ESS-38-82

Civil Aircraft Engine Exhaust Systems

Moro Matthieu
Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire MK43 0AL, United Kingdom, m.j.moro@cranfield.ac.uk

Abstract

Civil aircraft engine exhaust systems deal have known multiple stages of development since the first turbojet have been installed
in the De Havilland Comet. At the beginning the exhaust was only a functional component in the thermodynamic cycle but
progressively numerous designs have been investigated. Today, the mixed exhausts of early low bypass turbofans and military
engines have been in majority replaced by separate exhausts for current high bypass turbofans. The main driver for civil
exhausts is not the aerodynamic performance characteristics such as thrust upon weight but the reduction of the perceived noise
level, especially at take off and landing as the air traffic and the size of airliners increases in airports closer and closer to living
areas, through different mixing technics each having a non-negligible penalty on the fuel consumption of the engine. Another
area of research is the thrust reversers which allow aircrafts to land on shorter distances, many technologies exist to adapt to
different sizes of engines mounted on private jets to long range airliners. Next generation turbofan will also feature variable
area bypass nozzle to accommodate the slow turning geared fan.

Keywords: civil aircraft engine, engine noise, jet exhaust, thrust reverser, variable area nozzle

Nomenclature this perspective that the industry develops higher and higher
bypass ratio turbofans, it went from mixed exhaust for low
bypass ratio turbofans common with military engines to sep-
BPR By-pass ratio arated exhaust for the current generation high bypass ratio
CFD Computational fluid dynamics turbofans. But with the increasing air traffic and the relative
PNL Pressure noise level proximity of the newly built residential areas with interna-
PR Pressure ratio tional airports, the noise emitted by aircrafts at take-off and
landing becomes a serious issue that is a growing challenge
SFC Specific fuel consumption
for the airframe and engine manufacturers, and is today sub-
SPL Sound pressure level ject of many research. Today smaller engines are mostly
VAFN Variable Area Fan Nozzle equipped with lobe mixers but there is a debate whether or
not the noise reduction achieved with tabs and chevron for
bigger engines are worth the increase fuel consumption they
induce at cruise conditions.
1. Introduction
The trend being for commercial aircrafts to become larger
and larger to be able to carry a heavier payload at each flight,
The primary role of the gas turbine exhaust is to accom-
there is a conflict between airports and airliners to make in-
modate the nozzle which itself has the simple but funda-
vestments on longer runways and increase turn over. Today,
mental role of insuring the stability of the entire engine.
most commercial aircrafts are equipped with thrust reverser
With the years, civil aircrafts showed different needs than
to shorten both their landing distance and their landing time.
the military jet fighters and the designs of both types of en-
Many technologies of thrust reversers are available to each
gines started to divert. Where military aircrafts needed re-
category of engines having each their strength and the flaws
sponsiveness, high thrust, and high maneuverability which
and many more are still in study.
brought the manufacturer to create adaptive area nozzles,
sometimes convergent-divergent configurations, integration
of afterburners, and vectoring thrust. The civil aircrafts, 2. Fundamental concepts of the nozzle exhaust
spending most of their time at cruise condition at high sub-
sonic speeds, have no need for the expensive exhaust config- 2.1. Performance role of the nozzle
urations listed above.
The main technology driver for airliners and privet jets is The main purpose of the exhaust nozzle is to convert the
the cost effectiveness, therefore the fuel consumption. It is in thermal energy at the back of the engine to kinetic energy.

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M. Moro / Civil Aircraft Engine Exhaust Systems

That is to say the nozzle has to increase the velocity of the the engine through the inlet fan duct and produce a backward
exhaust gas and straighten it before discharging it at the rear thrust.
of the engine with a minimal total pressure loss[1]. This
process is controlled by the pressure ratio of the nozzle. 2.3. The exception of Concorde
The maximum thrust is achieved when the nozzle is fully
adapted, that is to the exit pressure of the nozzle is equal Concorde is a category of aircraft on its own. Despite be-
to the atmospheric pressure. Moreover, the exhaust must be ing a civil aircraft, the technology it used comes from the
able to perform few optional tasks like jet noise and infrared military sector. Because it was the only supersonic commer-
reduction, mix the core and bypass stream, allow for thrust cial cruiser of the western world, it does not use conventional
reversing, and exceptionally for civil aircrafts accommodate civil engines but the Rolls-Royce/Snecma Olympus 593, de-
for an afterburner at the back of the engine without affecting rived from the Rolls-Royce Olympus powering the strategic
the main operation of the engine. bomber Avro Vulcan. Whilst Rolls-Royce was in charge of
The nozzle acts also as a back pressure control for the developing the engine, it was the task of Snecma to develop
engine, dividing the power available between the turbine and the exhaust duct.
the jet power. In this perspective, the area of the nozzle is Because Concorde cannot reach its supercruise speed of
fixed very early in the conception of a new engine. From the Mach 2 without the assistance of afterburners, Snecma in-
preliminary engine cycle analysis. The choice of then engine stalled afterburners as well as a variable geometry exhaust to
principal non-dimensional characteristics, and the definition fit the pressure ratio of the nozzle at any flight regime.
the mass flow rate fix the nozzle throat area.
3. Noise reduction
2.2. Typical configurations of civil aircraft exhausts
Aircraft and engine manufacturers are subject to noise re-
The vast majority of civil aircrafts have been equipped quirements they have to achieve if they want to commercial-
with convergent nozzles. Consisting in a converging duct, ize their new designs. Noise is also important for the airlines
this configuration is adapted to low pressure ratios around that are subject to landing fees, to restrictions on the airport
4 which is a common value for engines that equip sub- access, and local noise abatement procedures.
sonic aircrafts. Since almost all the modern civil aircrafts The noise level is defined by pressure variation and is re-
equipped with turbofans have a cruise velocity around Mach ferred as Sound Pressure Level (SPL):
0.7 to 0.95, their engines are all equipped with convergent  
nozzles[2]. prms
SP L = 20 × log10 (1)
pref
2.2.1. Mixed exhausts Where pref = 2 × 10−5 Pa or 0 decibels (dBA), see table 1
for orders of magnitudes.
Anterior to the separated exhaust configuration, he mixed
exhaust configuration is principally used on low bypass ratio Table 1: Relationship between sound pressure, relative intensity, and
turbofan configuration. Similar from to the turbojets, low SPL
bypass turbofan was the first evolution of this technology. It Description of Sound Relative Sound
enabled a higher thrust and an lower SFC than the turbojets noise Pressure intensity pressure
it replaced. It is used on military fighter jets, in the civil
(Pa) level (dBA)
sector it is still used on small commercial jets as well as on
business jets. The mixed exhaust technology used with this Threshold of 0.00002 1 0
low PR engines consist in a longer fan duct than the main hearing
jet; this way the bypass flow meets with the jet flow inside Whisper 0.0002 102 10
of the engine. This way the exhaust flows are mixing in the Loud conversa- 0.02 106 60
engine and this results in a mixed flow (bypass plus core jets) tion
exiting the engine. Noisy traffic in 0.2 108 80
The internally mixed also offer the possibility to reduce city
the high-frequency noise level of the jet exiting the engine Inside noisy bus 2 1010 100
by adding sound absorbing liners in the mixed duct. Very noisy jet 1011 110
Threshold of pain 1012 120
2.2.2. Separated exhausts Permanent hear- 1013 130
ing damage
When the bypass ratios became too big the size and mass
of the bypass duct of the mixed exhaust configuration would
impact negatively on the SFC of the new generation on en- The perceived noise level (PNL) measured in perceived
gines. It was then decided to cut the bypass duct before it noise decibels (or PNdBA) response gain in frequencies of
meets with the core jet. In this configuration, the bypass the human hear. The total range of the human hearing spans
flow meets with the atmosphere, the bypass nozzle is usu- approximately from 20Hz to 15kHz and reduces with age.
ally not chocked, before the core. Another advantage of the However, the human hear is especially sensible to frequen-
separated exhaust technology comparatively to the mixed ex- cies in the range of 2 to 5 kHz.
haust configuration is that the fan and the core pressure ratios The engine contribution derives for internal components
are decoupled. In the mixed exhaust configuration, the fan – the compressor, the combust or, and the turbine – but the
pressure ratio has to match the overall jet pressure ratio. In- main source of noise in an aircraft is the turbulent mixing
deed, if the pressure at the end of the core engine is superior noise found at the exit of the engine, when the hot air jet from
to the pressure at the end of the fan, the core flow will exit the core – and in lower proportion from the bypass – meet

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M. Moro / Civil Aircraft Engine Exhaust Systems

with the cold outside air. The noise produced by a nozzle

can be described according to Lighthill’s theory as:

P ∼ ρd2 V n (2)

Where ρ is the the air density, d is the diameter of the nozzle,

and V the air velocity through the nozzle. n depends on the
nozzle, it is estimated to n = 8 for core jet nozzles and only
n = 2 for bypass[3].

3.1. Influence of the shape of the nozzle

The main idea to reduce the noise of the jet is to increase

the the mixing between the engine jets (core and bypass)
with the freestream. An idea to increase the jet spreading is
Figure 2: A lobed mixer exhaust (patented by NORDAM [6])
to modify the nozzle geometry. But subsonic speeds, Zaman
showed the gain in jet spreading of elliptical or rectangular
shape of the nozzle is very small[4].
Notched nozzles are standard conical nozzles with V-
3.2. Lobed mixer nozzle shaped notched cut into the nozzle lip. This configuration
was first investigated to reduce the Concorde jet noise. It was
An early method of noise reduction mostly used in the found each notch generated a pair of contra-rotating stream
1960s and 1970s on turbojets and low PR turbofans, lobed wise vortices. This vortices act like a shield for high speed
nozzles suppress the jet noise of the hot core principally by sources, therefore reducing the jet noise in the plane of the
increasing the jet surface area (see fig. 1 and fig. 3). With an notches[5]. The source of these vortices is due to the pres-
increased surface area between the hot jet and the cold atmo- sure hill occurring within the nozzle, the par of vortices are
sphere, the shear forces increase and air mix more rapidly. created by the lateral pressure gradient coupled with the no-
This phenomenon alone does not explain by itself the 200% slip condition no the wall of the nozzle[8].
increase in mixing compared with a conical nozzle of similar
section by itself. Lobed nozzles also introduce a stream wise
vorticity, a boundary layer growth, and dissipate the heat of
the core into the bypass region[5]. This technology used no-
tably on the Rolls-Royce Conway powering the Boeing 707
introduced a heavy penalty on the performance of the en-
gine. In addition to put on weight on the engine, thrust losses
amounted to 1% per 1 PNdBA noise suppression[3].

Figure 3: Schematic of the flow-field produced by notches into an

axisymetric nozzle[9]

3.4. Tabs nozzles

The tabs are an evolution of the notched nozzle technol-

Figure 1: A lobed mixer exhaust (patented by UTC [7])
Multiple lobe shapes are under study for the bypass
duct[6] and the core duct[7] mostly to increase the mixing
area with quasi-fractal lip designs.
3.3. Notched nozzle
ogy developed in the 1980s. Tabs nozzles are nozzles with
notches all around the trailing edge; it results in sawtooth-
like nozzle trailing edge, hard brakes, showing aggressive
penetration into the flow. The tabs have an advantage on the
lobed nozzles in achieving a significant noise reduction, es-
pecially when installed on the internal nozzle, but involves a
simpler geometry and less nozzle weight.
The same way notched nozzles generate vortices but in-
stead of generating only two vortices in the horizontal direc-
tion, it generates many vertices in all directions. This sup-
press the screech noise[10]. The tabs can be oriented in mul-
tiple directions, more or less aggressively cutting the exhaust

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M. Moro / Civil Aircraft Engine Exhaust Systems

flow. It was found the best results are obtained when the tabs
are tiled slightly toward the center of the flow but worsen the
noise issue on the high end of the audible spectrum when
tiled upstream into the nozzle[11]. Tabs allow a considerable
reduction or even an elimination of the screech noise[8] by
increasing the hydrodynamic excitation by stream wise vor-
tices; increasing the jet perimeter; and creating extra shocks
slowing the jet. This last effect has a direct negative impact
on the thrust of the engine and thus it SFC.
3.5. Chevron nozzles
complex CFD models as Large Eddy Simulations[14, 15],
complex scaled experiments are necessary to confirm the
CFD results[16]. All the engine manufactured did not use
the technology on their latest designs. If both engines op-
tions for the Boeing 787 (the GEnx from General Elec-
tric – displayed in fig. 5 – and the Trent 1000 from Rolls-
Royce displayed in fig. 6) are equipped with chevrons, the
Trent XWB that will equip the Airbus A350 will not feature
chevrons (see fig. 7). Pratt & Whitney has not announced
any chevron equipped engine, considering its gear turbofan
technology is sufficient to meet the noise level requirements.

The penalty on thrust due to the tabs had soon be judged

too important compared to the noise reduction they pro-
vide. In 1995 General Electric proposed the concept of the
chevrons. Chevrons are not hard brakes on the duct curvature
and an aggressive penetration into the flow but an extension
of the nozzle walls into a continuous serrated edge.
In 2001, NASA equipped its Learjet 25 research aircraft
to gather experimental data on chevrons[12]. On the occa-
sion, they made the following observation. The chevrons
have no effect on the noise felt by a fixer observer as the air-
craft approaches. But the observer heard a significant reduc-
tion of noise as the aircraft flew by. In the mean time, Hon-
eywell equipped its TFE731-60 –a separate exhaust engine–
driven Dassault Falcon 20 test aircraft to test multiple con-
figurations: the baseline engine, chevrons installed on the
core nozzle only, and chevrons on both the fan and core noz- Figure 5: Close-up of one of the GEnx-1B mounted on a Boieng
zles. The latter configuration can be seen in the figure 4 787 (image courtesy of GE)
The second test confirmed the first and added some preci-
sion to the effects of chevrons. It has been observed that the
chevrons work best when placed on the core nozzle. Adding
the chevrons to the fan nozzle slightly diminish the noise
benefit but compensate by improving the thrust loss. It has
also be found that the chevrons not only reduce the jet noise
toward the exterior of the aircraft but also reduced the noise
perceived inside the aircraft[13].

Figure 6: Close-up of one of the Trent 1000 mounted on a Boeing

787 (image courtesy of Rolls-Royce & Boeing)

Figure 4: Close-up of one of the configurations used by Honey-

well [13] (image courtesy of Honeywell)

It is believed the impact of noise reduction trailing edges

shapes is less than 1% but the real impact in SFC is still
subject to contrivers due to the multiple subtle interactions
that remain unknown and are still under investigations. The Figure 7: Close-up of one of the a test model of the Trent XWB,
current lack of understanding of the noise generation pro- the nacelle does not feature any chevron (image courtesy of Rolls-
cesses make it difficult to establish a figure of merit for CFD Royce)
optimization. Even if recent studies show a good accuracy
in prediction of both noise levels and thrust with the use of In addition to axisymetric chevron distribution of nozzle

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M. Moro / Civil Aircraft Engine Exhaust Systems
chevrons, new non-axisymetric chevrons distribution are in
study and patents are granted to all the major engine manu-
facturer in this direction[17], the new version of the General
Electric GEnx (displayed in fig. 8) – that powers the newest
version of the Boeing 747, the 747-8 – is currently equipped
with non-axisymetric chevrons on the by-pass, and standard
axisymetric chevrons in the core nozzle. Chevron can also
have different different shapes than the standard sawteeth
inherited from tabs that have the tendency to increase the
drag of the duct and therefore decrease the engine efficiency.
Among the explored geometries, the petal shape and the si-
nusoidal shapes are object to patented designs[18].
Figure 8: Close-up of two of the four GEnx-2B mounted on a
Boieng 747-8 (image courtesy of GE)
4. Thrust reversers
Most of civil engines are installed with thrust reverser to
slow the aircraft down after touchdown. This way aircraft
need less runway to stop and this allow more aircraft to land
in an airport in a given time. This also save brakes and tyre
wear and is very useful when the ground conditions are de-
graded (icy or wet runway). As an example, a 60,000 lbs
landing on a wet runway at 105 knots will shorten its land-
ing distance by 500 feet (or almost 20%) by using thrust re-
versers in addition to its brakes[3]. Small turbofans with a
small BPR installed on the small airliners and the business
jets are usually equipped with bucket or clamshell doors that
derive the entire flow diagonally whilst larger engines with a
high BPR do not deflect the core flow but just the fan bypass
jet.
4.1. Core stream reversers
Small civil jet engines used in short haul airliners and
business jets use target thrust reversers that swing round af-
ter landing to block the path downstream of the nozzle and
deflect both the main stream and the bypass jet diagonally
in the forward direction. There are multiple of target re-
versers available to the airframe manufacturer depending on
the other equipment of the exhaust. If there is no other ex-
haust equipment then the entire end of the exhaust can be
swing with hydraulic pistons to redirect the flow(see fig. 11).
These are called bucket doors and equip the Rolls-Royce
BR715 mounted on the different versions of the Boeing 717.
If there is another equipment at the end of the exhaust, for
example a lobe mixer, then the complex shape of the exhaust
make it impossible to swing the entire end of the exhaust to
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ESS-38-82
reverse the thrust of the engine. In this case, the clamshell
doors are placed upstream the lobe mixer (see fig. 12). When
the engine is in reverse thrust configuration, the flow does
not go through the lobe mixer any more, therefore the engine
jet noise level increases.
4.2. Bypass stream reversers
Because current high BPR engines deliver most of their
thrust through the fan duct (which is a separated exhaust
from the core), the engine manufacturers have decided to de-
rive only the bypass thrust and leave the core jet unchanged.
There are two main thrust reverser technologies available
for the high BPR. The cascade consisting of a translating
cowl reverser which slides axially toward the back of the en-
gine and block the fan duct while opening a ring of cascade
vanes(see fig. 13). The General Electric GEnx-2B used by
the Boeing 787-8 are equipped with this configuration.
The other major reverse thrust technology used in the high
BPR engines is the petal thrust reverser that consist in four
doors that open to both block the flow in the fan duct and
deflect it diagonally forward (see fig. 9). This technology
is very similar to the clamshell doors used in lower BPR
engines. This configuration can be found in the CFM56
equipped A320.
Figure 9: An A340 equipped with CFM56 displaying their petal
type thrust reversers (image courtesy of swissair)
5. Variable area nozzle
The new generation of Pratt & Whitney engines, the
PW1000G engine family will be equipped with new system
of geared fan novel for this thrust range. But to take full
advantage of the natural slower rotational speed of the fan,
the nacelle will be equipped of a Variable Area Fan Noz-
zle (VAFN). The nozzle area must be large of take-off and
landing – typically when the engine operates at high power
setting – to ensure that the back pressure does not subject
the fan to flutter conditions, this configuration also reduces
significantly the by-pass jet noise. When the engine operates
at lower power setting – typically during cruise – the area of
the nozzle should be smaller in order to be adapted to the
lower pressure ratio of the fan.
The PW1000G displayed in figure 10 has a two parts
variable nozzle which deploys mechanically to increase the
nozzle area by 10%. However, this hydraulically actuated
VAFN is heavy and expensive to integrate and to maintain
and Pratt & Whitney decided not to integrate the VAFN in
its PW1500G destined to power the Bombardier CSeries to
38th Engine Systems Symposium
M. Moro / Civil Aircraft Engine Exhaust Systems
Figure 10: The prototype PW1000G on a test aircraft (image cour-
tesy of Pratt & Whiteny)
remain competitive[20]. To remedy the issues with the ex-
isting technology, United Technologies is working on mul-
tiple novel VAFN concepts with NASA on the mechanical
aspect including the use of shape memory alloy[21], rota-
tionally mounted overlapping tabs[22], and on the control
aspect with the use of neural networks[23] and temperature
controls[24]
6. Conclusion
In this review of the functioning and the technology of the
civil aircraft exhaust systems, it has been see that this part of
the engine has a simple but essential goal: to control the
thrust produced by the engine. If the first geometries were
quite basic, the ever growing constrains related to the size of
the engine, the noise level environmental regulations and the
increasing traffic have pushed the industry to innovate and
create new technologies.
The increasing by-pass ratio transitioned the industry
from mixed-flow exhaust nozzles to separated-flow exhaust
nozzles. The noise produced remains contained thanks to
this transition from turbojet – producing noise proportion-
ally to the eighth power of the exhaust velocity, or the V 8
law – to the high bypass ratio turbofan. But because it was
not enough to comply with the regulations, noise was fur-
thermore reduced with the development of new nozzle ge-
ometries such as notched nozzle, tabs and more recently
chevrons. Aircrafts have been getting larger and larger and
their landing speed increased along with their mass. But
their airport turn over time have been reduced thanks to the
thrust reversers installed on virtually every commercial and
business aircrafts. The introduction of very high bypass ra-
tio engines with geared fan introduced the need for subsonic
civil aircrafts engine to be equipped with variable area ex-
haust nozzles of a new type, very different from the tech-
nologies used in military fighter engines.
The industry still carries intensive research on the exhaust
systems which is believed to be a decisive field for com-
petitive advantage, several initiatives are carried inside the
Flightpath 2050 program, and numerous patents are submit-
ted on the subject every year.
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M. Moro / Civil Aircraft Engine Exhaust Systems

Figure 11: schematics of a bucket thrust reverser (image courtesy of Rolls-Royce)

Figure 12: schematics of a clamshell thrust reverser (image courtesy of Rolls-Royce)

Figure 13: schematics of a cold steam thrust reverser (image courtesy of Rolls-Royce)