5.

8 Nuclear Hazards and Human Health Risks

The spontaneous emission of par cles and rays by an unstable nucleus is called Radioac vity and such substances
are called Radioac ve Substances eg. Radium, Uranium and Thorium etc. Radioac ve pollu on can be defined as,
"the release of radioac ve substances or high-energy par cles into the air water, or earth as a result of human
ac vity, either by accident or by design". Some mes natural sources of radioac vity, such as radon gas emi ed
from beneath the ground, are considered pollutants when they become a threat to human health.

5.8.1. Nuclear Hazards:

Nuclear hazards are threat posed by the invisible and odourless contamina on of the environment by the presence
of radioac ve materials such as radio-nuclides in air water or soil. These radio-nuclides emit high energy par cles
(alpha and beta rays) and electromagne c radia ons (gamma rays). Radio nuclides are elements, such as uranium
235, uranium 283, thorium 232, potassium 40, radium 226, carbon 14 etc., with unstable atomic nuclei and release
ionizing radia ons in the form of alpha, beta and gamma rays. Radio-nuclides occur naturally in our environment.
They are even found in human bodies and every day we ingest or inhale these radio- nuclides through air, water
or food. Out of the known 450 radioisotopes only some are of environmental concern like stron um 90, tri um,
plutonium 239, argon 41, cobalt 60, cesium 137, iodine 131, krypton 85 etc. These can be both beneficial and
harmful, depending on the way in which they are used.

The sources of nuclear pollu on include both natural and manmade sources. The human environment has
always been radioac ve and accounts for up to 85% of the annual human radia on dose. Radia on arising from
human ac vi es typically accounts for up to 15% of the public's exposure every year.

1) Natural Sources: Most radia on exposure is from natural sources. These include: radioac vity in rocks and soil
of the Earth's crust; radon, a radioac ve gas given out by many volcanic rocks and uranium ore, cosmic radia ons
etc.

i) Cosmic rays from outer space. The quan ty depends on al tude and la tude; it is more at higher la tudes and
high al tudes.

ii) Emissions from radioac ve materials in the Earth Crust i.e. Rocks, Marine sediments etc.

2) Man-Made Sources: These sources involve any process that emanates radia on in the environment. While
there are many causes of radia on pollu on such as including research and medical procedures and wastes,
nuclear power plants etc.

i) Nuclear waste handling and disposal: It may generate low to medium radia on over long period of mes. The
radioac vity may contaminate and propagate through air, water, and soil as well. Thus, their effects may not be
easily dis nguishable and are hard to predict. The main issue with the radia on waste is the fact that it cannot be
degraded or treated chemically or biologically. Thus, the only op ons are to contain the waste by storing it in
ghtly closed containers shielded with radia on-protec ve materials (such as Pb) or, if containing is not possible,
to dilute it. The waste may also be contained by storage in remote areas with li le or no life (such as remote caves
or abandoned salt mines). However, in me, the shields (natural or ar ficial) may be damaged. Addi onally, the
pastwaste disposal prac ces may not have used appropriate measures to isolate the radia on. Thus, such areas
need to be carefully iden fied and access restric ons promptly imposed.

ii) Use of radioac ve materials in defense weapon produc on: Nuclear weapon produc on may also release
radia ons from the handled radioac ve materials (usually of high health risks).

However, unless accident occurs, the current standards will not allow the release of any significant amount
of radia on.

iii) Nuclear explosions and detona ons of nuclear weapons: The highest amounts of human-induced radia on
pollu on have been generated probably in the mid twenty century through various experimental or combat
nuclear detona ons, which ended the Second World War. On August 6, 1945, a B-29 Superfortress bomber, the
"Enola Gay," dropped an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, Japan. There days later, Nagasaki was the target of a second
atomic bomb On August 15, a er years of war and following the recent withdrawal of the Soviet Union from a
Japan-Soviet non-aggression pact, Japan agreed to surrender uncondi onally. The health effects of this war last
over the years in Japan.

iv) Mining and processing of radioac ve ores: It involves the crushing and processing of radioac ve ores and
generates radioac ve by-products. Mining of other ores may also generate radioac ve wastes (such as mining of
phosphate ores).

v) Nuclear accidents: explosion at Three Mile Island 1979 and Chernobyl 1986 nuclear-power plant accidents are
the classic examples of radia on pollu on from this type of source. Even accidents from handling medical nuclear
materials/ wastes could have radia on health effects on workers.

vi) Use of radioac ve isotopes in medical, industrial and research applica ons:

The greatest exposure to human beings comes from the diagnos c use of X-rays, radioac ve isotopes used
as tracers and treatment of cancer and other ailments.

5.8.2. Human Health Risks:

Radioac ve substances when released into the environment are either dispersed or become concentrated in living
organisms through the food chain Other than naturally occurring radioisotopes, significant amounts are generated
by human ac vity, including the opera on of nuclear power plants, the manufacture of nuclear weapons, and
atomic bomb tes ng. Typically these effects can be of two types,

1) Soma c effects: Soma c affects the func on of cells and organs of the individual exposed. It causes damages
to cell membranes, mitochondria and cell nuclei resul ng in abnormal cell func ons, cell division, growth and
death.

2) Gene c effects: Radia ons can cause muta ons, which are changes in gene c makeup of cells and effects the
future genera ons also. These effects are mainly due to the damages to DNA molecules. People suffer from blood
cancer and bone cancer if exposed to higher doses around 100 to 1000 roentgens.

3) Effects on DNA and muta ons: Radia ons may break chemical bonds, such as DNA in cells and cause muta ons.
This affects the gene c make-up and control mechanisms. The effects can be instantaneous, prolonged or delayed
types. Even it could be carried to future genera ons.

4) General physiological effects: Exposure at low doses of radia ons (100-250 rads), men do not die but begin to
suffer from fa gue, nausea, vomi ng and loss of hair. But recovery is possible.

5) Effects on immunity: Exposure at higher doses (400-500 rads), the bone marrow is affected, blood cells are
reduced, natural resistance and figh ng capacity against germs is reduced, blood fails to clot, and the irradiated
person soon dies of infec on and bleeding.

6) Effects on ssues of vital organs: Higher radia on doses (10,000 rads) kill the organisms by damaging the ssues
of heart, brain, etc. Hypothyroidism may also be a radia on cause due to the destruc on of thyroid gland by
radioac ve accumulated iodine.

7) Occupa onal diseases: Few occupa ons that involve radioac ve exposures are uranium mineworkers, radium
watch dial painters, technical staff at nuclear power plants, etc. Exposure to radioac ve and nuclear hazards has
been clinically proven to cause cancer, muta ons and teratogenesis (Teratogenesis is a prenatal toxicity
characterized by structural or func onal defects in the developing embryo or foetus).

8) Effects through biomagnifica ons: Through food chain also, radioac vity effects are experienced by man. E.g.
Stron um 90 behaves like calcium and is easily deposited and replaces calcium in the bone ssues. It could be
passed to human beings through inges on of stron um-contaminated milk.

9) Cancers: Cancer genera on is the most typical health effect of radia on exposure especially when high or
moderate amounts of radia on are involved (in general regardless of the exposure period). Lung cancer is a typical
example of the effect of exposure to radon, which is the second leading cause of lung cancer in the U.S.Many years
of monitoring of radia on effects from detona on of nuclear bombs in Japan 1940's, showed that cancers may
develop immediately following the exposure to radia on or a er shorter or longer periods (up to 30 years from
the exposure) of me since the exposure occurred.

5.8.3. Control of Nuclear Hazards:

Peaceful uses of radioac ve materials are so wide and effec ve that we cannot go without them but also there is
no cure for radia on damage. Thus the only op on against nuclear hazards is to check and prevent radioac ve
pollu on. Following are the ways to prevent or control these hazards,

i) Leakages from nuclear reactors, careless handling, transport and use of radioac ve fuels,

fission products and radioac ve isotopes have to be totally stopped.

ii) Safety measures should be enforced strictly and strengthened against nuclear accidents.

iii) There should be regular monitoring and quan ta ve analysis through frequent sampling in the risk areas.

iv) Preven ve measures should be followed so that background radia on levels do not exceed the permissible
limits.

v) Appropriate steps should be taken against occupa onal exposure.

vi) Waste disposal must be careful, efficient and effec ve.

5.9 Solid Waste Management: Control measures of Urban and Industrial Waste

India is having second largest popula on in the world a er China with more than 1.27 billion popula on
contribu ng 17.6% of world's total popula on. Urban popula on is increasing day by day since last few decades.
In modern society, industry becomes an essen al part. Developing countries like India is in industrializa on phase,
which also contribute to urbaniza on. Large numbers of people are migra ng towards city area for be er
opportuni es. In terms of GDP, India is one of the fastest growing economy in the world. It is expected that by
2030 India will be growing with GDP of 10%. Higher GDP will result into improved living standards. Over
popula on, rapid industrializa on, uncontrolled urbaniza on and improved living standards thereby lead to
increased rate of per capita waste genera on.

5.9.1. Solid Waste:

In general terms, solid waste can be defined as waste not transported by water, that has been rejected for further
set it includes industrial, mining, municipal and agricultural wastes. It mainly consists of a large organic ma er, ash
and fine earth, paper and plas c, glass and metais. Composi on of solid waste however varies depending on
various factors such as weather, living standards etc.

Currently, 1,52,076 tons per day (TPD) of municipal solid waste is being generated due to various
household ac vi es and other commercial & ins tu onal ac vi es (CPCB, 2019-20) Municipal waste and certain
industrial waste have compara vely significant impact on environment. A substan al amount of these wastes is
extremely dangerous to the living organisms including human beings. It may downgrade groundwater quality by
leachate percola on and also cause air pollu on by emission of greenhouse gases through various course of
treatment Nowadays, E-waste and nuclear waste are other waste streams which are requiring a en on due to
fastest growing electronics & nuclear sector.

5.9.2. Types of Solid Waste:

Solid waste can be classified in many ways according to its source, composi on, phase, treatment required etc. It
includes residen al, municipal, mining, agricultural, industrial etc. The Following table describes type of wastes on
basis of its source.

Further municipal solid waste can be classified into putrescible solid wastes as garbage and nonputrescible
wastes as rubbish. Rubbish may include variety of materials which may be combus ble (paper, plas c etc.) or
noncombus ble (glass, metal etc.). There are special wastes such as construc on debris, leaves and street li er,
abandoned automobiles, and old appliances that are collected and managed separately.

5.9.3. Solid Waste Management/Control Measures:

To overcome this problem, effec ve solid waste management must be implemented. The objec ves of solid waste
management are to control, collect, process, u lize and dispose of solid wastes in such an economical way which
protects health of human being and natural environment and the objec ves of those served by the system.

In India, ini ally there has not been much awareness about solid waste management and its hierarchy.
However, since last few years, the scenario of solid waste management has been changing con nuously. S ll, there
is a long way to implement an effec ve solid waste management prac ces. Even today, only few por on of solid
waste generated is disposed through proper treatment. Lack of waste segrega on is the biggest obstacle in
implemen ng effec ve solid waste management. Though, plas c and paper recycling sector is growing due to
huge market demand for these commodi es. Improper collec on, unavailability of transporta on in some areas,
lack of advancements in treatment technologies, financial shortage in municipali es are other factors for poor
solid waste management prac ces. It is important to recognize the fact that there are varying degrees of hazards
associated with different waste streams and there are economic advantages for ranking wastes according to the
level of hazards they present. Solid waste management involves waste genera on, mode of collec on,
transporta on, segrega on of wastes and disposal techniques. Some of the methods of solid waste management
are described here,

1) Reduce, Reuse and Recycle of Raw Materials (3R concept):

i) Reduce: The term 'Reduce' can be defined as a reduc on in the amount and/or toxicity of waste entering the
waste stream. Use of green elements as raw materials, extension of product life cycle, op mum process design,
reducing energy and heat losses, replacing raw materials by lighter material can help to reduce the amount of
waste genera on. 'Reduce" is the top ranking component of solid waste management hierarchy because it
represents most effec ve means of reducing economical costs and environmental impacts associated with
handling waste. Life cycle assessment is very important for effec ve source reduc on of waste.

ii) Reuse: The term 'Reuse' means usage (or u liza on) of a product in the same applica on for which it was
originally used. For example, a plas c bag can carry groceries home from the market over and over again, a n can
be used as a mul - purpose container. A product can also be reused for some other purpose, such as occurs when
glass jars are reused in a workshop to hold small objects such as screws or nails. Remanufacturing is o en used in
this regard which means restoring a product to like new condi on. It involves disassembling the product, cleaning
and refurbishing the useful parts and stocking those parts in inventory. While repair means only those parts that
have failed are replaced.

iii) Recycle: The recovery of materials for recycling is given second highest priority in the solid waste management
hierarchy a er source reduc on. "Recycling' simply means use of waste as raw materials for other products. It
includes collec on and separa on of recyclables and processing them to useful raw materials for other products.
It can be classified as preconsumer and postconsumer recyclable materials. Preconsumer materials consist of scrap
that is recycled back into manufacturing process without having been turned into a useful product. Postconsumer
recyclables are products that have been used by consumers, such as newspaper or plas c bo les. Glass,
aluminium, heavy metals, construc on and demoli on debris are another example of recyclables.

2) Landfill: In India like many developing countries, waste is disposed in an open area without any precau ons. In
most of the Indian ci es, waste is thrown outskirts of the city area without any prior treatment which leads to
environmental deteriora on. Open dumping of solid waste leads percola on of leachate to underground water
and gas emissions resul ng into excessive air pollu on. It also disturbs aesthe c surrounding by its odorous
environment. Various study reported that groundwater of residen al areas near landfills is significantly
contaminated by leachate percola on. Compac ons, leveling of waste and final covering by earth materials are
rarely observed prac ce in these waste handling sites. To overcome this problem, secure and sanitary landfill must
be included in landfilling prac ces.
 There are many landfill sites opera ng in India, but their efficiency towards pollu on reduc on is s ll a
ma er of concern. Considering rapidly increasing waste genera on, the land requirement will increase in coming
years in urban areas. Contrary, due to rapid industrializa on and urbaniza on, the land availability is decreasing
day by day. Therefore, before ul mate disposal through landfilling volume and toxicity of solid waste must be
reduced by other treatment op ons. As secure landfilling is expected to be the ul mate disposal op on which
receives residues remained a er other treatments, further improvements in its design and planning are necessary.
Landfill should be provided composite liners to restrict leachate percola on to underground water level. It must
be equipped with proper collec ng and ven la ng system in order to recover gus produced. Under the MSW rules,
Government of India has made it mandatory to install Land Fill Gas (LFG) control system. LFG should be used either
for energy genera on of direct recovery of heat or should be flared to avoid air quality degrada on. Moisture is
an important factor which needs to be considered while designing a landfill.

3) Incinera on: It is a hygienic way of disposing solid waste. It is suitable if waste contains more hazardous material
and organic content. It is a thermal process and very effec ve for detoxifica on of all combus ble pathogens. In
this method municipal solid wastes are burnt in a furnace called incinerator. Combus ble substances such as
rubbish. garbage, dead organisms and non-combus ble ma er such as glass, porcelain and metals are separated
before feeding to incinerators. The non-combus ble materials can be le out for recycling and reuse. The le over
ashes and clinkers may account for about 10- 20% which need further disposal by sanitary landfill or some other
means. The heat produced in the incinerator during burning of refuse is used in the form of steam power for
genera on of electricity through turbines. Municipal solid waste is generally wet and has a high calorific value.
Therefore, it has to be dried first before burning. Waste is dried in a preheater from where it is taken to a large
incinera ng furnace called "destructor" which can incinerate about 100-150 tonnes per hour. Temperature
normally maintained in a combus on chamber is about 700 C which may be increased to 1000 C when electricity
is to be generated.

4) Compos ng: It is another popular method prac ced in many ci es in our country. In this method, bulk organic
waste is converted into fer lizer by biological ac on. Separated compostable waste is dumped in underground
trenches in layers of 1.5m and finally covered with earth of 20cm and le for decomposi on. Some mes,
ac nomycetes are introduced for ac ve decomposi on. Within 2-3 days biological ac on starts. Organic ma er is
destroyed by ac nomycetes and lot of heat is liberated increasing the temperature of compost by 75°C and the
refuse is finally converted into powdery brown coloured odourless mass called humus that has a fer lizing value
and can be used in agriculture. Humus contains lot of Nitrogen essen al for plant growth apart from phosphates
and other minerals. This manure when added to soil increases water reten on and ion-exchange capacity of soil.
This method can be used to treat several industrial solid wastes.

5) Biomethana on: It is the process of conversion of organic ma er into stable, inert residue by microorganisms
in the oxygen-free environment. It yields methane rich biogas which can be used for electricity, cooking and inert
residue which can be used as manure. Microorganisms used in this process are known as methanogens. The
biggest advantage of biomethana on is that it can reduce the release amount of methane- a powerful greenhouse
gas and simultaneously generates electricity. Another important aspect of this technology is its relevant use in
rural areas for cooking.

6) Aerobic diges on: As name suggest, aerobic compos ng means bacterial conversion of organics in presence of
air. It yields compost as final product which is extensively used as fer lizer. Final product is free from odour and
pathogens. It can reduce waste volume to 50-85%. Mechanical controlled plants are being installed in
metropolitan ci es, while manually control plants are set in rela vely smaller urban township. During 1975-1980,
large scale compos ng plants were installed in ci es like Bangalore, Baroda, Mumbai, Calcu a, Delhi, Jaipur,
Kanpur and Indore having capacity of 150-300 tons/day. But due to poor performance and no usefulness in soil
enrichment, plants were shut down. A er that the first large scale plant was set up in Mumbai in 1992 with 500
t/day capacity of MSW followed by Vijaywada, Delhi, Bangalore, Ahmedabad, Hyderabad, Bhopal, Luknow and
Gwalior.
7) Pyrolysis: Pyrolysis is an effec ve waste-to-energy concept refers to destruc ve dis lla on of the solid waste to
recover its cons tuents and energy. In other words, pyrolysis is a thermal degrada on process in absence of air
which yields recyclable products such as char, oil/wax and combus ble gases. It is generally preferred for
treatment of waste having less moisture content like paper, cloth, plas c, yard wastes etc. as waste containing
high moisture content require more heat supply. In this process, the solid waste is heated in a pyrolysis reactor at
600-1000°C which yields oil phase i.e. methanol, acetone, ace c acid etc; gaseous phase i.e. H₂, CH4, CO, CO, etc.
and solid phase i.e, carbon char and inert materials. Various reactors employed for pyrolysis are fixed bed reactor,
rotary kiln, fluidized bed reactor and other innova ve reactors. It depends on various factors such as temperature,
hea ng rate, residence me in reactor zone, material size etc. The biggest advantage of pyrolysis over incinera on
is very li le effect to environment in terms of air pollu on. Though, high ini al cost and opera on cost make this
process difficult to emerge as commercially sound prac ce.

8) Government Policy and Ini a ves: The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) is taking care of the issues
related to solid waste management together with Central and State Pollu on Control Boards. There are various
rules framed under Environment Protec on Act-1986 for improving management of solid waste. SWM falls under
state list as it is considered as public health and sanita on as per Indian Cons tu on. Due to its local nature, SWM
is the responsibility of Urban Local Bodies (ULBs). Several legisla ves’ rules are made to manage solid waste in
cons tu on as,

Environment Protec on Act-1986

Hazardous Waste Management and Handling Rules - 1989

Manufacturing, Storage and Transporta on of Hazardous Waste Rules - 1989 Bio-Medical Waste Management and
Handling Rules - 1998

Municipal Solid Waste Management and Handling Rules-2000

Plas c Waste (Management and Handling) Rules -2011

E-Waste (Management and Handling) Rules-2011

5.10 Pollu on Case Studies

1) The Ganga Ac on Plan (GAP): There is a universal reverence to water in almost all of the major religions of the
world. Most religious beliefs involve some ceremonial use of "holy" water. The purity of such water, the belief in
its known historical and unknown mythological origins, and the inaccessibility of remote sources, elevates its
importance even further. In India, the water of the river Ganga is treated with such reverence. The river Ganga
occupies a unique posi on in the cultural ethos of India. Legend says that the river has descended from Heaven
on earth as a result of the long and arduous prayers of King Bhagirathi for the salva on of his deceased ancestors.
From mes immemorial, the Ganga has been India's river of faith, devo on and worship. Millions of Hindus accept
its water as sacred. Even today, people carry treasured Ganga water all over India and abroad because it is "holy"
water and known for its "cura ve" proper es. However, the river is not just a legend; it is also a life-support system
for the people of India. In the recent past, due to rapid progress in communica ons and commerce, there has
been a swi increase in the urban areas along the river Ganga, As a result the river is no longer only a source of
water but is also a channel, receiving and transpor ng urban wastes away from the towns. Today, one third of the
country's urban popula on lives in the towns of the Ganga basin. Out of the 2,300 towns in the country, 692 are
located in this basin, and of these, 100 are located along the river bank itself. The belief the Ganga river is "holy"
has not, however, prevented over-use, abuse and pollu on of the river. All the towns along its length contribute
to the pollu on load. It has been assessed that more than 80 per cent of the total pollu on load (in terms of
organic pollu on expressed as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)) arises from domes c sources,i.e.from the
se lements along the river course. Due to over-abstrac on of water for irriga on in the upper regions of the river,
the dry weather flow has been reduced to a trickle. Rampant deforesta on in the last few decades, resul ng in
topsoil erosion in the catchment area, has increased silt deposits which, in turn, raise the river bed and lead to
devasta ng floods in the rainy season and stagnant flow in the dry season. Along the main river course there are
25 towns with a popula on of more than 100,000 and about another 23 towns with popula ons above 50,000. In
addi on there are 50 smaller towns with popula ons above 20,000. There are also about 100 iden fied major
industries located directly on the river, of which 68 are considered as grossly pollu ng. Fi y-five of these industrial
units have complied with the regula ons and installed effluent treatment plants (ETPs) and legal proceedings are
in progress for the remaining units. The natural assimila ve capacity of the river is severely stressed.

The principal sources of pollu on of the Ganga River can be characterised as

follows:

Domes c and industrial wastes. It has been es mated that about 1.4×10 m² d' of domes c wastewater and 0.26
x 10 m² d' of industrial sewage are going into the river.

Solid garbage thrown directly into the river.

Non-point sources of pollu on from agricultural run-off containing residues of harmful pes cides and fer lizers.

Animal carcasses and half-burned and unburned human corpses thrown into the river.

Defeca on on the banks by the low-income people.

Mass bathing and ritualis c prac ces.

The GAP was only the first step in river water quality management. Its mandate was limited to quick and
effec ve, but sustainable, interven ons to contain the damage. The studies carried out by the CPCB in 1981-82
revealed that pollu on of the Ganga was increasing but had not assumed serious propor ons, except at certain
main towns on the river such as industrial Kanpur and Calcu a on the Hoogly, together with a few other towns.
These loca ons were iden fied and designated as the "hot-spots" where urgent interven ons were warranted.
The causa ve factors responsible for these situa ons were targeted for swi and effec ve control measures. This
strategy was adopted for urgent implementa on during the first phase of the plan under which only 25 towns
iden fied on the main river were to be included.

The studies had revealed that:

75% of the pollu on load was from untreated municipal sewage.

88% of the municipal sewage was from the 25 Class-I towns on the main river.

Only a few of these ci es had sewage treatment facili es (these were very inadequate and were o en not
func onal).

All the industries accounted for only 25% of the total pollu on (in some areas, such as Calcu a and Kanpur, the
industrial waste was very toxic and hard to treat).

The GAP is a successful example of mely ac on due to environmental awareness at the governmental
level. Even more than this, it exhibits the achievement poten al which is a ainable by "poli cal will". It is a model
which is constantly being upgraded and improved in other river pollu on preven on projects. Nevertheless, some
very important lessons have been learned which are being incorporated into further projects. These include
lessons learned about poor resource recovery due to poor resource genera on, because of the lower organic
content of Indian sewage.

2) The Taj Mahal: Over the past 2 decades, India's most famous tourist a rac on, Taj Mahal located in Agra, has
become a ma er of concern. Experts have warned that pollutants in air are discolouring its white marble. So, it is
not only living organisms that get affected by polluted air but non-living things like buildings, monuments and
statues also get affected. The industries located in and around Agra like rubber processing, automobile, chemicals
and especially the Mathura oil refinery, have been responsible for producing pollutants like sulphur dioxide (SO₂)
and nitrogen dioxide (NO₂). These gases react with the water vapour present in the atmosphere to form sulphuric
acid and nitrie acid. The acids drop down with rain, making the rain acidic. This is called acid rain. Acid rain corrodes
the marble of the monument. The phenomenon is also called "Marble cancer". Suspended par culate ma er,
such as the soot par cles emi ed by Mathura oil refinery, has contributed towards the yellowing of the marble.
The Supreme Court has taken several steps to save the Taj mahal. It has ordered industries to switch to cleaner
fuels like CNG (Compressed Natural Gas) and LPG (Liquefied Petroleum Gas). Moreover, the automobiles should
switch over to unleaded petrol in the Taj mahal zone.

3) A case study of pes cide pollu on in India: One of the most terrifying effects of pes cide contamina on of
ground water came to light when pes cide residues were found in bo led water. Between July and December
2002, the Pollu on Monitoring Laboratory of the New Delhi based Centre for Science and Environment (CSE)
analyzed 17 brands of bo led water both packaged drinking water and packaged natural mineral water commonly
sold in areas that fall within the na onal capital region of Delhi. Pes cide residues of organochlorine and
organophosphorus pes cides which are most commonly used in India were found in all the samples. Among
organochlorines, gamma hexachlorocyclohexane (lindane) and DDT were prevalent while among
organophosphorus pes cides, Malathion and Chlorpyrifos were most common. All these were present above
permissible limits specified by the European Economic Community, which is the norm, used all over Europe. One
may wonder as to how these pes cide residues get into bo led water that is manufactured by several big
companies. This can be traced to several facts. There is no regula on that the bo led water industry must be
located in 'clean' zones.

Currently the manufacturing plants of most brands are situated in the dir est industrial estates or in the
midst of agricultural fields. Most companies use bore wells to pump out water from the ground from depths
varying from 24m to even 152 m below the ground. The raw water samples collected from the plants also revealed
the presence of pes cide residues. This clearly indicated that the sources of pes cide residues in the polluted
groundwater are used to manufacture the bo led water. This is despite the fact that all bo led water plants use
a range of purifica on methods. Thus obviously the fault lies in the treatment methods used. These plants use the
membrane technology where the water is filtered using membranes with ultra-small pores to remove fine
suspended solids and all bacteria and protozoa and even viruses. While nanofiltra on can remove insec cides and
herbicides it is expensive and thus rarely used. Most industries also use an ac vated charcoal adsorp on process,
which is effec ve in removing organic pes cides but not heavy metals. To remove pes cides the plants use reverse
osmosis and granular ac vated charcoal methods. Thus even though manufacturers claim to use these process
the presence of pes cide residues points to the fact that either manufacturers do not use the treatment process
effec vely or only treat a part of the raw water.

The low concentra on of pes cide residues in bo led water does not cause acute or immediate effect.
However repeated exposure even to extremely miniscule amounts can result in chronic effects like cancer, liver
and kidney damage, disorders of the nervous system, damage to the immune system and birth defects. Similarly
six months a er CSE reported pes cide residues in bo led water it also found these pes cides in popular cold
drink brands sold across the country. This is because the main ingredient in a cold drink or a carbonated
nonalcoholic beverage is water and there are no standards specified for water to be used in these beverages in
India. There were no standards for bo led water in India ll on September 29, 2000 the Union Ministry of Health
and Family Welfare issued a no fica on (no759(E)) amending the Preven on of Food Adultera on Rules, 1954.
The BIS (Bureau of Indian Standards) cer fica on mark became mandatory for bo led water from March 29, 2001.
However the parameters for pes cide residues remained ambiguous. Following the report published by CSE in
Down to Earth, Vol 11, no. 18, a series of Commi ees were established and eventually on 18th July 2003
amendments were made in the Preven on of Food Adultera on Rules sta ng that pes cide residues considered
individually should not exceed 0.0001mg.lit and the total pes cide residues will not be more than 0.0005 mg/lit
that the analysis shall be conducted by using interna onally established test methods mee ng the residue limits
specified herein. This no fica on came into force from January 1, 2004.

4) Church of God (Full Gospel) in India v KKR Majes c Colony Welfare Associa on: Facts: The respondent KKR
Majes c colony made a complaint to the Tamil Nadu High Court(including pollu on Control Board and various
other authori es) that prayers on the Church located at KKR Nagar, Madhavaram High Road, Chennai, were recited
by using loudspeaker, drums and other sound producing instruments which cased noise pollu on thereby
disturbing and casing nuisance public to the normal life of the residents of the said colony and made a request for
a direc on to take appropriate measures to control large-scale pollu on.
Issues: Whether bea ng of drums or reci ng of prayers by use of microphones and loudspeakers so as to disturb
the peace or tranquility of neighbourhood should be permi ed?

Analysis: The Pollu on Control Board clearly a ributed the noise pollu on in the area in ques on to the vehicular
traffic and not to any of the ac vi es of the appellant Church and, therefore, direc on issued in respect of
controlling the noise ought not to have been extended in respect of the appellant-Church that the High Court has
overlooked that the right to profess and prac ce Chris anity is protected under Ar cles 25 and 26 of the
Cons tu on of India which cannot be dislodged by direc ng the authori es to have a check on the appellant-
Church and that the judgment relied upon by the High Court in Appa Rao's case (Supra) did not empower Welfare
Associa on is consis ng of members belonging to all religions as found by the High Court. It is contended that
even if the conten on of the appellant-Church that the noise created by it is within the prescribed limit is taken
as it is the order passed by the High Court will not in any way prejudice the right of religious prac ce of appellant
because the order of the High Court is only with regard to reducing the noise pollu on in that area. It is further
contended that the High Court can pass orders to protect and preserve a very fundamental right of ci zen under
Ar cle 19(1)(a) of the Cons tu on of India.

Judgment: The no religion prescribes that prayers should be performed by disturbing the peace of others nor does
it preach that they should be thorough voice amplifiers or bea ng of drums. In our view, in a civilized society, in
the name of religion, ac vi es which disturb the old or infirm persons. Students or children having their sleep in
the early hours or during day me or other persons carrying on other ac vi es cannot be permi ed. It should not
be forgo en that young babies in the neighborhood and a student preparing for his exams are also en tled to
enjoy their natural right of sleeping in a peaceful atmosphere. Their rights are also required to be honored.