x l0-e).
E7]r 27.4 mlzl- g,s-6f+. O) co32- olgql ql6J Ka !9 qg H]+fl ¤B
^|.+6}q.
(a)tl9 Ee"*e 9o}.Jzf? *+= aa6}^le_.
O) 44 ^l g7l= 15.0 mL eTloJ +. pHTI6.s0ol Els CaCO3(s) + H2O(/) :
g9t+. 4I9 K"lke B"IoJzI? Cazt(aq) + HCq @il + oH-(aq)
17.9t ulzlef ojoyjz|$ 0.1687 g* zs.o mrg Egl 5¤ (c) ca2*, HCo3-, oH- olgol caco:9 +6Htr+El ^JA
^lE
0.lls0 M NaoHE 4A6IH+. tl"l B=Jd9l EB6l= ql 4a z13o3r1H, G)q ¤¤^lg ^l-&6I= CaCo:9 E
g71 ls.s mlz| Pgafr|. +6llEb gEloJTl?
(a)'tl9 ge=*e 9"f?lzf? (d) pHzt 8.3t] qloJq^l g+qtr. caco:9 E+6llE=
O) 44 ^l g7l= 7.25 mL Ezft +, pHtl2.8szl fl$ 9utoJzf?
.JgttrI. 4Ig K, <Ie BuI.JzI? $+qH, CaCo:9 +&6llE= grloJz}?
(e) pHz| 7.sq^J
17.92 E4I-rlE7l zlAg g Ell 6rJdql^.1q puzl4I9 p&4 17.100 il of ql+gg +4}sleq4 Gydroxyapatite)ee ol+q 4
a+g trol^le(+, +aae'J.+dql Eg6lTlz-^lql g 9lr, EI++ alol^lg cas(por3oHolq, :aql ^J+6i=
s6J A7l¤ ¤zl9 ¤elol 9i zld"l4) . K,r:6.8x l0-27o14. 801+ql^] Eelt ailH, E+gfl
17.93 'Joldald
qI&g o.roo M NaoHE 4A"Jq. BP*dql clg E s.= ilEql^1g 5a_eil4 ole+ +4I+.Jcl4
Eg6l-71 +16ll^l} NaoH *ol 50.0 mlz| gs6ltl. g rl qlg" 6Iq 5+9. fl pl.J sl 4 (fl uoroap atite, Cas (pO J : r) I
tl zs.o mrE ?zl6J E+9, +EE pH= 3.52olEl. E4I9 ol19 K,p:1.0x10 600lEl.
^Jd6Lq,
p&E 414}6}^19-. (a) i^JsloJEl^14 ql6J +611E
=+eflp+tpl4q ^J+4
g 4^ls.
17.94 0.30 mol NaOH, 0.25 mol Na2HPO4, 0.20 mol H3PO4ql
(b) ol5 +ql$ql ql-J 44E g+6|]E= AltI6I^le.
E.g Hq 1.00 L-e sBE|. ol goJ*99 pHE go}"Jzt?
820 173 +Eo-! oJ--Jel Ll-= gfE
r7.to2 o.so M NH4Oql^l ug(ou)29 +61lEE 41416}^19-. G) E+ql^J Ms3(Asor2 .E.-gl+qg pHE Zltatrls.
17.103 r+I,}zfq={! uffiBa(Mno)r)9 Sdls$ 44s 2.s x t0-'0 17.108 zn(oH), 4CE9 +"llE= 3.0x10-'60l+. 6}0lE+t
olQ. nill Ba(rvrnor)zE KMnoa +Eql^l BBol+j1 zf zlEoJ zn(oH)l-E Bd *fE a.ox 10 l7olEl. *9 r r
C++. +"4ql^l Ba2* ol$ol 2.0x l0-8 ME \ug z1z1 B zn(oHL 0.015 molol +4El= ql gs.+ oH-g b.sa
916ll gs+ KMnOael *:E$ sulolzlr E gulqlzl?
r7.r04 caco:4 Fecorzl ad¤ ¤¤ tlelg E.J i+q^l u.109 Cd(oH)r9 K,p lkg z.sx t0-t4ol4.
[ca'*]e+ [Fe'*]9 ul$ zll,lfof,<le(+, Eg o]S $zl.rJol (a) cd(ou)29 E-&qiE= goloJzl-?
n, e^l oleE zl+ EqlE +^l¤+a 7iA{}q). (b) Cd(oH)rE +6llE= +olg cdBr42-(ry:sx1g)E B
r7.r0s pbso4q srso.el ^JCEq +6llE+ *iY 44 e .t x cg ti6il *zH i gl4. rgl cd(oH)rE: NaBr *4
to-7, 3.2 x r0-7o14. 4 EAol B¤ tlEIt +.lql^l 9l BzlafB cd(oH)rE 5+ElE= 1.0x10-3 mol/L-B
[sorz-1, [pb2*], [sr2*]el t]* go].Jz[? +71^lvl7l +16ll gst NaBr9 i7l r-oE=. guI"JzI?
I r,l
o
o 1'
'?
tru
L.
I r \
.T
1rg
f
---i
.l
{*
\-
l.x
/'l-.),:,,- r, :TE=
*l$"
I
?.'
d
*
G
t}
? T *
*
18.1 > ^l7ol
EllTl zl+ 47lel gE "i "Jq
el EEe+ +EI4 adg gqe+. ql
7171 4oJ +^ldg ¤:+6ll^l .Jq+=
HI+.J +olg+e+ +4?-lql ql6l gol
Etr}.
-t
=E ^ErE
_r.zJ4, 4tdEle+
FE erJ $Fol 4zl.ll Elil: g6}ql
ql"I golE+.
BC
823
18.r I al+sl trIl7l
+?.1= ql+E zl+ sEql^] r4 Er-l Bq4^l zlLllE {ol g{oug, *42} ¤r 9l=
+Aql 4oll 4zlz} ¤6J.9 "lil= {4 zl.zl %}4g'JS6J ase ^J4.Jrl.. ol eql^j=
zl+ 47lflel +soJ 5cg .J.l-E 4o14.
421fl9 gE= nqql IrI+ HE+'J+(f.aJ 18.1). 421fl3 ol gE EEq q4 '-ll gqe
tr +Eg+. zlEE Ht.E +l= r15tr1(troposphere)olrll, gE= ;t+zlg4z}tsrJ ¤+J4
o-tr rJ46Iq qt ro r<m 4dql^J zrs 19
=lz-ldql
Eg.J4. +d-15 q++e d ^J.ll=
ol 4+flql^l zlu+. *4zl HE'Bal'+r
^J46]-=
E= 45, g+4= z3-5olrl $E
fl+ Ht*, ,J+s+ s+++ 6l¤ Ag 4ol ol gqql^J .Jqt+. "Jq] aJ*zl} trE zl+ E
10 km(33,000 ft) 9l= $olzlirll, ol LEt..ll+fl41B(tropopause)ol+r d+ 4+fl9
+l+ a4ql 4'J.J+.
q+flzlE flg gEE ntrql uI4 6zlat9, s0 km zldq^J 27s Kql EB6J+. l0 km
91,<J so kmzlxlsl zldg ¤*fl(stratosphere)olall .Jtl. d+fl 9= +rJfl(mesophere)
100 100
G3l
=e
90 90
80
=,Jil1IE 80
70 =r.t3 70
60 60
.r. .r.
iso
E
tr
--- d=3zlE *so
E
J xE
-no -no
30 30
,/.IE+]
20 20
10 --rll+fli{E 10
rll+ts
0 0
170 190 2t0 230 250 270 290 200 400 500 800
3E(K) gzl(torr)
824
18.1 tHTl 825
^l+ol
ullEql 4zl"Jg *3 -zs.ql.<JB+ *g _LsqlrJ ,ll+ q uu|-e4l ,Ji*+. s _zollLlrl Efl"JB "J^loll E6fl
=
qg 6H+Eql^J 760 torr(lOr kpa)9 ¤+{Iq^l 100 kmql^J= 2.3x10 3 torr-B, Nrl o fl^[7[ EJ=olT]rt. olil ==
3^t9 l^t7l
200 kmql^J= +zl 1.0 x 10-6 torrtr zJA04. ollL1^l AtEfle =E
EqE
SE||oll,(l
rrll
'+3
7[^l"Jd
q+fl4 C+fle A%isE sE 421fl9 ee.e%o416l]"J6JtrI. r+ ql+flol ol 'J=olT.lrt.
cflzlel a¤
zl7 421fl9 Ell.Jse+El +^Id4 glHzl "Jzt9 +49 zl44 o-+ +r glq-.
olerll +.olzlE qlLJzl:, +61 E 80 km ol^J9 4zlfl tI++ ¤Eql "+ql.J E
E4, clE4 ¤+g ul{r}(:eJ t8.2). 4)4zl ^l+ +4 qlEql +r-le flz}p} E
I
zt= zl.49*zll qj1. nl+^l B+ 7Iq+ sz}q +zl^b 421fl9 +qlTlql Bot il
zll ¤4(ol4,ol B* xl4+ tste+ aol, q+{ol 4zl d=}9 75o/o3 itzl6l+ ol+
olr{). olelaJE=st ql$q 421fl9 aCg+g6tzl ?++.
E 18.1e 6ll+E a3+ +719 EE¤ aCg +4U 4014. q4 Eee
=i]
ule*{ fxlla}zl"J, N2e} o27} 6I]+E 4zl9 ee%oE zt^l6t:il,, ElgC 7lz,ll(tsA fH 18.2 EizJ @sharpslshutterstock
0.000002 t6.043
'llql"J
rBE 0.000001 14 83.80
6H+E0ll^1el EflgfB
^EIEB
I
N
(o
x
E
zl,il# 4eld
1400 1800 2200 2600
rl8(nm,
fH 18.3 tllTlE +rel EI1SB ,,'ullefl$ 6H+EE EHgzJ Hlr 6H+E0ll^l Etf +44
.J Egg ^17 ?E ^EEE,
trl.g= E+61= rl]7lflE 7l^ll rrt|Eolrl'. +^]+sl Egl?.l 'Ftux'ts E?l
=ce";oilLl^lE
? 3?l E4.J =g-sr
LIE[LJrf. ^lz
\__f
qHl 18.2
// euJg #b E{l rJsnJ +at ahf
oz E^[E 6Hal=g ttl{ g^|.=J ollLl^l=,+= "]el .ltt| tr|-8= L[lrnlElE 76t/.l9.
=E-d
6tlff 4el 6J +zlE o:o ol+ Aqlg #= ql gs+ qlq4=
Eq o2E o:o 016 Aqlg #= ql 'J"*Zl +++ qlqzl Al&6lloF 6lq. f-ffi ol oll'Jzl= 7t4l
"*zI9 ulerg "Jol
r*= +rz}9 :ilz}g folf $xllolr|. 4oi aJ4.
=
828 183 +3at+
¤01
oz9 dl4 9lulzlts 4e5 kflmololtrt. ol tt+ Avogadro f (nnt,, ,.'*,X*r#rE4)
E ^l-S6lq o, + +4q^l a.Jg #= rll $Afl olluJzl :8.22 x t'#
10
sl olg 4l4}g+ 914.
._ Edl olrJ*E qq
49 u:i:E x 10-1eJ :
planck $Al E:hv (r'r 6.2)q 8.22
1.24 x lgts r-t
^l= *zlE dH vE 4l4IB + ?l+.
714. 6.626 x 10-34J-s
+el trt+^J {z}zl xE=Hq^l ztEd ¤qql +61+ +t} pol Br-Br aqlg 6ll?.181+ Ell "J"*g +++ glulul= r*
ol 242 nmoJ H3 o, Ez]-= *6llr-16l+ ql +Eel *zt* 9l r 9l=7r?
qzl= ,*j1 ll4. 44 *xI9 qlqrl= +
Elarol A^q+ql (a) 620 nm (b) 310 nm (c) 148 nm
zlalEE. qH olzials. 242 nmil4 er.g ulelg ,*Y 42 (d) 6200 nm (e) 563 nm
02= dlldl6]+ ql +++ qqxl= r*:4. >lr*qw2
> E5 qlr.il 1 Nz9 ?6J qlq4= e41 k|/molol4. NzE 6llEd+ ql +
Br-Br a.JE 6ll?-1 9lrlzlE le3 kflpslolcf. qH +r}9 ts6J qlq zl= r*= %I^tE 7l* 4 El+3?
,.11fl+. sql^l +q{ 4.ll q*Eq Se .l}t}g z}d r}zl+ 4tol$ffi "Je7l= Ell 6E
18.1 L|]Tl 829
^l+ol
-K
lll
N
BorE+E goreor gdEr=7t, Boreor gdErtsTr? BorE+E Eq
A =-Eror l,
I ^='n Rr
EJ
d.l
fio
^"i*+Jg e+
,Un
EgE #r q]4*9, +6ll6J -r.olluJzl *zle+q +p-lE !_g-.J+. 4zlfl tt+ ril8(run)
+ql^l qBrll s+ol ^JCqq, olBzll *zl¤ g+61+zl¤ ¤9Bzl. a=B 18'4 44EaJ
Ell.Jss+El9 +rlCol 6H+Eql^J e0 km ;'+oll olEE go1$ffi "Jea 'Eg =+
+ 9l= +rltlE grld"l ql+E g+¤+. rfl+ + 9l= +
ol r.Eql^J= o,E dl4B
30 kmE -nEql4zl ozg g6H4(4 rs.r;5 +s+ 4csE BoI gl
^Idol +E6l +6ll^1
,ll gtrI. 6Ial"J 30 kmql^l e0 kmztzl= o2E r-oEzl flz] t49 4]i tEH.+ +{d q
+El. nt?+^J ol ¤qql^l or9 l}6114oll e-l"H BCg {li gz}.= 4E o, +zIeI ++ +=
6rq e=g ¤c++.
:O + Oz Os* t18'21
6l] 4}i7t otu r+= Eeol +q6l= y+e p+q}HI*ol "Jq+q, E6J c+flg gE+
6}s=+.t+e+ Hl-*el er]-$ r.Eolloty} ql+. er+zle.E. ,ll+ ¤*+ tolol Eqd+. s=
zlla HI*ol 4zl9 t# 4 e.Jr+ "*84^l Polzl= a"6J4 Aalr f.al 18.s
^8dr+ 'lE
^.1++ 47lE s= EEI ¤elql^l
ql H.J ule+ rJol, 314 s= *E7l ntr E zs kmgl,rJ
+4+rll 94. ol4al ^Jql4eE +g s= E"Eg 4E',eff, E='s= %r-ql,qr .Jq.
300 nm-H-4 Se v}f,l$ *{* ge ++E +.J EIE eqlg #g + 9l+. nt+^l +4
71 4l+6ll^] B zl44E 's¤ Buil'zt g+4olr}. rel+ r1qlq4 +^|dq g+4
"J *qzt
q= s= +zl+ ^JCg + Z]+6]]^J tlrlqEE, d+flq +^l]6l+ &a
fl4-E + ol+ ig Elg"Jg ilzl6J+.
\
E
18.2 I oJTJ g+ul zl+E trll7l
.J*4"J zl*g ul¤ + gltrI. t zlzl ¤.s_6J zl¤21
^IAol pI&94zlfl¤
L-
fg 18.6 1991LJ 69, Pinatubo el{t e=+e zlEd(uv) +^Hl elaj ulallE+El zl+ sBg tr-q.6]] trI4^l ^d
=+.
=EE 6fl s=el EoETI tI'J=J +^6IH, HtrI "*e. zlEd +^I7I zlf EBoll EB6I
18.2 I oJ2J sJ5rf rHTl 931
^l+ol
^J ^JCg
tlp* 4iz}+,l] EI+e-a "J6ll s=g 44++= ag BHrI.
Rowlandg} MolinaE: I 974 LJ ql urocarbon, CFC) 7I
=E-e=+9EEJ4(chlorofl
s=# +i^l7J + gl+b ag trgtrI. olBl'* E4g +_e, cFcl3e+ cF2cr2 f; 9f(Dobson trJ9)
.Jql, z}¤4ql^l=
"JEqzlzl g*q4, zJ9 ++lxlle, ts,l]zilc+ 9l"l
110 220 330 440 550
ffi-
^Eqlol
gE4ltr,ll+ ts4 4olr 9lr+. 6l="+ 4zl9lrl=
fl zlillE. E= rg 19.7 20061J eE 24gsl 'JHJ+oil
olE EAg ,.19=+^eg
o}+fl t}*^"rol $.4. rl*ol Eql Hli4 +zl ?+eq, q+ a6l'=e= 0l +lE Pl8oll^]+l+-Lf =il
?iol
,J+ql 96ll E: +6]]qq 4zl9lrl zllzlslzlE ?+=tt. E+4alE, rl. 0l 'JP
^lEts 7l+8o"e 718 -*3
qEHT)l^le] d
"HoJql
q]*Col tt+= 43 ol5 Eeg ^JE49E f+6iZl "J57lE 6IzlIrJ, 4zl ^3ol g= 5_E= _EoJ LJolrl. 1'Dobson LJ
^J
rHTl 1 cm2 tl$ LHoll ?t= 2.69x1O16zil
ql^.] ?*e 4s C?Aee q&Elrll uJgzlE'*4. ¤xll +E"J EE 9l= sl 9= E^loll 6H-J-srtl.
^ll4qzl
cFczl4zl 691 aeE_ +tqn 9l+.
=rli6l-=
CFCTI c+¤ss q4]qE, rqq4 +^]dql L¤qq *olep]z] "Jqg + 9l+.
c-o a6Jg c-F eqlql HI4 ^J44sE .+6J 4Sq, EI*E AB4.J HI+^lql^J tr=
ute+ ?ol, teo-z2s
"m
H9l9 "ltlg 7l4l Hg a^I6rE +49 ga g^I7r ^Jc¤rI.
CF2CI2@) + hv CF2CI(g) + CI(g) [18.6]
-
Al4lql 96}tr, gi g4+ s+ol TrtI * tE.P 30 kmE -ZEq^l TItr-uBlE
=4161+
HI* +Es ^Jcg+'
gi gz[= s=r+ uu]Ezll H]+6]q "J&s] gie+ &i Ez]z] ^JCg+.
Cl(s) + os(s) --------+ Clo(g) + oz(g) [18'7]
or +*eEI*+E
glffi;il;JJ-;-T: lzesrerd) t1881
A
| =,,,
9=ol 4rl7l[cr]0il el=alEe, ct=
^l
18.10oe LIE|LH= u3011^l +0l1tr 84--J + 91
cFCe+ +fl¤ {t? Ezll ql$ql ol5 Eeel xllaei ql6J a7l7} f6flzlir, 9l+.
^l=f,-ql
7l* +fl 671: rqazHgl s# rJi Eeql+q +7Vl cFC ^J4Ig ¤olb ull E
ql6l]
e]6l= Montreal EC^Jql lee2LJql= tr+ g4+ 4l+ol ¤Cqfl=ql, E
^lE'* 1o14.soEE
r007H+el 4szl l.9seB4z|g+4"J xllc.lalli cFcel +z16}
^llee+ ^l-8¤
7ltr t9+ 4o14. rq+El CFCE ^J+e zYyle4l +A6IH.+. ,ll'J +gg -r.B 18.7
q tr"J Hle+ Ag gtr-ql lrlsH, e= +BE zJolq zzlzl *"lzlzl .tlzla|-r. il4. :
HqlE E+6l.Z cFC= t}*col Hj1 ^.r+flql oI+ L44l q4}q'E, 4elxl-E=g c?
Aq s= *E7l rssoLJ old +6e-tr 5ot7}= qlql= id Hol Ag aol+a +4}6I
11 9lq.
"lqe EeEol CFCE qi]l6}qgzt? ¤4EE +g qlilEe +iE+g+eEE
c(hydroflurocarbon)oJ4l, ol= CFCgl C-O aQlg C-H A6Js-e il¤I6'J:*ElEol4.
Bzll rl-*qE olfl slq+E-g t ztzlE CH2FCF3oJEJI, Hrc_r:aaE "JEl4 gl+. HFC:
c-cl A*ol $.o Ir.e CFC-trtr}gC +s+. olEg rJqoJ g¤ TlilloJol geja+. gd
zl^{q qldi^l= a+ Flql +$trt.
agql^l "J5qzl= cFC= s,zl"J, a¤ql^lE + cFC-+.+El Bsdol ^Jcq= a4
zJol 4zl9l g^el ue."J¤ 4+=El. ol7l+ zlEq^J tri gzlE s= +d
^JCg cl Br
HISq +"iB + 9l+. 4Sq +¤ *+ge u-e"Jsi ,llgq ¤sl ,llB.Jrll, ol
=46I=
E e+tl5s ql"Jq^J %r-eg+. olqoJ Ezl¤ol 7lq6[= 49 421fl9 di]l clr] BrE
r/:olls *"lzlE AeE ++g+. 'I"lzl 213+ oJTJ gEE ¤4o14.
Ellie Hclel fl{ol+, "JE}4eE 'J=g HClg Eil+flq E+ H}+6}q ^}6 ql7lfle
E= 0l*161zl *++.
t¤Hl
+f EfEJEzf
+g ++61+ +tlEs agE eEqrl ?*g qlzlqlE qL dE olfl + 6J+
=zl]*+.
sI6JEg El4} zI^, SzlE9 ts611, rEr e ra.zg +E_qI +E *+gg-tr+q
^ll+ ^J
CgE|. d¤ zlflqld d ^il414 e_E 4zle *=q= olq6J EI6JEe.l "Jg E z+xrou sl
ule.ts, oJg_! sI aox ro'2
e/'J(?E El4 ¤eq ¤^e+ +d)
"JzJ SE"ll 96I] "J¤.qzl=
x.'18.4 oJHJ E^l Efl7lql^1ol .url zl+.
E|lT| LoJ EEsl rol+ +E + slB.Ee +E ol^Ie+ B(sor.Jr], olag 9H} _e_g 7141+ z|$ $fllap al]-es 4
9g EE tsE(ppm)
oltrI. E i8.4= gHl4.J(5861 r- q:agl E6]] ¤6Fg *zl *9
E^l +Aql^l p zlxl e
'J&e+ +r l0 ¤ zl8l9 tE= Bq +r gl4. ol zlEql E6lE, oltle+ +9 +E= +t 0.08 ppm E
+i++^ 3 i : ol.r3-o1i1. ol fEE 4E s_g Ee, 561 .J&El BiE t.tri{+
^J'J6l *g aol
ol^Is+ + 0.08
q. rHqE E+6Ir so2= -H-oJ Ee +ql^1, -=61 EE-zl e+ol 9l= zI*
^IBql4lE
4is} ei 0.0s c4.J azJg +l+t a +71g + 9l+.
El+ql^l g+ %l¤q= soz9 eI 65voy 4e gd
^lql +s= 4olB, ^i+tr+El
dzll tlslrll 0.02 E
(e-=r} TIEI) 20o/o7l g^J*tr}. ol *E EI++e Aqe.l "J soyo= BB6l+ 4+ Elq tsd^ql^l g^J¤
18.2 ) oJzJ EJS]I r|lTl 933
^l+ol
rI. 4+ ¤^ E4l.J soz *¤9 CE= 4+el + 6J+=J4 g+qq fl4. so, s-g
^19
q qlt +El trllEq s+ *+=Jol 49 4+g is_z} t*ol rl _r.7}oltrl. Mississippig ffi
ql+¤+ a* ,*-,+*ol ^Jql4sE +e'll. ol= 4E 4*9 6y,=
^J4Iq= 4+q
ql^J
^l
zloJ+. trl+ +ql^J E= q++E aJ ts?=Jol *zl"J, ol 4eg ++l e=*'J g
^l+ ^ltsg
e*ol *e_s.e, g^Jq= ++l g*B:*.J+"*9 ilol= Eal rJr-]="lE EI+ re4l
=zlE S4.
zoroEgl
"l* s*3 !.Eae so, %I=ql q1a3^ll-tr¤ 7)+*
^ll*{+.
olde_l 7l=e 24^l
?J 140 ppb(parts per billion)flbull, trlzJ E.J +A r.l zs ppb9 2l1fr9tr Ht+lB.
=4 ^J
4. :44 soz *¤9 a4E trl+ql"J +qlq= 19 olH4. ++e di{ qlqzl +e9
4tsql^l $ss e, ,qlzllleE TrtI "*ol sorE %I=61+ +71E, szJ :s x r0,, gg
70vo*
4Bol4 4E fld o-e+q HJ¤6II il4. ol 44, ++ql^lE so, sgol fe gzllzl- el
r fleq, EJ=g x]a|.tlzli.+sE
^ll+l
qL dE C+6Ir. ilrt. *ilZlql^l ++ol 7l-tl
Y*9 sor= %I=6I+, 4+g fe olluJzlilo-E
^l-eo6f=
oJETI Euls4l 9l+. ++ il+r
9 so, %}¤ol zoozHgl slrdg 4g +¤, .Js9 4zl 6 soz ootg zoos'J91.9 zor+H
q*+. rJg gs6J
^Iolq + +7l **L 4^lzl +zll4 ETllE E7l +l"ll
El]Tl. 4,o14.
ol&s} +g .JrJE ,J*Ll rH&ql EF 6l]= vl{L+. rJ+ol 47lE sozE 94 zlzl(o2
Ei o:4 *so 6[b Ee]) atr-tr. so3-E te]94. sorzl Eql +eH +tol "J=qTl+.
SO3(g) + HzO(l) H2Soa@q)
gg u+ql -
*ss
¤4zl= +la4
so2E ¤41tr.= HzSor qEql "Jq+= 1o14.
g6}9
4zl9l So2eI ols+q ql&g fl¤ul(acidrain)4-L +s= etlg a
=zfl{+ ^JCEI=
4,J+(e&g ^J¤6I= &+ Artr 4ICHIE BC6l+ i-g_ goJol+). sgq4 *e BIE
e ql+ s.6 4Eel pHE tr?J4. zl$4 4IEq +g gae co, ull$olrll, cor= Er+ HI
84q B&(H2co3)g "J=rI. &^JEl= "JHI49-g 44 pu 4 +=9 <tg zlH4. ol4qL
tlE +71= ++H, 4ol, zH44e-l *e n+ql^J q+eJel ,J^ q s+e| +fl +E ^JEll
z1 qlE+lrql ¤-Jg ulzlr, ?14.
^JHillTI Ar
gl= qt+Ee.l ats+q pHE 6.sollrl 8.solzlEJ, f=J 18.8q1^J -H-Fol trl
t" 1'
5l
;.a
's'
5l at
t.1 5¤ isr. "'' .
Lab pH
lr I = 5.3
tl I 5.2-5.3
5r
Sr
rg Iil 5.1-5.2
5.0-5.1
3.0
4.9-5.0
i i'-1 to
4.&4.9
5t0 4.74.8
5a
ao ae 4.64.7
4.54.6
$o "n'li
u$ffi 4.44.5
I
r 4.34.4
< 4.3
AfH 18.8 2008LJ El+el 'J+e-l pH '2J *xlzlEGl ?,1= Ee Z,\l84E +l^l= LfEfLJtl.
834 18E| +73Et-+
glf
-L
rll. 448s1 +Eol ;
^llg-d
Lt HGtf=7l.= _Eq ++.
'- {
I
I
1 I
li
caSo:9 Lall oJzI "l ql+Eq Hlg"6|zl ?** sorS cao= Eql +?l ¤q'-4q Er+^l7l
E g*E zlills+el ,ll4g + 9lq(re ¤.10). r4+ soz d+z| 4l4Flzl= ?*=r+. ^ll
,ll4sE ga$ "Jq 4+4 4#zI gag+= ag ^J46rtr, Sozoll elfl s¤g olulE
"J+rJe E4lE B.I 9g Lol4.
q -l
^Jc.l t6cl B+El.l .r
4lsl e^= E^l 4+z[+E E.+.]61 "Jr 9l= r-trrE ?CE"l4. ,.s-r(smog)4E
+q= qts r.r1 +Aql^l sgol .Jqts zrJ* +46}.=ql, 7\+ 4rJol Bli4 4i]g +
,l Bq?-l= "JEq .J "|| "JqU4. Los Angelesollrl +H61t{ ,,-IllE ¤zlL += Bg
jB.2 oJrJ LHTl 935
=rE+ ^l+ol
I'
eJ --JPaJol I
+
I
+ SOr(g;--+CaSO3(sffi
-Qr+a
t
^lV1
CaCO3zf CaO(Ae.1)et CaSO3z[ o^)=
CO2e EaHEJcl. =)l7l
adE+.
=alale
afH 18.10 EE= E461.= rl80ll^1 So2= HJE
^llZ6t=
o(g)
Noz(s) + hv + No(s) + [18.13]
scg Ala gzl+ 4. zlzl HI¤¤ 4^l4lqErll, :a+ 6r+* *^l ¤BoJ s=g dd6[
936 18:f EJeEtqf
HI+oltrI.
=
o(c) + ozk) + M(c) ------ or(s) + M.(s) [18.14]
E
gt
tt6l tr4= E=er'-.J qrl-.J rJa[+ HJ$oll e]6t| rJa|--+ ,^.qrol 8d0l TH,\lEl=7t?
+ 4o"isE+q qlLlzl= Ezl ?*E oPJql qlTl gEE +z16l+ EJI +g qBg ++. '11
+ a4+ .tlu-| zl$oll,tJ= ++7lE Eo E7t .=61 * s EE, * Ei.Jg +61 'lr, E].q= ql
+ ii+. 4Edg ¤+6I-z Ed zl+s +E4eE %l=6}111 6l+ ++71+ol gl o eg, s
Hqld olel6J +^Idg ++E sqEl4r q]+ #46}1l g+.
^lrl
ol,t}sl +^= 4f EE9 gEE *xlolE !l Pi4olxl"J, ,I]+ +soJ qgg .J+.
¤qlql oleel, d ^1144_q--E sl4 ¤e= gaE +Es ts^Elql "I4 4zl
^l+rl4+.J
9 ol&s} Ea EszI +461-rll +7I6If.+. sl4 ¤e9 dEe +e++^s+ 4E tst gg
1e.2 I oJ)J Er5zf L||Tl 937
^l+ol
"E,ollolE*,
EllTloll E6tl tfl7l0ll o16ll
*Ploll E6fl E+ElIl
\
lzTWlmz)
f ,f;*fl|,
E}lTloll e.l6llE+EJ
67Wlm2
t
8d 7lill
EE +^I
rUEd
Lllr= (390Wm2)
.EEollel6ll Q4wlm2)
Wm2)
EUTAI
(78 Wm2)
I Hzo
+
d
^[
7l
^11
rlsEoll,\l ,J=Elts
4eld
10,000 20,000 30,000
nl8(nm)
838 183 oJzal+
\\ qEl 18.3
E +l"J+E tae+e1 "J*EH CO2 oJsl+t
fl$f, 1.0eil01 EAEIfl= qq 8dElts ol{}al'EJ^9 traJe grP]Tl?(fl$+9 ++q?l "JEel'^d= 2+210.70 s/mlel
c8H18olt|..)
NtlU
E4 l.0rJflE ceHraol ll^e+ Hlg"6Iq ol4}3I} *ie+ +g 4l+ .J+ fl"J.,? r.orJH oJ9 crH,rg 4*9 g +9E a
¤d*g q ^JCg coz9 4*9 al&61-= Exllol+. {ullo} {}4. r q-9, csHrs9 ¤iE +¤ +q ++^lg +
tl, "]5 zfzla- co2! olE4oJ ^J4l=+g 4l&.JEl.
#01
a4itr, +ul= rJflql.r] ml.tr tr++.J+ t, or"u"o(ffiXrffi) : 3.7e x1o3ml
olqc, +lg+E rrJE= 0l+61-"1 a=*g g Bfl-a +.JtrI (3.7s xro'*l(ff) = r.u, x 1o3g
F qlrlll
.fie.E > .H.* qlr{|2
Bg zLFil-=ol +lB+e+ ql+g(c2HsoH, rrJE:0.78e otq rBql
^F&q=
s.-trqloJ(c3HJ zllE9 eEDll"J
g/ml)9 s.J+g ¤E+ gB + 9l+. 9l*9 t.o,JHS lsr}+.= ee+*+. ol ¤l + ,lql Eq gl= EeqloJg
g^^lag EI ^JCq= coz9 deJS g"IoJzt? Si^lag q ^Jdq= coz9 4*3 g"I"Jzt?
(a) 2.e kg (b) s.7 kg (c) 6.0 kg (d) 8.6 kg (e) e.2 kg
400 -l- _J
l
380
E
&
a l
T
E 1o
360
d
u 340
320
ArE 18.14 COz E-E e7l a+\)l ELI -dEHoJ ?iA EG CO2EE)| i+l4eE Zltroll 4al-Eol6Pl
nllEolr[.
corTl qlt EE +dg ¤.a glzlE}, oilql.J(cH,)r+ +ip+ E HFC9 dill bE=,l]H E 10%04 9lq^1, g¤
=:z}6}jr
c.49l zl¤alE ulzl /zltr- 9l+. 4el.Jg ol"l 8d sr-|
F9 4E zl
=+e-e+4(HFC), =-tr-tr=+e-+*d(cFc)
zllE gd -agql zl{oJ+. ql ¤zl,EI zloJg ap 914. rfl+ge+ B+E g¤+q s
HFC= cFC= tsrll4 glgd zl-
-
4 FE Etg .sEql^l qlitl6tB.+. HFC= s¤+9 +A= 4dql +fl 4zl zl4lE E^l+ 44. 4zl 69 qlql"J +E
ojezlzlS ?tzl"J, ,Jq+ gd zli1lo1c1. 5t+E qlE, HFC E.tlBzl +'Jql ?7[61] S=ql, t]Hzl d9li 0.3-0.7 ppm
s& ^lE +4]^E + 6ILIoJ HCF3= rgB CO2E 14,000HH E H+lolH 4ol, ,f,zllgl= oJ r.a ppmel Tlol qB.+r,*
oltE zl+ euq affi goz3 + il+n +4Ig+. EiTl +. qlq]"Jg +g ="Egg bBrl s*4 ¤e9 ^l-sol+.
840 183 qJSat-+
18.3 | zl+E E
E-9zl+EEg 72vo3 'Jr 9leq, ^JB4lq 9f4ol4. +E.Jill=e*eE *esvozl
EoltrI. E.g ot+ E+g +4 a,*sE "J6lt qlE4q+ +=d. #=dol $_L $$$ol z
trI , 1.I :i ). Eg +g +^"i trlEql +of"J olgc 844 +^d ..o + aoJ Eeg 5E6l
11
g +qlq. Eql^J= H20 z[4]ol H]*Ee 4+61+ a+= Ee-6}l^l Bg q]801 gq+E].
qE H2o= oJCzI +4q BzlE 4i+6}q &-¤zl +*ql +q6J+= zlq44 4*
=q
(1(, 3 'J r. olfl -E= c4ol +El= Eqt ++aq^l qgg 6|r gl+.
al+el E+EJ
zlft EE Ee zl+el E++sE gaqq 9lq(f-J 18.16). qTlql^J ¤E6l+ rlcg
EI++e EE tl Hs+e+ ¤+!q 9+. ql$ 5E ql"Jel Eill"J Eg Eli"J qi$ql Ell+lrq
^l
++l\tr_ 4zle +gqr, faol ffiqq *4zl +Ee-E .E-= aI^llel E%|gs g+.
+E +ql fl= E%lge AAEl6il^J g+ol qr, *utol+ EsE LIE]rll 94. zlt9lrl=
*uiolq Eol +o}^l ._qi{g Eol qq tsg 4^lal gq. aaol "*trtH, zl^JE g¤+ +
clqq 4zl9 ;?zle- Sola +E 9l+. -EHql^l "Jq+:4C(68, +sDe Sg HI+
oli1, qlTlql^l .Jq+= rld(ffi, aas+)e gg rlcolEs, olE 4ae sEq E4 ¤-
+g gg 4zle dg61+ E¤g 6l.zll gtl..
A*E:zl+ol EHoot
a+
gEzl
=0il^1 EIIl E1lTl0ll^i
E r18
E II8
'ciT
?!7llHl =,J,'Jtl
5Hl
{" oa
E|l$oll^1
E88
rl6t+E r18
a rH 1 8.1 6 E +EJ
^l?oll^lel
^-llal
ql"Jg 4qlql^l +ul: 1.3s x 10e km3olr zl+^JE $! e7.zvoE s,¤r6l-r. gltrI.
+81^l2.Bo/o *412.10lo7\ IrJE¤ol+ B6l.E ¤qls n++ z], tQa zl6F+E
=^ll++.
EE B+E 0.6%ogl zl+zl ?+=r+. 4"lzl 0.I%E ql+Eg Utahe.l Great Salt rakeoll 9lE
44 rJ* Hlg+s
=46JrI.
ut*Eg s6l a+Es "Jq4 fl+. HI*89 gs(sarinity)i r ksE tst*Eql +4]6l+
zJa 179 e=*etr LlEIdrI. 8l4l ql"Jql^Jel B+ gE= E 3sol4. El-+l trJoIH, Hl*
Ee eej qlHl E 3.5vo9 +6119 gala|-z 9l+. tsl*Eq 5q fl= g^E +96]
^+g
H ,ll+ ,J+. rEl+ q+89 gd= ,l]+ *e bE.e"3 +^H+rI. E 18.5= HI*Eq 7I
8-ETl HEi6lE e0l7i 4Aql qel HftEg gEts 671", otLlE #+-Er ,tee qb]"-|ts7i?
20
15
3E
l1n
-L
0
0 2s0 500 750 1000 1250 1500 1750
,J0l(m)
*4 zoo m4zlt,J +46Ir, 200 me* 1000 m9 ¤qg z|.rl$rjol ol+ qtrl6J'q;e zl4
(twilight zone)'olr]. 1000 m olr]|ql^J qloJg 4++ 4+9 irlzle} z;ol z!Qt;l$, 4 "C C
E-tr 8Ezt *+. EH"Jql^19 g, gE, :r-?-lr +E slq} EAq olEg uI*Eg Er-14 C
e EElql g6}.9 +eq, g4 Eeol 01ti6}= %talol EEI6IH rl^l ql"J 6]]+e+ 71
^\+
+ql g6&9 "lil41 94.
E[+= ,]]* Hzl EilEql Eeol ut*Eql E Lg$ r x ro 6 g;go1
ppb(part per bi[ion,
ql.Jql= 1x 1012 kg9 ootol rHqlE E+6Ir, 4"Jg flE Ee
=44E ^llal =zl]oJr+.
9 ="?fleE zl9 ol¤:9zl S=ql, olE g6t= Eeg +=6ll rll= ql HF *9 ul+ol
Ezl ullEol4. tzl rll zlzl s+BE a+ql"J 1l$4e_+ f-so+ "&g EI*Es+El Eg +
il=ql, gel dE, -E-Eql(u +u3p+ ge.e+El), :41 Elrql+(6lr*6l+ ¤e_e9q1o1r1.
4'Jql 9eI co,E ++= xl7 zlS9l g6;9 tr144. ol&+ +i= Er+ Hls.61q e
=
^8d6[qtr, 471 *9 corzl ^]14
ql.Jql ¤+Eq q4 q"]E H2co3 LoET] +719&
+. rq+ qloJql^J q+EE +AE HCo3-e+ co3- ole_g B4e
^Ig olq6J olg
=^Hd+.
g ql"JE Bt pHz| 8.0-8.3e1 <isE sxlq* +F4l= "J=+. ql.JE pui 4zl ?9
Co2:-oEz|?7t6ltr rJi6J ac-E ql+g+. ol Lll¤+ tz.s¤9 "qolE tlCsl"ql ¤B
qq el+.
.f+cl alol+
B?(freshwater)$ $a11fl g4 jlillE +E7l *g(s00 ppm trl"J) A¤+= 7l4rJ ull
al-E 89o14. B+ql= E+, ,t, ¤*, zll¤g Eol EElgrI. El+e g+rilE B+g^l-+.J
ol ++61q, +AEl= z-l+*g r.7x l0rs L(660a ,Jfl)olq, ,J+ql 96ll il]+l{+.
^l]E
44 sx l0I1 LE *izl oiloJ ul*9lrl AElq_z gl4. ol 6 4*Eol *B(ar"z")4 +q B
d(3e%)ql i%lol ;Lgg(o%"), zlzJ$$,r,), *-$f(r.2.)E ,il.J
^FSElq,
.Jg ^l+gEl. ^deg
eI z rE EB El+ql^J 6J gso.J
^IH-ol ^F$-6].= EE AEE
olBlo-J
"t414. ^J=ql
,Btl a4apql, ¤+ E 300 rlday= TlloJ +l^Jg .$lafl .r1s-"4311. +
^Hle+ ^r*B' ¤.^l
18.3 843
^l+elE
aele+ g++E 8 LE ai(q+, ^llq, doJ ai)ql 120 LE,rffia|-r., cltldql
^l-s6}q,
s0 L=, +qq ** az\ 91611 80 LE
^l-&6J+.
zl+^Jql fl= dill EI+E oJg zl+tql ¤xHal-Y dill Eq oJql El6l] "*3 E=Je olrl
4. EE B+: TitI 7+EI a¤ zlg 6 t z1z1o1+. EI+: qloJr+ 44e+49 +gql
96ll "JEqd4. 4zl 6q +49 #zlY zl+ qlTlE ++ql e-ldl eHlElq, :=4 o_e.
=Eol
tsl, E r7l_,1EIE ¤4e-l
't+e zl{re-tr so}g+(rHoJolg(+e
rs.ia).
+zlE gBlTtE^J qloJsE 7t= E"Jql +oJ+ Na*, K*, Msr*,
ca2*, Fe2*), *olg(fe cl-, son2-, HCo3-), f4r zl;ll(ftr oz, Nz, cor= +.J+.
*4zl Eg ^l-&6i= 5"J, Eql= .JrJ ^Ielel $lzlE$ soJdl +7140 e +"]]¤ EA
Eol ill+l1lEl. .J+zI z.7lt;ljr- El]¤q= +a sg Eeol tsqB++, dd rl Be Hl+
4 z}flol B+ *+g _E_T6I7I 96ll^l ^l-sl.l"lo} oJ4. gt^Jgg +zl6[7lq] ++g a
.5a_+. zll{fl ?+E Hle" 4 ol+ 7l+cg +7}ql qE ,l]+ z *+. qE Eg ul+
q^l ,llg ^lol7l
^l-S6l+
B+E ,HeB 600 Lql +E6l+ ull uloll, tr-44se Pd =tzloJ sub-
sahar Africa 4zl¤"llrJE +zl 30 Lql ra+. pt}z[te-e, Etg
^i+=ql4l Eg +a-g
s"J oiLl+ "ll+ d6}7il egElq glq^J 4+49.E eBE goJol slz1r *4.
r4r tr-gql
^l-&E
+ 50 100 (km)
E"ltEl: H+trl-
HIREe E9 EoETt +zl trllEql tr[^lzq +g EI++E s"E9lE
^|Bol ^]-&61-b
46}6}zl ?*4. "l={9l^J= Ba +d^J srl trie.9 ¤ Ctsol ee*el E 0.0s%=
'Jzl *E+ xllaJo[_Z 94. ol "Jg E]REql +o] 9l= +E.J 3.s%,E+ gC
*I, ^+E oJoJ o.syo CEB+
qE zlEE z16l+ 4 E}¤f(brackish water)9] E4alE
gd *e dol4. Et*Eol'+ Elg+ql^l gBg HI+ FI
^il46}q, ^hs"¤ + 9l= EE
ag B*ii(desalination)rP aJr4.
= Eg flgC E{olr, E3 ulflBColotr
="$(distillation)oll elaN Eq +6flqq +rt7l
9l= gotr+E +9Eel6J+ 9+ ,, (r.3¤. '¤q+89 e4'). ++E fl48 ot
+ a+6}zl"J, 4+Ee +Ag +46}7lq= "*g ExllT| 9l+. q= Eq +g HIR
Etr +El =o$dlfl, ge 4l+ q $fqq A+ql= 4JAg+. olel* +;; EoJ ql
ulzl de+4 44o14.
uI*Eg g#FH(reverse osmosis)g B+e+g + 914. dlfi HiFEg
HlEOlOl
E6ll +rl] tszl* Fr+6Izl"J ¤:¤ Ezl* Er+6tzl *61+ 4ol4 .", (13.5¤). d.F
=!6ll^lE, HtElgg
elx== -!.q
EL
on llo
TO ET "Jq.g-e "Jcl
q^l.} *,]lzl-#g +"lql^l H4 AEI +.-{etr olfoJtrl. :ael+ +E+ E+ .Jq 'Jol Er.t^lztl
ol zlofiz]fl *Fzl H+1, Hr+ +g .Jqql^l= *6]0l *42[ 94. olBz]l qd:+
Et++E E=
7I "Jq+fl, +,ll= {fl +qql^l tr+ #e +"-4eE olt*r+. Hql qtF ¤Hlql +d7le
ot+ 4g +Bol :li rdfzl HlF"+ee,rl-sg4(:al 18.20). s. a oo a OO
^l= ^JB=JE Eg o o3
E+6I: ¤fzl "Jqalq^l d+tr gEl Eq7E1, gol 'll7lg Eol ol+gtrt.
,rll/l!e-a 7l* +Eq B+ir+ +tlg;.|$ulolalulolel lubairgl +lz16|r. 9lE
= oa ooo o o to
Ell, ol +tlg qAIFE E6ll Ella^lol
"J9 ut*Eg B+tr ElEq ol ++¤++E
g HTE O?
EOH "JII"=
50o/o* 4l+6tr ?l+. oltrtrI tl
E/\t= To
=
+tl-g-e. 600 milion r/day(teo milion gallon)$ c+ +ee "JGl or lo=
= -=cltlrl. Erug T l qrL
+¤+= ^J^l'J + 9l= *E ^l+qo}4ulo}ql 20181J ¤|+g 2lgol4. ol=lq} + =wl= uLl
l ^18
EH=
CaO, @el
Al2(so4)3 =azt
i{ 71
u t
@=zt=+
^IETI
& ae'la
flT
I x
q4?l
Oe.l
qal
4. qr} +q E-g +71 +etr_ LHsq^l +6119 en+ "J7Iq=9 *zl olgEg 4I
sl¤ +{^l7lr, Bo} 9lg + ?lE Hzsq NH3, :a4_L tEE
d ^Jl+E =olal
94.
F
s. olEldJ 4aE 4+ +41= +g e+E E+eE zl46lq q¤61 xil461+
^ll+g
1o14. s=ol HQ e$!ol7lnJ, gdTl cJ z-lflalQ. .-4EI g^= +4 Alzl*
¤L6l]^J z]1t $=tr$q zld ^J+EE Bg + 9lr+. gie+ Hl+61+
^F+rJg
,llao.rq= Hlolel.\$ bEql 4+ g+{+.
n += EeE
=4e+, ^ll#4
g^E ¤+ z}¤e olulE $a zli{ trllEol o}qr., g^e+ Eol H}+6I]^J
^8dq
-L 6}ol-trg4t} qlEql "JqLl= 1es-
^J494.
cl2@fi + H2o(/) ------ HClo(aq) + H+(aq) + cL-(aq) [18.1s]
Eg d+6tr]l g ag .J+ q^}1} 7l.t} +lql.J ++ tra et + 6}+0l+. olg e" aJl p
,ll++ q+^ ge +"J¤ g^Jg +4eE ,J|^!ALI. r3l+ olBl6J 4qql
^ll+ e+el
Y EllTlTl nlEq. le74LJql +B!+ trl+el r++4-E=g EE g^p}4cql^l oldq= a=
9zl Sqt'J qL ++9 f-4!$ol ^JCg+= 49 ga6[94. ol4d +^]Ee +^ gz] I
a3etl gz} 37l|-E +CElq glzl rllEil EEolgsqrlloJ(trihalomethane, THM)ol
4 61i1, CHCI3, CHCl2Br, CHClBr2, CHBr3 Eol "llBg+. Eql +g g4.= ,lE -5r= A
^g
¤f"ll ¤4lal* *zl Ed E.= oJrJ gEE +^JE"J Eer+ Hls"6lq, rHMg Hlt+ +
or"J g^+ H-e,IrJg 6J+6I= -,?zl E49
^JCEI+.
rl rs.rsoll +4\+ 44 rJol, gr=
Eql +oI &slxJl.J HClo= ^JC++= 49 trzla}4.
ueHrJ(frackins)at *!
al= Eq f"J 44B0,yaraulic fracking)S *zll +s= = 4"ll sgrlzl ull+ol4. ^1;=oeEflrl EI=g 4EI.J4 +
4Z(fracking)ol,
^l-8
7l-e.sI 4+ -E-=eJg 4ge--+ 54
=
*El+i= E.J6J qBl t#9 zlzllEg 471 e-gql ¤5J
zl 96]| +H4l E4rJg 6J Ell= dE4qE g zor}Jgl gsg g+ql qeH, utah +q^l +oJ
^F&qn 9l+. ,Jfl olt9 =trI.
4"&ql dzlzllTl q= 2EqI 4=J9 E.l "J +4lB +Cql,<l 4zl +se +.g EilqloJ tsH7l7}4= q}=q
4+ql +4qs ts9
=q gl: +E ^l++9 56ll a$os +oJ 1l dill qlql.J .JE 4* a-nvo B+lql ol= aol4r B7r
¤qeH 18.23). ol+l+ Eg *Aq ^J&#. +71^l7lE+ g+. *ql^l 9i#qflF.l, trilEll"Jg +q.J gd TlAlol+.
E= g, +, "J+ 7lt:e+ ?J+ Azlxlle+ E4, zllE E e4rJ dqg Eqt "*e +a Ex]59 dHi4"J ql6E
^ll4E
g sed}jr 914. :ilS g4; zlp6'}]q 4e ++ +es geje}q+ ¤+¤ oFTl^l7ln 9lq. gqlrJg qlLJTl
^lHl+
ag *.I dflztl= EH=^lAq. s4rJg el +scg +E6I= ol5rl, *tl4o e +4q= +aE a
=qr} ^l+e+
zl "*e *E 4+e+=q a¤7i^9 Hl+elg +71^laq.
^,ll
ql tr+ +dg +: ol5 +E¤ +4Lll: E Elc ql
^folE
EqdE, E4aoE+El oFTlq= *xll4"J +ia +l+e ol+.
d4'J f3014. +Eg "JE
71 96ll -s+q= .ll*9 E4
,J ¤+= zlgtr rl$olo.l-o[ a3
+. ol ¤+: c:* 4c s.ol= nil^ o1-?
++etr HCIoE szl Ed4 EI86lq rHMg H-trElg Hcloel +"llg H-E
^8c6J+.
"JEl
olg+9 Hl¤¤ E61] HI+ql +q6lr]l g+.
Hclo(aq) + Bt-(aq) -+ HBrO(aq) + Cl-(aq) [18.16]
qoJs{lf^JEl
rJ+oE g q=4
^[d, +E"J Aq +g ^JEAIE +4]
LJ I
g El4 7l+ql^l 5E gol otqr+. A rB 18.24 6tlg 4El+ Ll3 Hltloll 8=^llE Atr+ eP=4oll
cacosE r ql-+ Ne^t=,J4+. "J+ 4Ed
6HoJql +6119 co29l t'E: 421 ¤ co2 t:E Hglql "J ^|EeJq.
E. dzlel=7f^latel,J3 =rell + ?]rt. =aJr
a6l+. 4118.2aql^l Egs a4 zJol, 4zl + "l^I+ +r O Damsea/Shutterstock =trlEE= =
18.5 l+4 al+ 849
+ol ,l+ g+g aqE +494. ol4al E:fzI g ols.r.lzln, caco:9 +6]lE= *zlxl4 +41 a+qe
^J "ll"Jq
Coz9 Sd 7li.ll g6J¤- Ss+6I= Ell E¤.ol q7lts iflzlEi, g AAr+ E=4e-l +84 +611E g^J^la +E ?l+. RIE
ql"Jqil4 g q+9 cozb ttl9 ^Jdolq pHE *=4. 4zl * ol&p+ +AE olol c7i] +E-s 4l+ +7f6IE, r+tr+
cor2-E "*,tI"J uco,-! zl$zloltl ql+ql, B& olgS zL=g oJ+ souJ 5oJ 6ll+E pHTI 7.e_E Eqe 1ee- +
dll+i ol+r+ A6J6J+. A++. ol4+ Hnl.= zlAly44^lE t_=zlEJ, 6l]oJ
^JEll
CO?-(aq) + H+(aq);- HCo3 (a4) 4lql= +zl"J ¤6&3 z}4g + 914.
olelql +4Ig olge.i caco:9 +6l] B¤g eE.a_ e
+H fl+ E^ll: 18.7,18.10,18.71
^l-8-ol
18.s | +4 Ei'J
*4zl ¤r
9l= zl+= qL. CE= Efl4l(closed system)olr|. +lan+= 9lHzl9 i+tol
.Jg+zl"J EeE i+Ig
"Jg4zl ?*zl 4lEol4. El4qlE {Fz} Ht6}qE, *42} i
6J6I= EE 4{ol zl+E A¤ 4Col4 844 zig4E +Bg ol+qo} aJ4. ol +49
ol+qE +laql afi-+g Eeg El]=.6izl "Jolo} 6Iq, +?.le-l is_z} 4l^Jg + 9l= zl.fl4
+q+6l]or 6Ii1, 7l-bqi 6J 49 oJE qlLlzl= ++. elq| tBg "JzJ gF9 tzl
^F8:6Hot
4Lg +Eolzl"J, ]I+u+ +¤e AE E= Hql^J dql ^Jgql +q6}r 9l+. r=lsE ElqI
3 ol4t +49 ol$nz[ 6[= 1rqE ed"J 4.o14.
$+{ El¤t(green chemistry)g .JrJ Ar}ql6ll7t 4.n, +ag B+61+ Eq xll+ "t *C
e_l ¤4le++8¤{r{apz} al-E 4lgol4. +^l s+ote dd9 rzzi fl4ql E=6J+.
7. rltg 7tE-Et EE flE$ r1g fl4E "t ++ gtr= zl¤4_q__+4 {zll{!.-e ¤+zl"J
4+ql= t}=r'l z1'ga1ot'tI+.
8. e.Ei{let z;4 gseal +EillEx+rJ +E}Eg .J^14.J
^Jc, Eq4/e}44 +dE
+C)= 7l++ e 44s}5[4+ r]6l]0] aJ4. ol4* +41: +7t4.J ;.lqrol $ea[a,
^JCg f ?lzl
qlzlEg ullEol4.
e. +u[ qufl ,r.llt(zf="fl + dq4)e ul+,H 4aql El"]l +qal 43 glHzl
ul$!tr ^la.Iql
+-$g 6J^J^la+. EI+^J EI"J"J ul+,il %IEHr+ dsgtrI.
^J^J
ro. EsltE zaffit ¤r{t s}EtzJ
^JCES 7l* r+6tE 6}17} s.= EallEe Eb]]slqot 6l.
rr. 86fl Br|E fl^lt,J^l +6l]+ EAol rJCqzl dql d^lrJ +a q ,J^le.l a¤
fl=e!
g 6l.zl +lEl e4 'JBg 4*g 9sz} ?14.
grl= 9lE! EE4o.E Etrl EdE! it=t 3I++ tcql^l
^l-sEl= ^lE4 +r1l:
D. %r-
^la p++4 zl+dg;i^E+6lE+ {$apo1aju1..
¤, +9, slxlle+ ag ^Ii1el
A +0H= ^l8drts aF+ HJBor +E,l g,or ee HJ- d^rdr.= aH+ orgzr tri '+e r!Er.4'
I otq=xt¤E6t^te.
I
-H2
ol !+dql= a zlzl adol ?l+. r+ 6t+= aLt .Jpl¤+"J ^8c+3 El=71 916il
^I
+q= Ee"J H141(A+E+E] eqd)I+ 9lBHl(t¤zt.E+q eqd)E fiol ula[
q: =ts E6J
aol4. Hl4l3 B.J Eeol+. olfl +dg q6|71 916I a]=ql= F t4lol'J *
aol E+9lg $fal +r}]= ^l-8-6l.q ezs.cgl,rl ,il+grl HI+^l7l=.J +419 taee
qlills.lS.E|.
CHs :CHz
g7l
+ CH3OH --------.-------
=0ll
-H2, -H2o
'P. T. Anastasg| I. C. Warner, Green Chemistry'. Theory and Practice. New Yorkl Oxford University Press 1998, p.304rl
EJ+ll. ErJ Mike Lancaster, Green Chemistry'. An Introductory Texf. Cambridge, UK:RSC Publishing, 2010, 2*, tal'Jill.
18.s +^4 alqf 851
.r,@cH3 Et#e
qal-^l.gE!
+, o,
".JO[ -oH + 2 H2O
flells=J^t
o OH
o OH
6i0lE++lE
CH:
CH,
/
C + HzOz -------+ HO OH+ o-
CHe
L ^IleE
flzl 3zll9 E trls ql= tlgq^l +zl(r) +,}]7t #zl olzlolc(azide)el9zl ull
=zl]ts
{(alkyne)ol E}*6}q ^JdEe 6J 7}zl Ez|= "JE= +¤-es, +s-4 e+.
R2
N.
tc-ts
R( =ru\ + HC:C-Rz Cu(I)
HCN
l\
N \,/N
olfLol
0 f^tOlE a,tt
I
R1
ol HI¤+ ulfill{
o-eE EH H}*(click reaction)ol4lg. t4. olE4ql +gol ofH ¤
e4.J f¤ol zlel 1007ogl Tlvl+4, P..JCEol uJ$olzlzl S=+. ole+eol ,ll+ trg
zj"J HI¤+ olzlolEs-|.JzI.J9 BEllqI 44 EotExl f++ ^JCE Ezl¤ ElEq
=q
B + el+.
EEI.qHI
// -a.El ?llL{
O H -IIE
(a) tdul= gt40l 6Et^l= + 9t= 4ElA(EJt ed)ee oFolTl 849 a+ql^1= ExllTl'Elrl g=tl. ralLl g40l ale
^!g
gt?l 3+0ll= 0lal-.J gqL[^l gr=tl'. olgZl 4algtol {tE Eral^l7l=71'? (b) EP pHE e7\l717l ?16l|^1, Hl+ g
=it7f
gTld 6+{v=4x10e ^ldel
L)el pH= 5.00fl^l 6.5E 4Edl7l 9l6H gs-d AEl
ll4oJ 6ll=140lz 5[^l'J, EeE
^lalg
+ ?1tr1.. 1t3
(Cao)ol a|A EaJ= Zllt6l^19. !tr17f tl gg-.J 0l?= +1?l7l?
eq ? ee 8q 853
6tl*
E4 +El t}Sol Fg.Jzl zl9tr ge-7} glr., fqd pu9 (3 x 10 TmollL)(4.o x 10eZ) :1x 103mol
Hffi g o 71E ql gs-6J Eeel olg 41416l= ETllol+. u14,,l1 u*1aq)91 .Jq Hal-= + x toa mol- I x 103 mol-
fl6ll^J=,1}ol qBril B{} *+'4 H}so6J
z{lEl (a).ll B-6}71 4x tOa molol4.
+ il:4= ^J46J gsTI gl4. ol4.J Hl+e &r+ ElrJ"J "JE E+E E= &ol
gd6l olgclgElr 7Ia4E,
.Jq+zl ?*=trI. (b)E E7l +16|^l= 4F* cao pHql 7lq6l+ f4E u*1aq)"J ++qE gq. a+ql
^Iolql*]=
qtr HI*ol .J"lBzl ^J46I g BszI 91"4, pi oltr+ "*g 4iol glg +E glzl+, 4qE ol aEe.l
^IolqlE =
Eele4.J 4ltg 6l]ot +4. xilq]g pH Hoitr*Ei +a ol &g +cl6J 9ez1 94.
g bEE $ffi 414a3 + fleq, HI¤¤ 9ozl7l gltil^l CaO9 {lc} ol93 u]]* g7l¤o14,.^:., (16.5¤). 6
* caoz1E"t4 9g'*zl='Jol-g + 9lg 4o14. 3t+ HI+ql^], I molg Caob 2 mol9 H*eI Hl+6Iq
E0l HzOeI Cu'*E
^Jd.J+. "I4rJ +r104 molel n*z} I
(a) qI&9 +olg"J +11 olgg 9zlcol4 (16.2¤, 9-tr 6I= Cao9 o"Lg +g+ e+.
",r,o
16.74). tr[4^J +4] olg(co:'z-)3 H*(oq)q q]+ei m+eact\ / 56'1 s CaO \ :
( 4 x tO4 m.,++f,( tz*rH{"-J(ffi I x 1o68cao
4. H*(oq)9 bETt 4eE, +ddEe B&4e o1s- \ )
(Hcor-;o] g+. :aell+ H*(oq)9:-"e.2l. $-9S, H2Co3 oldg cao IEE+ ErJ q gg "Jol+. otzl"J cao
7I {Cqn, ol= coze} H2oB E6]]g+ * (+.:3). ql"d= +,}l ErJ 100831 olale z.lflo[4 +.J
= ^lqlE
(b) H+(aq)9 a7l.r-oEe+4*EoEEpH <i"il^l gg+ g + 9l7l qlEql oL+ y*g Hl+ol 5^l= *=4. rBl
9lEI.
+ E+q= B qi&ol rl 1ol,e, ol
[H*],"4 : 10-so : 1 x 10-sM =!E|99ot =4]g
cao9 oJ$ ilAEIg gs+ oJol{.
[H*]a+ : 10-6s : 3x lO*7 M
4El4 %lBe qts zle ]L+E pH= q+7I ¤
olel.J
c.+9 +ElE ol+6tH, + pH ,Biql 46J H*(aq)9 5i + 9l= H+l.e a36l= EJI ^l¤-qr 9l+. gg qls
E 4lrlg + el+. E+= 4+ ?olcl *ol o.sEtoJ CEola, ¤+ ,Jol= =
(1 x to-smol lll)(4.0 x lOeL) : 4 x 10amol 20 ftol+.
sE "J 6s tq
rl+sl ol dql^l= ol4. ell+6tE e=+g +E 471 dEql E.ll^l=
^l+el 4rlq +.J Eel4 5C 'llrlg + HE
EllTl(18.1tr)
r+ p+q}4 ECg AE6Ifl4. 4zl9 +d* gE H+= 44E 5 +5]]+ zfEdel 5A ++g q46}q EIEoltrL. 4+fl
^l!617l
aol ?lts ql ^lqg rJzlztl t4. ol ^lq + 7I* Pg *g rflFfl qllE l"l=J9 r]rl 4aJ Elolol ,ll+ +s6I+. ol+l6,J
^deq
(troposphere)98.
^l+
EEql^i+El *+ ntr 12 kmql Aa 9l + d+ + "*e aSol eg E.eol+. oltpi.+g -H.r| f.rJol ^ z3-
q. ql+fl ^J+ql= a-E7l +716]F_ +^.le C=flGtratosphere), 6In, e "JeJ4l a + 6I+014. olae ¤L71 +ql^J 4tt}
+rJfl. gflol 4zl9 /J.+ zlqql^l= Tftl rJEt6J cl sl +g B^d6I=q, +4IEl +3 Eq += +^l +4!g e^J6J+. ^ls+qq
=46.J4. qlel 4I+Eg +!¤ul(acid rain)el ie TlqzlolE}. &g +Aql^l
c}++ol ilqqzl oJzl.e+ ql"J +^Idg +4eE+El ¤"Itsg
+ 9lr+. +e 7trql^l 4zlg ¤t ezl*g xlf -EHg 4zl ¤ g^J6l+ soz9 ir¤g %I^16I:6I+E *Hg sozE caogl U*
+ B^IelE+ *4. r o1p zl-1t TIqg gzle+ tsal-=E ^J+ ^14
o}+^i zJf,(casoJg
"JEE aol4.
g'F"J +tF+, Hg g+6t.1 Ezl 49 aaJg #b -46llzt ElB g5;s1,t cr(photochemical smog)E A4 &+Eq g+ol +g
(photodissociation) rllgo1rl. +^idE ¤+= EoJ Etole-El EiE 6J q'Jg B'J6l= +*'J C+q g6JEolE|. /.Er C¤+ +e.
(photoionization)$ 5oj "lgE ^JCg i4qlr+. zl+xl Ql{ql^J g^J6}q. ^.5r:1 zllqb +e uHzlE 3¤
^l-Er,.}
?lz g5rt xl+ol E1|Tl(18.2tr) s=g szld +ldc+ oz t9 Hl
d+ aolq.
qoeE*El q7l t+ql^J ol^lp+ +iel f6zlE
4e_ldg ¤:+61+ +.e. qlTl r"rBol4.
^Jc¤r+. s=g
]J^IE B+L+ clr+ e
^l+E 9s5 9x1415 "ll+ 6,s6I+. 4
r+4^l corel HroE ql
g gC slEI+rlE EI*ql E6ll r-r--tr E6ll¤tr1.
=eEE+9EEJA 7l +e) CorE bEeI }.9l e+J 7li{lGreenhouse gas)t 7l
(chlorofluorocarbon)E. C+flql^l "J"Hfl HI¤¤ gs4^l +"ll ^l+E
4 oe e=g ulq6J + 9l: g^l^J g4= ^JC+E+. 4zl t+91
+= aa6l+ ql +s{} qgg +tr].. s}^l ¤E(^1ts, zlE, A¤z}
,¤^l+ g= +=9 A^= d46IZl 6llEg a4¤ "JH9l+
g^ qlEql 4zl 6 oltlsl ts^E *ETI e4lzl o
A ^)9
^JE =46J
854 183 g3at-+
xl+e] E(18.3p) zl+E Eg ql++ ql"J+ EI+q tr| +g trI 4I^ s+ qlTlEol q= 54 C+g +11^l?-e-s
^lEe-l
+^J zlg ? E"Jol Bfol4. Bl*Eg =x||*trI.
es}lrs :.s"za9 99
qr 4 +4lE g^J^lrJE+. .J*Et(desatination)t.H}RE E= Sgql
Ee-61-r. 9194, Es(satinrty, E I kg'j a=6'J gE 3rj) rsE
+oI glE 953 tzJol ,rl-$ z]9.6|E+ ^1146l+ dol4. Bfs*
Tl4clir_7l+g+. HI*EE Hl+r+ gE=,Jolq q+ H6J+. : ++ EE 98FE(reverseosmosis)ql e-]611 zl?-l¤EI.
^ll
4le-1 4+BE Eg ql"Jql 9l7l Eligql, "JrJg e+ql= B+E HI
B+e+q E= Ee TIAql^.] ^l^8-6t71 dql ^lr]E Ese 6t
rl. .JHi4 E^l ^J+E E aJqBql^l tlzl t4l=
^l-s"6}i 4.
Ell
Rge+q ElfB $ez| gl4. zl79 E +:*e S+4"J EE tL ztz)Etl. er}. q4 4E.,*71Fr+, t+ol+.
H4¤ eElttr|.
?lrJ gEiat +tr(18.4tr) g-; gr.zl q qE +^J cBilql g +^4 AF(18.59 +^{ tl¤l(green chemistry) 4lqg "JrJE arJ
zl{oir. +}ag tr+g + 9i= s}s+ Ee4 +Ag ¤416}r -&
oll
,s-6J ¤+ tag +a;-a1q *g +"lE Eeg Eei6in 9lEI. ^ll+
ql 96ll +dlq: EAg gE6fl¤(biodegradable)olzp.6J+. ¤¤ +{61+ a.l+. +aq {$ zfl{a}s$ 4E" g + 9l= +^q
^JE
6ld c.zl{ ,r13q1 9611 4}+ElE +ol 9l:4}4.8 4E6}
+qq ?lq=+qlH]*ql gs++,l]e+Hl¤¤el dq, ql"J+C
=idol
Alqtl qlEql, olq{} Eee 4}^ ef $lzl$olr}I6JE}. E+
9 zHB. 7l= ^l ^H.!+ *+'9 zl]dg E.J6J4.
. 7trql EI+ gETI gtrIl+ ts61+7le zl+ 4zl9 H?15 zl¤ +H g+ ETil: 18.29, 18.30, 18.33, 18.34
++(18.1¤). +d ¤+ ¤.41: r8.ll, 18.12 . 4zl 69l.rl Er+ ol4lg+ Btz1qgr11 e¤ Ell¤ FaI¤ 4zl
.dl+Eql^lE ,14Jo7lE +s g gEq g6J¤ +=7f= zl¤ql4(rs.z¤).
^Jeos 4zl9 7c9 ¤B6JtrI
(rs.r¤). +{ ¤+ +.41: 18.14, 18.16 +H ¤+ ¤i4l: 18.35, 18.36
. E"J +g "J(ppm) B9le. z1^11E
L"EE 4l4l6J4(ra.rg;. . E +Elg 7l¤+Ef(18.3¤). +H ¤+ +.41 : r8.3e, 18.40
^l+el
+H g+¤i4l: r8.r3,r8.rs . EE gETI #9.9 9"lalEzl ¤E6In, B+El %FH
"-e
q+
. *"lle.ld *"lgql HJ+ nlan+ 471 ^Jeq^.1 ra=gl Egg *Ag 7l¤6Jtrt(18.4¤). +¤ t+ ¤!41: r8.4s, 18.46
.FH
¤EEL4(18.te). +d 9+ E^ll: l8.le, 18.20 .agE E.q +^16I: +s6J oJolg, ¤.ol¤, Tlill# g46f
.
"JBll/l "i *olSE] +¤¤ "Je7l=
rll peoJ 41154 sy n, +6llg t^e|+A rJel +alE zl¤d4(rs.+¤).
414 r++g ?e} qluJzls} ol$E} olluJzl$ Al4}++ +¤ ¤+ E4l: 18.43, 18.48-l8.so
^1.&6}q
1ts.t¤). +A g+ E4l: 18.17, 18.18, 18.21 il?]6lE ++al- ¤zlt4(rs.a
^FSq= Eg
. z|{$-e_E
. tr.? 47lql^l s¤ol qB4 +irltlE E]l"J +^Idg qr+6lq A). +d S+E4: l8.sl-18.s4
4la6}.=^l= ¤B6ln. qErll 3eE¤+e-eei.(cFc)71 9- .+^4 Elqr"el +s q4g 7l¤+EI(18.s¤). +d gf E4l:
ileql ¤6Jg+=71¤ ¤B+trI(r8.re, r8.2¤). 18.55, 18.56
="E
+H S+ E4l: 18.22, t&.2s,t8.27,tB.2B . HI¤¤¤ Eli6}n, qB +Aol q +a tlslzl.JzlE ac*+
. +71 sg5E^lel + 4IEl¤nI e^ tq¤g ,J^J4 zE¤ 4l (te.sd). +d 9++4: 18.s8-r8.60
d Hl I d^JnI oj+E+^Er= sEr4q ¤EdJtrI(l 8. 2¤).
oJ+ +4!
tse.e.H.ts 7llLJ s0 kn ntrql^1tr4 ss km r.trql^J q 4tg PulE zI
18.1 298 K, 1 atmq^J ol$ zlx.ll l mol9 +q:. 22.4 LolE|. dr+: ag elulapzf! ¤B6l^le.
1ro.+¤) (c) q71fl9 qL ++ql^J zlAltl zl* ol.^J-4ss 7lEo6J
(a):B 18.19 trr, I mol9 ol$ zlillz[ c6flql^JY aol4n qhlq=7p (-5rE +qI4 HI¤--a- +^l6}^le.)
22.4Ltsr+ +r'18 714 A"J7l. zfg +q= 714 A ;ra.r¤1
=
ql+oJ
"Jzl-.= + 9l=7I? r8.2 Al+ qlTlql flE Ezl+ +'J eQ}ol olu ol+ e+4 c.?
(b) rH ls.19 .H-H, 65 1qn ;tq ur| s0 km rrtrql^lE g a6Jg E6J6Iqb Aolol ?14. olE ¤B6I^le. [rs. r d]
E7t *g ag "J + 9l+. ol4¤ r mo19 0l1r- 7lill7t
E+ E^ll 855
B
18.8 California ? Carlsbad9l fl= q+F"J =otl9l^19 a H4
+l.cg r+r+ zJol E9 Hl+], E4, ^laql Eor+^lz gq+
A aol4. ol r+aol 5c+ E4g ^ll4.J + ?l4l=z}? ol
=
r+aol +4qq g.= i?¤ 4146J + "^)Ayzl? [rs.a3]
HlHql ql"Jol ,llE zo9 Eg ¤:+6J+. trI4^l ,llrJ ¤E 49q zl+H Br\ q= Eil4q=¤ ¤E6}^le-.(fl
o].4lql
g + SE ta9 E9 corTl Bt.+. rllTl +ql^J co27}4l E: E+4 ¤EE ".?gg F{.Jz}?) [rs.r-re.:dl
aal
rG ":\ \
O) qlq 3s km FT1E C+flol 44 tz km F4lE ql+A 18.18 cF3clq^l C-cl e6J 4El qlLJzl= 33e kllm6lolrf.
trtrI d8l dzlol zl* olrg¤ ¤¤6}^le. ccLql^J c-cl aqlE 6l?-l qlq^lb 2e3 kl/molol+. 6J
18.t3 El^l? Er.l zl$ei t7l egg alslol4. e^Iq^l= c-cl ¤*g #^1"J. EIE ts4ql^lE #g +
^lq
E^l? ^lEl9 9¤ L"Eb
^.ll4lql^J
441 ppb(0.441 ppm).+ +Aq flb J*zlE slt H9lb EutoJzI?
9.4. E^l?,tlrl$ l=.3 7400u1ee,1'1. rt$ rllzlojol 18.19 (a) *44 HI*4+olgqHI¤¤ +E6t^le.
0.67 atmE*9l .J gr+E 1¤ 90laJ4. (b) olEl+ F r+aq $eal ollLJzl;i rqzf oj
^l-s6lq
(a) QlzloJol 0.67 atm9 419 ++t ppb *EE zlzli 9.$ e0 km EIEJoJ ul. &ag
"J6ll?] HI*ol 4I4E *olg
E ++ oJqg al4}6l^l9.. EI Hls" trtr} +-B-6J ol ff ¤B6I^le_.
e$ =
o) E^la ^lqg +i71 r.0 L ?ql $zle.l zll
r8.20 4zl ?9 Nz9 *6114 uJ+ol orel o}6llBl +s"84'J +
=46f=
ih 9rl'Jz}? T:25"c8 7lA4^ls. s6J olr?+ Fl.Jzf?
18.14 _E zleePel. di.il TloJol 1.05 baroJ 4l ol+Ipl E
18.19 18.21 02 +^l7l7lr* rti;lAl g:+61+ Hq :+*g 44 tas nm
4.e| olezel +g $qg 4l4l6l^le. olEI.
ol!++9 d^I7l r-'ilEElol ol "l9lull*9=z}?
^lg *71 + "Jtlc} e4E B+ +E=
18.15 2006LJql Ohio (a)
3.s ppmolfl4. 75e torr9 "J4, zz 'CE gEql^l ol +71 (b) EI+ol 145 nmoJ %'-zF= aq+ 9lHzlzt ae5 kllmolgl
1.0 Lq +xl6lE co EzfE Zl+=- 4lt}6}^le. ozE *Edl6ITlql +ts6J qlq^lE 7l^ljt_ olzTl? 02
18.16 (a) s. 18.19 xle.EP4, 4zl t qlgg *E= H pp-t E g-olgEl6l7lq= +Ee qLl^l= zlzl:L flizl2
7l? (b) 730 torr,2e6 K= 7Ia6Iq, q7l + qlgg bE= 18.22 z}9d ^u.lEHg !++ql q+ El-e--r+ zJg t4l4 ¤9 "-+
?]ElB B^I B9le gEloJzp Ll-ts+ 9l+.
E6 Erll 857
- i
Uv-A(3ls-400 nm), UV-B(2s0-3ls nm). UV-C Bd6IE, &tElel ¤6Jg ",)*r4? ¤B6I^le.
(too-zso nm) 18.32 +71 6ql d9 uerlzlH +^lel a *4lE pe2*Eq tlsl
(a) qL +Eel *^f7I 7|t +g qlulzlE zlzll goq, **o14.
ols oJ6ll gol9b azlql 7l* 6llegzr? (a)tE *+ s+q Hl+^lg 4j1, er+ &^e+ &¤ElE+
^JB^llel
(b) efol fl= a+, ol gq + ql7l7l ++qE ae Elg .Jd^lelE HI+g Eol^le.
^ll
"l¤ l"Jzl? O) eg s.Eql^.lE ee ++9 t}*ol g"lB aol+n
(c) 4d"JsoEE s+ol d+?q EE zlqdg qtlqbTl? ¤B6f^le_.
=4]6IE, r+zl
zlf s.Egl Eg6I7) dql ++qb7}? *+8, zl5i1g gag TIHI ¤eE d17l71^ql^l *.oJql61olE
9E ¤9ol ¤4xlzl ?*Ayzl? (cHro)= g^J^lA+. -EoJqldlolE=
"*6il?-i HI¤¤ 44
oJa gErt rl?E -rs-l3 ,\E r gdql
Efl7l(18.2E)
^l
*slq 7lq6J4.
rs.23 e-= raq +fl¤ HI*ol &t gz}9 &sI 1IEIE Eq¤ CH2O+hv+CHO+H
-Ee-q+7I2 dB6I^le. ol HI+g
"J97lb qgl alql u}1t9 ass nmolE|.
18.24 E+g + qB Hl-&ol d+fl .llel gE ^J+g to vlYTY? (a) d^I+ q! +Bql^] ol E++g 7I^lE q
(a) o(S) + oz@)
^EEHe]
g ga6J f il:z}?
os*(g)
(t) os*(S) + M(S)- O:(g) + M.(g) (b) 33s nm H9 *zl-= *+6lrq #g + 9lE a*E ai4
(c) oz(S) + hv - 2o(g) ktlmol tfle gulqlzlr
- + No(g) + N(s) ^llzlE
(d) o(s) + Nz(g) (c) (b)ql^lE 6llBg .E. 8.3q1^Jel<Fl Elj/sll .tr^ls. +
(e) 919 qld+ oJqlololEel c-H A* qlLl^lql +6J aE¤ +t9l
18.25 (a) EtrtrsFeE+^e+ 6lolE.e.*+es+Cq ilol= 7l?
18.42 +g 6ll+q^l e*e-+ oJ o.os ppb9 ul]s qg i6s-e golgol +¤-r+ ag oJ^leE Ezl{ $aN +¤¤ zlrl+
ga¤+. +g +4'J qI t:oopel4a 7tA6lE, p"I"JE r.7IA4 B^1.
g 6I+(L ++l)E i.l7l6lq r.000.000931 TIilE g 2Cl8HzeSOt(aq) + 5lO2@Q '------->
I f 9lEzf? (6ll+el =¤
r.o: g/ml4r 6Ir, + sl+
"JEb
36Co2@fi + 28 H2O(,) + 2[+(aq) + 25C42 (aq)
*AE Egg so%+r 7fC6Jtrt.)
10.0 gel ol Eeg Ell ge+ orE d4 a"6tg
o1U=ql= Flg olgol !|zlg, +EllE oJolgr+ golg ^JB6ll6l+
9"toJzl-?
E dAl dal+ +Cg +xl6llo} {}E}. s r8.sq +g¤ 6ll
-*n, ++71* *pd.Ozl] olg(Ct, Na+, SOr2-, Mg2+, Ca2*. 18.50 oll9
"l*ollrl '{q^l= d-+ql E6I ^qq= or9 ¤t 4
e*¤ t'JB se golul. e ppm 02 ++oJ E q elEiTI oJ+
K*)"Jg nel4q oflf r.o Lq s{}g oJolg + d6l¤ E
r20.0008q1 E6lq 6l+ql &J:E som jLrJ^171i71?
E ++l.E al,$6}^le. 6ll+ r.0 rql EBB golgel + d
6l-= EE ++1tr 4l4l6}^ls. q 7lE +a ;^l7l + *^l 18.51 uf:ullf, olgg i4q(ca(oH),)E e7}6lq Eql^l zllz
ql F"J6Irll +416t=7t? B + 914. ol 4Ag +48 + 9lE +¤ *= s++ HI+
g¤ 7l4l'ql^J s.t|'$ ogallala 4# r ,(lg.
t8.M x1lts.3¤9 'E}E ^ls
+7f fl# E^]l 859
18.52 *Ell E^lql H:qb Egl 4+=J g+ +detr ^lSqfl oltrl. olql ql"J qlq]g tcg 4,tlg+ +de+. r.r,ll zlzli]l
'J 4q ^u|(lime ¤plB8 4sle+ eAI AE-e--tr ^J
soda) +lq 6+"J +^leE ol+qd +EliE aol+. ol
^l^.s6le
cg +4}s+ ?i¤ Bztal{ ca2*E cacor(s)E, Ms',*b +Eu= Hl+ sqlEE+q dal q+g+.
Ms(oH)z(s)-+ ad^la+. (a) 44}cl +^_+ 4Eg qEee &sl6l+ *+ql^J EIE
18.63 "JoJ B+ 03-+^I7I C+flql^J oll49zl dq +^l ?4. co,E 4E zl4l54 olEl+ +dql^l tsli6}al
100-2004 F"J"J'^d+'"J+H, qgzl o37I xlE.Soe+ BE"ol-Yzl?
El trnql a+9)i7l? (b) ol :1gg 7l+ Hp+ Ezllql 9lq qB Ag oJ^l6l+7t?
18.64 lj rA.Zr+ rS.SE ElzlE l8.10ol E-a- .H-ol^19. 4
^l
18.6s crcg q¤ Stol +oJ'+ *84 ¤+ql flg ol*4.J E 3.5
EEF
oJ+ +41
re.zs zoooHql + Noz9 i^J B+ r-oEt il-," E,^iltg sgcg 4lg ttt=J, pH, 3E "t *g 4
"lt9 +71 0.016
18.89 2s "Cql^l Eql +6J CO2el Henry Bzl ttfz} 3.1x l0-2
il
M atm-rol4. o
"J"J ¤:"1.1 C^J4.J 4zl.Jq^-l *zle+ d+6I8,
(a) ol
(il4 (iil +A + qL 4ol
gEql^l 5ql 4.J corq +611E.= g"loJz}?
(a)
'l *? aF+4t71-? ¤H6l-
N C
il
-oR'
o
0 rl
,l
a't
7
,
./-
/t .
t
,,t i.
I
I t,/
\t
N/ t\
L ,l )
I t' i (.t
a
19.t > rtg4 at¤ zlgql^l "Jq4: Hsi¤-
.g %l""LCg 7l4Ll. QL+ *6Je-E=
zlB4 "E "Jq+^I"J, r Elql HJ6J9
Eb r+^l *+.
E z\"l] +E ¤+¤ Nacl9 E6l]7I7l-ts6t+. ztg4 r+Ce relql el+E zJd Sols "J
qr+.
tlg 5 qL "JBtol
gE ai8oJ7l.?
.r-a #
t T>O"C"J4IIg4 1
1
l|,- \
#g I
T < 0'cg Efl
^t"J4
\
arB 19.2 8-E0ll qal Hl'+l= r > 0'coll^]= EBol xf"J4o+ EOl E0l EJ+. r < 0'coll^l
Er BJq rl8, E0l gcl ^tgd
gB0l El= I.160l r : 0 "Coll^l= F ,8Ell7l E:dE 0l=n ?l+.
= ^fEJ40l+.
866
1e.1
^lg!
rltr 867
qH 1e.1
zlrJ4 al."i
"Jti6Fl
+3 rfE=01 r HJq r|.80] !E= EEE ol+n 9l=xl EJE6l"^le.
^l'HJ4?]^1, ^lg4?]^1,
(a) 150'Ce 7lE-d 44= 40'C9 Eoll tttl, E0l EcTl9lTltl. 0) d89 Eol Hzk)el-ozk)e E6[|EJTI
=+ ==
(c) 1 atm9 ElIlTlil(c6Hok))zl E8E=trE 80.1 'Coll^l e4illH!I!o+
-Erl".
6tlff
E{ 4 4Col xl^l,* H-6}e-E z}$!g.-e +lflBzl, : t} (c) 4t #=Ag 1 atmoll,tJ $;lle| f;zlz| ¤¤g oli= g
q1 trtaoe-e d4tszl, E= qE BF.-JetrE zlgzi dBoI e.$ elulaJc|. tri+^l ol a+= ¤E tr4"l4. gETt
9q4zl ?l:gr,l oJottr= Ezllol4. 80.1'c-H.+ *eE, Hl4l?zl9 q4El44ol 7tg4ol+.
xB qal+g aer+ gil6[= aol x]l^lg r}ctzl, f H] > 5a= qlrJll
ql r+aoJ4
^J44 e+. *{ol +}E}9"1 4}E} e(rr)(r-Jol q= ae ^}g4ol+. ol
a+ ++r+ Eg F'J6J 8rz1 qq1g4 ¤¤), r 4+ (d) B6J Zlql^l aE t}s} +Ee+ 3(rDg ¤+g +E
gE= ++9 a7l gEe+ E9 zzl9s. ,t1o1E qB 71 7l?Jg g$q EB*+. ^IE+
"ll
(e) 3ol +e--E tlgl¤
"ll ++E 9lHzl= a46J+.
ol ¤trI.
O) AEq E6IE, ol rI83 z|$!olzl S+. +Ae+ &4 > H.5 qlx{|2
7l^ll7} E+ql^l zleE gqeeb ag E 4ol s.g a 1atm9 "Jqql^], Coz(s)E -78'Cq^l
^"sloJ+. -100'C
ofQ. ealel r qn+C.J Hz+ ozzl qI¤.6Iq H2oE
^J
9 9rq 1 atm9 .Jq6}ql^'l ol 4Ag zIts4"JzI?
caFts H}*ol ziB4ol+.
zl rElB gszl il4. ¤s, q+ qlqzl, qlg'l Fe 5a 1IEI]E aq6[= defl tEI
*f(state function)oll. r ^J4q qBr]1 E-96I9=zlq tI+S¤¤ s.2eql^'l u]]+ HI
9lt}. 4le+ r +fl ^Iol= olEoC ¤(q)4, Zlzt {aJ E= Zlq q"llll "J(rry)¤ tr4 aJfz}
otqq^-I, t4 Bslz} "Jq+= HJ4q r[4: atol 84d4.1q9+ wA trk? + tr-qe
+El +E ,(}4e H.J trll 9H 4E(path)E rlsEzlql E=.J+. zlgCg olollalzl flt
g4l + 6I+E z|${(reverslble) 4-tre} ulz}$zl(irreversible) A-Eq rllall oloflap Tlol
trI.
868 193 El-af
=q-+
A ++-J Ea'r == 'Jr qlts E7r= zr+ 6r"?, r EE aE ++rzr.? 6trr-. r Eol E+0,
I =s-d + rl.^l Betl E7t +ee E+Elts al-E= dr-l6ll -Ert. ot F Ezt r.ftr= 7tq4?.!7t?
I
9lE ^J46]] sz|(:H tg.3). ++l &rz1 roljl 4l gETI ++^"J? rJ +e r+6r4H,
+oJ^ "J+E Eol 4l"lld ++lE EsTll g+. AIE gE= r-6rE *7lr] 9s ilol=
HI{E 6IH g sEE "J6Jg HlEllzI qq +fle+El ,llE gol 6ez|l gu1. ol${l! !-
Fol, gdB 4col z|$!olzl +l6}]^J= gE olol +6.Ji"J+ zl"lot 6EL gg dge +
*61 Lelrll "J94.t aJ4.
4q r+Cg 41el qtr Ceg ++^"E- Hirl^la q %I6Jg tsl+-L 44o14.
xt
xot
Tfl xot
Tfl
++lel-eET ++tqEE T
(a) G)
a.l.H 19.3 7[$4 E E= Zlel-+fl 'Jel g EE¤ r=el c-E 6r oJEg nflu 7lq4g
^l0l7l+Et{
g0lE=tL
+ 9lt[. Zl9 3E.=artrJ=E0lE
(a) .l.89 Zloll,rl ++le (b) Zlel .gE=67nJ=.J
+E r3el+910il^1^l8q zle g0l 6=tl. ^]3E
1s.1
^lg4
rl8 869
ul^E ,JEOI
ol +
=
x12 7 l^11
trf+^l E= ztg4 He+ql ql6}]^1, 4l= fl4 ^Jqle El547l +l61]^J= +flq "Jal Hslzl-
.Jq+ot"J 6J+. rflEJl f* Hslz}
"Jq+= 4"Jt4?
gqql zllrHzlg qlLizlT]-B+Eg zlfaln gl+g 7lq6IE. olE +E4 o-E se6l.
E, ar: q+ wol4. Al9 4S "llH zl Hsl+ 4lzl E+(EJ¤)+ 94 4lql(e.= ZlTl) .J
= 2E). 4lE grli tlqls qE44l 9H .ll"lzl.lli
.JE 6Jol flr|.:o (s
"Jzl Eslzl. Hzl
"J,
qlqzl 5ce H++. 4lE g4 ^J4e qE471 916ll^l= Aql .Jg 6H+qot ++. .J
g 6|71 916ll^l= dEg *4E 9lH4=
^l-8-6llot.JE|.
dE¤ "lluJzlE r r+aol "Jq+
E"J + q E&g ¤ql-+ E++g+. r4o_+. ++lql^lE EelE qlHxl SdEql^-l gq
=
+=Ell, qlqzlTl + q E+Iqi1 +e^'l6ll4^J e+ gg g + 9l: bqol E"lzlzll ¤4.
870 1e3 at-+ Eqq
9l'lzl Hsl9l +6J +4E 4E zlzl9 {lH4= ulzl= 46}9 z}tl4E aol+. Ez+
uI4 .llHzl} *&9 4le ++etrPel ?919 rl fi
^J4"ll E^1. ^l7l lgq
zI el Tlg
++ee qzlril(E&) 84. tszt +=ql^l ¤B6IE, .Jzl-59 +4+l4olI +A^J.J +E
ol Ext a +Eg E6l] _r,g(B+ &F
"ilHxlzl +e 9q^l
zlg(¤+ 35 qlqzlzl-{3
*)sg qlLJzl= dg6rq, A+ i|e++9lE gETt z;oytlzll gEl. 6 t:J dEg Bqlql^l
E dEg ¤Elle qlLizlTI9zl4* ole+ ag z[gz] a6]e-s "Jql qlqzl9 .J+= .Jql
A aSTlAiEH
:d+71'0lU qOl
9=aEql, S= q-gjllSEt| Er'+g + ?1ts71?
fJriHl 4Eas
E{ol +=dql^l +r #=dql^J 7ls+61+ ag Eg 4Col4 u=-, (1t.+d). 9$ol E
ql= I atm9 "Jq"ll^l gs-rl
_H-4. .-!Al9
Eg 0'Cql^l ¤¤ ^Jqiql fl4. o'C, I atmoll
=
.r.l r mol99*ol zJg adql ?lE 1 mol9 E_+ 5y 4Ag {4611 Bzt. ++l-++El 4l
E gol +;iqqo} olfl Hs+7I .JqB + gltrI. 4 q:AH+s(AHseg \$$)olu|. olxll,
++lE gEE 0'cE+ ++^"J+"J gri^l 4qr{ ,|l+ aad ce-o -r--o$r}-tr ^J46ll H
zt. rfl ,J^le-tr. H+= "Jezlzll slH :r rldg zt94ol g+, ell+6l.E ++lE gEE
0'c-H-+ +6JitrJ=f *+E ?g "JE g(aa*+)S 4le+El q]+ aA6l
^lla6}q *E 4
1s.2 ?lE_+trlel gq:+ 87'l
^ll2E^l
Ag 4+E slEg i ilzl ullEol4. tr|+^J 7:0 oc:273 K9l^l g+E += $Aql .il
* 4."u:AHg+o1EI.
Hzo9 +& tlB4= AH¤+:6.01 k|/mololtl(+= r+Ag gg r+Colse "Jiol4).
:lulu-tr 273 Kql^l 9¤. r mol9 H-ql 4t as*+E rl rs.z= ol+6}q 4l1I.J + 9lr}.
ory:" (1mo1X6'91I103J/uaol)
:
as¤¤.: ry:
T T - 273K
zz.o,lK
(r) al rs.zql= ¤Ell gEE qloJol]ot 6ir., (2) 1e.2= Edi a4g + gl=ol, AsE tgl
^l
(I/rc)= ¤4 gr-a *b ++l"Jg 7-qa}:]..
"llHzl9
qFll 1e.2
^J11qq
q$ ds 4l^JoPl
+3 fl^= 880il^l 3^l o4x1l0lEI. r 88 q=tr8 -38.e "C0lr EE EE!=Jnl= aHss:2.2e kJlmot)lrl.. H8{)50.0 gol !$
ol=Eoil^1 g n||, Ile]?lE+tr1 Etrf= Erl?.171?
Btlff
841 "-qi]l7tge ale+El +9lE ol56}=(q < o) ts
g trl file! -AH+se+ Hsel ol+6}oi, Hg 50.0 g"l 4l
fl4elg I
g 44g.$ *d $olot 6Jq. q= ae + X9 94C.1 qE 4l4}E + 9l+. ol+rll 4l4ltl q1I9= 4 ts.z9 q.",91 4
7l ql+ql, Hg 1 molol g trl EHlq= SlBq Hs++ "J6Iq Al9 AS= Al4I++.
-AH*3 : -2.29 kl I molo]1Q,
t lmolHs \/ I\
4: (so.osusl('ror**,c/(, -2.29kl\/i000
rr.;/\1i ): -s7tl
qE Bzl ?l;ll,
aE ol r+cg Bg 4aolq^1, gol alql^] $el {zl-:_e (c) olqe_, qlEerl H3rl= zlq E: alB+q dBg g
q*,Y *+71 99 tle.-eEl Eo|= 94o14. E ga{ q+ B+zls-g
(d) otqe., zltr dgg gg.J9 PEE ztzlvE
+q e{4lE #:dq^l 7lE+= HlEd 4= 5e d-Hg}ql q]
.J ASE Al&g EllE olel ag 4tg g+6J + ?l+. (e) ?l BH + + 7i ol,tj.ol *g-
> jil* qlr{t1 > E¤ fflr1l2
ggg q+g(c2HsoH)E C^J #=dg 78.3'colq 7lE+ E
FHI6I+ E= a"+E tlH+ql^l 4E fltrEq H
E+= ¤+oJ7I? elBq= 3s.56 kllmolol4. I atmalql 9l= 68.3 ge-l
(a) 91, zls+q dgE ¤ol ¤i9 +EE 7l.zlE._e. c2HsoH(g)7}AtI #:dql^l EElg EI AIE $e-eq g
(b) ql. tldol EoJgETI*olzlo.e flf gulolzlz
oJojBj 4l2rJ+l
gqq xllrBzl9 f.s zIH9 qqe} 4Aql^lE 9lHzlE tr=g+= 4o14,."o, (s.2¤).
9lHzlzl -H-+q* 4aH,
^lg4 4col gq+= E"J tleeqE- H+Hvl?
+gE 4ltlg ¤:6fl gol}.zl. I mol9 g+(Eil+ 99 6J z7+ =r-71)oJ AlTl a ++19 "J
+"J qq+q +ql^l + ql, 4le+ r +gel qlE +vl H+= 4l{i6ll -H-z}. o1 r+ae 4le}
++)71+E gEq ?lzl 4lE{l 7}q4"1 otq+. r+zl"J as= ^Jq E}f"lzl qlEql al
9 fle_eq H3r++ 44"1 7Iq4oJzl, ulz|${olzle+ ^}*$ol a+. q4 1e.2 H}s *ql
^l
ol +cql^.i +Eiq= 4el qlE+fl H]Il¤ 4l&.J Et 9l+.
qw
ASal: - omor)(6'o-!-:]o3Jlmot) : zz.o,lK
ggr+ "*BoI fl= qelBE +ol ++lE "J*zi qq, r gE= 4lg(37 oc:310 K)r+ rJ
Q-r. z[3o121. qq+E +ol gg gE.Jg 99ol 93 gE.]n+ aTlY zJzl"J+E=
el4z} 99 -e.ot x 103 I/molol g+. trI4^l +99 qlE er4 HEI= El-q-r+ ,J4.
(1mo1x-6'-011103J/mo1)
AS+g: {w - : -D.4llK
++ d4lE 4le} r ++lE +CqH+r B + 9+. El4^l AS++:ASa1+AS+sol4.
r4oe ++ dillE sE+vl H4++49 qlql^J o}+ol+.
AS++: ASal + AS+s : (22.oJ lK) + (-7e.41 lK) : 2.61 lK
orq-/ 2n Ktsr+ ot+ a+ +g gEB+H, +* !+4.g HI7]
"Jg ++l eETI 310 K7[
94ol otul4 7Iq4oJ 4o14. rfl+ a+ql= ifl te-+q Hslzl -22.0 tlKTl 4q
ASeaE 0ol slflg 1o14.
.JHlzJeE EE ElTIq 4Col ++E SlEEulE <,1^lv1+ HlE, qtr 7lq rlaE +
?9 flc-+ul= E6[r]l 6[z1 9*=+.
zt9 4C: AS++:ASa1+ASas :o
ulzl9 4C: As++:ASa1+AS;e1 >0 lle.4l
19.3 E^l^] gE0il^lol ?l=etrlelgq+ 973
^ll3ts4l
+6lq zlg^dg ql=6}71 dql +xI4 +dql^l qjEtriilE 9olE + trJ gEltr= aol Il- rrl"L 04llEH
++g 4o14. 7l^1l7f gd6G
4l+ tl6J6}zl dql ETlHql +6J E_+"lq: ol ,JE tse ql+Eql^l +Ee.l +d gr+ i|l8rl.
^19 =at43=
g ++1tr+ 4lql +e d6g 4.o14. rql^J s7l= tEl6l 6171 9.16l] 419 elq-aul H
pl= ASatE EB6l ]^71tr4 AS-e zJ*ol 1o14.
'I4E
atm
1e.3 | +al4 sJaql^1sl tlEEitlef oJo-tt1 413'Jzl
0.5 0.5 atm
'':=*
Elqlg ++6I= +4qlrll EzI* tsDll+g +: H+. tsz}el:a5 ,J9 H+l"ll sle ol !+tt= rFJ4olEl.
+=ql^l= qBzl ¤E6llot Bzt? F9,ol ol srlg zlg4ol41 6[=zl oJo]rllzl flall, ol rtE= HlrtuJ4oltrt.
Tlill$ geEJ +"f,$ 611 9l= oJ!¤g ddJ^ll4r. -H-= zlill EzI *EE4 +Ag arB 19.5 I!80e TlillTtEJE
q^117lH^J EEE :ze rs.sollr-l *+ +zlE ¤8, zlx,ll Ezl-=E + 6|i ?jg rtg4 r[Eolt[. r qal
^lz16}z}(10.7¤_).
4+l4e +Eol trJ He +tes qqg a4E, zlxllel $1tol ++t+. I ^l=oll
f Sa;-r=q| 756|.zll
EEoILJ 7l^ll E^F=01 EF -d+
+ Tlill Ezlzl +E6tr 9l= E+3 ^J4"ll _u_Erl + trJ zI^]161 gqBzl. ++ + o l5afts-3 Hl^lg4
zlzl gQzl dql + +^l7l:H 1e.6(a)oll tr.J az]H g+ e-d 914. ++ =al^3_+
0lrL
+^l7l g4E =4^fql
r Ezl-=g all +aql aa +41+l4sE +zl"J+. Exl-Eol +
:.=.91 E.F EqA + glal q$.o oE, rH le.6(b)q tr'J HIe+ gol ull zlzl$ ull$ol =+ zl.
< rH 19.6 F
9l= + ErtE zl-lgt utl$!=ol
=a1.430il (a)
q^l7l-Eal7l doil E^l
Al.E
g+ =
9,lrt. (b)
o = =a[^rol
g= q^l7l gall'J=cl+. + E^l-
e )l7lE+ ?t= st|goil= Lll 7f^l
7l. 9,LtL
(a) (b)
F E^l= +E6l7l ?1"-ll a'e +^l7l gall u + 7l-=Et
5e^q4 TE^Ioe E,'.liltrt L1l 7t^l ullE(o14 8E|l)
874 1e3 Et-+ Eq+
b6l+. +rI +Ee +41+l4olE-e., r Lll 7144 E]]gg Ag q¤E .Jqg 4o14. ol {,
+ + Ellg"J, F +z|7f E+ g+ E+^rql Eq *=, ++ +^)7l94zl d9l 6il'J'J
+.
rB 1e.6(b)= HH, "J+ 541=-71 E+ Ez[9] 6l+g trI, +94 Ez]7] g+
zq 5qa qEe u] zti =44
* 5 z11o1l(919 e.ga_4 ol.4e_l g+ Ellg), +E4 Ez[7] g
+ Eqa g¤E :1ei ,J+(+19 g+4 ot49 94 ull¤). 4 Ezlzl g+ql 9l
=+^rql
g qEg n:tlro\s e, F gzITI g+ql ilg qE3 (lr)': %o14. ole+ ag ,J4es
2f
4lg ,l^ ^J'il += e-7\^lv]|i E.E H:*(wa+ > w=,r)E .J+el As <ig +tr}.
{EFyl= 419 "la t}EX +q u}4 6zt*4.
+q{ ol{ zlilloll + 7l^\ Hs+E 7ti$.9 ql 4 a+ql flE eulT} olBZl B4zl=71 g
876 1e5| at+ Eq+
qB4. d4l, ="8 "J+{+ TlAlql^Je+ +^16rrll, 419+q= rtzl\flQa- 6]] trz}. +tl
71}qt 49 zlzll fl^l7l + 9i= +lilEel izl4 Bol{4= ag, q-{^l trl^
=^]]B
rJ4 fzl El 4dg 9"1t4. r4^l rs.z¤9lrJ tr?l*ol, zlallE $lseol= *-4zl *zl
Elql tt}+
=q+q.
E4l, +r1= trB^l7ll1 gE= +oJElr 6ll trzl. o] Hs]= 419 slq-eulq qBrll ¤
r3g ul{z}! rH ro.l3(a)oll.! +E}u Ez} +E9 tsE= 7lq"l] H.z}. .&ETl-94ztH
q +EE E4¤ol +471714Y +EE EEtr trl Hqdq. rrll^J +^l7l
= =q+r,
714+ gl=¤+qlLlzl alol q qo}6lxlr., oli^JEI +E_G7lt+Al g+. tqE-e4lg
QlEtrEl= gE t}+ql u}4 ?z}{4.
{xll gzfpol z}zl} aE "t sld +Eetr oJ6ll gzi al.4tr= 714. + s.E ull¤Sol
4le 9old4. :aelo.e' drll Ezl¤tr ol+qd Edg eg +9 ol{t zlillz} zfzli ulc
tr-4tr+ q *e trli tr-qlE 7l4Ll. .JHlzlsE qtr 4lz| 44. + 9E ul^ dlEI += +
ul9 6zl, gEE G,!, aqa. EXF+E +4ql 4+tsq++. eX+6lH olH HalL 4lg
+4¤ol 714 + 9= +lil H ++ qlulxlE +71^1vl7l qEol4. sal $zlz| 4e++
415 efq EJ^IE Eq+71 ql$ql -r, trla {l4 iz| g + 9l+.
=qhlg
E^lE a Eql. 0lE^i7f 7lE + ?1= EIC EEel tiE BEtlE 7l+6t^le.
r1\
otafl
.=l:
Y
't
if
''-
,, .f
"'ld
a
"..-a---
IIE r_ qd _J
af"B 19.8 E E^lsl d5 eEa[ slE EE
19.3 E^I.4 aJE0ll,\]sl ?l=Etrlcl=qqr 877
^113ts41
AlTl714. + 9l= "l^ ^Jql i4 ?zl, + 4lE slee:4 +71= s¤61+ %I^lql= q*l
zlzlzl ?14. olE$ +¤zletr, 844 ^JEol4 3tl4 ABql 9t xllelol oll, +
clzlzll 6t=. gEq zl.*s9 +71= +s++.
^}{flg
^l-=ol
$e_+:4E ?zE s¤olzl 96]] 7It[ '"J4
^F*q= %l-^]g 4E +4+lE(randomness)
q +edE(disorder)9 +7lolL+. E. trlE HJ^lg, Ezl¤g flile+ qqzlTI +s6J + 9l
%lBE +71 +71617l trIEql, qlE +!l +71= gluJzl ${!(dispersion of energy)9 *zl
=
e s¤elq. ol+loJ ,J4(+ I+]E+ qlLJrl +4I)5e xllqls 4+qE, ffia;] ef zlluJ
ol4.
Asslt^J4 qE
,J++ 4A E.J 419 SleeulT} qBrll E6l+zl 4dzleE ql+61+ 19 9Bzl 9*4.
"Jql^l ts aile, alel gE+ *ul 6zI* "la ^.Iq +, q+^J 8leeu15 f;zlr.lzlr|. ul
^Jql +e+ +d ilE
e.6t+E oJxl-b +84str S4olr 9l= Ezl¤9 iol4.
^ olfl saEql adg ql+6J + 9l+. qlE Eq
"*Ae-EAl Qleeul Hsl¤ C¤4sE
Eol 7l3rlg rll, tszl* +rle u,lzlzll g+. 7li]l7l. trl +rJg iizl6|71 clEql ts4¤
ol Q xffiial szl"J += 9lr, 4l7l7l4 + 9l= ul^ {trllz}= q y+o}4^l
slEEqE +7t
++.
ol4l EE g+q^J= +4 AqI_e_E oJ6ll r=J le.eql
^JE¤ ¤4BzI.
HIel eol,
'+4U
rcg +z7l Eq4lr|. gg 4ql^l Ezl¤g ^I+Ezl dE"¤ + 9s+, Ed grE"4 sl
d +s*g eqill tlqltrq ¤tl zlaJ¤4. o-lillql^lE +^ eetg 6tzl"J, tszl¤g q dr|
olt'6}r.(Htl), Fldqd+(qd. r4oE ggol \$oll zl-L"t ,ll49 += +
"14 "l^
zlap tE-svlE +7I'{}+. ffizloll.<l Exls=g
^lE aE qB4olr Ba, 4lt, qa
+Fe-l H+lzI alqzt g+. rqss a6zl3 q g:e "la ^Jql= zl4 i 9lr, :r- a4
Eiil Eol+ g+trE} H 3 QIs-eqE ztrl4.
$, a
o
5 a
qy o
9 D
U
5
zEE 4xl'74 Et! EEg ,'.jBz9 qd Erl-=
=olu ^l-PE =g4oe
IIE
qo QEtrT
[ou zto
"IE t!5+ FlEol 7|.5 EE6l^l8et Bd, tlE, EIE
al^el Ela cfEll + ol4 AtEtl + 4lEtlel ol^ SEtl +
=7tE
AfH 19.I glEe4elEe.l.s rl^dEH +7I=q'J+= r1;9 E1e+rl-s67|'-sttL
878 193 trl-+ gq-+
? (
e L
!r
o
6J rxlle+ +++ Eol E4 ol8Eq g6JEE Et+l: 4dol4. Eill +E olg
Eg ]lill 42}.il 9lg tril gzl"J + 9l= +qtr+ q +rl +q^l +4g +
gl-1, :4.<1 trJ ¤+¤ g + gltrl. ol+al Eqt=olg59 ¤.FoE oJ6l]
tis a D
633
FN "*e
419 qlegEzl rtzlflQa- ^J41Rg + 9l+. rflEll qtr E +zl-E=e +s+ 4
a a C r ^il ^J
341 ql ,l]9 HI+ol +qAi1. 4 E+EI El+^lq] 46J /s9 +sE q+6I= Elllol+
1e.3 I E^t4 rJEoll^lel ?lEetrlsl=E-qr 879
^113E^]
filEl gETl tl+6}4+, Pulzl Eq*44, z\zll Ezlg + 4CE"J +Ee-e E*4o-e, 4s= ++o14.
FezO:9
zI tsolt}4E ds= oJ+7I g aolE+. f.flEll +zilql,tJ 9s (d) HI* TlrllE E+:,.JC zlill9 5+e+ e+. r4^] tlE
pg Fulc+ExH"Jg aElE]+. E4 H0+= 4¤. 4o14. zl:t-zlzl! bEr* 7}zli1=^s
= "J46I+j1o[flo
EUI E +E= ql+61+ {ol zl-u" a}zl ?}zlI]J, asTl \ql7vl
(a) q4illzt zls+ts Eilqlts +rl7t r mot(18 g aol+r qltr-g + 9l+.
=.4 =qt4. E
d3 .-4^,l9lrl 18 mlEl9l q}qzl"J, srpql 7lillg *= > H= qlrlll
4*zz.+ 14 84. Ezp5ol zlzl {r-4ql^i gd +q trl-* 4 r+aql^l alg qlEeqzl fzp)zl. zf,raJzl gg
=
491 Eealzl ,llEql TlEl r+aq^l Ezt ¤¤r9 zI+E 6I^19_.
+7I.J+. l4 o e. "J+oltrI. (a) Coz(s) Cozk)
= ^s= -
(b) CaO(s) + CO2(g) CaCog(s)
(b) +"_4 +ql^l zt+Eril +zlolB olgEe. rillTl qH^J - NHaCI(s)
(c) HCI(g) + NH3(j:) ------
*ulzl +otalr., +lilE +61 zllaJzleE g+. rBlE-q. (d) zsoz(g) + oz(g) + 2So3(s)
4s= g+o14.
> H6 qlril2
(c) -nr-ll ?zl-E9 *rJ4 +lzl= SCQI *e-+. ^ll6J E:1, 7l zlg4 rI¤ E"J ++E tE +rl= +7if,+. r+48 Hl
ill +zl¤ts_trI gEg zl+E7I ¤{ 44. oz 7l^ll7l a^ll zlg4 r+a E.J ++9 flE +q= ai*4= *"J71?
3 ql4l 1e.4
5
oll E etrl
e^I 4 Sqld Sleeulz} 4 a+= r=+. zl+ *6J+), HCI(g) $]e + ul zl erk) ql E -Etl-E-+ r+.
=
4q ol= 961 419 t4e+ r +ql fl= el¤q +tcql > s¤qlll1
q6l] +g + 44 qle_eulE zlzlE 41ts *i.JzI?
^J46I ts+.
E0l
(a) STP9l,tJ I mol H2(g)
(a) zli-1+\71r.^ll +4!-tr1uJ ${,tlo'}a q +"J"J +E (b) 100'C, 0.5 atmoll,tj I mol H2@)
g 617l qlEql, HCr(s)7I q flE-erlE TItl+. (c) 0'Cql^'l I mol H2O(s)
=
(b) F 4lzi eg *q6}ql flg tril, 2 mol HCI ,tlB| 1 mol (d) 2s'Cql^l I mol HzO(l)
1161 .llEH4 + H]|E Ezl4g 7l4r+. _r4d z mot9 > .H.E qtfl 2
rlezl rl B3 uli tI4 +E zlzll q1e erl= + Ellzl Els-E 4 4*q fleeulzl c] EAg a=,rle.
=
94. 9lE 1 mol Hr(g)cl1 mol So2@)
(a) STPoll
(c) HCI Ezl+ Ar gztBtrI q +"J"J EJ4SE oll9zl= zl G) STPqI 9iE I mol N2o4k)e+ 2 mol No2@)
oJ"jql4l3Ezl
gE= *+q Al9 gqlLlzl= ¤olH BA, d5, r4r itld eF BqE 4tlg qlqzl
7l q 4e qLJzlTt ,]tlq$ 714 + 9lE "l^ t4z} 4q4E_tr 419 Qle-+
=q=+.
!l= ,J^6lal gEl. El.J g5a= 4l+ *+H, E= ¤+ol azlq.Z + 6l+E "li ^Jql+I
9l z*zl *g rfl t}flql E$z;)nll ol e$g g!q+{BHEI(thirdlawof thermodynamics)
4 *¤ol 94.
880 198 trl-+ gq-+
{ ol,t}p} tsi, E, -r.r.lr. r+q += ,J++ q-435-e E 86il "J¤qd4. v+e.3zl3rlg +3E# "J59 4zl 9l
1{g trllel QlE+t]tr+ Bt z++. ol= ^}Bol zllzHzl9I 6ll gse qLl^l= 4+, 4+, AETI^ f,$ Ell+l^l e=+.
ulla}-a gl4= *gvl? olqq. q+6IH
^JBg +¤6Et + rBEJI ol=3 ¤4618^l cozk), Hzo(8), r4n ¤g B^J
xlalf cll gs-6J +"*3 slqi Hi¤e +q4 ++E fltreq Elge*J *i9 qlE-eElE +71^lTlrll ¤+. fqEE +4
E gaLl4 ftzltlzltl qlEol4. r4oE gqq 4lzB4 7l + q ts43 zllg9 atzl* cl e^l 4g+ aE¤
^Jtl6l
ol efoli ql-e. oJag El*6J qE gol- ?l= *l qa 6}tr g++ gqq z{2Bzlq "++1, ++9 QIEE'IE
^8Bill7}
.J dxll slEerl {{g o3;o14. q +e +oE ¤.nla fl= aolq.
¤9eL x]zH4e +4 qlrJol *4 ++l= zltsl]6}= %'-^l +E "Ja-==e. e^lE +a6tr. zl¤¤ Bdrlzlzl flotl 9l
qlE 4+g+. +El zlrllTl +6J4"J ^JBillg +"J otq+, qzlTt ++tL 4E5q -E_.a= dd6}J 9l+.
^Iselq^l fl
+dl= +4 +HE ^lzlqlE a^l= "JSq qr *E ¤xllol #6J Etel zJol, 4"J glHzl4 eg ^llEg glHzlsg s*
4. zr,qz1q1 tsel ^FSqn fl= 4e+ dz} zlzlE¤,84I 6J ag ZIB-"1¤ zHrJ Ezllo* 9lHzl9l ql+ E¤E= *+l
617l .?1611^-1
4u"lr.l E4#
=zl-e. =6'J6lL
aB'J+. a oF 6J+.
E-e azln+g 4E# ^J.tI6I7l +14
ga,J oJ9 dEztfl
q1 e e ulel +E sl#$
o rglrl sd acci1^llel qlee.u1 aol 0014= :r. r.xllel gETI koldq q
^I¤r+,
4 gl= eulzl67[6J+= ^[¤g "Jr gl+. reJ 1e.12: lxil9 +=aql EBg trl]4zl g
E7I ^J+*ql q4 zzll9 slE-+irl: +=61 +7IElg trq g
_r.;llzl-+¤.q q4,
=q.
zl+ Ezl-= l.tltr7l BzJ 8zl9 dill +rJg 4+sol Solqqal ¤+. 4+E=
=q+
: E49 +zlflEE +71^14^l fleeu]E +t+. rqoe. +=dql^J +4+ Qleeq
9 t}*ol .Jq++. -1^]71 d+ +e +ql gE= +^l ^J+61ril qn, rql 44 qje-e.E
E +7}ql+.
19.4 I eltrt BJ30ll^1 ?]=eq E+ 881
1
t!E EL
aEdI{
e
trl
I
-r-!-.xl
0
0
8E(K)---
a rg 1 9.1 2 ElE eq= 3e.21 55:.ql qal
=7t-drl.
.-!illE #Edql^J QlEtrE= trI^l +H +4qi +78 6lrll gtrI. olH 6ztE flx}* S
zl¤ol zl;ll rlrilE llEElql qE rEol d+.J + gl= +aol tsq4zl qlEql q+k} a
ol4r ol"lig + 9t+. TlillE 414 z}¤alE, Tlill gzf+ tszl¤el E4l +E 4ee 11 g
I "llHzlz}
zlttlzl {l$q fleeq5
414 ?zlolzll ¤4.
rgql^J 'Jq+= E 6}+el Esl= tszl¤9 4E Eszl l9 4ee "Jn-lll EIE Aol
4(zH r0. r3(a)). +EE Hgzt H9zl3 ae .gE 9lr-Jzl4 +a^JE7I ?zta}ts aolr, x.19.1 2e8 Kql^1 s+ E?l
tr|+^J qlc-sulz}6ztalE 4014. rH ro.r:9 ¤q+ee4 Eg A+ *ql^J fl+qR E etrl
'J ar} "Jil*+. =qk} +Ed qHzl= q "te "la ^Jql= 7k6l7ll 617l qlEql ql gxl
e eulE $sz} to= 6Joll 44 .JHI4ee +7IEI+.
s'(l/mol-K)
re 1e.t2s] z;2 9E-{eg4 rqs= EeE g+E&.au, (5.5{)ol gEql q+ q Hzk) I 30.6
ozk) 20s.0
qag qo&l gEql^l +g + ?14(ol4al +Ar+ 4l4}q olEr}
"JHe ol ixllel
^l-Sg Hzo(g) l 88.8
H+l= Hq*q). 9l=.eq3 BF Ee 1 mol%I9 {tsg E^lqq, I/mol-K9 ++]tr + NHrk) 192.5
q{+.
CH3OH(g) 237.6
r. rJc flgi4e+ q_4,2es KE 7l= gEq^J gi=el s= gqlEErl= 0ol ofq+. Fe(s) 27.23
2.7]|1)14 .tr= EqlE+q: rH rs.rzql +Et,J u}q ?ol, Eill+ -l^llel r l}EB+ FeCI:(s) t42.3
trl r+. NaCl(s) 7)7
.E=.Jqol rl ol^J I atmol olul4 $49 sr Elqgl 4^rJ(pa)ql 7l=4q l bars c99 r0'paol4. I bar-10s
pa:0.987 atm. I barq 1 atmg 1.370!iql
'.[ol7[ +z]
?*rl qlcql ol 4ql^l= {E^J s= ga..o 1 616ole}-r, 6J a"l+.
882 19Ar al-sf Eq+
\\ qEl 1e.5
tn q!E etrl-S,E ol¤-ttol AS" 4ltl'oPl
2e8 K0il^l Nzk)elH2k)E+El "Je.r;01-g -Erddlts 8J30il rH-d zlelE= ElE+tr| Etr(as")= zltbt,\lg..
Nz(g) + 3 Hz(g)'-------+ lNHa(g)
6HU
841*EqolE C+ g4Ee+q NH3k)9 tlc !+Aq ql xlel rs.sg ol*alq Zl&,J + ilsq. g,q,* s= 581
^l,*gs.
+ s= sE +El Esl¤ 4l&de Ezllol+. trsq le.lr+++cq^'l *=+.
Evl
.rl rr.ag as= El-s-r+ a+. A.f : 2,f(NH:) - [Y(Nz) + 3s'(Hr)]
^l-&6tH.
s le.rql fl= at# qlE6ttr EI-gg e=+ Af, : (2 mol) (rez.s I / mdt-K) - t(1 mol) ( 1e l.s J/B*oI-K)
+ (3 mdx130.6JlmoI-K)l
: -1e8.3JlK
#.¤ As= ¤+e eqe+. olag HI*ql 9611 zlzll EzlE > H* qtr1l1
fz[ zJ^a[{ q]E +El7t ,Jd6J aol4= ql+4 .J^l6J+. ++ cq +qd E= E$leeulg ol+6}q 2e8 Kql^l oJ
1e.4 trl+ BJSoll^] ?lEetrl Etrf 883
++)71?9 slq-evle.l oJg, qlzll re.sollrl -1e8.3 I/KE 4l&9, 4lz| s3 $leeulE
"JEEI trl *4.
HI+ql qlEL dill Ql-ee.u] Hs++
asl+: as; + as?a : -1e8.3 JIK + 3loJlK:1'tzJlK
olEl. Asl+= 5L= zlg4 4Cql ql6l]^l oJfolo-a, +l 4l&ql q6lB NH3k), H2k),
Nzk)7[ 4r+4 -E= t]4ql^J Qf z)t:)lzl r atm6tgl ilg c]) 2e8 Kql llsE NH3(g)z[
z]es ^JCq"loI ErS 9"lAI4.
^i.l
gqqlzle 4l&g.JEqolE rdcol ztg4gg 44421"J, dc 1E7l9ut4 ml¤ r
,lql qldl^J= g + s+E 4g zlgolot +EL El++ ailH, 4'J.J
^llls.7¤ql^l ^lrJ
qlql ol 4l7l ¤Bg olfzl $loll.<lE +qlz} gs6}trl.
G:H-TS [19.10]
qzl^l r= ell gEolr}. Fe q{q qql, llE zffi olluJzl Ep{lc)=
- TAs
A,G : AH [19.11]
ol ql., s= tI4q^J ol 49 rf.Sr+ ?ol ¤ + 9l+.
a|E EB.g.e olE^171ts at¤Ee xt AG' : A1{'- TAS' U9.12)
g4g!7t, Hlxtr+4?.!7t?
qH *flol iltszl= oJolETl +16l] eE
^Jq ++ G7I HI+E ^lgC4 "Jd
e+ .JA "Jq6lq^J "JqLla 9l= HI¤:ql 4o1l oI4 alol cBEIS trzldl l{zl
I As*: As4r + As+e.r : ASa . (+)
?t
^l {zld AS+flE E+t6}71 96il le.e= ol+6}9+. oJHql _r= +6}8,
oil ^l
Lj
xl
4t+el
-TAS++ : AHa - TAS4, [19.13]
EE +l^l
ol g+.
al rs.rrr+ le.t3g ulla|{, gC gEe+ gC .Jq4q^l .Jqq= r+4el A
+lil
+ zr+ "lLJzl EsxaG)z| -rAsaae+ a+g "J + gltrt. zlg4 4dE a+
ASa;z[.]tr-.]+.Jg ull+ H] ilo Ir-tr, -TASe;E 6].!-¤+z[ 9"]o] oJ+. r
qEE aGE +a: 9C AE-s+ 'JC E.q6rq^l "Jq+= r+4sl xlB^dql ql*
ull+ +3-6J +^JE 4l+*El. r* pzl gC6l+H, acE +Ee+ HlAq zlgd
El 6l
1 q-e- +4lz\ CB*+.
^Iolq=
o
^l
T lH119 . AG < gol$, CHI+ol x|$!olr}.
otl
Ll . AG:0018, Hl¤+ ¤B gl+.
^Jqtql
^l . ac > 0olE, 4HI¤.g Hlzlg-4olzl"J, qHI¤+ zl-ts4ol4(Ce}¤-ol g"l
+4 6171 9l6ll^J= "Jg dl+qot ++).
u8E rt¤
aG= 41"J9 Caolr, ++l= l4ollol tJ $S$ol S,+. EI+^J ASttHr{-=.
aGE zlgcE 3Es r*= aol g{ ¤r-16}r}.
af.H 19.14 9{^l ollLlxlelxl* ollLl
E.l= L||ale= 6alql
^l =al EaE|
sl-st 9l^l ollt-l^l =gHJ8oll^l zlgzl HISql ql6J zl+ qlLJzl HE+= flq.g Eq LllEls= Eq +lil qlqzl
HElql ++ HI+q= 6J+(raJ 19.14). +qql q* +lil qlq^l= Eg EEI qlei
ollLl^l E+ ^PJ4
+^tdol ?t
^f+gralrtS.rz; ^toloil=
g8:-t nfl, IIEJ4 rf
+.
Eoll^i= ollLl^l7f -BfA AA"Jtl.
r +lil qlq4zl 4As+¤ tlEIql Eg^Iil+. +^I6frll, Elo+ HI+E zI+ qlq
^f? zlE 6qEq al+{Hl Egttr}. ol !+1} sB:.].99 trL fl= ¤Bql
^J4q
19.5 I Gibbs ollLl^l 885
^f+
EB:.tzll g+. gC gEel "J4 .Jq6}ql^'l zlg4 e-s .Jq+= +4q^l xl* ollHzlE
6JtL AA6J4.
r qltr 91o11 rsltglrl Hll*, eae+ +^e+El o$.rlo1z1 Btq= Haber *49 ¤8
*HZ}t.
A ^lg¤0ll
ttl -sI 7 l=e (a) 9l E-+tr| gEoll^1, (b)
^
|.3 011 L1 x | Eltr011^l +X oJ7
l'?
¤¤91 llzl ?+e zlE Hl* zl+(a)q ql+ +scg ^J46H B + 9t= =69 ^ldol+
,= (15.6p). Q < r(oJ trll ulall $ffiol 4%tole+= ag, r4:z:.8 rs.lsql^l
^BcEql
E ailH, HI¤+ AHIA EJF6Je_e z|g{e--e AB6}q g¤q Eg6Jq= ag 7lq6}q.
Q > i(oJ trll Hls"g EHiS
oJ.Jes xl.$fletr dq.J+. Beql^J= Q:Kol+.
I
I TLH}F
/\t=i
# rtg4
qt
Ll
^l
Q<K Q>K
c o
.J
o ,dJ
1$ &, F
*
ao, -/* o * -J
o J
o
a
o oo *,
* * r
O a, 0
,, o
o J t} f,
++-d gE ++er
N2+H2 EeE NHg
(Q: K,AG: o)
Arg 19.15 xlP qqrlel gEoll E=6t71 Nz(e) + 3H2@): 2 NH3(s)si U8oll^l UB N2sl H27f Nft0ll Hl6H Etl trbrtf
E(grEJ, Q < K0lr, Nft7[IlEjloe 8dEtt. UB NH37[ N2e[ H2oll H16|l Liol =-'J= =oil Q > K0l.I., NH3zl-xp34oe
Neel.HzEEdllEtf =ErEoll =^t|6lE(9--).
886 1e3 at-+ gq-+
qBl 1e.6
\H', 7,.\5"8 olt6lol xh+ qlL'ixl UJE 4ll'E[71
2e8 K0il^1 Nzk)q Ork)E+El NO(s)7t 85ElE rt|et s.G oilL1^l= Zlt6[^19(trJ, L,H":180.7 kJola- LS =24.7 J/
"tuloil ^|.8
K0lEl).
Nz(g)+ozG)-2No(g)
ol HJ33 +olTl 6,J6l0ll^l
^lg4?.17t?
r,llu
E4 Ar{', As', Tz} +qag ql H}+q qt AG'= 4+6} +el rAseE tfl= tle ag qxl gotot 6J4. r4
Hl-+.=
a_. ze9 K E= t}4ql^l f HI+ol zttszlql4, f-+4 ?+e o| kI $flE iq{ alr" a|4 rlB + 914.
4 q+d+ E4lol+. > 5E qlr{ll
filE! AG'E 4l&6171 916I -TAS'E1e.12, AG":AFf ol ++ + +.J ag?
^l zlg4oJ^l (a) EE zlg4 Hl+g elBq Hq+ g+ol+.
+il+. s= tr-qql^l q}*ol s+6t71 9loll lc.
E +E= ol+++. (b) E.= z}ts4 HI+E tltrell HE+b o}+oltrl.
(c) EE zlg4 HI+g xI-Pr qlqzl {a}5 o3,;o14.
Eol AG": AH'- ?as"
(d) s= ztg4 Hl+el zF+ qlq4 HE+ts¤+ol+.
: 180.7 kJ - QeER)(24.rJl0(;+) (e) E.E ztBzl HI*e-l qltrerl Hplb ¤.fol4.
qEl 1e.7
x+ ^Jf xl+ ollllxlg+El x+ a|+ qqxl Eilet 4lt
(a) +E Col 2e8 Ko]l^l "Joll-l= tl'8 HJ8oll tH-d E= 0]lt-1^l EataJ= Zl{ldf,\l9
^|.E= =E6[q + ^[+
P+(g) + 6Cl2G) a, PCl3(g)
(b) +l oJSel qHJ8oil rH6J aG"= gEl-oJ7l-?
6tlt"
"Jqq q y*3 pcr,E $cB x"]4. rBl+ aG'{ls-E
Bq +qa HI+ql 4* s= zI+ qlLJzl HE+g zl+6t ol HI*ol 4lBEl= +E=.J + strI.
r, f qH}*ql qq} E= zI+ 9lHzl EEI*9 +61+ Exil (b) EHi+q^l= c+*ql^lE Hl¤¤r+ ^JcEg q6Jol ^l
ol+. e BIA+. qH}+ql^l AG9 *EzI Ht+l= ar} eol
^l
le.l4ql^.1 AG +s7I HI4g HIfl4 ::re (5.4!). nlel-.rl
4El ^JCE]+ HI¤¤ql 4ql s= ^JC zlf,- "ilHzl <t¤ *
(a)91^J ge A4E 0l+618,
e EI-g, 4 rs.ra= ol-006J+. HI+4q +4u 4l+E EB
E= ^JC zl+ qlqzl it"il #tL + ddE dalg E= zl+ 4PCl3(g) Pa(8) + 6cl2@) aG': +1102.8kJ
-
qlqzl *ql^l HI+B dzllg .s= zt+
"iluJzl l}S W4. ......
g0l .l-4E sI+ ++4g ag pl+ El+g ++\UtrI. ol F +
(a) clzk)E s= d-qlql 9lo o-tr ol HI*EE AG/E ool -+ ++49 Ef qlLlzl ,,ig Elj/6lH qtrl6J7l-?
^l,or
4. pak)b s= t'-qlq 9zl ?*zl trlEql, ol Hi+Eq (t) 2HzO(t) ZHzG) + ozf)
- + llzoz?)
AGI'E 0ol otq+. +¤ "*= qI¤41+ ++ cE atg ol*
(2)H2o(t) Hz(g)
(a) AGi : -
AGi O) aci : 2 LGi (c) 2 aci : 551
6IE, (d)Er-ol $.+.
AGi*. : a AG1'[PCl3(s)] - AGf[Pa(g)] - e acffctr(s)]
: (4mal)(-269.6k|lmat) - (lmor)(24.4k|/Eal) - o
"l+a}¤ ,llql.Jg ¤4 +*q1
++ c9 z,l9 4aJ zss K
: -1102.8kJ
ql^lE AG.= +61-^ls-.
AG.z| $f.oloe zs.Cql^l i E .J{ol 44 1 atmoJ
cHa(8) + 2OzG) CO2(g) + 2H2O(s)
P4k), cl2k), PCl3k)E g*Eg C**ol zlg4 os d
-
qH 1e.B
aG" ql+!.} 4lt
golLl= s+ull?.! 7lill9 E4 HJ8oll tH-.J AH'E Hess E4= 0lE6lq Z|talHrl
298 Koll,\l
csHe(g) + Soz(s) + JCoz(e) + 4H2o(t) aH" : -222okJ
^lls.7tr0l,\j
(a) +C Col rle= 0|E6l'rl "JL, o1 HJ8oll tH-d AG' ,Jol AH'EtI t] Bel ,J= 71tr^1, tl 4'g 39 ,JE 7lE^l qE6|.,\19-
=
(b)+E csl^l-E= sJ86G 2e8 Koll^j 0l uS9 AG"= zlco|.^le. (a)oil.rl qEE]
=rl,cl.g^161ts71.?
ao-E ql^Jtr + glrl. ¤.fql ms"= uuN i:_tr AG.ts > H.= qu{ 1
Arrql Hl6ll q zle *9 <tol g aolq. q¤ 3r++ el*ol SE E}*oli1 Qleeul HEIzI *9 zlol
(b)
^l
1e.14e+ ++ c= ^l-+6lq
lc" {l9 4*4 ?ol zl 4r B trll, olEll +t + +g ag qg X.JzI?
4Ig + 9l+. (a) ol *¤¤ E= gEql^.] zlgzl"J HI+ol+.
AG" : 3 AGf[Cor(s)] + 4 AGr'[Hzo(l)] (b) ol HI¤+ E= gEql^] El'+g4oJ HI+olEI.
- (c) ol Hl¤¤ q +g gEql^]EJ zlgzl.J Hi+olEL
- AG1'[c3H6(s)] sacf[or(s)]
(d) ol Hl¤+ q *3gEql^lEJzttszl.J q}*o14.
: 3mo1(-39a.4kJlmol) + 4mal(-237.13kJ/EoI) -
> .H.= qH 2
t mal(-23.47 kI I mal) - s mol(O kJ/mo1) : -2108 kJ
2e8 Kql^l +Ell"Jol ¤a6I= ++ql 'l]6fl 446l] BzI.
Hro(i)ql qal Ac'Alg +g oll f9dl.t d4. la <lg Al 2CaH16@) + 13O2(J:) + 8CO2(g) + 10H2O(g)
tg qlAB, HI¤¤r+ ^8CEE tr(phase)9l +96l]oh ++. ol ++E AG. Alg Aff At-H-tr} q gel <l* zl4z1,
**ol tl¤g= F"J glsEulzl- ,J44.7]|qlEql aG. {lg =
olqH q 4Ig+9 <k&zl4zl ql+6f^le-.
AH"-H-+ trl 4Ig gq <Ig r*=+.
Gibbs zlr? 9lHzlEql+ +s:+ gqol "Jol+. "*3 slqt zl9 4C, A,G: L,Ho,- rAS, : 0
Hl+ol .Jq4 sETl zE "Jc+ 3aq^l "J"l4zl uIEq, uJz|$ ${: AG: AI{4- 7As4r < 0 lr9.r7)
ElqLrI+ {c}qz} r4ir. .6lq}zl-=-ol s}q} "t ^Js}q E}+g (.J¤+ T, P)
;t.JB trll AGel +Ee+ r7l= El]+61 f-3-o6J E+o14. ol 4 zl ro.rz3 9E q}*ol zlB4"Jzl, ulz|$!olzl, olqH B
I q++ql^.1 ++cg Bq ++ ql# d6J aol+. e t'-Elql il=zl-= AGel +Ee ++g + il+g Eol
^GEEll =+.
AG < ooJ trI, E+ r+Ag ElTfq4olq, 44^] zlg4ol+.
AGE zl¤- tsl]¤. 4g + ¤=ol z[+ 56]+tr]. ell
=61
AG9 *sz} tl*9 zlgCg AA6I= .JzttTf? zI rql AG:ooJ rL EcI443 zt94olq, q4^l B¤ {-4ql 9l
+ qlqzlql^l 'zl+'+ +Eg eltrl6l+71? +. qB Hp] 44ol AG > oolB, r q+43 AG < ooJ a
zllrr.z{ollrl gEq} al2Bzlol E= HEi r}del ztg^"rg olr[. rz]l.tl +q{ Ec} r+Cg Elz}g4olzl"J, r qr+C
AC.J+= XS ul]*{4. :44 x]zHzl(zl rs.+)g 4+6}zl g HlTlE4olL, z[${o]u}.
+l6ll8E 4141o1 $$,* AS55 oJolot"J oJ+. rflgl rc+ A,G!
=zl E+ +e-6fEI. AGE
610l =7 ¤+ql HI3-E
p7l gAB 4li AS+s9l 4+ le.e= 1e.4ql qloJ6lq a+(qE 7l+fl9 fll Hls")z} AG$ fiol 4L:t g+
^l ^l
4lql 4oJ elgqel qlEEq H4%+e-e".i As++S 448 e EI*ej =H
a+(el= EE ggol tr-gq^l + Hl+)tr+ +
+ el+. +lql g{ trJ gg 'Jg ts + 9l+. dzll-E gqq} olEql E
-AHa 6IH, qtr H+ rl4ql 4t xl-.ft .ilqxl tr+(ac)= 'Jd g
AS*: + AS+e : ASa + ( (ga,*
Ee+ "*q6lql^l :a r+4ol xlB4 o-e 'Jqts q 4zl ?flql
AS4 T, P)
T )
[1e.1s] B + 9= 4ql "JE .F+ aq.
olsL| zJol .J¤.J gEe+
"Jqql^] gqq alzHzlg oi4e} : -w^u*
AG [19.18]
eot ++E + 9l+. (s s.rqlrl aqg +Egl elul$ zl$alq. 4l7t * "Je g
:o +ol+.) +^l rrJ6ll^1, q¤ HEI r+ceE+q eg + gl=
zl94C' AS*:or, -f olE4.J 4lql "JE "J3lc {tg *6l] g + gltr}.
ulz|$${: As++:or, -fro le.18e AG7I el] z|$(free) qlqzl+n E4izl ¤H
[1e.16j ^l
3ll + qB zlg4 H}+ql^j g^J6J 9lHzl 69lrl **
(oJ4+ r,P) =+.
^l-s¤ + ?lE *89 9"1
.J ¤qlE "Jg 6l+ ql 4++r,il
olE+q= AGa(*oEi r* lce. +4ts)e} gqq ++. r 4"lzl 9lHzl= gq ¤EllE +9e %r-=¤+. q=
xllz$zl ,Jel +Zl= g + 914. zl tr.ttqr'1 AG:AHa 7l+ag ¤^6Iq eg + 9l= "JE al4'.+3 zl¤fl
- rAs4o1r1. ^l re.r6ql -rE +oJ + 49 AE4E ++ =q
¤^ HI+q EH.J AGE #ql E6]l AA¤+. BEq qlg 7l
s e4 ¤+. +e gE¤.ol *4. zl¤fl9 sI4 .llHzlE zffizfg $zlol
1e.6 ollLl^lef gE 889
^l+
A Er*rer trd #=Eg 80 "corr[. 100'c, 1 atm,r^r E]{!or 7rtrr-6rE HJBoil^r AHet
qHl 1e.s
LftE alg^Jql rt|BJ.3.s. ""{6J
ql+
oJeLlolE 8tla15 Harber 8de q¤ EE ,J- olEEltl.
Nz(g) +3Hz@);-2NHs(g)
0l U30ll tt|Pi AH":-92.38 kJolL AS':-198.3 J/Koltl. AH'e[AS'FEz135o11 i+al" E6l^l ?Jtscla 7|"8-dtr|,.
(a) Ssz[ 8+-er'oll qal 0l EtSe] AGTI olEZl H-g^l ql=61.^le. (b) 25"Cel'500"Coll^l 0l UBE AG zJE 44 ?6l.^le.
cH!i
> !r* qF{|1 ol+6iq 2es Kql^l +g qI-sE aH'e+ as'= 4l&6t^le-.
Harber *Col Elztg4ol 9E gE= q EoJTI? 2So2G) + oz(g) + 2So3ig)
(a) 25"C (b) 47 "C (c) 61 'C (d) 193'C (e) 500 "C (b) (a)gl.r.l ++ &g ols-"ol.{ 400 Kql^lE AG= al&61-
AG" tl4 +{g -trf; a{pol E 1e.2ql 4l^lr4q 9lq. ,il+Be-l +E H}¤+ ul*.¤ t4
ql^l "Jqt+. l-= s+q]. 4Cql^J s= tlqlql^J9 ztf. qlqzl Hs+eJ(aG.)4 qH +=
d-4q^lel xFft qlqzl He+r6i(ac)
^I"lql= +.sn+
zJg *4lzlol cB,*rI.
AG : AG" + RTInQ [19.19]
ol Rg ol^J zlxll tlf(s.:l4 J/mol-K)olr., 7= d4 9s, O= H}* zlfolr} ,.,.,
^lq^l
a= HI¤¤r+ ^J^JEe-l *ETI Hl*g q- ^ldq^Jq tE4= ag xllel6lr=
(1s.6¤,).
¤B ^J+el eg ,J^letr 4l4}gr+= 4* zlq6}4. e:KolE, HI¤+ ¤B ^Jqlql 9l+.
qHl 1e.10
BB SEl.loilAl ^JqlElei A6el*l41
(d.4nPl EJul(cCll/))sl 88 E96t= Et+ HJ8^l= r (b) (a)9 a[-st HJ30l 8B0ll E=J61fl= ttll AG. zJe
^lEEl ==Eg ^|9.
EEloJTl? (c) ffi Cq Eq-E xlEel.^.1 1s.12=
^|86|.q
ccl4(/)ol ¤At g=EE +¤6[^le.
(c)
^J
le.l2e+ (b)E arl¤ A!+6iH cc14(D Ets +
=
++d .qi{E ctr'#=d(rb)q^l ffi alol
cB+4. AG': AH" - 4A.f:0
ol 4¤. 7r"ll 46}ol trl¤.r+ e+. u-- Lr/" lLf
=E
g"J6l "J6IE, ol 4ltlg 6tqE C^J #=Aq^l
ccl4(l)e+ cct/s)zl ¤B tlEllq 9l¤.
"llel aH"e+
AS" fto1 BS-a1c1. :flcl| 5-5- ce} s.3l Irl
^l
1e.3$ xftr_E+El gg + ?l= 2e8 Kql^lE AH' AH': (l moI)(-106.7 kJ/mol) - (1rnol)(-139.3 kJ/mo1) : +32.6kJ
el ls' 619 Af; : (l mol)(3os.4llmol-K) - (7mo1)(2t4.4llnral-K): +gs.OJlK
^l-&4q #=dg +cB
+ 9l+.
qltl+ BIe+ zJol. ol r|49 ¤:g 4t(aa > o;o1
a, 7l8l ti49 Ezl-= ^JC6}E_E 8lee.u1z16
7}6J+(AS > 0). ol {}# cct (DE ro
:
=
+c6J+.
^l-&6I¤ 4: # : (;:{#)(iH) : 343 K 70.c
EI¤¤4 +E7l s= d-47I olB Ell= AG Alg +t;l7l +1.11 a {tg 4l&6llot
^J^dEe.l
aJ4. ol Al^} rlag q4l re.uql^l ¤BE dol4. re.le= ol+4q A= Al&6J trll
^l ^I
+61-= +glql *gollot 6Jr+. s= ^JEil= 4EB rll .rffi-a1qr3 ++l# ol+6l.q a= zl
4l6Jrt. a= Al4!E utl, zl^ll9 *E=.Jtr zl$ ++lE ++ oJq oe g.tlap, +ee E
+E.* E^l.J+.
qFll 1e.11
Hl.E.*.liEfloll^1 ollLJT,l Hst 4ltal.?l
'(t+
Harber B8oll,\l ,\l.EEl= 1.0 atm N2. 3.0 atm H2, 0.5 atm NH3-e +¤E HJB t}|-d 298 K0ll,\lel AG= Zltlol.,\l9.
=-cr'Eoll
Nz(g) +3Hz@);-2NHs(g)
E0l P,.,n,2
"'t (0.50)2
xn:- P*,Pr,3 :9.3x10-3
I ts.z+z "l+6lq HI+ 4+¤ ahidttr trl-o-!+ a+ (l.o)(3.0)r
^ldr]..
rElr Jill, Eill, +rltE Eo EE Bzl g+=tr[ ".*, (rs.+¤). tr]4^l Tlill^J H]
^lql
rs.zoo-tr+El "J"J LG"7l ¤.olE ln Kzl "Jolqot d+. + K> loldl= a¤ 9ol*
^lrrI4^J
+. LG"7l trl +E Alol 9E K* rJ 44L1. qgtr, "JoJ lC'21 oJolH ln Kts
=
9ol 99 K< 19 9"laJ4. ulzluJg-tr L,G'zl0olH r(:1ol+.
tr r(=09 +ilE71?
894 1e3 ++ Eq-+
qHl 1e.12
) a6'-e+q ¤B tt+ 4',IJ8t71
Haber 889 25'C0ll,\1 E= 01lL1rl EElts ql^Jl 19.901111 Zltt6lfitl'. Harber HJ- tl34 eq.
^l?
Nz(g) + 3 Hz(g) ;- 2 NHs(g) AG" : -33.3 kJlmol : -33,300 J/mol
AG' '2J= 25'C0ll,\l 0l HJB9 EE 8+ K= ZIL|61'119.
^lE6q
6llt"F 7tq:g E gqqe HI+E %}.Fl dq aEq q4^l= "J6I
E^l +qd AG"-E+q q¤ HI+E K= 2I+61-= +^llol4. +zl"J, qlg $E9l qlol^l= oI+4E "J"ll fzl 9+=+. d
gql^l nEI= +E-e H)¤¤ dq^la +E1l7t gaElfltrIE, ¤
4tst K= zl{}d}Tl +16]] re2tg
^l-s+4.
^l E9 NH, Sd %I6Je-s zl+zl7ll 6171 9lEl r"Jg ^l.s*
Eol le.2lql^-l 6}r $alzl-
rE eql ¤.EE
^l .Jxl6l+ ^l^!:o
r ^l-$ali 9s-zt S,fl$ aol+.
E4r*E +91='r+ R ttg E trl-g 4¤- e=+.
> E= qlrlll
K - e-Ac/RT: s-(-33,30oJ/mol)/(8.314Jlmol-K)(298K) : ,t3.t :7 y 1gs
+el ol ilg
B¤ ^J+olq, ^JcE NH37I2s"c ¤Bq^l oltrI. ol gol Eql +dlq= 4Aq ql6J ac"i guloJz}?
=
,l+ e ^J{g+= 4g g"lt4. s ls.2ql iqd :oo.c (a) -26s kl/mol (b) -11s kllmol (c) -2.61kflmol
q^l 600'c HgE gEq^l ¤B tl.+E zs'cql^lE ilB (d) +11s kllmol (e) +26s kllmol
4 gd zl+. qdd *g gEql^lE ¤¤e ke gEql^J > H= filril2
^J&q +q6I+. rflqlE $f6}a.
e-l ¤eB+ oJer-.lo}
++ c9 zlE= g+6}q 2e8 Kql^l 4+ HI*ql 46J
Harber *Cg dgql^J ,ll+ Lflril tlqqzl {lEoil a99l
AG.e+ K= 4l&6}^le-,
^i
Hi¤¤ +q6J4. Hz(s) + Br2(/) ;- 2HBr(g)
oJi]lql^-l ql^}= z}+ 9lHzlE r}=61-= +ttJ 4 HI¤¤ z}xle oJ944l 6l+ Ell ^l-+g+. .JHl ^JEqlol
=+a^ HJ¤q= zl+ ql + ^JsI+ r++g +Eg 5eE, zI+ qlLJzl= qlrJe] * d
"JflE "JqUr+. ol rlCql^l
H]+9 F6ll
qzlel "J++g *g qlq^l ^J40J app= +g qLl^l ^J xllql dB6l= Ell ^F&q= "JHE ql+ql 4al{ rJ
=a+
4oJ erpe. qE4= Ell ^[+94. tr[4^] ATp_ADp tr-jr.
H++g 4^l-r+c ¤..J 9lHzlE xlltafzl glall .(l-$slzls of +A g+ E4l: re.roo, le.ror
i1, 4+¤ qLJzl= gs+ "J+ ,J=6Iq oJzll L|]$ Elztg
=.e=,\ {lE dE
(c6H1206)
q& ^1lE
! .k-9
EL
I
=+i4 rl+ oilLlrl
til /\{x}
^1lE
*r%
Z4anN
E+-z: ATPOII 9]6ll
{]n[ollel6H ,J=E
HI=EI olLlrlTt^IP
lE-d
0llLi^l7f ETIE Htrl
^t+ ATP-+
ADP= +8Pl E^te
EE-.Jtl. tH 616lr f
-=
Llo
(Doco2 + H2o
&* ollLlrl
E+EJ
Exl
EBJ qFJI
.+-al 7IL{
o ts'llE
NaCt(s)rlAgcr(s)ol 9lrl. 0l E- Eoll +q o|8Esl +t.-4= E¤61-= rt8 HJ8Eel EBoll EH6H golH^l-.
AgCl +65.7 kJlmol +34.3 l/mol-K -10.2 kJlmol Agcl9 K,p Alg ++ Dq fl: aI4 uNf f.rlalr|.
+ g +'-qe] QlE+q 6JE AEg,]]+ Hli6I+. ol+Al (d) +dlc ge Eq tI%+61 e. +E gol+ "* (q.24).
El*f, olff 4 +6ll n+Aql^l ¤ol tot isl¤ ol39 Nacl9 &p #g l-E-{ 3q, o1L3 Naclol Eq A +=
=
BCg "l +A^jE7I ulf{ zzlE +71617l rllEol4a += ag golt4. Aeclg K,p <lg qlg {s{, ol{
+4'J + 9l+ a.o (t:.t6;. HlEq + g +'-4E elgvl 3 egctol Eql Zel Yzl S*¤ 9"1t4. gal e+ B
"Jql= 4++
itolTt 9l¤¤ g + 914. AH+"rql^Jq zI +^dgeE rJ+6[o] 6J+.
olzl AGle {}ql^lE zlol= A46J+. (e) {lt4e + gg +6il r+4e %t9 as <t-=q ztd4(G)
(c) SdlE* tr-+(K,p)= +4 r+Cq q6J ¤B tlfol4 *: E E A4). u++^l zI+ qlLlrl Hclql^lE qlEtriil 6J
(17.44). r+zl EllEql K.p= te.zt& zld -rA$sq9 *+ol+. "J"J arf**4 As's*o1 gEql 4
^l ^l-*6}q
4 r4l E6Izl ?J:=+-a 7LA6IE, rE 67I= AG$,Eg
AG'+"rs+El +$ + 9l+.
Kro: 9-6Gk/Rr trl gq {te-_" EJ=4. E}4^l gg +4^l7l= eg rr}
ql4l le.l2q^l 4+6J ar+ +rJg *He
te.2tg
^l q+gq. r.H 13.taoll,t'l NaCI$ +6llE(r?-l-lr, aE E
e llg 4ltlg + 914.
K.p (a)il,H ?9 kllmol *919
AGlq {}9 llmotE- H+{} + gE +ollE)7| $uzl fizlflq IrI4 +7l.Jg .J +
^FS6Jc}. =
9l+ @E (13.3¤-).
NaCl:Kr, : [Na+][Cl_] : e-(-e10o)/[(8314)(2e8)]
: e+3'7 - 40
eE g es Eq
xlEl4 1[8(19.1tr) q]++q H]g"r] a]q] *C3 -l+E ,]6]^Jg '*9 ot+ Stll(microstate)4n 6J4.
alE elEEitl: AIE +z}+l
7l4L+. _L HI¤-s=e aj groo9E:. rFJ4(spontaneous)ol-2, : $ Eql qle zJEoltri. flc-eu1e1 419 ol^ tlEll +t w
^plql=
4* 401 CB+4. s=k ln w. E^lE ^ll ++E g# ++. g
q4"J AsE 44 arl ^J4q^l 4l+ t}4tr Hs}6l+7].e+ +¤ dxllTt +Aq^J olE6l= BE #(translational motion)4 E
^I
qq 914. zlel zEl(reversibleprocess)oll^JL 4le+ +919 Hq¤ zI 49 9zl-5ol atl4" e Tlrl+)7i|44 HolzlE rlE EE
^)e
Aq6}rll q os EIEH oBrq ++lE g?ll tr'Eltr, Eol-rJ +
Zle+ (vibrational motion), r4l ez}Tl Solpi ,Jol qd6f: qE e
914. utzlH 4El(irreversibleprocess)oll,rl Alb +9lql q¤ g+4 E(rotational motion)¤ Slq. ezlT} 71{- + ?lE "ld *EllE +.
.J H+= +,{ g:a^J: g4
^}4e 9Eo}zJ + S.+. s= ^fB + $lEeq= +rJE +ul, +zI9 eE, E= +^lE ¤+ol +71-
4e 4Ae HlTlq4olE|. gA6J +Eql^l "Jq+= 4Ag Ee Elql 4+^.1 A4l+. eI+6IE olBl,q} Sffi_e- Ezlz} B + 9l=
4tl(isothermal) o
I e}l g]rf . eFE +ei +^l7l714 + 9l= 9lil9 +¤ +71^l7l7l EllEoltl.
olillql^l 7l
Eeenle[ Eq+ 4PH=l(1e.29 s= 4Aql^] ^tgCg Eee
tr++^l i18l7}
"lrllTI Ela+ +Eg Bd6J trll, i14l+
xllrl4cB Ell. E= sl4 ++q^l 7l^ll EzlE +7f 67f6J q ql
s-tr E^lqE, glEErl(entropy)4a 6l+ gEq4.J ^J4 B+el
eeq=.JHl4e.a ?zfoJ4. 0 Kql^l ++6J aad nillg flE
+dqq 914. 'JAql gEq^l 'Jq+: qH EElq 4dl 4q sl
E-tr.q H+= ,tqzl.J AeE qq 4zt ++6J gg gEtr +b E4: 0ol4= aol EelEt rBE*l(third law of thermodynamics)
ol+.
4ee 7a3u11as:q,*lr). E= rldql^l ? i9 fl=-eEl EEI+
4le} ++19 flee.u1 Hs+g .J+ rJ4(As++:lsa+ASaq). 8l El+ U8oll^l Eeeul Ea(19.4tr) gEEi Sl3Bzlq E6ll qel
E-trEl7I B= HsI4C9 ulBdg qBril ACq+^lE Ee|El 8t r+= gEql^l E4E elEeqE aaB + 91trI. s+ t}4ql^J q
2E4(second law of thermodynamics)oll 7l+El q !]Q. ul z|$ (zf tr Ee I mol9 qltrE4E EE fifllEEE|(standard molar entropy)
94) r+A ql^J AS++ > 0olr|. qlE e irl= EE I/K +9le .s.¤EE}. 4 6Iq s"E E7ldJ4. Eql gl= s'<tg ole"a|{ E= t}4ql^l
Ext4 gEoll^1el glE-eElet gqqt fil3H=l(1e.3$ "tB +4 +
{eq= .it= Hc} r}4E qlEEirl B+=}9 4tg + *4. rE-og
,Jql AIE +^J6l+ g^lel Eztzl-7lzl= flile+ ¤89 ECqi 4Cql^J 799 Qle-aul H+= -AHlreI a+.
=
ee EJ8^l gg7
Gibbs r[?0llHrl(19.59 Gibbs ri* qqrl(cibbs free energy) E qlqrl, tE, tsE 8+(1e.6E, 1e.79 AHe+ as a
^t+gEql q+ rrll=ala
,J+61 zh+ qq4 G= +
^J4 'J+.J flgrle| slce.o1g
g. e E6Izl ?*=+. trl+^l AGel gE el3^Jg
=
6J gqq}4 *ql EL+olEl(G:H- rs). oJA6J gEql^l "JqLI AG:AH-rASql^J +Er (}ql .el6ll aAgEL fl=e.q a3-o.1
: E= Ep+ 4Aql^l AG:AH-T^Soltrl. .Ja6J gEe+ "J4 ras= aGE gE E+dql g6.r'9 +q, q+^l qts HEI n+
ql^l "JqLlE He+ rlcql 4eL ac +a= r dpl4c9 zIBc =
C9 zfBdql g6}-9 +trI. qE Eq ggol += 14 ,Jol la
r+ +flol ?14. lczl +olB, r r+Cg zlg4ol+. AGz| o3.o1 >0ol-z As>ooJ r+49 *g gEq^J= Hlzfg4.J + i.l.zl"J
E, r 4Ae Hlzlg4olzlE}, ErlAe zlB4ol+. ¤B ^Jqlql^l (AG>0) +g gEql^lb zlB4g i 914(lc<0). Els+ {'ql
r r+Cg zlq4oln AG= 0olr}. zffi ollulxli E.J zlg4t + ql^l ac= AG.e+ HI* 4+ aql .il611 4+4 ag
^lol
cB+tr|.
Cql^l ZlTi "J + 9l= +e.+'JE 314=Jg +EU+. sE Hp+ AG:AG'+Rr ln a. gB t4(ac:0, Q:&ql^] AG':-Rr
r+aql 4"J E.= xf+ qlq^l Epl"*(lc';g E= u8 rlfi oilLlrl ln Kol4. trl-+^l -*.= zI+ qlLl^l Bpl: El+E B¤ t}+e+ zld
(standard free energyof formation, Lcfl7l t+gg gtr+El 4l4l *fl"1 ?14. ol +4lE B¤ d+9 gE E=Cg L++U+.
gl4. AG/.E E6
"J + ^JC flBol(Aar.)e+ +^I+ %I4ee 4e-1
¤4. s.+ ^JEilql^J 64aJ fl+9 aG/" 7lg 0ol+.
6'la
-r u z{F
O-l I 0l 8E E+:eJ +0ll qelE¤ trl-=E g + ?lolot EItrt
HF-e-/\l
=o
Orr- l. O i
. or: 7}q 4dq^l ¤+6J g E= EJ¤,tI g+ flEEq H+e+q +41
? (.Ja"J r) Irs.z)
. zl9 4C' AS++: ASal + AST9 : 0 I
ulz|$ ${: AS++ : AS4 + ASrsr > 0 [rs.a] E9qr z]zB4
I
'S:klnW Irr.sJ trli ^JEll fe| ele-au]e1 .$41
. AG' : )nAs"(rj{$) - )zas'(q}f$) [1e.8] E=EqIEEEE+E] g6 QIE.EE HE}=} ZI&
-AH, oJqql^l
'AS"et : -; Irs.s] "JA.J gEe| 'Jq4= H+ 4dql 4+ +fl9 elEe
El EEl.*
. AG: AH _ TAS Irg. r r] "JA+ gEql^] tBvlel tEeu.l H+*ee+q Gibbs xl-# 9l
qal E++ 4l4I
898 193 atq' gq-+
. AG": )naci(g{g)- )mtci(H}¤¤) [rs. ral s+ 4^dzf$ olluJxltr$El E= 4.+ qlq^l HEi=J 4l4l
. zt$ 4C' AG: AHq - IAS, = 0 .JC6J gse+
I Itg.rt) "Jqql^l {Bq= HE+ r+cE 'lE^J4 zF+ qlLJ
ulz|$ ${: LG: A.Ha1- TAs4 < 0 Hc}e+g +al
J ^l
. AG: -waq [rs. rs] AlzlxJ + 9l= 314 .Jr+ qlq^l H+"6hr+el S4
^I-S
. AG: AG" + RTInQ [rs. rs] Hls:= tlqiql^-l zl+ qlq^l HE+=J 4l&
' AG': -RTlnK Irs.zo) E+ zl+ qq^l HE+elr+ E¤ ^J+E +zl
oJ+ +41
ts-e.e _H.= TllE .llHxlzt 4q] ¤+q4+ %I=g + 914. ol Hp| r+Ag
oll
I
(b) ol 4aq aHe+ Asg +EE ql+6}^le.
(c) H q^lE Eflg trI .Jq+: gg riq4.J 4C.JzI? a
(d) ol4Cgi?19 qlceul Aql qH ¤"&9?bzt? o o
q
trL-g El+g AHe+ ASel +g= q+6|^le.
e
o
cc
o te.4 ell r+rll ^J4
ee o
6l+zl ¤B6l-^le. [1e.3¤]
tr?
1.'\f r'1
+,'i
>4 o-{
rBq A+q ^IS ^lld +7lql= t\r
te.2 o].4
l, 1 -trlol g+g-+qlql gl(1. I -difluoroethane, C2H4Frg
qlTloJql^l TlalloJ
oq + ?'.\J
J\{\,
J
ol+ Eeol ill+14 gEl. rE=g tsHg 4 n.Jel r.r_eol
t F6ll EieE +sE^l zlolr.ll, o1
le.5 opll E_EE 7l+ +g seq1,r1 ,lx,il.J qtr 849 elee
=+seqlqlqlol =g
zl;llz| zfgel BzlS Bqulfl4. [te.l¤, ts.2g)
nlTIgEqlq4 qB4l H6l-=xl trq e+. [rs.:d]
(a) 948 Aelq El+q B utl, ol ,lp+ r+Ag tlgql^l
^l- (a) q*oll,<J Oq @e E^l6J +zldg trl+ qlEEqTI ?
Bzlt 4c.JzI? 7l6lb r+Cg Ft.Jzf?
(b) r,r-r1o15+sEqEl.Jg 4l4r a9fl9 ull, ol zlEl
(b) @ql^l tE eul HEIrI Otrtrr ol++ +t.Jrt?
444 qazl oJoJzl, ¤.oJzl ql+g + flbz}? =
(c) ol ${ol 0 Kql^l sd+ egal?+r *r+8, ol gEql
(c) ol zl5| 4c9 aszl 0JoJ^1,
+oJzl ql+6].^le-.
s {tg gn}oJz}?
(d) *E (a), (b), (c)9 B-qePE ol zll*9 zlE fl?]: ql ^l
894 teeq + qB &ql trl 9=61+2l?
u
E
I .e
; El
tlEzlfl CzHa,Fz 5
q+E c2H4F2
aE(K)
te.6 olCe4+ ol4 ¤lql.J(csH,J9 + olCex]le} eol, +q
4g +zl"J flzlel ullgol EI= +zlol+. [rs.+¤]
le.3 (a) 4s rBql E+ 4Cq q6J Ase+ AHq +E=
E^I6J
(a) + olca4lE ¤^ tBgz} erll q¤ aeE q+qE
+9"J71? 0) "l H+ r+a F.J .JC6J gEE +z1617l +l
7I? q r+rll {4d}=^l ¤E6f^le.
3x1t 899
=*
O) qL ol^dei]lg -s.3 g$lEEvlzl-rl astr. qh}El (b) K.:1ol4B, 9:= :go1 Q < &oJ tlqlql flE 4l= +
r+zl {$a}.rle.
=
ell
^J461.=zl 44EzI?
=7t?
(c) ol Hl*ql 4+ AGE a7171+716]E +^ls oI4 rH
E +^.lE A6I^le.
\ oit Ot,^ t rl
rtr ,tt
TJ
t} -l
(1)
I- (2) o t,;, (3)
cH3-cH2-cH2-cH2-cH3 cH3-c-cH3
t'
CH^
19.10 olell E-B.b +*E ,ltr-4e HI+ A(g)+u(s)- 6(s;71
1]4q: EoJ ^t+ ollulzl(G)z} qgrl H6l+^l trq
CH, g+q= 44 r atmt +++ Hl¤¤ Ae] sz} 9l-7. eE+ =4.
,r-EJlElloJ LllgtrJlElloJ ql= Ef+7|^le l atmoJ ++6J {CE C7} 9lE}. El-g 6
te.7 olrll Es.E 9H zlt4.J HI+ql ql4q AH(S*4 Oe+ qL aol *ol.l, zll.JzlE "J6}^ls. Lrg.zll
(a) ol q*oll,rJ 3li.J ol tI¤:9 HI¤¤4
r^s(+¤^{ ,s)7} gEql E}r} qBzl H6l+^l trq ^ld3 qlolrl. ^JCEol
=+. EB tr-Elg sB+g BC+
[rs.o¤]
(a) AHq TAsz| zJofzlS:oo r xld¤ qE ?eCg r*b (b) EB ^tqlql^l Ae+ B= E-+ Hls"6}q ++dJ CE /d.^d
tl? +tr|.
(b) ol HI¤¤ qB gE B9lq^l (c) ol HI+g dceq {fl; o3=o1r;.
^Ig4oJ7f? rBel .r= ol
(d) E]*q AGe+ aEI.
(e) ol Hlgg AG= ol HI+ +d9 g+ ¤4 oi4+ E ^Iol
g il.le| a+.
AH
I x
TAS
300
3E(K)
G
I
re.8 olells*.Y qB zI*4.J HI*ql q6lq acTr gEql IrI4
Htq ilx{
qBril H6l+^ltrq [re.s¤, rs.o¤]
(a) olL gEq^l =4.
4lzl EB.ll 5.9o1+7p &,94 r}1l(19.1¤)
o) qe g_E
H+lql^l ol HI*ol xlg4qlzl? rs.rr rl*-n+a + qL aol zf${ola, qL aol ulz}p{glz}!
(c) AHE oloJz}, goJz}? (a) ulufulz| +cqb a
(d) AS='Jtz[, *.Jzl? (b) Eag 4sl 4I +q fl= gr3o1 5i {
(c) 25'C, r atmgl^l 44. 9j,47l Nz Ez)-E B^d6l+ HI-&
1= a
(d) Hzl]
(e)*9 I atmql^l CO2el H2o-tr+q CUreI O' EzlTI /.J
AG0 cq= a
rs.rz trl-g +c + q!: aol zlB4.J7I?
(a) -lo.C, 1 atmoll.r.l gg 44ol += a
(b) Nzel o2el g6J Tlill-= +++ Nr4 #ft o2-e. er]6l
2,50
3.E(K) cLd r!'
^l7l+ql^l ,.zl*zl cE6k a
(c)
1e.e trI.S Hi+ Azk) +82@) : z eBgE gEltr^I. e flzl*
Bg4, r flzlE +E-^l oE -s,\la}g4. [rs.s¤, rg.z4]
(d)
^Jgql^l +4. Tlille| &4 zlz,llzf HI+aIq f?zlE B
rol4H, ol4 rB + q! rgol dq+ a
(a) &: BB tLqlq fl= (e) HCl(g)olEql+ot d+ g&+'lol Bdq= a
4E 444izl-?
900 193 al-+ gq-l
(c) TlilltlE coT} 7lill^J-g Hzel HI*6I¤ alill^Jg 'lltsg le.so E4 +liE gg, rlolo|$E, 'ilr"J^qE
7I^l B4b
^Jl
(cH3oH)g ¤^J++. 4{l6uckminsterfullerne)olr}. 298 Kql^l +S4 4olo}E
(d) ca(No Jr(aq)q (NrD rp o +(aq)¤ e'JalB oJt a+ol Eel tEeq: ++ cql L+E|+ 9lEl.
adgE+. (a) 9S4 rlolopgcA s" #9 ilol= rEE +=4"J +
19.48 ol4 F Ee 6 qL aol 2s "cql^l q E= flEeqE (b) ol HI+g 4lel +e^lEL+ +zl+lEE +71^lvlY7l, ol
tlzlflitl2 (++ cql^-l 4 EeE E= =qlE+rl tlg *e ulB zJ4,rlzlEzlr
(c) 2e8 Kql^l ol Hl*ql ql+ AG"E 4l&61^le-.
^ls.) (d) 2e8 K. s.+ ol z}ts4.Jzt?
(a) coHo(l)4 coHrk) ^JEllq^l HISg
(b) Co(s)el Cor(s) re.s6 q¤ El4 Hl*E A,rf :+23.7 kJolr. Ay: +s2.4llKolr+.
(c) I mol NzOrk)el2 mol NO2(g) (a) ol Hl*g BE el*'Jzt, Sg HI*"J7P
(d) Hcl(s)e+ Hcr(aq) (b) ol EI¤e 4lE +A^lE qe ++gEE +71^lvl}.7l.
te.4e 2e8 Kql^.] qE 14+ gaE s.= tIE-e.EI= trl-sr+ eq. olqtr a^^l7lE7l-?
(c) 2e8 K9lrJ ol HI+E AG"E Zl&6r^le.
C(s, 4ololEe):2.qs l/mol-K, Si(s) = 13.61 J/mol-K,
Sn(s) : tlElql4 ol HI¤+ zfg4.Jzl?
Ge(s) :31.99 J/mol-K, 51.818 l/mol-K. (d) 2e8 K, E.=
sng zll9t E= Eeol rloloF.c +4= 7l4L+. gl s. il +=, CE zle= oleo61-{ r.l;^ 4 H}+ql ql6J 2e8 Kq^lel
E a6*Cg ¤B6l^le_. AFr, As", AG.E 4l$6i^19-.
-rgj7
Ee 903
=^ll
(a) HzG) + Fz(r) -+ zHF(g) .+ 2NCls(8)
(b) Nz(c) + 3CI2(g)
(b) c(s, 4$ + 2cr2$) ccla(g) AH": a60kJ, LY : -27sJ/K
(c) 2PCl:(g) + Oz@) - zPoCl3(g) (c) N2Fa(g) + 2NF2(g)
-
(d) 2CH3OH(S) + Hz@) CzHok) + 2H2o(g) AI{':85kJ,A.f : lg&JlK
-
re.ss ++ c.el 4sE oleo6|{ q+ 4 Hi-&q 4+ 25'cql^lE 19.64 iqd la's1 As" <lsE+q 2e8 Kql^l 'I-g 4 EI+E
AFr, as., aG.= al&6f^19. aG"E alt6}^ls. oJg 51gol 2e8 K, -s= tlqlql^l Elzl
(a) Cr(s) + 3O2(g) + 2Cr2O3(s) Bzl"j4E, qH gEql^l(-f fl 3E7t 9l4o ^Ig4ol g
(b) BaCo3(s) Bao(s) + Co2@) 4"J71?
-
(c) 2P(s) + 10HF(3) 2PF5(3) + 5Hz(g) (a) zPbS(s) + 3Oz(S) 2PbO(s) + 2SO2(j:)
(d) K(s) + ozk) -_
-Koz(s) - :
AH" -844kJ, AS" : -165J/K
o5e 5-4 ce] olo-oel.{ ++ 4 H}-3.q ql+ AG'= al,$ (b) 2Pocl3(g) 2PCI:(S) + oz(c)
^fE¤ - : 572kJ,Lf, -- 179J/K
6}^le. 4 tI*"I 2e8 K -g.= ^J4ql^l xlg4qlxl, +Hzl AH"
=
s^l6t^19_. r9.65 'JA6J.Jq6}ql^l d4qb q¤ E]*ol 3e0 Kql^l ^fH-4
(a) 2so2k) + oz(s) + 2So3(g) ol+. ol H]*9 elBq Eq+ +23.7 k)olr[. o] H]+q Cl
(b) Noz(s) + N2o(g) 3No(g) + As= +6}^le_.
- =- 4FeCls(s) + 3O2(g)
(c) 6Clz(S) + 2Fe2O3(s)
ga6J oJqd}ql^l 4l4ElE qE HI*ol 4s.cql^l Hl^Ig4
(d) soz(s) + 2H2@) .+ S(s) + zHzo(s)
19.66
ol+. ol HI+q 4.J flEerl Bsl= zz I/Kol+. ol El+ql
re.60 ++ cq 4.EE ol+6}q q-s 4 ++ql ql6lq Gibbs xlf 4t la= +6}^le.
ollulxl gE1gg. zltdl^le. 4 tlgol 2e8 K s= +qlql^l
1e.67 qE HI89 m=-32 ktoln, AS:-e8 I/KoltrI. gEql
alB4 ofH^lE E^l6f^ls.
q_lzl,
(a) 2Ag(s) + Cl2(s) 2AgCl(s)
44 aae+ AszI E6lzl ?*E4r 7VA6l^1.
(a) olH g-Eql^l ol E]*E AG:0ol q=7t?
- + 4PH3(g) + 10H2O(j,)
(b) PaOle(s) + l6H2@)
(c) CHr(g) + 4Fzk) CFa(g) + 4HF(g)
(b)
"J'J (a)el
gEtr+ 3=z| 5o1148, "l Hl¤¤ z}g
(il) zHzOzU) -
ZHzo(l) + oz(r) 4ol I !olz|, u1z1g4ol g A"J7l?
+ql.J(cru,Jg
- tlgq^l o-qiloJ E!++4, flg+q +CE 1e.68 EAol +flqq CoE gE tl¤¤ BzlsH(decarbonylation)
ol+. H}+ol4a 94. o[,!lE&e] B7]EH t]¤¤ 4*4 zJ.l
-rs.6l(a) CsHra(l)ol ¤461q BC6l+ ¤^
Cor(s)e+ Hzo(l)E 1tBE4.
t¤ +s. 4.g
HI+ql ql'J ,^^le. CH3CooH(l) CHsoH(3) + Co(s)
(b) g+o|4 ol aG.7| arf-B ++ce.l xfEE^l-861q- ol 4Col E=*4ql^l ^Igzlol
^lEE ^l-8'6}zl "Jn, HI*el El:31^ gEE 4l&61^ls(+, +Eql q4 AHel As= H
+ q +E <tg 7)+^1, q +e +q atg r*b^l=
=
q+6I^lj_. 6l^l ?}.=qn rl{'Jq).
rsse e+ rJel trI.g EI¤¤
1e.62 ol&+ +* 4}cl ffi$ zJol Hlg" 6.J+. ^J461i
Eat.
^EEEi+
SO2(g) + SrO(g) SrSO3(s)
^I++E Noz(g) + N2o(8:) 3No(8)
- ol HI+E
gn, (a) P* c9 ZI.EE ol+4q, gETt - +7td-ql q-4 ol EI*
(a) 9s144 ztEE aG"7| arrE
^I¤:6Izl
4 q +q Alg 7*Y^1. El 49 gq <fg ,*E^lE 9 Ac"zl qBrll HE^l q+4^le.
=
ql+6f^le_. O) gEql q4 Arre}Aszf H6I^l 9+=+n 7IA6Ii. 8m K
ql^.i AG.E 4l&6.t^1e.. 800 K. E= tlqlql^.i ol Hl¤¤
(b) ol Hl*ql r]6J s= q1gs1 xle.E} zlzl-r. gl4H, 4E
xlts4"JzI?
EeEql 4+ ++ cg zleE 28e Kq^j aG.
^]-s4q
ilg +A6I^le-. (c) 1000 Kql^l AG"E zlt6}^le-. ol gEe+ _E= d}4ql^J
r1-*- 4 HI+g .g le.3ql^l s"+e} ql zfzl zl-fql +B
ol HI¤¤ xlg4.J7|?
+
of{e 551r1s. re.70 r{lEg(cH3oH)g qelqle.l a¤g &+ H}+g Fsll Eg
-rr.ot(i) EE +Eql^l zlg HI*, (ii) EE gEql^l HlzlB4 HI -r dlrl
;l.'1 .
(c) 2e8 Kql^l AGg= 4l1}6l^le. ol gEe+ s= tlEIq^J 19.77 HI* 2 Nor(s) ----- Nzonk)E
^J4dl
!-^I.
ol ++gztts4ql7}? (a) s¤ cE alEE ol+6lq 2e8 Kql^l AG.E 4l4}6l^le.
(d) s+ tlqlq^l ol EISol E¤ql EB6l-b $=olg,rj 5 (b) NO2e+ NzOn9 ? E .Jqol 44 O.+O atm, 1.60 atmp
E+.JC44 +zl¤ +
^lq, HI*ql +716J +6J¤ol
Ell, 2e8 Kql^J AGE Alt6[^le-.
9lg CEe +E6l *g $ETI +zll6l-=7P 19.78 HI*3cru(g) .----- csHe(s) + 2H2Gfr ^J46fl tr^}.
rq-zr t"l ++ c9 ^IEE ^l-s'"619 Hldl(ceHo(r))el #=eg (a) sE cel ol+6}q 2e8 Kql^l AG.E 4l4l6}^le.
= ^IEE
(b) Er]e+ pls]9 cnc fl=+(cRc Handbook (b) HI+ gqlEol 40.0 atm9 c&(g), 0.0100 atm9 c:Hsk),
^16I^19-.
of Chemistry and Physics):t| eg +a Ef,g 0.0180 atmel Hr(g)e +Cqq flg Ell, 2e8 Kq^l AG
^|S6Iq d
EeE. {dlE #=dg *e_^le. E 4l4}6}^le.
=a'*
re.72 (a) ++ cel zlE.= ^l-s-o6lq rr(s)71 rr(8).E. H6l+ Hl*el 19.79 ++ cel zlEE ol+6}q 2e8 Kq^l 'I.g 4 HI+g BB tI
4-P. qlqzl Bclz} ool q= .gEE q+6}^le. (b) fl.,t.|o1 + KelaG.= 4l&6I^19-.
E (www. webelements. com)9 +n ol$a|{, {Ql e- (a) Hz(s) + I2(s) i- zHt(g)
^t.e.E
s +Ag I,9 +=dn+ #=dg *s^le. (c) (b)91.<.1 *g (b) CzHsoH(j:) : C2H4(g) + H2o(g)
(c) 2KClo3(s)- 2KCl(s) + 302(8) 19.84 ullgolEJ(cH3NH2)el 2s "cglr] Ka ilol y Dql LIe+ 9i+.
-
re.76 trl^* 4 HI+q^l Hz9 *E ?z}tr 4l acz16z1a.i (a) Ka9l El'J6l+ E¤ slq Hl+^]-a ..
=
"J401 ^le.
Ezl, a4d+^1, olqB rqEoJzlE s^l6l^le_. (b) ra it9 (a)9 BB El+ql ql+ AG"= 4ltI6I
^l-S4q
(a) Nz(S) + 3H2(jr) + 2NH3(g)
^19.
(b) 2HBr(3) Hz@) + Brz(8) (c) B¤ t}4ql^J AG {tg 9"}9_lz}?
(c) 2H2@) +-CzHzi6) .+ CzHr(g) (d) [H*]: 6.7 x t}-e M, [CH3NH3*f :2.q x 10-3 M,
[CH3NH2]:0.0e8 M"J Ell, AG ilg gu]oJz]?
Pl "d+ +41
re.s5 (a) EI* gqq4 "i r. E. q. w. s + qL a.l ^JEI ++t ql q6J aEql E+6}=tll (c) t;f,/lzl zlzl| ,rle +E F
7l? bl qL gqq4 oJol oJ
^Jqql^l
tr|= t}qs Hslg .:}4l rlol"ilL P zll9 zlfl lttl (d) E"9 zI
=46}=zt?
+7t 86 E^l 905
(b) co(s) gE7t60'Cql^l zs"Ce,J4g+. (b) "J+ nlAql ql+ sE +q= +9."JrP
^leg
^l^BE {(chamber)g dqlql 9r
(c) El4oll 9l= qlB.Jagol +g++. (c) 6"J *71 LrJ aJ
lre.eal (a) NH3k)e+ coG)g Aciql EIBq= slq EI*4g ir^l te.ee Alill 34 4ql^l {}s| el$g co'el
s. (b) 9l + Hi+ + qL H}+ql^l a,Gizl61ys4 El =+?^(c6H12oJq
Hro= ^d^J6J4. ole| qa4 o-e, Ea ${q1r-1 "Jq+=
tte+q =
zlegq {t)ol g4(!.zl? (c) gH}4"e
"Je.l +t}} E6ll HI¤+ q+g(c2HsoH)r+ CorE ^drd6J+.
+s + qtr 4aql^l a,Gizl 6rya4 rl "JE at(+g (a) S¤ cel zlEE
^l-*6}q
+-S HI¤¤s] BB tL+¤
q 4e +q a)ol qd=7p (i) gs7} t¤ = trll, (ii) H]* Elil6l^19_.
ol zI94"J trll, (iii) As/.7I 99 <tg ztd Ql C6H12O6(s) 6Oz@);- 6CO2(g) + 6H2O(/)
+
rs.ss El-S EI*g ^J46llEzI. C6H12O6(s) i- 2C2HsOH(l) + 2CO2@)
(0 Ti(s) + 2CI2G) TiCla(g) (b) s+ *qlql^'l "Jq+= +lE + Hlg"etr+El ?g +
-
(tt) C2H6(s) + 7Cl2@) 2CClq(g) + 6HCl(g) ilb 4ql oJg Hli6l^le.
(tti) Bao(s) + COzk) - BaCos(s)
Ue.loolqlH Eol 'llEll.J.J d¤zt^E ollBloJ(CzHJrJol i zll ol
(a) 4 Hi*gl 46ll +=,- cel 2s "cql^lE
arr, aG., As"E
^lEE ^l-&6tol t9 tsa ?lz|= sBJ6l+ /dCEe HEillzlE ae 4IE
z1416I^19_.
4ee u14- +s,al +El +colEl. 94zles qlel{g
(b) ol Hl+ + qL 4ol2s.c, -E.= ^JEIql^l qlelfl+i+-e gg.t1z3
^lts4oJ7}?
qlqzlTl q + 9l'I.
(c) 4 HI89l 4oll Ss.zI +7}*+ql ul4 zI-.,?
.+
zCHa$) CzHe(8) + Hz(r)
B4lHlE^l q+6}^l9-.
re.e6 ++ cel q-g 4 dzlls ol eI¤¤tI^zI *=*ql^i dd¤+.
^fEel +"141 'Jqg ^F*4q, Hl+ql
zcHa@) +Lor@) czHo(8) + H2ok)
ql+ Kpe+ AGE 4l&6}^le.
(a) Nz(S) + 3H2G') 2NH3(s) (a) *E cel ^IEE - 2s "ce+ s00 "cql^l ol Hl+
ol+6}q
Pu, :
2.6 atm,&,- : 5.9 atm,Il.rn. : 1.2 atm E KAg 4l&6}^19..
(b) 2N2Ha(3) + 2No2(s) 3Nz(8) + 4H2O(g) (b) +l + HI*9 ac'<lel il-ol= +e qlgEl 6J(AH) trl
-
PNrH. : P11e, : 5.0 x 10-2atm,
+.J7t, QlCeu] 6J(-rAS) ull+.J7t?
P11, : 0.5 atm, &,o : 0.3 atm
,?zl E]!l^89 CtI #=d4 ,l+ elgEl= q-g-r+ +EI. csz(t) 89.7 65.3
*-r. Ikr I .
-ift J.-
, ,
/ , , ,
,.}
/\/\
7
H
Ifu
J
t -rt I
& -n -=-=-
l-.-i
il r rL
--I-
L-
-4
'!
r*
**&* --:
"flLm 4
:fli
;#;p-#' -
trrt
t
"
2O.1 > tit BEllq tat-Etfl UB tlEI ^JEI
e+ &+-+g qlSolr} Fq.Jzl 4*
'*EI.
911
2a.1 I |r+ tEllel-t!l-+eJ tl¤.
HI+ql +q,J E= g^el &q+(4I+ *4)E ¤qEH, +qd cls+ H}gol &+_+t-g HI
*"Jzl, olH4='J + 9l+ ,,"",, (4.44 . ol r+Cql^l Hi*ql +A¤ 9E StE 4Ia1471
H6l=zl= q"Jg + 9l+. ql= zn fr$$ ,&I ++"lql Bflg ull z}ts4ee 9"1
=q
+= HI¤¤ ^J46ll !.z}(ral 20.0.
Znz*(aq) + Hz(S)
Zn(s) + ZE+(aq) t20.U
-
HI$4.il 9= E= elE}+q &fl49 7]E6IH olqe| A+.
H+: etflE
t\ +2 (aq) 2+ (aq)
+ [2o.21
-
ZnP uElE
HIg^l o|4ql 46J tEl+= -HH zng &a145 soll.{ +2-E H6}r, +AE t}El+= + 1
E+q 0_e_-+ Hqi+. _14o e ol HI*g t}*o14. 4^l7l zn flxloll,r.l +a ol
g_e_q olE6}tle tr_zn* dzl¤ gq &clqflr.,
E ^Ic+-++g H*= dzl-= Eq +!flq9+.
r- '-
r- E 4/
912
20.2 I $tr|-E? ffS^ld-d "J+71 913
N
E
qH 20.1
{sixll, +t?11+Eilrl
Lle-7tEE{Ll7tE)Erl= q"34,Je taFsfl HJ- 0lE6[q d7l= g8^lzrl..
Cd(s) + Ni02(s) + 2H2o(t)--- Cd(OH)2(s) + Ni(oH)2(s)
tel.EJ EErl-EflEJ EtrE q?l6l-r., q! A0l tef^jlolr, q! aol Sfl^lloJ^l= +Hal"^l9.
o @o @o- @o@@o@
cd= oql^l +28 &o11r]- f;zla|fl:L, Ni= +4ql^l +2e. > EE qlr.il 2
-
(a) k- (aq) (b) H2o2@$ @) H+ (aq) (d) Br2@q)
&3rlfz} rJ46}fl4. cd g4+ dxl-E *"1 cp*99" oe trl-.g Hl+ql^l tlgl^llel {}flzllE +86}^le_.
i+g^llol+. Ni= Nio2ql^l Ni(oH)r-tr Ht+lq &s++tl z]1: 2H2O(l) + Al(s) + MnOa @Q .+ Al(OH)r (aq) + MnO2(s)
qrlL} $CH4 ?*zl 4 SeE ,I+E oJ+ol ?otot ajr1. uftzlzl-e &si-*tfl
oll+91
HlgoeE 4^l7l4Eq4+ ^8d9zl ?*zl ullE9l dxlg E*4 Sgs 4+71+oto} 6t
aAol q 9lrll gq. HI* + qE Eeol dzlE SeH, qE Eee zJg *9 dx}
=
E B9oI.J4. =
4 zo.zel Aol tsljr.4 ,J+6J slql HlAg dz}
+Bg "Jgol dz[9 7l]+E Aqq ^Izl
9j:r.E Hi849 +Bg "*+= ai-lH
^l+.e-tr
alt}ol g+. rBl+'il++E tle+-+g
HI*4e 4 zo.z}-4 +e-6l]^l HI* + e4+ Sg dzl-= rle rqolz1 ?+r^J= ++ +
¤e "*¤ + Stri. ol ¤q^Jb al44ee &s+-++g HIA^IE +¤g "*,i= HI+ HI+H
I t4trzt.
Bl-4. Hl-9-
U-r Uo
&E|e+ +gg F^lql .Jq4zl"J ++ 846|q ^J461+ lol E4aI4. q= Fe,*oll
9t sr,'*E 4}sl HI¤* sr'*9 t}e+e+
=q
Fe'*9 +tgE + HI+ HlsoeE ^J4++.
Snz+ (aq) + 2 Fe3+ (aq) Sn4* (aq) + 2Fe2+ (aq)
-
&4' Snz*(aq) Sna*(aq) + 2e- 120.41
-
Stl: 2\e3*(aq)+2e- ZFez*(aq) t20.51
-
&F+ r+491 dzlE HI+ ++q ddE +ql +Elqr, +g rlCE d4= HI+ HI+e-l HI
¤¤ +q LI4UtrI.
9l zl zo.+4 20.szle &sle+ +gg IrlEr+E +4U 4¤ r.t+ E!8(half reaction)olr+J.
+4. dll tls+-+g ++q^l &sl HI+ HI+ol sg dzle-l +e+ ++g rI4 rI*"1 ?9
dzlel |zl z;o1oy rJ4. olelt saol l=+qq 4 El4 *¤-ol +¤ol **e q, + ++
HI*g tr1611^J oJ+q dzl¤ +¤ "*+ 4}s+-+fl H}+alol s4.
^aatH,
,J+ Ut,Jg oIEEJ UB^l trj
4IEl--+g H}¤-^ls.l +Bg "*+E SHI4.J %IBe H]+ HI¤¤ ol+61+ a-g-tr, tls}e}
+Igql +qq+ Elot.6'"J ++u '¤4' olg E}¤-4se ol
^l46IE ¤EEI + 9lE|. a+
q= 4I+-:*g **.Jxl qdE + s= a+ql"J ala145 ,!+H g+. ++ H"(tlc +
.l)4 on-(g7l^d +q) EE Hzoz\ **Eol4 ddg-e &p}-++g EI+ql +qq+ a
*zt ?14. olEol zld 4}slqz+ sflqzl *=trlE E4^_lql lrzl g:olE g+. Ll-6=ql
EI*49 +¤g "*+E^J olEE +E-6J + 9l+.
=rIE
(a) 'trt='flrt= H,OEE c'¤ +tEoll^1 golLt= LrEFElg HJS9IEEE g+,,JE
grl ae "*+71
t. H}*49 &El qI+ EI+4 +Lg Hl+ goo e-E Llbq.
z.4zf4 HI4 EI+g "*+trI.
(b) o H2O ts7fB
(a) 4.41, H4 o EE g^e.l 7H+E Hzl "*=4.
O E-.J q+71
(b) :zr1-g-, gs,* EJ+ H2o= TFlq &l gzl zl+E "*++.
(c) :r=.]_L gsoJ
"J+ H*= 7I6[q +^
gzi Z]+E "*++.
H+ Ajle (d) 4+4g+, ge6J o}+g d6I+3 *++.
(c) H "J=- e-E 7}6lq
H JE "f+71
(u)-(d) 44e q +s-6l.s-E gql rH o E +4ql9r. lzlt1 zq HI4 HI
+ql fl= flzl! zlllzl tlgl+ Hsle} "J+.Jzl q.J6H Bol-ot oJ+.
(d) e- d^l E--J "f+71
3. + HI+ H}+ql^l Sg dztgl +e+ Ee d49 iz}4sElH, 4 E]+ HI*
I{iufiat¤ Az]l EI=rI.
20.2 | ttaFEJ? EJ8^l J-J "f+71 915
MnOa-(aq)
\.
der I[f^Iel Mnoa-ts
croo2-zy UB6Iq +^l
flqtltrt.
x
ry croo2-t1 ta
i:i ="JEoll,.r1 nllEollMno4-sl
^eElfl7l
T!-d xt+^401 H=trt.
C2o42 1aq1
(a) o)
L1120.2 NazCzOa ud +EE= KMnO+(aq)-=.48
916 20Li 87tai+
olxJl= HI+^l .J+ql fl= EE flzl9 fzl eq. rq+ qdq dq-= E¤g "*¤ gs
zl- il4. EI*EE d6l-= s(t+) + (t-) : z+oln, :
^JCEE A6I= t(z+) ++(o) 21olu
-a, da[9 +Bg "*+EJts H]*E 4.ll dz] szl]S'JE4(za E4l).
5e- + 8H+(aq) +Mno;(aq) Mnz*(aq) + 4H2O(/)
-
"l4l= dr[e] 4+71&s]+ H+* "J+oJzl +"J4 -H_xi. E]+ EiSql^J Mne Mno+
o1
el 4}sl
^Jelql +zglrl Mr'*9 tql"J +ztr 471szHE sH-L, olE ^lr+ "Jzl++.
¤rJ& olg Hl+ Hlgql^J= olul^Ie+ce} og zl+71"*oI glo E]e.(2a +al)
^JcE"ll dz}
.J+9 d6relg "*+E g+(2d +41).
"J 22115 Bq
cro n2- (aq) I co2@) + 2 e-
uffizlzlE $zl! \fzt -
Hsld} "J+"J^l +e6ll sxl. ci czo+2-9 AI9I t}4e
+ae. dx} lrH= gfl+. Ir};+^J c2o4ql^l c gzl 2/lzf $zl
+sollrJ coz9 4iE+ tEI.J^Iq+
2rHE gS+. ol= HI+ HI+4 .Jil6J+.
olxll 449 HI+ HI-&q 4B.J A+E +6[q, 6J ++ t]$ol Se Az]el +e] += H]
4 e}g"l gg dzls.l +E rJAl a3c|(:B4l). Mnoa- HI+ HI¤-q= 2E, c2o42- Hl+ Hi
*ql= sE *oJ+.
10e + l6H+(aq)+2MnOa@q) zMnz*@q)+ SHzO(/)
S Cronz-(aq)
- 10 COz(g) + 10 e-
16 H+ (aq) + 2 MnO a- (aq) + 5 C2O n2- (aq) - 2 Mn2+ (aq) + 8 H2O( I) + 10 COz(g)
-
+B "*= H1g4e +E *+ HI+ HI¤¤ trJ6J aol+(4+41). HI¤¤r+ ^JCE .J
^lql^l
49 dzlE +E6rrI.
ulzluJe_tr,^Z+g
4 gzl ,H+e+ oJa[ {a}{ol o}4ol zJSz]E q"JE}tr}(s+Al). .J+ol 44
16H,2 Mn, 28 O, 10 Col_Z, d6tr+ a+-E rJE a_e-E_E, H}+^lol +Bg + ol+9*g
.^. olrl
oL -T-
,r^"-l .
='
qHl 20.2
A tlEl--eJg HJ3^]01 g=ElE, C^Pl.HJ- + !E= 8d= +, olE7l,'Jol, 9lGloi 6l.= ezt?
6tlff
B4 4ic +.-4ql^l gq+= 4lF+-++l HI+E Esdt * 4q *4 Hl]+ HI+ Hl* r+49 ol+t+
449 +4, Sd* HI+4g +6F= Exllol+.
E0l Cr2O72-(aq) Cr3*(aq)
tt4l: F HI+ Els"eE +b+ Cl-(aq) -.+ Clz(t)
It4l: F HI+ HI¤¤ trl6l] 14H*(aq) + CrrOf (aq) + 6Cl-(aq) 2Cr3t(aq) +7HzO(l) + 3Cl2(g)
=4. -
st4l: HI*4g "J+9 4 flag t]Pi1qH,2cr,
7 o, 6 cl)e+ oJ+ 6JE {afe}(6+)ol
^lE
44. r
BlEs HI+4g SAqfl+.
> _5A* qlrll1 (a) HI¤¤ +ql 47ll G) d^JE 491 :zl] (c) Hl¤¤ 4oll tzl]
El4 HI+Bse 4IC +"jq^l q^g HI+43 sa4^le-. {^.rE
(d) 44lzzl (e) +ql24
^JCE
MrP*(aq) +NaBiO3(s) .+ Bi3*(aq) +Mn0;(aq) +Na+(aq) > E+qtd2
al^g a+ al+= TIzl= +¤ HI+^lq= E +zl7| q HI+ Hl+Hse &C +"-qq^l q-9 HI*4g ge6}^le.
t\zl $olzlolt;)tl2 Cu(s) + NOf(aq) Cg2*(aq) + NO2(8:)
-
oJTl¤
+¤-o4qFl fft^l t 3nl7l
4is+-g¤ t}*ol Ezlc 8"-491^J "Jq+E, H*el H2C71olqE oH-e+ H20= 0l+6ll
^J
HI¤¤ Sadl]ot .J4. ou-e1 H2o= E + +iel tiE s¤,6}r. ?1"1, ol %r-Bg Ei
¤.^19 ++ql^J +E +sE rl Bol olf,,r.lflof 4¤+ H]+ H]+ql EBg + 9l+. +=
d=Hg i7H'J+.
6ll'J
E{ g7l^d +Eq^iE Esd+ H}9"4s +a, H}-&^lE + +^lqls d4++. I 4s 4¤f, zl]f9 oH-= Hl+4E
oJ+ql q6}r, ag +ql gl= uno]-ou E a.J^14 H2oB
Bg "*+= E4lol+.
xpt AIC +._qql^l q1*ol g{t4z7tc6}r., *ql^l Hll+ El-+l HI84g ++E^l7i^l al+ HI+4g e=+.
=+.
E0l
rt4l: t¤ "*xl t*E E+d6J Hl+ CN-(a4) ----- CNo-(a,)
Hi¤¤ +4. MnOa @q) ----- MnOz(s)
zt4l: 4lC +.-4ql^l el*.] 994 CN (aq) + HzO(/) ------- CNO (aq) + 2H'(aq) + 2e-
: az)H 4*1HI¤¤ "*++. 3 e- + 4 H' (aq) + MnO4 @fi -+ MnO2(s) + zHzo(l)
BzlC +"-qsE H[+q +tr E+. 3e- + 4H*(aq)+ MnOa(a4) +4oH (aq) - MnO2(s) +2H2O(l)+ 4oH (aq)
"l -
H*e+ oH-: ,+ *4 HI+E ag +
ql ilg trll= H,o= '+E+ CN-(a4) + HzO(/) + 2 OH- (aq) ----- CNO-(aq) + 2H2O(I) + 2 e-
^JCqq .+
gtrI. 3e- + 4H2O(/) + Mnot(aq) MnO2(s) + 2H2O(l) + aOH-(aq)
[H*][oH-] : 1.0 x ro-'4(zs.cqll.J)ql^l .J + gl*ol, g7l (a) HISE +ql 17l] 6) ^J^dE 491 tzl]
^d +"lql^l
H* olg9 r-oE= Ell+ $r| '=-:*:: (ro.:E). (c) HI¤¤ +q 47]l (d)
^JdE +ql77[
(e) fl4
Bzld *991^l trI.g HI*4g sa+elE, + ¤zld *q"il^i El-¤- 4}pl-+g Hl+^lg sa6}^1e..
¤ "*+ eI*4(zI* zle e+ 4l+E 7I1l tB Hi+ql ql
^IE+-+g Cr(OH)3(s) + CIO- (aq) CrO a2- (aq) + Cl2(6)
-
:!!re: 1l'
+
F
_QoH 401
zn 44oll,'.lg Cur'o13 Zrf* ol?
8^l
Znoll,( Cu2*E Cu Ex[
d^t7f ol5:d
Znol tlaFJ
d
Cu'7*7f A3EJ
.J.J EI* 8zl q}.il 9l= qI¤¤ rJql dzl-= zld olE ^l7lzl ?*1, ql^l el+ qtr
E6lq dzl¤ ol$,tlzl| tlzlol+.
= zn 449= cu2* ol¤ol Eq g1= +alql BeE zlg4 e}*"l
m=El
C^loll^l= Cuel.Zn 6 qL aol
"J"14 Cu2*(aq) {lsfElb7f?
olgel +¤rlol $.qzln +4 ++ol otg e4 sEql 4eg+. E^lql olEol I M ZnSOo Eo40l,t.l
5zl rlzldq. olq+ E+= f.g 20.3q1 444fl1, 4 zo.ze_ eqrg + 914. ZnEa
I M CuSOa Eo-4oll,(l
Zn(s) + Cuz*(aq) Znz*(aq) + Cu(s)
Cu I*
l21.7l
rH 4 HJ- 0l86l.q
4 d6tE E+ol dzl4 .JS +6J6t= ql ^FSg + 91trt. A 20.4
trJE Cu-Zn EEI
20.79
EII
e.l+ q.+.E gA4= + rxll ++¤ d*(electrods)ol4J 4q, &e+ e}*ol 'J
920 208 E7t at+
+tEl d+ +-e.-+
T"JlI sg fl+ +eE
golgol olSEirt gol8ol ol=:dtrt,
Zn Cu
NOs- Na+
I
Zn2* Zn(s) -----+ znz+(aq) * 2e- Cuz+(aq) * 2 e------+ Cu(s)
+qI+. g+?-l= +"-4q glE ol9ol4 d+ Eer+ HI+6[zl 9*] Natto31a4; dIIE EE
+
ag dqle +"-49 il]+ uz} E*E -?4sol4. d61]a+ ¤Gel) tr-qle "JEq e
d"J/l
Bflzl9l uzi*g 4+E ^ll+lE sq+szl **+. d+ql^J &sle+ +g EI* AJEI rL= i El sfl
.Il= EEq CJlrLfl rl=
ol .Jq+E grI4E 56Iq ol&5ol + H]+ dzle ol$rtol(oJolge +Ifl Hi (-) (+)
a d+e--+., golg+ t}s+ HI+ d+eE olE") dzlzl +cg +^l^lrJ+. qts
tlilE ols-" olol F Hl+ dzl$ gAorqqE +olg.$ {IF+ A+ 4 *9 o e ol *-+-gol-q
t'?'rr, ololgg +g d+ 4 *qg.e olE" oJ4. +--+
f.g 20.6e 94 dzlE +EI'H= -E^lEol+. a4+ &+ a+ql^.i el+ qs
E E6lq {Ig d+qE olf++: 42 zlE"le}. ol E+E EJ.J ql$q 94 tat d^1, #fl u+ d^1,
BJ+
tt+7t"Jol'J +Bol gol.J
dzl9lrl 4Is+ d+g * +E, {}g a+e + p-se. E^l++. +rl= 4zlzl g a rH 20.6 EEI' Erloll^l golLl-= HJ¤i 7|]
f4o.=. ru i$991 +a d+qe+El el+ qEE E6l] Clo3 (a4)+6H+(aq)+6e- cl-(aq) +3 Hzo(/) (d*: pt)
K2Cr2O7-H2Son i$991 *?J 4+ +oE. A47t EE+.
-
(a) &s] d+rl +Ig d+ql^l "Jq+= +¤¤ 44 +4
d+g r zl^lE q}-3-ql +q6}xl ?}j1, ++.-q +ql^l E= Lll^ls.
++eq + e-tr d7t7| olE6I= Eo E= ^ll3o 6J gol+. ololg fl+]znd+ea*'ol qB4lH6IL_71?
(b) HI¤sl 4l.8Eq
g 8._4¤. Eo619 ¤Ifl d+g.E. ¤-olgg &+ d+oE ol ft d+g e#l qB4 H6l+7t?
(c) Hlgo ol 4l68Eq q¤I
Eo 6J4.
&al d+(dzt7} e.l+ Ed o = +9-=)e (-) +E, (d) qL d+ol (+)+Efl7I?
922 203 ETlol-+
9l Ezt.= s= ^Jql
aag 9"lal}. 49 zl9at4 ..: (5.7¤).
d
D- ^[
el
,,;,] \ E
sffi
t E
+
I
eJfl Ilf
=
E= + d<sHE)
+
El3
t
o
SHETISfl d+
Hzk) Hre sflE;
1H+z[
Pt5
E^t H+ OIP
Pt
TM H+
+
tit
SHEzP5aPS;
(H27t H+e tE|E)
924 208 TtTtat-+
Zn NOs- Na+
tl+ E= Hzk)
L-
I
l
+
Nos Efl E+ U+ EII
tEl E+ Zn2+ t t
NO"- (E= +4 d+, SHE)
HJ+ dxl " H'/ I
t$O*,
H*9 g= ++g d+l(E?.d:0 v) r4r al zo.s¤ 0l+618, znz* fzn HI+ Hi*el E+ +t
g d+tE +B + 914.
: Ei"o (+g d+ - ri.u 0J4 d*)
Ei"rr
+o.76V : OV - ri.a (tl4 d?)
Ei"a (4I4 d+ : -o.76v
E Hq^l4E E= +tl d+l= H6'lzl ?*84. qlE, 10 mol zn'* 9 ++g d+ dgl r?.ai
1 mol Zn2+9 +lg d+ dgle+ ++L+.
-0.76 Zr?*@q)+2e- -
-0.83 2H2O(l) + 2 e- -Zn(s)
Hz(s) + 2 OH-(aq)
-1.66 -
Al3*(aq)+3e-------Al(s)
-2.7r Na+(a4) +e--+Na(s)
-3.05 Li*(aq)+ e ----- Li(s)
qH 20.s
E:"rrE*E1Eilo 4lthalzl
4A ol 94 d4ql^l zng &EI9s.o EE fqd r?"ozt +el cu2*9 g= +g d?ii r3,,. =0.34 v, znz*9 &=
E?"a(&ol d+)ol+. cur*E +gqs,"ss +Ig d+ eI+ +g dfl= E"7n*: -0.76 V-E s.T1B + ilEl. ez1= +g
dzlol4. r;-4,r.-l cu2+9 "lzl Qlg dgl= r;.o1gg d+)ol HI+ qI+q^J +++lg olgol+.
4. 4ar4 E?"a(&ol d+)g gE, 20.89 ol+6lq E?..a(B > H=q|fl1
g d+)g +6J + 9l+. ^l
q-S q}+q ol+al gq dxl9 E?.u:*0.07 vol4.
Eol 2Elz+(aq) +Niz+(aq) 2Bu3+(aq) + Ni(s)
E?"u : Eiea (+L+l d+ - ri.o (4IEI d?) s=- g
s.20.1q flts Ni'z*s] +Ig d+lE aEql Eil, +
1.10v : Ei"a (s-fl d+ - (-0.76v) g Hl*e.l .*.= s?l d?l= gEi.JTI?
4.a(sfl d+ : 1.10V - O.76Y : O.34Y E$+(aq) +e- + Ettz*(aq)
926 20Ar tr71 trl+
(a) -0.3s V O) 0.3s V (c) -0.21 V (d) 0.21 V (e) 0.07 V +a6}q rn3*/rn* da9 r?.a= +6}^le-.
> 5.6 fili{l2 ln+(aq).+ln3*(aq)+Ze-
+g E4 d4E E= 4zl 4?lzl1.46 voJ ull, s.20.19 Br2Q)+2e +2Br-(aq)
qH 20.6
El"o oll*l Eiar 4lll.6l.7 |
6l{3
E{ 4}p+-+}g H}+ol +qAr, s+ d{ d?lE:dg 4+ 4q d+r+ +Ig d+9 HI+ HI
qlztl 20.4q1^]el zJol, +IcI
ot7l +16ll^l= E 2o.1g +a6lH ¤+. +g Hzl oJolBr., s.20.1r+ a1 zo.sg oiso6l{ -tr= dzl
afl= 44IqL+.
&0i $tl d*, Cr2O7z-(aq)+l|H+(aq) +6e- + ZCr3+(aq)+7HzO(l)
r) = 9ol 2l HI+ HISE e= +g d9l= +ifl rlSol .JqB A6JCE 4E7l El=ql, E?.a {}"1 Ef
+ E= *qq^l *gol * ¤+. E= tr-4ql^l 4IE6I= qE E+ dzlglrlE, +]g d+
Zn------sZn2+ + 2e- e-l HI+ql 4aJ r;.0 alol tis] d+E HI*ql 46J E?.a atr+ r+. IIt+^l E:.a7t 0
-0.76 ^J44
^16l ^l= E +g *2 '*= a+q^J .Jg {lg '*= d+str. 4zlzl q+ sle= E6}q qETll g
r+. r=J 20.109 rH 20.sq zn-cu E4 dzlgld + EI+ HI*g E= +g d9l ,JE +
!
^9 E:eil:(+0.34)-(-0.76) 4lE E-E-e ¤B+ 4,olrl.
trl : +1.10 V
sg I+
+0.34
Cu2+ + 2e----->Cu <:18 20.10 Zn-CuEEldllol HJ+IrlE+lslE=IIlIgl
20.4 trE 8E|o]l^le] c^l d9l 927
qlz'll 20.7
{+,J+,JB¤,JaEH {zl t+l 4l{-dlil
EEI dxl= trlE + E= HJ+ HJ8oil
=Z"Jtrl-.
Cd2+(aq) + 2 e- --- Cd(s)
Sn2*(ag)+2e-------Sn(s)
+E Eol^lE= (a) t+ E=al.SB E=ofl^l golLl= HJ+ HJBzl, (b) E.= drl EglE
^|.e-dtq =861.^19.
6li3 4tq +Ig d+e trl oJ9 E%a tlss aigr. &El a+g
Eq + 49 HI+ HI+ql EI6I E%aE 4.t"F 6J+. fA q+ 'J "Jq E%azI ¤4. tIpI d+ql^l Hl+ HI.*g zlC6tqH
ol <Ig ol+4q 4IEI d+4 +lg d+g AA* +$, E= +lg Hlsoss Aql HI+ tI¤¤ eld,\14 HI+ HI¤¤ &s+
dzl dg(rs.u)E 4l&*+. HlsoqE +r+.
E0l
(a) 9E Eq qgE, r?"a(ca2*/cd): -0.40 v, E?ed(sn2+/Sn) : -0. ta volr|.
s."*gl 4t *= ¤tg d+l= cd2+-H-+ q oJE alol+. 61-4,11 Sn2+9 Q|
ge ilg d+ql^l "Jqf+. +tl d+ : Snz*(aq) + 2e- Sn(s)
+E4 Fe(s) d*s-e +Cgq :14. o|4 4l dzloll,tl ol co2* fco HI+ dzlel Agcr/Ag Hlq d4s "JE 94 d
v4471Fe(s) {lol 4}E} A+.J7}? zl9 (a) .tlEr d+q^l .Jq+= HI¤+ +te7r? (b) s.
dzl d9l= gEtq_l7l?
dzl 1: 1.0 M CuClz(d{) +"14 Cu(s) d? =
4^\ z: 1.0 M NiCl2(aq) +E!} Ni(s) d*
4}slzlls ,Aol= ged, oz, ¤!d flzlz[ +g "]E 4]c] t]EI.J 4]a4](tvtnon,
=+
cr2o72- . Nor- =o;g .E 20.lql^J tr= EIel ?ol, r?.a {tol oJE atolE + drll +flg+.
=
7l* *flr{71 qH4= 4? t +*E ElEi %l.J.J &p+ HI¤+ 7l* dA "Jq+= ag
g"l;J4. trl+^l E 20.roll^-l *fl dflzl7t+ +q tlol HI+ Hl¤+ q+*.J &EI HI
=
928 20I] C7t Et-+
a a
tet + e -+ 2 - (aq) c
3
I
^il
a
sl
^ll
)l
^ll 7l
^ll
5
)t 2 (aq) 2e' + 6
)t
o a
a a
Al3+(aq) + 3e +
a a
Li'(aq) + e + Li(s)
7l-al +gEl7l 01a13, Ttaj {J+El7l +13,
7Ei e+-.J t+{l 7Et 3il Elg8t
*ol zl* d4 "Jq*+. -s 20.IE zltl gql ?lE ri*1aq;ts TI1I {}fl921 ol4-?e.-e zt
tL e+-J &s+^llol+. Li*(aq)Y dzlE g= a6}ol z9 szl"J, +qi ,J"JoJ Li(s)9 Li+ r
@q)eq te+ HI¤-e oI+ *
gq++. EI4^l Li(s) f,$$ s 20.lE Ee + Ttt rJ6J *
flzllol4(i9: s 20.lql^l g+ tISEol 4}slzll, e_=4 ^JcEe ffizllolrf).
Hr4 *C ?4({l: .JrJ4 ++, .JrJ?-l E+4Jol +}g4lE .JH}zles E?,a7t
^l-&¤+.
ol ++oJ Fe) EoE EgzilE ++ *lgzll +&"le +71 +ql fl= +e
=E1,Zn, ^l-Sgtrl.
&slxll.J oz 4lE9l e_4 tr+B + S+.
E 20.lei E%a ilol &p+^ll, *fflxll9 {-ql4 ,rllzlE +4qlsE, r.A 20.11i1H e?-lg +
91tr1. s 20.rE tl+ql fl= HI+ HI*E HI¤¤e -*.ql^J 7l+ d7il ggq= +olq, q+
7l* rlq'* +Islxlol4. olE HI+g ^Jcge 4IE+6I7l7l ,I+ qEl+s-E sql^l 7la-
^l
of$ {lflxllol+. tr}4^J rH 20.119 F2k)7} zl$ zsxl4}s+rll, F-(aq)zl r}+ qr"J +tg
-Hq Elql.e, s.20.lql^l 7l+ ol4 gl= Hl+ HI*el HI¤¤e Li+(aq)zl zl$
^ll.Jg =+. tr14^l 7[t] eF*
+l-+l^l7l7l 9Br, 4]E]4lol+. relr ^JcE Li(s)zl-sq^l 7l* dAl
$s+q= EAe, 7l* r}q& ffizllolrf.
4Is+
^ll7le+
{l+l ^ll7l ^}ol9 H}Hlql +41: E}4}4 4gzl9 4lzl zJ9 H}Hlql +4le+ +
^I6t+ -: (re.z¤. reJ re.:).
20.5 o1lLl^lsf daFeJfl HJ8 929
^l+
qFll 20.8
tlEt4lsl trtrll4l ^1171
Ttlff
E4 4Ip+4lE ++6h= olgE e. qq ++l= E+ ExlloltrL rjlel E?.a Alol +|Sol 4 g qts rJ+ Ai+4lol4
^ll =++
=01
s.20.l-tr+E] trls=r+ ag 49 Eg+ 9l+ Nof(aq) ++H+(aq) +3e- + NO(g)+2H2O(l) ELa: +0.96V
Ag*(aq) + e- .+ Ag(s) ELa : +0.80V
Cr2o 72- (aq) + 1,4 H+ (aq) + 6 e- 2 Cr3+ (aq) + 7 Hzo(l) ELa : + 1.33 V
-
zlEtr, Cr2O72 7l \ + 7l* ?t* +ls}4lolE|. +
Ag+<No3- <cr2o72-
+^l +^l= +gr+ e+.
>H.EqH1 > E= qtr{|2
El-g slq+ql4 zl* z.r'* &Elz]E .+qelzP (.s. 20.IE +S EIEI+g ,J+ +fl4q1^l qt ¤¤4144 ++l= C
qlolq= ol3-oBJ+.) 6}^le_(*. 20. lg ol+6J+).
(a) Cl-(aq) (b) Clr(s) (c) ozk) (a) u*(aq) (e) Na+(a{) r-(aq), Fe(s), Al(s)
zl zo.sg ErJ H¤^14, Tlaqql^.1 ot4 e4'ceu'g zl+-r', &sr, g¤ a+g &sl. +t
g Hlqo e-e ut+q + gEl 4zlzl otqqE se:trI= 4g zJaa[g4. olx]lE q]89 z]ts
C4 zld49 +41= "JHI49E Cr-l6IE, "J+ E alg zlgzl HI-8-g, ¤+ E Al* ulxtg
4 Hl¤¤ +4U+. q7l^] E= HIE= ^Jqlql^J 7)44, 9l dzlzl gl= E E= t|4ql
Tldqg 44 9rlaJ4. =
^J
tq
.rz
qHl 20.e
4'J41tt8 01+
6llS
+l6}q, Bzl {}c+ +9"!+ +g HI+E HI+ q}+g ++. +g
+ Zlel HI80l +q4 fla, 4 Hl*el zlgcg aaql ql s= +g d9le} al zo.to9 ol+4q HISel -Ef emf r
=4
oF 6J+.
E"= Al4I6l=EJl, HI+ol z|${eg .JqL}eJH -Ef emfizt
rE q}+ol Ef tl-qlql^l ztg4.Jzl 446171 oJi¤o} el4.
^Ip+-+?l
930 203 E7t et-+
++9 ¤.FE ^lgql s= Sg d+l= ++B + 9l+ a,---' (4.4$).:g+E .tl¤(E a.s)oll
E= ++g:1++trtrt ol4ql fl= ++ olgql E6il &Elg+. gEE
^l ^Jgg ++E
tls+ HI*q 7la6}q 'J6J +92,il= +lq, "+J +lfl4lE ol4ql +gd+ql, olE s zo.r
+^Je+= Hlql %I6J.oltrl-. qlE EE I\{iL- gsoE 4lgq^l Ae!_4 glgl glErll, olE NizI
e.l
A E 4.sotl^l sn2*e[ Ni2+e1 dr64 pl-lE -trq1g --J nll, sn2*4 Ni2* 6 ql aol trl E
| =* E+t= 7tx=rr
=
=Edt^te.
20.5 0llLl^lef uol-sJfl BJB 931
^f+
F: 96,485C/mol : 96,485J/V-mol
*:fl:-+#:ffmx ?o,31
E O L:E H--i= E'^ALI,
O Everett Historical/Shutterstock
L,Go : -nFE"
AG":-RTlnK
Eo
K
r" : BImr
nt
arB 20.13 E', AG', /(el trZl Cl 6tLlU gE Llq^l 7ll= +-g+ ?tl. E"el AG'ql ?6=
E= 8Et|oll^] BJSe-] U-sr=
=oll^l
K= E:d dElloll^1
=
U3E48¤E9dtH4 g=
=E6fr. =5-srtl.
ql4l 20.10
$.+ +fl {?le. ac'e+ K +gl7l
(a) E 20.1011 ?l= x'= #fl d9lE 0lE6|.q, 2e8 K0ll^1 tlB HJS9 s.= 011L1^l EsKAG9el EE 8+00= +61^le.
^l+
Ag(s) + OzG) + 41+(aq) + A,Ag*(aq) + 2H2O(l)
(b) +l HJ8al. ,JxloJ Al+71Hlfl, rF= HJSel E= 7|EqG.), E= 0{lL1^l Ha(AG.), EE A+{'()= +al^lg.
^l+
* ior(t) + 2H+(aq)'-------+ lAg*(aq) + H2O(/)
1
2Ag(s)
932 2oB ETlEIqt
All'J
E4 s+ +Ig d+l= ol+4q 1I+-+g HI+E AG'e| K 4 zo.ro9 zlEE ol!-o6l-q E"E flxl lap.,
filEl s. zo.14
++4. L,Go: -nFE"q AC.: -RT In K= ol+6}q AG.9I KE +
= +4.
Evl
(a) *d HI+4g + HI+ HISeE ++n s
zo.r(s.= +E E)ql^l l}g e*etr4(E?.J= SB, Ozk) + +H+(aq) + 4e- + zHzo(l) Ei"6 : +1.23V
K:9x1O2e
(b) diJ Hl¤¤ (a).illg *.1 ar+ ae-E-e EI+ Elfl' LOIG) * zH+(aq) + 2e .------ H2O(/) Ei.a: +7.23Y
HI¤+ +gr+ 44. &EI, 2 Ag(s) -+ 2 Ag+ (aq) + 2 e- Ei"a: +0.80 V
trl4 g
zlg4 +*ql,tl ac= HISq^l eg + ilE =149(rry.J$ ¤4. ol4a Hlzlg4 HI*g E^l.e H}*^l7l"ltr E+ d
9"1,*4 e=:-. (l!.1$). u}4r-l lc : -nFEE ol+"IE B4 gg ga6|q lE*illB+ t E+ dgl(2.*)5 aq+qot'J
dlql^l Eg + 9l= 44'Jg Elgl} e+. 4. qltr, E: -0.e volH E"*,9 +0.e v-H-4 4oF HI*ol "J
: -nFEr4
wmax
qg + fl4. ol4al q= 2o.e¤q^l +E+.
[20.74]
E4 dzl.ll,<l E*ug flxll4 "Jiolo.+ w.,,E 6o^J-¤+7i dzl4 99 e+E +6171 ,(lzJe-E, qlqxl *+l= r*=tri.
9Erll, olE 4l(system)zt f9lfuurroundings)9| "Jg 6t/l
elE(w)=,tlzJcj olluJzl dqg *91.1+.
: 1tls
^El&oJ
1W
Elq Zl9 qluJzlz| Ai6J4= {olc} r=:= (s.23).
u}+^l e+tr *:6171 ¤0)9l E+l= ,*rll 94. .JHI
9l 49 HE d6t"*(np)ol fiffi, E.drol EEI d ^lAg
=++ zj otr dq4q^l ++l= atrelE^l(kwh)olq,
zl= "Jg E*ol 6lz1 84. ql4 20.10q1^l aAg(s)+ozk) ^I¤:6I=
rl-$$ zf,ol al4I6IE I kwh= 3.6x ro6 ;o1r4.
+ 4 H+ (aq) 4 Ag+ (aq) + 2 H2O(l) qI+E AG= - 170
kflmololfluf.- 4 mol Ag(s), I mol O2@), 4 molH+(aq) lkwh: (looow)(1r,(#X#) : s.o rour
"I+^l "
iE-6lH :a,14 170 krE gg E4 dzlzt 6}al g+.
= qtr q13-o1 u1z].g4olB AGE oJ+olr E= ++7I +¤ ¤+E4l:2o.se,20.60
"J"J
Nernst 4.1
t.Eql ulE zld49 Hs|= zls olluJxle| +EE +4l4sE+El +E6J f 914 *
0s.t4)..JEE Elq EISql 4El xI# "llHzl Hs](ac)z} r}89l 4* E= zI+ qlqzl
HE(acae+ *Ag+= 1¤ trzla[4.
AG: AG"+RT1nQ [20.15]
{zld qE *¤- zlfe, ¤B tt4z} otB qlq EoEE L}4.1t= 4"J +-e^1"j BB ^}+e+
eg Eo"tolr}. AG: -nFE 44 AG.: -nFE. ^lg rl]Edl-E q+4 e+.
_nFE: _nFE" + RTInQ
ol
^lg
++ ql+e EI-+fl,
E: E" - ffiq,o*O lzo.r7)
2e8 Kq!= 2.3$ RTIF *ol o.ose27l qEE Nernst 49 7J+61 B + 9l+.
E: Eo - 9Ya"rO (r: 2e8K) t2o.18l
tr slE+E LoE=. golg +E 914. trl-s EI+ss Nernst alol 9Bzll ¤*9Ezl airlHz}.
Zn(s) + Cuz+ (aq) Zn2* (aq) + Cu(s)
ol EI+ql^J n:2, *_i 7\44 E.:+1.10- yolEE 2e8 Kql^l Nernst 49 q-94 g+
(zo.+4).
"'"=
aql^J +++ r4l= 4lq¤g 7lE6|zI "-.=. (1s.6¤). u3$ [cu2*)tl rtzlfit_lzn2*lty z;
d6IH Tldq E= .E= 7144 E": 1.10 v itEtrI 42141 g+. ql= EH [cu'z*] : 5.0 M,
Vr'*):o.o5o M g tr]],
E=1.10v-ry?4.r(ff)
: 1.10v _o.os2zv e2.oo; : 1.16,
ulE^l [cu2*]z] e= tlqtr+ ¤17]6]r., F^lql Vn'*lzl .s= d]qtr+ 446]H 7144
!g
gEr 4zlzl %lAflql ulzt^J 4 d{9 Tldqol E9zlEzl$ ol6fl6l+ Ell
Nernst
ESg dxl HIBoI Tlqolrll EH e}¤¤ol ^JCEg Hslslq HI* {+ ezl rtzlirl
=4.
r, q+^J E7I +4'6l+ql A+ E:0q Ep:"|zll ¤4. Ac : -nFE(A 20. tt)ols + 6:s
g qlEolg AG:0ol fle enu., (te.7H). trF|^J E:ool{, d4 elSS ¤Bq olsel d
4l t}*ol "Jq+4 S=+.
.JHl4sE HI¤¤E EoETl +7li;l4L+ boETl A46IH Tldq E= 4zl4l 4
^JCgg
tr}. HI4.E HI¤¤g *ETI Aa6Ir.
^JCEE tETi +7I6IH
Tldq E= s= TlAqB+
zlotzlzll 94.
qHl 20.11
H
lEt"u E|lqF-l 7 ltal +BP I
I
?E7l298K.lCr2Or2-):2.0 M.lH+):1.0 M, [t-]:1.0 M, [Cf+]:1.0x10-5M g r4l qE d^l HJSe-l T|daJE +61-^19.
Ttlff
E{ E4 dzlE e}E} H}+^1, gE, Els.= t}EI"J 4el ,14 uls.? *qlql^l {zlel emf= ZI&6}EE, rl zo.rs B
^JC
E4 HI¤¤g E" EE ?r ,ldqg fali $xllolr|. rllel Nernst 49 ol$aJ4.
E0l
+d E= ++l d9(s 20.1 E= ++ E)E+q dzl tI*
ql 4+E'ag +++. qxll zo.oollrl +6J ol HI+g s= lcr3*12
x
emfb.E":0.7e vol+. qlrilq^l E Ere+ Bol, ffixllEf Icr2o72-][H+]14[t-]6
rl dz} 0zHzI 4}Elxlle olf,a|fl 9 s E n : 601 4. f el o -=. _ (1.0x 1g-s)'z
- :s.ox 1o-,1
tI* zli Q= Els=4 eq. (2.0X1.0)14 (1.0)6
: o.7ey (try?I)(-10.30)
: O.79Y + O.1OV : O.89V
20.6 HIE= AEHoll^lel t^l E?l 935
ztr Hl*=(cr2o72-)E EoEE 2.0 Mtr- 1 M-E-+ ri1, {^d zldqg $"I"JzI?
s ^19
E(cr3*)9 EoEE t.0xt0 ME t ME+ zlgE-tr emfzl (a) 0.71 V (b) 0.s6 V (c) o.ae V (d) 0.7e V (e) 0.64 v
E.EEI 4atl. Q7I4q 10-10olEs, log Q= E -roo14. > s.5 qtfit2
> H= qliJll :H zo.s9l ilE zn-cu EEt dzlql^l +g d+ +ql
Pb2+(aq) +zn(s) ------. Pb(s) +znz*(aq) cuSoa.5 HzOE G]*@q) LoE=i. <.71^171P',7]|44
44
[pb2*]:1.5x10-a M,lzn2+)=0.55 Mg ql, +l E4 d g qBzl HB 1"Jz|?
qru 20.12
BEI trlbr +Et7l
ral 20.9011 .H9! Zn-H+ d^loll,\l ?E)l25 "c, [zn2+1:1 .o M. P4:1.0 atmg r|l TlEajol 0.45 vflrt. oltrll u+fl E= Eo4el
pH=+6|.^19.
rHS
E4 E4 d4, em1 znz+! bE, ur9 +E "Jqq 4".J t Nernst + ^l 20.189 ++. [H*]E 44i;l7l gloll [u*]
= +ig d+ +EE pHE 4l&ollot q+q,
zlezl iq4 91tri. s+61+ aql
^1,
qlql 49
zI¤6171 9loll d4 HI+ql ql6J
oiae HI+ SdoJ H*9 Es+q z1^Ig + 9ltrL
r-o
= ulzlu|g--e. pHE 4lcalzl g16l] [H+]=
^lg
6J4.
^l-*6J+. ^l-g'
filq dzl HI+q ql+ 49 4}c6ta s= +|g dg= ^l_s
4q E"= 4l4I6J+. HI+^lql^J n9 {19 a4+ +ql aql 4
E0l
dzl tI¤* +++ A+ Zn(s) + ZH*(aq) Zn2*(aq) + Hz(8)
: -
-s= Tldq E zlg +6J+ E" Eiua (+g) - E?"a (&g+)
: 0v - (-0.76v) : +o.76Y
Q:1010s:3x1010
9l ti¤:^lql^J BB tr-+ ¤4q a= ols"6tH, (1.0)(r-o)
o- :lt!'_",_ : 3 x roro
[H']' [H ]'
tH.l :\6x10":6x106M
ufxlnJe_e., +g +"-q9 pn= 4l&6J4 pH : log[H*] : -log(6 x t0 6; : 5.2
+et H}+^lql H*7t fl= g4 dzl= [H*]+ pHE * +? ++ {!$: 2e sn2*1a4; + Sn(s)
=q
g + 9l+. pH trlElE pH= +EI.E 9lg + 9lE+ ,J= E (a) 3.:x to M 0) r.9 xro 4-M
2
(c) 9.ox to-3 M
tE tzl
^)+vl^l +qe E4
dzlES &sl d+ql^] Elf,-{+ EA4 +lg d+ql^l Hlso 6I= E
aol ^l-e r+s4. rel+ dzl9 zldqol L"E9l E++trI= ag, + HI+ drlE Elq
+ol aotE EoETI 4e21".1 6IH E4 dzlE +d6J + 9l+= d¤ 9"1e4. ole+ A
ol a3 s+q}+olzl"J Els +E EIEqI g^J6l+ Tlaqql TIHI* dxl= tE Ert
^JE
(concentration cell) eP aJr1.
rEl+ ol d4= + HI+ dzl 49 Ni2+(a4) bETI E-+ l yol olrlzl qlEql uls.#
ol dzlE [Ni'*].r+"=:[Ni2*J41ea+ol ¤ 4]z]
^Jqlql^l 4*+tr1. dxll,
(nonstandard)
xl zlE"t4. F HI+ dzl 6 Ni2+ t:E7I trl #g +.-{ql^J Ni(s)9 &s} e}*ol .Jq+q,
nlE+^l Eg +"-qE HI+ drlTl ol dTle] &s] d*ol g+. Nir* +E7[ rJ d6.J H]+ drl
ql^l= Ni2*(aq)el sfl e}80l Tl68qq, q4^l rl+ s90l Eq 9l= d+e sfl d*ol
¤tr}. d{ dzl tI¤¤ Elgr+ Aq.
&4 d*, Ni(s) + Ni2*1a4, #g ¤-ol)+ 2e-
Sfl d*: Niz*7aq, tI.J +"-q) + 2e- Ni(s)
d4, Niz*1aq, AtJ +.-q) -
-+ Ni2*(44, #g +.-q)
bE drlel TlAqe Nernst al9 ol*a}{ 4lt}g + 9l+. 9l dzl H}+ql^J n:2o]r4
dill HI+g HI+ zl+ 49 a:[Ni'*]se*e/[Ni'*]a++eol4. tr]?+^l 2esKq^l ol dzl
9 zld43 +S+,Jol 4tE + 9t+.
+
H lX{
Ni
+g E+
a.fg 20.14 Ni2*-Ni d^l HJ- olt-d tsE dxl (a) + EJ+ E^l r-tisl t\i2n(aq) EiE7l ,J^l
?ir. r+aN ol t^l= Egtiil. I+= g
8-sltL (b) ol d^lE F U+ Erl Ltlsl l,li2*(aq) trtlztll F d^l Ll|E ^1tr
Ni2*(aq)EE7l-,J01.*= q E^|= EEoll EJ6l-
-EE7l-rJo}tr ^tE:dtl-.
zllEI. emfzl-00lEtt
20.6 | BIE+ SE|]oll^le] tr^l t+l 937
*i..'
k.,x-r (
E: E - W#4,o*o
- o -o'os2.v r"rffiffi 0.0592 V
-2
x l0-3M
Iog1.00too,lz
: +0.089 V
ol +E dzl9 r':oolzl"J, zJ9 o.os v9 zldHg gs-Jr}. + d+ 8zl9 *Ezfz| o1
dzlE LE^I 7l= +el4 ol4. + ++ dzl9 Eo E7I 'JolzlE Q : I ol ql, r : ool ¤4.
b=. zlo1g ol+6}q d+l= gt^l7l= ololqqE pH trlEl +E g?-lE zl=zl qflr+.
soJ:-oE iiolql 9.J d+li}g g^Jg ^JEqql^lE ol+ +s6l-trI. elE EE qql fl=
1i4 ,rllgE ^llEE.J+r+ El++ Eql ilE olgEg E"s. z1o1q1 E6|] ^JIEE "J+ql d9l
zlzl tgz1q. dzlrJ^J"lE EErJg 714^\vljr- s^lzl¤ +H^l7lEJ_r., *zl"J rlE.J d
714.J g^E Hli.J g?-lql TlHlg E gd
^JC^l7l= 44 ^jlEr+
E?]= ^]lEE ^l-o"6J
rt(r=J 20.1s). rI-S "rJtl. EEq ddzl"ql^J ¤B.J ai]H, effiE dt} EE a¤ q^l
ploi9 +scg trq += E EIE qolr+.
^JBillql^l dzl
Al.xl
EO aOa
Hl5-?1. la{/l
Or-q
I
"JAg C+e E¤.Cr+ ajlCol aolsg CEtr. Hq+4. ^llEqg ^Jr]q4sE =!s_6J E|g "lg(561 Na*, K*,
"JHI4g.tr. C.JE dtg 5[+ql 7000 r "l^J9 e"-49 +¤] c.'*)91 qluil 7I1l EoltrI. ol= olgE
^lE +E +r+Cg
Ale' Ll]tr\Xtr}. olgl"J C+q +F3 +z16[7] fl6l] gsp] bE= ^Jls
?Iql flE -,i;1(.!le{l *4l(intracellular fluid,
ae BE 9l= ^l^Iel 8.+I. ^,+ ole.lql= fl+. +rl= trF ICF))e+
^llE +Iql ?l= +i](^llsHl *z{l(extrantracellular
,Jt]-g, +zlzl.J tlz] z]los +q ++ ¤+¤ 6IE^J +
^lE +s+. dt} =q ^llsel a+= ql
fluid, ECF))ll^.]
4 $9 e"-!g +i+^lzlE al49 TlAl ^J71e ^J46J+. 6l e EE, rcFe+ ECFqI ilE x*E bE= zJzJ r35 mM,
zl"J rl++El zootr dgl agt'J dzl olEE + zl4z}"J + ma,iol4. 6[zl"J Na*E a+ rcFe+ ECF 7J br
21o13
Luigi Galvani (tz zg - tz gz) 4 Alessandro v olta(\7 45 - | 827) K*el a+e+ Hlrllol+. -E_5 [Na*]rcp:10 mM, [Na"]Ece
c*9 olEl6J +=. g+ol qlii= +E6I= da ^L+r+ : t45 mMol4.
=
zJol dzl4oJ Btlql 96ll ae¤+= ag ilgql K* "l¤e a Fr+^lTlzlEI Na*e| ca2*
"Ja6}fltri. d+ ^ilEEg
*# 9"zl: dzlzJ"J g^= d7l sloln+ HI+Eol 7f{ g F4^l7lzl *fl4. rcFe+ ECF t K+ olgE bEiiql
=
el6[ .J+9 r-oE dzlT} "JEqA+. .$eg olgol "+ oot
^deE E4+ a6Jq E6]]
g^J+trI,,,.,--.(13.511).
=
938 2og ETltrfqf
+q +^H6Iq+E E:ooJ Nernst 49 ol*ol{ 414}B + +4. ol zld49 t¤I izlb C6l EE +E= aC++.
,ll
glts d+lil7l gd6Jr+. gE(37.C)ql^l K+ ol ,Jg +E a4 .!ls.z} Eol+ {F!s "Joll zllqe z}.El6l.zl
^J4qL4.J
-ool s6roll.r.l rCFE olE6l-zl 9l6J d+lzl-= g=+8, .J+4"J +E aA tlzl= Er+ ++g E6ll ol^l
po _ 2.3oRT,^_
g + 914. oi "J* +E aA tlzl= CtlE ¤ +5g +
F : L'
L: - np tog
LK-Jrcr
tK,]ro g^l7l= ql gs+ dzl4"J g^= gd^l7l= ie ul]El4
ol+.
: o - (61.smv)rog(1j#) : -e4mY
r800Hql +HlE q-q45e ct
+q ++g .Jerl
olq. EazJ-g-tr' scr= 6Jrll "J+E EEI d d7l4oJ zt*ol .J^llg EEql^l A^lB + flg AE
^,llsE 4p4 =
zls ++*rI. 9lql^J 4l4I.J d9lzlzl-¤.9 (}g ,*=+= E +E6l Ba6I9+. ol4,* Bdol {+ +l
^Idg
ag K*= 16pg olf,.r.lzl7l gdl^l= "Jg 6]] +qo} ttrI= q +aL6I4^ll+=Hllgg a+g ol+6iq d^Jol E¤.6t= t,.J
ag +4,J+. dg Hq¤ +A6f= Hla+C dt 4l+ zlH'J ddE4l
ECFe+ rcFql fli
ole.9 tr-Elzl.J r-oE Eq+ ¤:4 dxl (electrocardiography)9 zlaz[ u]flrf. d¤4e dds= :
9 zld4 HEI= 71494. dtr-++ +E= req+ dzJ aJ 20.17q1 Ll4qfl+. d+E
+3_6J ztSol 899 zlZl4
.tJlgE 4E a{ ,$l}.(pacemaker cell)4rr. 94. ol ,!}e9 o-e EB6lb 4.olzl"J, ot+ zlg E4 dzlglrl ts^Jal d
"+3 rcFql ilE "l¤ bE= illzl4"J %I$etr tr+^lrJe 714"J tsE ol+6}q ot+ dr,ll 7l+6J + 9l+:
^ldg
-trrl a¤6J+. f.a 20.16q1^l .H.q += a^lH, ol*l+ bE ,ll+ 5*4.
{!}3 o1 ^lls"+ EE+ dzl9 zldqg ++ rJ^l"E H+6t
F- ls____->]
t
t )l
c d
el
n
il
------>
^l7J------>
^l2J
afg 20.16 oJ2Jel dSoll^1 E+l^tel Est dSel+E A.fe 20.17 de4?l ddE(electrocardiogram) ?1^11 trEoil +
E ol8 5E Eetoll ttl-= d9l^l-sl Eal ^8 ^llE
AIEII=¤ E6t| A^l-d E7l^1?.1{lE= 7l=-Llrl.
qFl 20.13
/-, tE fx|$ olttr to{el pH +A
F THel +4 d=e.E C^l= oJ=fltl. 1U d+e P11,:1.00 atm"f nlxl ts-E9 H+(aq)E EJ=olf;rl. 2E d+3 E= +4
=El
E+0lr[(PH,:1.00 atm, [H+]:1.00 M).298 Koll^l 0l E^lsl dgP 0.21'r v-+ +8E1fl?, E^1.= 1u E+eE+El el+ trlE=
E6|1 2H E=o+ Ee= aolrJ=Elflrl.. 1H l+ql^l Eq{9 pHts g0l?]71?
aflu
E{ LoE dzl9 d.F}, d+7} s.-=.i [tt]ol +qa+. E IlEi Q= +6}rl fl6ll Nernst 49
^F8-6J
+ 9ln, rfl q.g
6J 1B Hl+ dTlE [H*]E xlleloJ E_f H]¤¤r+ {cEE b ulzl :-oEE +6171 +loll Q= ol3.o6J+. ol dzl= toE d7l
E E= FE "J4.1 +qA+. olTl qlEql E".a1 : 9 yo111.
E0l
al$ 4+g Eg + o.2L1,Y: o _ 4Y4'orO
Nernst 49 ole" ?1q.
Q:10-7'13:7.4x1,0-8
20.7 u|IElalelEE t^l 939
olEl. r++^l d+ HI¤+ q-q-rl eq. rH d* 4+ 2t 2H*(aq,1.00M) + 2e- - H2(g 1.00atm) 4"0 : 0
2H+(aq,1.00M) -
E [H*] ]ri ulzlf xe 4449.4. d4l: ZH*(aq,xM)
-
tri4^l
o_ lH' (aq,xM)12
_: r, : :7.4y
- [H'(aq,t.OOM))" (1.00)2=
xz 1g_t
+st rH d+E H* tE= 2H d+tr+ z+e <lg 7l4tr+. (a) -0.23 v, +?l d+ G) 0.46 v, $fl d*
q-4,r] rH d*ol &cI d+ol g+. 4Hz9 H+(aq)89 {} (c) 0.023 v, &e+ d- (d) 0.23 v, Qltl d+
4t td d*9 [H*]=. (zltlz1q. (e) 0.23 v, tlEl d?