APPROACHES

BEHAVIOURIST APPROACH
AO1:
- The behaviourist approach is an approach to explaining behaviour which suggests that
all behaviour is acquired and maintained through classical conditioning and operant
conditioning.
- Only behaviour that is objectively measured and observed is studied, as demonstrated
by skinners box
- this is because of Watson and Skinner disagreeing with the subjective nature of
Wundt’s introspective methods.

Classical conditioning = a type of learning which occurs through associations made between
the unconditioned stimulus and the neutral stimulus. Example – Pavlov’s dogs

Operant conditioning = a type of learning where behaviour is acquired and maintained based
on its consequences. Reinforcement increases the likelihood of the observed behaviour being
repeated. Example – Skinners rats

AO3:
+ well-controlled research
 one strength of the behaviourist approach is that it is based on well-controlled
research
 behaviourists focused on the measurement of observable behaviour within highly
controlled lab settings
 by breaking down behaviour into stimulus-response units, extraneous variables were
removed allowing cause-and-effect relationships
 skinner was able to clearly demonstrate how reinforcement influenced an animal’s
behaviour
 this suggests that behaviourists experiments have scientific credibility

- COUNTERPOINT
 the problem with this is that behaviourists may have oversimplified the learning
process.
 By reducing behaviour to such simple components, behaviourists may have ignored
an important influence on learning – that of human thought
 This suggests that learning is more complex than observable behaviour alone, and that
private mental processes are also essential.

+ real-world application
 Principles of conditioning have been applied to real-world behaviours and problems
 for example, operant conditioning is the basis of token economy systems that have
been used successfully in institutions, such as prisons and psych wards
 for example how classical conditioning has been applied to phobias
 this increases the value of the behaviourist approach because it has widespread
application
- environmental determinism
 it sees all behaviour as conditioned by past condition experiences
 skinner suggested that everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history
 this ignores any possible influence that free will may have on behaviour
  this is an extreme position and ignored the influence of conscious decision-making
processes on behaviour

SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY

AO1:
- behaviour is learned from experience. Bandura proposed SLT which suggests that we
learn through the observation and imitation of others
- people are more likely to imitate the behaviour of the models that they identify with.
A person becomes a model if they are seen to possess characteristics that the observer
has
 - mediational processes refer to the mental event that determines whether an individual
perceives a behaviour as being worth imitating

MEDIATIONAL PROCESSES:
- attention – the extent to which we notice certain behaviours
- retention – how well the behaviour is remembered
- motor reproduction – the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
- motivation – the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether
the behaviour was rewarded or punished

AO3:
+ real world application
 one strength is that SLT principles have been applied to real-world behaviours
 social learning theory has the advantage of being able to explain cultural differences
in behaviour
 Modelling, imitation and reinforcement can account for how children learn from
others around them, and this can explain how cultural norms are transmitted through
particular societies
 This has proved useful in understanding behaviours
 This increases the value of the approach as it can account for real-world behaviour

- contrived from lab studies

 One limitation of social learning theory is that the evidence on which it is based was
gathered through lab studies
 Many of Bandura’s ideas were developed through observation of young children’s
behaviour in the lab
 Lab studies are often criticised for their contrived nature where participants may
respond to demand characteristics
 This suggests that the research may tell us little about how children actually learn
aggression in every day life

Vicarious reinforcement = learning through the observation of the consequences of the

actions for other people

THE COGNITIVE APPROACH

AO1:
- Assumes that the scientific and objective study of internal processes is possible.
However, as these private processes cannot be directly observed, cognitive
psychologists formulate conclusions of their workings, through making inferences,
based upon observable behaviours
- Therefore, much of the work of cognitive psychologists is the indirect measurement
of cognition
- The cognitive approach sees mental processes as being separate from the brain
THE ROLE OF SCHEMA
- Schemas are ‘packages’ of ideas and information developed through experience.
- They act as mental framework for the interpretation of incoming information received
by the cognitive system
- Schemas enable us to process lots of information quickly as this is useful as a sort of
mental shortcut that prevents us from being overwhelmed by environmental stimuli
- However, schema may also distort our interpretations of sensory information, leading
to perceptual errors

THEORETICAL AND COMPUTER MODELS

- Cognitive psychologists use theoretical and computer models to help them understand
internal mental processes
- Theoretical models are abstract whereas computer models are concrete things
- One important theoretical model is the information processing approach, which
suggests that information flows through the cognitive system in a sequence of stages
- Computer models suggest that the mind works like a computer, turning information
into a format in which it can be stored

+ scientific methods
 One strength of the cognitive approach is that it uses objective, scientific methods
 They use highly controlled methods of study so researchers are able to infer cognitive
processes
 This has involved the use of lab studies to produce reliable, objective data
 This means that the study of the mind has a credible scientific basis

+ practical application
 One strength of the cognitive approach is that it has practical application
 It has made an important contribution in the field of artificial intelligence and the
development
 Cognitive principles have also been applied to the treatment of depression and
improved the reliability of eyewitness testimony’s
 This supports the value of the cognitive approach

- machine reductionism
 One limitation of the cognitive approach is that it is based on machine reductionism
 There are similarities between the human mind and the operation of a computer
 However machine reductionism ignores the influence of human emotion and
motivation on the cognitive system and how this may affect our ability to process
information
 For instance research has found that human memory may be affected by emotional
factors such as the influence of anxiety on eyewitnesses
 This suggests that the machine reductionism may weaken the validity of the cognitive
approach
 BIOLOGICAL APPROACH
AO1:
- The biological approach suggests that everything is innate and governed by biology
- Twin studies are often used to ascertain whether or not a behaviour has a genetic basis
- Phenotypes refer to the observable characteristics of an individual. Genotype refers to
the inherited genetic material
- The theory of natural selection was proposed by Darwin, this states that any genetic
material that can aid an individuals survival is passed on to their offspring

Genotype and phenotype

Genotype = observable characteristics of an individual
Phenotype = characteristics of an individual determined by their genes and the environment
This illustrates what many biological psychologists would accept, that much of human
behaviour depends upon an interaction between inherited factors (nature) and the
environment (nurture).

AO3:
+ Real world application
 One strength is that it has real world application
  Increased understanding of neurochemical processes in the brain is associated with
the use of psychoactive drugs to treat serious mental disorders
 E.G the biological approach has promoted the treatment of clinical depression using
antidepressant drugs which increase the levels of the neurotransmitter serotonin at
synapses in the brain
 Such drugs have been associated with the reduction of depressive symptoms
 This means that people with depression may be better able to manage their condition

- counterpoint
 Antidepressants don’t work for everyone
 A study compared 21 antidepressants and found wide variations in their effectiveness
 although most of the drugs were more effective than the placebos, most of the
antidepressants didn’t do much
 this challenges the value of the biological approach because it suggests that brain
chemistry alone may not account for all cases of depression

+ scientific methods
 one strength is that it uses scientific methods of investigation
 to investigate the genetic and biological basis of behaviour, the biological approach
makes use of a range of precise and highly objective methods
 these include scanning techniques, such as fMRIs and EEGs
 with advances in technology, it is possible to accurately measure physiological and
neural processes in ways that are not open to bias
 this means that much of the biological approach is based on objective and reliable
data

- biological determinism
 one limitation of the biological approach is that it is determinist
 the biological approach is determinist in that it sees human behaviour as governed by
internal, genetic causes over which we have no control
 however, the way an individual’s genotype is expressed is heavily influenced by the
environment
 this suggests that the biological view is often too simplistic and ignores the mediating
effects of the environment
 PSYCHODYNAMIC APPROACH
AO1:
- the mind was suggested by Freud to be largely unconscious. Our unconscious allows
us to deal with these threatening memories by means of defence mechanisms:
repressing them, denying them, or displacing them
- a structure of our personality was also developed by Freud. The id governs our desires
and demands to be satisfied
- the ego is the reality principle and acts as the middle ground between the id and the
superego
- the superego is the morality principle
+ real world application
 one strength of the psychodynamic approach is that it introduced the idea of
psychotherapy
 psychoanalysis was the first attempt to treat mental disorders psychologically rather
than physically
 it is supposed to help clients by bringing their repressed emotions into their conscious
mind so they can deal with it
 this shows the value of the psychodynamic approach in creating a new approach to
treatment

- counterpoint
  although it has been successful, psychoanalysis is regarded as inappropriate for people
experiencing mental disorders
 many of the symptoms of schizophrenia such as paranoia and delulu mean that those
with the disorder cannot articulate their thoughts in the way required for
psychoanalysis
 this suggests that therapy might not apply to all mental disorders

+ explanatory power
 one strength of Freuds theory is its ability to explain human behaviour
 alongside behaviourism, the psychodynamic approach has been used to explain a wide
range of psychological disorders
 the approach is also significant in drawing attention to the connection between
experiences in childhood, such as our relationship with our parents
 this suggests that the psychodynamic approach has had a positive impact on
psychology

- untestable concepts
 one limitation of the psychodynamic approach is that much of it is untestable
 Karl Popper argued that the approach does not meet the scientific criteria of
falsification
 It is not open to empirical testing
 Many of Freuds concepts are said to occur at an unconscious level, making them
difficult to test
 His studies were also based on the subjective study of single individuals such as little
Hans making it difficult to apply to everyone
 This suggests that Freuds theory was pseudoscientific (not a real science) rather than
established fact

HUMANISTIC APPROACH
AO1:
- Assumes that we have free will and are in charge of our own development so we can
ignore the influence of internal and external factors on our own behaviour
- Sees self-actualisation as a crucial part of being human
- Due to having free will, we can also progress through this hierarchy of needs and
better ourselves
+ not reductionist
 One strength of the humanistic approach is that it rejects the reductionism
 Behaviourists explain human and animal learning in terms of simple stimulus-
response connections
 Biological psychologists reduce behaviour to its basic physiological processes
 Humanistic psychologists advocate holism, the idea that subjective experiences can
only can only be understood by considering the whole person
 This approach may have ore validity than its alternatives by considering meaningful
human behaviour within its real-world context