MA Psychology

Semester 3
MAPSY502 – MENTAL ABILITIES
Unit 1
• Intelligence: Nature, Historical views, Neurological
Foundation, Genetic Basis, Environmental Influences.
• Racial and Gender differences.
• Hierarchical Theories: Spearman, Thurstone, Guilford,
Cattell, Horn, Carroll
Intelligence
• Intelligence has been defined in many ways: the capacity
for abstraction, logic, understanding, self-
awareness, learning, emotional
knowledge, reasoning, planning, creativity, critical thinking,
and problem-solving.
• More generally, it can be described as the ability to perceive
or infer information, and to retain it as knowledge to be
applied towards adaptive behaviors within an environment or
context.
Intelligence
• Intelligence is most often studied in humans but has also been
observed in both non-human animals and in plants despite
controversy as to whether some of these forms of life exhibit
intelligence.
• Intelligence in computers or other machines is called artificial
intelligence.
Definitions
• The power of good responses from the point of view of the
truth or fact.- thorndike
• The capacity to acquire capacity- wooddrow
• David Wechsler’s definition of intelligence: the global capacity
of the individual to act purposefully, think rationally, and to
deal effectively with his environment.
NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF
INTELLIGENCE

• The true nature of intelligence can be understood by first

defining it to understand its meaning, describing various
theories, explaining its structure in terms of the several
constituents and factors and identifying the numerous other
aspects and characteristics related to intelligence and its
functioning.
• Freeman indicates three constitutes of intelligence. 1.
Adjustment, 2. Individual ability to learn from past experience
3. Abstract thinking
Nickerson, Perkins and Smith
(1985)
• They have complied the following list of abilities that they
believe represent human intelligence.
• The ability to classify patterns: e.g. telephone refers to a wide
class of objects used for long-distance electronic
communication.
• (ii) The ability to modify behavior adaptively to learn:
• Many theorists consider adapting to one's environment the
most important mark of human intelligence.
• ii) The ability to reason deductively-Deductive reasoning
involves making logical inferences from stated premises.
Characteristics
• According to expert , intelligence is characterized by following:
• 1. Person uses past experiences effectively.
• 2. He is able to concentrate and keep his attention focused for
a longer period of time.
• 3. Adjusts in a new and unaccustomed situation rapidly and
with less confusion and with fewer false moves.
• 4. Person shows variability of response.
• 5. He is able to see distant relationships.
• 6. He can carry abstract thinking.
• 7. He has greater capacity of inhibition and delay is capable of
exercising self criticism.
History of intelligence
-

2300 yrs. ago – Aristotle gave

Reference of intelligence as
“Reason”-ability to resist urge of
Our instinct.
History of intellegence
• Now, come the 1600s, thinkers still described reason as this
“all or none” ability,
• but 200 years later with Charles Darwin behind the pen, we
get the notion that there may be degrees to this “reason”–
which he now calls “mental powers.”
• Darwin, reason could be broken down into gradations, where
some people have more and some have less. The idea was
based on Darwin’s observations of evolution, and how
“mental powers” were greater in more evolved species.
History of intelligence
• When the word intelligence is finally introduced by the physiologist,
George Romanes, it remains heavily influenced by its evolutionary
origins. Intelligence, now, means “adaptability.”
• With the turn of the 19th century and the introduction of the
Industrial Age, this idea of intelligence as adaptability became more
specific.
• Now, with the standardization of factory work and the specialization
of occupations, it was much easier to quantify “adaptability.”
Because people were doing very similar jobs, it was easy to compare
those who succeeded versus those who didn’t.
• And at this point, Francis Galton narrows the definition of
intelligence even further: people’s ability to gain reputation and
success in a professional endeavor, particularly, scholarly ones.
• Also given individual differences
Factors affecting intelligence
• Heredity
• Environment
• Culture
• Health
• Family size
• Education of parents
Theories of intelligence
• Spearman, Thurstone, Guilford, Cattell, Horn, Carroll

• Spearman - Two factor theory

• Thurston’s -Group factor theory
• Guilford - three dimensional theory
• Cattell - Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
• Cattell-horn-carroll’s three stratum framework of intelligence
Thurston’s -Group factor theory (1937)
• According to Thurston
mental action have in
common primary factors
or group factors.
• These primary factors
are shared by some
mental tasks and not
others.
• They serve to bind
mental activities into
separate groups and
they are relatively pure
in nature.
The seven primary mental abilities in
Thurston's model
• 1. Verbal comprehension Factor
• 2. Verbal fluency Factor
• 3. Numerical Factor
• 4. Perceptual speed Factor
• 5. Inductive reasoning Factor
• 6. Spatial visualization Factor
• 7. Memory Factor
Later added
• 1. Deductive Reasoning (P)

• 2. Problem solving ability

factor (PS
Factors
• Verbal comprehension Factor •Concerns comprehension of verbal
relations, words and ideas. •The ability of grasping words , ideas,
concepts and ideas •This factor involves a person’s understand
verbal material •It is measured by tests such as vocabulary and
reading comprehension.

• Verbal fluency Factor • This ability is involved in rapidly producing

words, sentences, and other verbal material • It is measured by tests
such as one that requires the examinee to produce as many words
as possible beginning with a particular letter in a short amount of
time.

• Numerical Factor -This ability is involved in rapid arithmetic

computation and in solving simple arithmetic problems Ability to
do numerical calculations, rapidly and accurately
• Perceptual speed Factor Speed in perceiving details of object
using all five senses. This ability is involved in proofreading
and in rapid recognition of letters and numbers It is measured
by tests such as those requiring the crossing out of As in a long
string of letters or in tests requiring recognition of which of
several pictures at the right is identical to the picture at the
left.
• Inductive reasoning Factor This ability requires
generalization—reasoning from the specific to the general It
is measured by tests, such as letter series, number series, and
word classifications, in which the examinee must indicate
which of several words does not belong with the others
• Spatial visualization Factor This ability is involved in
visualizing shapes, rotations of objects
Factors

• Memory Factor
• Involving the ability to memorize quickly
• It means the ability to recall and associate previously learned
items effectively or memorize quickly
• Deductive Reasoning Ability to use the generalized results
correctly Example All students eat biryani . Ammu is a student
at abc college. Therefore, ammu eat biriyani.
• Problem solving ability factor (PS) -Ability to solve problem
independently.
EDUCATIONAL SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPLICATIONS

• Contributed greatly to the measurement of attitudes.

‘Thurston scale’ developed in 1928 was the first formal
techniques for measuring of attitudes.
• Thurston’s theory of intelligence was a major influence on
later theories of multiple intelligences, such as those of
Guilford, Gardner, and Sternberg

Limitation
• The weakest aspect of the group factor theory was that it
discarded the concept of the common factor.
Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory

Charles Spearman
(1863-1945)
Spearman’s Two-factor Theory of Intelligence 1904

• The English psychologist, Charles Spearman (1863-1945), in

1904 proposed his theory of intelligence called two-factor
theory.
• According to him intellectual abilities are comprised of two
factors, namely; the general ability known as G-factor and
specific Abilities known as S-factors.
• The performance by the individual is determined by the G-
factor and the S-factors. The total intelligence of the individual
is the sum total of the G-factor and the S-factors. The
performance of a particular task depends on the ‘G’ factor or
general ability and the particular ‘S’ factor or specific ability.
Characteristics of ‘G’ Factor
• It is universal inborn ability.
• It is general mental energy.
• It is constant.
• The amount of ‘g’ differs from individual to individual.
• It is used in every activity of life.
• Greater the ‘g’ in an individual, greater is his success in life.
Characteristics of ‘S’ Factor
• It is learned and acquired in the environment.
• It varies from activity to activity in the same individual.
• Individuals differ in the amount of ‘S’ ability.
• Different individuals differed both in their ‘G’ as
well as ‘S’ factors. For e.g. an individual’s
performance in literature is partly due to his
general intelligence and partly due some specific
aptitude for his language, i.e. G+S1. In
mathematics his performance may be the result
of G+S2. In drawing, it may be due to G+S3 and in
social sciences; it may be due to G+S4 and so
Thus the factor ‘G’ is present in all specific
activities.
Educational Implications and relevance of
Spearman’s Two–Factor Theory:

• The theory gives a better insight to the teacher about the

nature of intelligence.
• The general ability differs from individual to individual.
• The specific abilities also differ from individual to individual.
• ‘S’ factor varies in degrees. Therefore, it can be modified by
learning or habitual training
• A child requires different amounts of ‘G’ and ‘S’ factors for
achieving success in different Subjects.
• We require a high quality of ‘G’ factor for our success in life.
• Both ‘G’ and ‘S’ have a high correlation.
• This theory could be used to guide, construction of a set of
ability test
 Conclusion
Thus we see that spearman did not believe in the concept that
mental power as independent of one another. According to
him they are unitary.
Guilford’s Structure of
Intelligence

J.P. Guilford
(1897-1987)
Introduction
According to Guilford’s Structure of Intellect (SI) theory, an
individual’s performance on intelligence tests can be traced
back to the underlying mental abilities or factors of
intelligence. SI theory comprises up to 180 different
intellectual abilities organized along three dimensions—
Operations, Content, and Products.
Guilford’s Structure of
Intelligence Model
Operations Dimension

SI includes six operations or general intellectual processes:

• Cognition—The ability to understand, comprehend,
discover, and become aware of information.
• Memory recording—The ability to encode information.
• Memory retention—The ability to recall information.
• Divergent production—The ability to generate multiple
solutions to a problem; creativity.
• Convergent production—The ability to deduce a single
solution to a problem; rule-following or problem-solving.
• Evaluation—The ability to judge whether or not
information is accurate, consistent, or valid.
Content Dimension
SI includes five broad areas of information to which the
human intellect applies the six operations:
• Visual—Information perceived through seeing.
• Auditory—Information perceived through hearing.
• Kinesthetic—Information perceived through one’s
own physical actions.
• Symbolic—Information perceived as symbols or signs
that have no meaning by themselves; e.g., Arabic
numerals or the letters of an alphabet.
• Semantic – Which is concerned with verbal meaning
and ideas.
• Behavioral—Information perceived as acts of people.
Product Dimension
As the name suggests, this dimension contains results of
applying particular operations to specific contents. The
SI model includes six products, in increasing
complexity:
• Units —Single items of knowledge.
• Classes — Sets of units sharing common attributes.
• Relations — Units linked as opposites or in
associations, sequences, or analogies.
• Systems — Multiple relations interrelated to comprise
structures or networks.
• Transformations — Changes, perspectives,
conversions, or mutations to knowledge.
• Implications — Predictions, inferences, consequences,
or anticipations of knowledge.
• Guilford’s original model was composed of 120
components because he had not separated
Figural Content into separate Auditory and Visual
contents, nor had he separated Memory into
Memory Recording and Memory Retention.
When he separated Figural into Auditory and
Visual contents, his model increased to 6 x 5 x 6 =
180 categories.
• Each cell is expected to have at least one factor or
abilility; some cells may have more than one
factor.
Evalution
• Guilford’s Structure-of-Intellect theory is more complex than
Thurstone’s, which grew out of a massive analysis of a great many
existing tests.
• Research from different fields, such as developmental psychology,
artificial intelligence, and neurology, shows that the mind consists of
several independent (albeit interdependent) modules or “intelligences.
• ” According to Eysenck (1972), Guilford “concentrated most of his
studies on populations with a restricted range of intelligence, thus
reducing the scope of “g”; and he has used orthogonal methods of
rotation, thus ignoring the correlations between “simple structure”
factors which would have emerged if he had used an oblique method of
rotation...Of more practical importance is the criticism that Guilford’s
factors are so narrow and specialised that they have little value in
prediction, as in educational and vocational guidance” (p. 3).
• In spite of these criticisms it is important to note that Guilford left a
significant mark on research into intelligence. Many tests that are still
used in modern intelligence testing were modified and developed under
his guidance.
Criticism

• Guilford’s approach is rejected by intelligence

researchers who support the existence of a general
factor of mental ability.
• For example, according to Jensen (1998), Guilford’s
contention that a g-factor was untenable was probably
influenced by his observation that a considerable
number of cognitive tests of U.S.
• Air Force personnel did not show correlations that were
significantly different from zero.
• “Guilford’s SOI model must, therefore, be marked down
as a somewhat eccentric aberration in the history of
intelligence models; that so much attention has been
paid to it is disturbing, to the extent that textbooks and
other treatments of it have given the impression that
the model is valid and widely accepted, when clearly it is
not.”
Cattell - Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence
Cattell - Fluid and Crystallized Intelligence

• The theory of fluid v. crystallized intelligence was first postulated as

a psychometrically based theory by psychologist Raymond B. Cattell
in 1963.
• Cattell argued that fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence are
two categories of general intelligence.
• In his book Intelligence, Its Structure, Growth, and Action, Cattell
identified one component of general intelligence as embodying a
fluid quality and being directable to any problem (Cattell, 1987).
• He proceeded to identify the other component as a part invested in
the areas of crystalized skills. He pointed out that the latter involves
knowledge acquisition and crystallized skills, which can be upset
individually without impacting others.
• The two concepts of fluid intelligence and crystallized intelligence
were further developed by Cattell’s former student and cognitive
psychologist John Leonard Horn (Horn & Cattell, 1967).
What Is Crystallized Intelligence?

• Crystallized Intelligence refers to the ability to utilize skills and knowledge acquired via prior
learning (Horn, 1969). The use of crystallized intelligence involves the recalling of pre-
existing information as well as skills.
• Examples of the use of Crystallized Intelligence, on the other hand, include recalling
historical events and dates, remembering geographical locations, building one’s vocabulary,
and reciting poetic texts (Horn, 1968).
• Crystallized Intelligence results from accumulated knowledge, including knowledge of how
to reason, language skills and an understanding of technology. This type of intelligence is
linked to education, experience and cultural background and is measured by tests of
general information.
• The use of crystallized intelligence involves the recalling of pre-existing information as well
as skills. For example, knowing how to ride a bike or read a book.
• Horn (1969) explained that Crystallized Intelligence is a “precipitate out of experience”
which stems from a prior application of fluid intelligence.
• Effectively completing tasks involving language mechanics (such as vocabulary building) and
general information relies on one’s Crystallized Intelligence.
• Crystallized Intelligence rises gradually and remains stable throughout adulthood until it
begins to decline after age 60 (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2006).
• Despite the observance of this general trend, the age at which Crystallized Intelligence
reaches its peak is yet to be ascertained (Desjardins, Warnke & Jonas, 2012).
Measurements of Crystallized Intelligence

• The C-Test
• The C-Test is a text completion test initially proposed as a foreign
language proficiency test that provides an integrative measure of
crystallized intelligence (Baghaei & Tabatabaee-Yazdi, 2015).
• The underlying construct of the C-Test corresponds to the abilities
undergirding the language component of crystallized intelligence.
• However, research implies that the careful selection of texts from
relevant domains of knowledge can enable the C-Test to measure the
factual knowledge component of crystallized intelligence as well.
• The Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
• The revised form of the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, which has
been used since 1981, comprises five performance and six verbal
subtests (Kaufman & Lichtenberger 2006).
• These verbal tests include comprehension, information, digit span,
vocabulary, similarities, and arithmetic (Wechsler Adult Intelligence
Scale-Revised). Most of these verbal tests are widely construed as
capable of measuring crystallized intelligence.
How The Intelligence Types Work
Together
• While fluid intelligence and Crystallized Intelligence are distinct, it is important to
note the multiplicity of the tasks that involve both these components.
• For instance, in taking a math exam, one may rely on one’s fluid intelligence to
construct a strategy to respond to the given questions within the allocated time.
• However, at the same time, one might have to utilize one’s Crystallized
Intelligence to recall various mathematical concepts and theories in providing
the correct answers.
• Likewise, an entrepreneur might have to use her fluid intelligence to identify a
new opportunity in the market. However, creating a product to meet consumer
demand might require past knowledge and, therefore, the use of her Crystallized
Intelligence.
• Despite this manifest interrelationship, Crystallized Intelligence is not a type of
fluid intelligence that has crystalized over time (Cherry, 2018). However, the
investment of fluid intelligence via the learning of new information produces
Crystallized Intelligence.
• In other words, the critical analyses of problems via fluid intelligence creates and
transfers information to long-term memory which constitutes a part of
crystallized intelligence.
Can Fluid Intelligence Be Improved?

• Because crystallized intelligence is known to improve over time and

remain stable with age, it is generally acknowledged that education and
experience increase crystallized intelligence (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-
Fields, 2006). However, the approach to fluid intelligence has been
characterized by complexity.
• Until recently, it was widely held that fluid intelligence is static, largely
determined by genetic factors, and therefore, could not be altered.
However, some research has suggested that fluid intelligence can be
improved.
• During some experiments conducted in 2008 by psychologist Susanne
M. Jaeggi, 70 participants were subjected to daily tasks and regular
training to improve their fluid intelligence (Jaeggi, Buschkuehl, Jonides &
Perrig, 2008).
• At the end of the period, a notable rise in the fluid intelligence of the
participants was observed. A similarly done study by Qiu, Wei, Zhao, and
Lin too supported Jaeggi’s conclusions (Qiu, Wei, Zhao, & Lin, 2009).
• However, subsequent studies have neither corroborated nor disproven
Jaeggi’s results.
Fluid Intelligence

• Fluid intelligence is the capacity to think speedily and reason flexibly

to solve new problems without relying on past experience and
accumulated knowledge.
• Fluid intelligence allows us to perceive and draw inferences about
relationships among variables and to conceptualize abstract
information, which aids problem-solving. It is correlated with
essential skills such as comprehension and learning.
• As Raymond Cattell (1967) pointed out, it is a capacity to “perceive
relationships independent of previous specific practice or instruction
related to those relationships”.
• Examples of the use of fluid intelligence include solving puzzles,
constructing strategies to deal with new problems, seeing patterns
in statistical data, and engaging in speculative philosophical
reasoning (Unsworth, Fukuda, Awh & Vogel, 2014).
Fluid Intelligence
• Horn (1969) pointed out that fluid intelligence is formless and relies only
minimally upon acculturation and prior learning, which includes both
formal and informal education.
• He further contended that fluid intelligence is capable of flowing into a
myriad of diverse cognitive activities. Consequently, the ability to solve
abstract problems and engage in figural analyses and classifications,
Horn argued, is dependent upon one’s level of fluid intelligence (Horn,
1968).
• Fluid intelligence has long been thought to peak during the late 20s
before beginning to decline (Cacioppo & Freberg 2012) gradually.
• The decline of fluid intelligence is likely to be related to the
deterioration of neurological functioning but may also decline as it is
used less frequently during older age.
• This decline of fluid intelligence has been attributed to the brain’s local
atrophy in the right cerebellum, age-related changes in the brain, and a
want of training (Cavanaugh & Blanchard-Fields, 2006).
• Recent research, however, challenges previous assumptions and
suggests that certain parts of fluid intelligence may not peak until even
age 40.
Measurements of Fluid Intelligence

• Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities

• The Third Edition of Woodcock-Johnson Tests of Cognitive Abilities comprises concept formation,
which involves categorical thinking, and analysis synthesis, which involves sequential reasoning
(Woodcock, McGrew & Mather, 2001).
• Concept formation herein requires the inference of underlying rules to solve puzzles presented in
ascending order of difficulty (Schrank & Flanagan 2003).
• Analysis synthesis, on the other hand, requires the learning and the oral presentation of solutions
to logic puzzles which emulate a mathematics system. The association of procedural learning with
muscle memory can make certain actions second nature (Bullemer, Nissen, & Willingham, 1989).
• Raven’s Progressive Matrices
• Raven’s Progressive Matrices evaluate the capacity to discern relationships among various mental
representations (Raven, Raven & Court 2003).
• It is a non-verbal multiple-choice test that requires the completion of several drawings based on
the test takers’ ability to notice pertinent features based on the spatial positioning of several
objects (Ferrer, O”Hare & Bunge 2009).
• Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children
• The Wechsler Intelligence Scales for Children, Fourth Edition, relies exclusively on visual stimuli
and is a non-verbal test that consists of a matrix reasoning test and a picture concept assessment
(Wechsler, 2003).
• The picture concept task evaluates a child’s capacity to discern the underlying traits governing a
set of materials while the matrix reasoning test assesses the child’s ability to begin with stated
governing traits/rules to identify the solution to a novel problem (Flanagan & Kaufman, 2004).
• The solution herein is the picture for a puzzle that fits the stated rule.
Difference b/w fluid and crystallized
intelligence
Cattell-horn-carroll’s three stratum framework of
intelligence(1993)

• One of the best psychometric theories

• Focus of the theory is on cognitive abilities and individual
differences in these abilities
• This theory stemmed from the research of Spearman who
posed that underlying all types of cognitive ability was a factor
called the general factor (g) .
• In addition to g, there are specific factors called “s” factors
that reflect more unique abilities. These two factors led to the
theory being known as a "two-factor theory of intelligence"
CHC
Ray Cattell, student of Spearman, further proposed that the
general factor (g) be divided into two categories
Fluid Intelligence (Gf)
Crystallised Intelligence (Gc)
Horn and Carroll, students of Cattell made further modifications
and what was originally Spearman's theory became the Cattell-
Horn-Carroll Theory of Intelligence.
CHC
• So what did Horn and Carroll add to the theory? Horn and
Carroll further defined fluid and crystallised intelligence.
• They created three levels of intelligence and the theory
became known as a "three stratum model".
• The highest level (Stratum I) represents the general factor and
is most important to intelligence .
• The second level (Stratum II) includes 8 abilities including fluid
and crystallised intelligence
• The third level (Stratum III) refers to abilities such as reaction
time, visual memory, spatial scanning, and sound
discrimination.
• There are actually 70 in total.
Evaluation of CHC
• Most scientifically supported as the theory is based on lots of
data
• Some suggestion that Stratum II should contain motor abilities
as well .
• Stratum III is still being researched and updated today so
exact number of abilities is undefined.
Unit 2
• Information Processing Theories: Jensen, Das, Eysenck,
Sternberg, Gardner, Goleman.
• Measurement of Intelligence: Issues and approaches-
Psychometric Tests, Biological measures- Brain size volume,
EEG.
Information Processing Theory of
intelligence
• Information processing theory is an approach to cognitive
development studies that aims to explain how information is
encoded into memory. It is based on the idea that humans do
not merely respond to stimuli from the environment. Instead,
humans process the information they receive.
• These include how the brain processes information.
Information processing theory not only explains how
information is captured, but how it is stored and retrieved as
well (Çeliköz, Erişen, & Şahin, 2019). The process begins with
receiving input, also called stimulus, from the environment
using various senses..
Information Processing Theory of
intelligence
• The input is then described and stored in the memory, which
is retrieved when needed.
• The mind or the brain is likened to a computer that is capable
of analyzing information from the environment.
 Elements of Information Processing Theory

• While major models of information processing theory vary, they are

mostly composed of three main elements (Çeliköz, Erişen, & Şahin,
2019):
• Information stores – The different places in the mind where
information is stored, such as sensory memory, short-term memory,
long-term memory, semantic memory, episodic memory, and more.
• Cognitive processes – The various processes that transfer memory
among different memory stores. Some of the processes include
perception, coding, recording, chunking, and retrieval.
• Executive cognition – The awareness of the individual of the way
information is processed within him or her. It also pertains to
knowing their strengths and weaknesses. This is very similar to
metacognition.
Theories
Jensen
Das
Eysencks
Sternberg
Gardner
Goleman.
Arthur Jensen's Model of
Intelligence
HIERARCHICAL MODEL OF
INTELLIGENCE

Level II, called

Level I is the
cognitive
associative
Arthur Jenseno competence,
learning in which
Abilities operating involves higher-
output is more or
at two levels, order skills as they
less similar to the
called Level I and transform the
input (e.g., rote
Level II. input to produce
learning and
an effective
memory).
output.
Jensen's Theory of Mental
Functioning
• Arther Jensen (1969) proposed this theory.
According to him, the functioning of one's mind depends upon
the type and degree of intelligence one possesses.
• Jensen splits intelligence into two types of abilities associative
abilities and cognitive abilities.
Associative ability is the capacity to learn, identify, discriminate,
remember and reproduce the learnt information and
experiences.
Cognitive or conceptual ability is concerned with higher order
thinking, reasoning, analysing and problem solving.
According to Jenson associative abilities are related to biological
maturation and the cognitive are dependent on education and
culture, leading to more individual differences..
Why do people differ in measured
intelligence
• Arthur Jensen, holding extreme views, proposes two types of
learning which are BOTH inherited
• -Associative learning (Level 1) = short-term memory, rote
learning, attention, and simple associative skills
• Cognitive learning (Level II) = abstract thinking, symbolic
processes, conceptual learning, use of language in problem
solving
• According to Jensen, all people share the 1st type of learning,
but the 2nd type is more prevalent among certain ethnic
groups (middle class and European Americans)
Pass theory of intelligence
theory
• PASS theory of intelligence by Das, Kirby & Jarman (1975). The PASS
stands for
• P - Planning
• A - Arousal-Attention,
• S - Simultaneous
• S -Successive processing

• The PASS theory of intelligence developed by J P Das et. al. (Das,

Naglieri & Kirby, 1994) follows an information processing approach..
The theory is based on Luria’s (1973) conception of three functional
units of brain.

• https://youtu.be/vDZPmPWdT_8
• https://youtu.be/yQetOVB_VZo
Name the part of brain
Name the brain function
Pass theory
• The first unit is concerned with cortical arousal and attention,
and is located in the brain stem and the reticular activating
system.
• The second unit involves coding of information, either
simultaneous or successive coding/processing.
• Thus it deals with how we receive, store and analyze the
information. Simultaneous processing of information is
represented by a holistic or comprehensive approach to
processing of information.
Pass theory
• It is associated with the occipetal and parietal lobe of the
brain. Successive processing refers to processing of
information in a sequential way and is carried out by frontal-
temporal part of the brain.
• The third unit deals with planning which includes decision
making, self monitoring, self regulation and problem solving.
It is broadly located in the prefrontal area of the brain.
Pass theory
• As you see in the Figure below, the individual first receives the
input from the sensory organs, and the external environment;
the central processing mechanisms (the attention-arousal,
simultaneous-successive processing, and planning) are
activated then and process the inputs; finally, after the
information is processed, it results in output.

•
Pass theory
• According to J P Das, all the four processing mechanisms
operate in a knowledge base which consists of the past
experiences, learning, emotion, motivation of the individual
and the socio-cultural background of the individual.
• Hence The PASS model presents a comprehensive model of
intelligence integrating the neuropsychological aspects,
cognitive and psychometric approaches to intelligence in a
contextual background through knowledge base.
Merits of PASS theory
• Thus the PASS model presents a comprehensive model of
intelligence. It integrates the neuropsychological aspects,
cognitive and psychometric approaches to intelligence.
Further, it views intelligence in a contextual background
through knowledge base. PASS theory has identified processes
involved in intellectual ability and provided various tests to
measure intelligence.
• The Das Naglieri cognitive assessment system (CAS) is a
comprehensive assessment that includes tests to assess each
of the four components of the PASS model. It also provides
remedial measures in case of processing difficulties.
• The PASS theory thus has given rise to evidence-based
intervention programmes such as PASS Reading Enhancement
Programme (PREP) and COGENT programme which aims at
enhancing the cognitive processes.
Sternberg’s theory
• Robert J. Sternberg is a prominent psychologist known for his
theory of intelligence, which is often referred to as the
"Triarchic Theory of Intelligence." This theory posits that
intelligence is a multifaceted construct that goes beyond
traditional notions of IQ. Sternberg's theory suggests that
intelligence is composed of three distinct, interrelated aspects
or subtheories: analytical intelligence, creative intelligence,
and practical intelligence. Let's explore each of these
components in more detail:
3 types of intelligence
3 types of intelligence
• Analytical Intelligence (Componential Subtheory): This aspect of intelligence is
often what people traditionally associate with IQ testing. Analytical intelligence
involves the ability to analyze, evaluate, and solve problems by applying logical
and critical thinking skills. It encompasses tasks that require abstract thinking,
problem-solving, and the ability to compare, contrast, and evaluate different
ideas. It is closely related to academic performance and standardized testing.
• Creative Intelligence (Experiential Subtheory): Creative intelligence involves the
capacity for creativity and the ability to think "outside the box." It relates to
one's ability to generate novel and innovative ideas, solutions, and products.
Creative intelligence goes beyond mere analytical skills and emphasizes the
ability to adapt to new situations and come up with unique responses. This
component is crucial for tasks that require innovative thinking, originality, and
artistic expression.
• Practical Intelligence (Contextual Subtheory): Practical intelligence relates to the
ability to adapt to one's environment effectively. It involves the application of
knowledge and skills to real-world, everyday situations. Practical intelligence is
essential for success in various practical, non-academic domains, such as work,
social interactions, and daily life. It emphasizes the ability to understand and
navigate the social and cultural aspects of different contexts.
Significance of Sternberg's theory
• Sternberg's theory suggests that a person's level of intelligence
cannot be accurately represented by a single score on an IQ test, as
it fails to capture the diversity of human intellectual abilities.
Instead, he believes that an individual's intelligence is better
assessed by considering how these three aspects interact and
contribute to overall cognitive functioning.
• According to Sternberg, intelligence is not static; it can be developed
and improved over time, especially when individuals are provided
with opportunities to enhance their analytical, creative, and
practical abilities.
• Sternberg's Triarchic Theory of Intelligence has had a significant
influence on the field of psychology and has broadened our
understanding of the various ways in which people can be
intelligent, emphasizing that intelligence is not a monolithic concept
but a combination of multiple dimensions.
•
Howard Gardner (1983)
• The theory of multiple intelligences proposed by Howard
Gardner (1983) views that intelligence consists of different
abilities. It cannot be viewed as a single entity. Gardner has
proposed nine types of intelligences which are relatively
independent of each other.
• . In terms of his definition: "Intelligence is a bio psychological
potential to process information that can be activated in a
cultural setting to solve problems or create products that are
of value in a culture." Consequently, instead of intelligence
being a single entity described psychometricians.
The criteria to consider candidate
intelligences are
• The potential for brain isolation by brain.
• Its place in evolutionary history
• The presence of core operations .
• Susceptibility to encoding
• A distinct development progression
• The existence of idiot-savants, prodigies and other
exceptional people
• Support from experimental psychology
• Support from psychometric findings
Gardner’s – multiple intelligence
Significance
• Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences has had a
substantial influence on educational practices and curriculum
development.
• It suggests that educators should recognize and nurture
different types of intelligence in students, rather than relying
solely on traditional measures of IQ.
• This approach allows for more personalized and diverse
learning experiences to accommodate a wide range of
cognitive abilities and talents.
• Please note that Gardner's theory continues to evolve, and
there may have been developments or refinements to the
theory since my last knowledge update in September 2021.
Eysencks

• British psychologist Hans Jürgen Eysenck, born in Germany

and died in Great Britain on 4 September 1997, spent his
entire career in Great Britain.
• Despite working on other psychological topics, his work on
intelligence and personality is what people often associate
him with.
• Eysenck was the most frequently referenced living
psychologist at the time of his passing in the literature of peer-
reviewed scientific journals.
Biological Theory of Intelligence (1979)

• Eysenck included the latest advances in the field: Rasch's new

measurement model, Maher and Jinks' improvements in
genetic data analysis, and research linking intelligence to
purely biological phenomena like inbreeding depression and
jaw bone shape.
• Eysenck's conception of intelligence as a biological
phenomenon that affects social behavior was a holdover from
the earliest Galtonian days of the London School of
Psychology.
• Eysenck enlarged the legacy with his students and colleagues
even during behaviorism, which rejected the mind and genes.
Three-dimensional personality
theory,
Extraversion/ Neuroticism/ Psychoticism/
Introversion Emotional stability Impulse control

Sociable Anxious Aggresive

Lively Depressed Cold
Active Guilt feeling Egocentric
Assertive Assertive Impulsive
Sensation seeking Shy Antisocial
Goleman.
• Accordingly to Goleman El consists of, "Abilities such as being
able to motivate oneself and persist in the face of frustrations,
to control impulse and delay gratification, to regulate one's
moods and keep distress from swamping the ability to think,
to empathise and to hope."
The main areas of EI
Knowing
one's
emotions.

Handling Managing
relationships. emotions.

EI
Recognising
Motivating
emotions in
oneself,
others.
Application of El to Different
Contexts
• Goleman made a provocative claim that if IQ contribute upto
20% of life success, the remaining has to be filled in by EI.
• The front cover of Time magazine carried the question Ho
'what is your EQ?' and reported, It is not your IQ. It is not even
number.
• Goleman claimed that El would contribute to success at home,
at school and at work. He further expresses that less rudeness
or aggressiveness will be seen more among youth was high El
and right decisions about 'drugs, smoking and sex' is
associated with it.
Measuring Intelligence

• The measurement of intelligence entails sampling an

examinee's performance on different types of tests and tasks
as a function of developmental level.
• At all developmental levels, the intellectual assessment
process also provides a standardized situation from which the
examinee's approach to the various tasks can be closely
observed: an opportunity for assessment in itself, and one
that can have great clinical utility.
Measuring Intelligence in
Infancy
• In infancy (the period from birth through 18 months),
intellectual assessment consists primarily of measurement of
sensory-motor development.
• This includes, for example, the measurement of nonverbal,
motor responses such as turning over, lifting of the head,
sitting up, following a moving object with the eyes, gestural
imitation, and reaching for a group of objects.
Measuring the Intelligence of
Children
• Measuring the Intelligence of Children
• Whereas the assessment of intelligence in infancy primarily
involves evaluation of sensory-motor development, the focus
of evaluation in the older child shifts to verbal and
performance abilities.
• More specifically, the child may be called on during the course
of a test to perform tasks designed to yield a measure of
general fund of information, vocabulary, social judgment,
language, reasoning, numerical concepts, auditory and visual
memory, attention, concentration, and spatial visualization.
Children's intelligence tests
• A list of the most frequently administered children's
intelligence tests would include individually administered tests
such as
• the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children-III,
• the Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence-
Revised,
• the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children,
• the Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale: Fourth Edition,
• and a group test called the Otis-Lennon School Ability Test.
Measuring the Intelligence of
Adults
• According to Wechsler (1958, p. 7), adult intelligence scales
should assess individual's global capacity "to act purposefully,
think rationally, and deal effectively with [the] environment."
• The tests should tap such abilities as retention of general
information, social judgment, quantitative reasoning, and
expressive language and memory.
Adult Intelligence test
• Publishers of intelligence tests have made available series of
tests that can be used through a period that not quite-but
almost-spans "cradle to grave."
• The Wechsler series of tests, for example, includes a preschool
measure, a children's measure, and an adult measure.
• The current edition of the Stanford-Binet has an age range of 2
years to adulthood.
• The current revision of the Woodcock-Johnson
Psychoeducational Battery has an age range of 2½ years to 84
years. The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children,
combined with its sister test,
• the Kaufman Adolescent and Adult Intelligence Scale, has an
age range of 2½ years through 75 years.
Measuring the Intelligence of Special Populations

• Measuring the intelligence of disabled or exceptional

individuals is an important part of evaluating their overall
strengths and deficits to provide a basis for designing
intervention.
• People with psychological disorders: Various psychological
disorders affect cognitive functioning and performance on
intelligence tests. For example, dementias such as those
associated with strokes, Alzheimer's disease, alcoholism, and
head injury may dramatically affect memory and the ability to
engage in abstract thought (American Psychiatric Association,
1994).
PSYCHOMETRIC TEST uses

• Aim to measure aspects of your mental ability, aptitude or

your personality.
• Used as part of the recruitment or selection process.
• Provide employers with a method of selecting the most
suitable job applicants or candidates for promotion.
• They identify the extent to which candidates' personality and
cognitive abilities match those required to perform the role.
• Employers use the information collected from the
psychometric test to identify the hidden aspects of candidates
that are difficult to extract from a face-to-face interview.
Types of Psychometric tests
• Most psychometric tests can be grouped into two. The first
group of psychometric tests is measuring your cognitive or
aptitude abilities.
• These psychometric tests are based on timers and the idea
behind them is that in order to separate between people’s
cognitive abilities, we need to use ask them to complete a list
of questions in a very limited time.
• Those better at the cognitive ability measured will be able to
get more questions solved correctly than those who are less
strong in the ability measured.
• This group of psychometric tests includes tests such as
abstract tests, numerical tests, verbal tests, mechanical tests
and emotional intelligence tests.
•
Types of intelligence test

Types of
intelligence
test

Based on
Based on
method of
material used
Administration

Non-Verbal
Individual test Group test of Verbal test of
test of
of intelligence intelligence intelligence
intelligence
Biological measures –brian size and volume

• Studies demonstrate a correlation between brain size and

intelligence, larger brains predicting higher intelligence. It is
however not clear if the correlation is causal. The majority of
MRI studies report moderate correlations around 0.3 to 0.4
between brain volume and intelligence.
• The most consistent associations are observed within the
frontal, temporal, and parietal lobes, the hippocampus, and
the cerebellum, but only account for a relatively small amount
of variance in IQ, which suggests that while brain size may be
related to human intelligence, other factors also play a role.
EEG
• An electroencephalogram
(EEG) is a test that measures
electrical activity in the brain
using small, metal discs
(electrodes) attached to the
scalp. Brain cells
communicate via electrical
impulses and are active all the
time, even during asleep. This
activity shows up as wavy
lines on an EEG recording.
• An EEG is one of the main
diagnostic tests for epilepsy.
An EEG can also play a role in
diagnosing other brain
disorders.
Unit 3
• Creativity: Nature,
Historical views.
• Theories:
Psychodynamic,
Humanistic,
Developmental, and
Psychometric.
• Factors Affecting
Creativity: Genetic,
Neurobiological, and
Sociocultural.
Creativity
Came from word ‘creo’ meaning –to create or to make
Definition of Creativity
• Spearman (1931): "Creativity is the power of human mind to
create new contents by transforming relations and generating
new correlates“
• Drevdahl (1956): “Creativity is the capacity of a person to
produce compositions, products or ideas which are essentially
new or novel and previously unknown to the producer".
• Guilford (1959): "Creativity is the capacity to produce ideas
that are both new and useful through divergent thinking.
Definition
• Creativity is defined as the tendency to generate or recognize
ideas, alternatives, or possibilities that may be useful in
solving problems, communicating with others, and
entertaining ourselves and others.
Meaning
• Creativity is a goal directed thinking which is unusual, novel and useful)
Many of such creative thinking become so important that they influence the
whole human civilisation and are called as historical creativity.

• The Mona Lisa, the laws of thermodynamics, the laws of motion, the theory
of relativity are some of the ideas that were never thought before and
changed the human civilisation altogether in a great way in their respective
spheres of life.
Creativity: Nature
• Newell, Shaw and Simon (1963) have explained
the nature of creativity on the basis of following
four criteria:
• a) Novelty and usefulness
• b) Rejects previously accepted ideas
• c) Requires intense motivation and persistence
• d) Results from organising the unclear situation
in a coherent, clear and new way.
Nature
• Creativity is not a product; it is a factor or an ability.
• Creativity is the result of divergent thinking.
• Creativity is a way of thinking. It is not a synonym of
intelligence.
• Creativity is Goal - directed. It is useful for the individual
as also for a group of individuals and for the society.
• The ability to create depends on the acquisition of the
Accepted knowledge.
• Creativity is a kind of restrained imaginative inspiration
that attains to some achievement.
• Creativity, whether it is oral written, abstract or
concrete, is, in any case, unique.
Characteristics of a creative
person
• Curiosity
• Flexibility
• Original Thinking.
• Independent Judgement
• Concentrated
• Attention
• Complex
• Thinking
• High Energy Level
• Risk-taking Tendency
• Courageous
• Power of Imagination
• Desire for Superiority
• Far Sightedness
Process /Stages of Creativity
• The history of research on stages of creativity began with Graham
Wallas (1926) who suggested that creative thinking follows four
successive steps

• Stage of preparation: The subject begins to gather information

about the problem to be solved and attempts some solutions. This
stage is characterised by a state of trial-and-error in learning.

• Stage of incubation: In the second stage the solution exists but is

not clear. The subject must not intentionally work on the problem.
Instead it is allowed to sink into the unconscious.

.
Stages of creativity
• Stage of illumination: In the third stage the subject suddenly
experiences insight into the problem when a new solution, idea, or
relationship emerges.

• Stage of verification: Finally, the subject tries and checks the

solution. In this stage some modification may also occur to ideas
reached in the previous stages.
• In the stage of verification the thinker tests, tries and checks the
solution he/she created.
Historical views
• The word ‘creativity’ came into being, or at least was first
documented, in 1875 in Adolfus William Ward’s History of
Dramatic English Literature, in reference to Shakespeare’s
‘poetic creativity’ (see Weiner, 2000, p. 89).
Historical views
• We are all creative, at least potentially. To create means to
bring new ideas or things into existence.
• Creativity is the key to success in almost all areas of life,
personal and professional.
• A deeper understanding of history reveals the fact that
creativity is a modern concept and a modern value (Mason,
2003; Weiner, 2000; Reckwitz, 2017).
Historical views
• If creativity is a ‘child’ of the current era, its older incarnations
– genius, talent, invention, discovery or imagination – were
also understood differently than today (for a discussion of
imagination see Glaveanu, 2017a).
• These meanings connected to the social, political, and
economic conditions at the time, which makes writing about
history, particularly the history of ideas, a challenging task.
In the Beginning

• There is little we know about the nature, value, and meaning

of creative acts during prehistoric times.
• the very first acts of creativity were seen as divine
manifestation.
Middle Ages
• Believed that human beings could not truly create; this ability was a
prerogative of God only.
• And yet, paradoxically, the Church was often a patron of what are
today considered to be great creative achievements in sculpture,
painting, metalwork and architecture.
• The purpose of most of these was the glorification of God and any
signs of individuality and authorship were discouraged, but such
practices may have been in place to reflect the collaborative nature
of the work, which was often performed in guilds by communities of
craftsmen or artisans.
Contemporary
• Contemporary culture is much more skeptical about glorified images of the
genius. In fact, in an age of mechanical reproduction, the expression of
creativity can be more associated with the mixing and remixing of existing
cultural elements.
• Speed, connectivity, and travelling define this day and age and require new,
more distributed and participatory ways of conceptualizing creativity
(Glăveanu, 2014; Clapp, 2016). “The Internet has reinforced the
contemporary idea of creativity coming from anyone, anywhere, at any
time” (Weiner, 2000, p. 107).
• Creative work is recognized today as highly collaborative, not always out of
preference but necessity. Consider, for example, the many different ways
that the average person may be creative in day-to-day life, such as adding a
witty comment to a Facebook post, creating a variant on an existing meme,
or posting an original photo on Instagram.
• These creative acts (most equivalent to mini-c, or personal creativity that
may not be valued by others; Beghetto & Kaufman, 2009, 2014) build off of
existing cultural expressions and shared language.
Creativity in present
• how we define, measure, and enhance creativity. These are:
• Creativity: Individual and/or Social?
• Creative artifacts: Novelty and/or Value?
• Creative action: Ideas and/or Action?
 According to -
✘ David Ausubel (American Psychologists- 1963)- Creativity is a
generalized constellation of intellectual abilities, personality variables and
problem solving traits.

✘ Charles Spearman ( English Psychologist- 1931) – Creativity is the power

of human mind to create new contents by transforming relations and
thereby creating new correlates.

So, we see a combination of factors is working

towards highlighting one’s creativity which is
nothing but is Called Confluence Approach towards
Creativity

113
What does Confluence means?
Prayagraj ( formerly known as Allahabad) city lies at the confluence of the
river Ganges and Yamuna.
A child’s upbringing is influenced by a confluence of factors.

So Confluence means-
1. Coming Together of people or things
2. Assemblage or grouping of factors
3. Combination between people/things
4. Two or more things becoming one

114
To understand Creativity, J Sternberg an
American Psychologist came up with the first
theory of Creativity – The Investment and
Confluence Theory of Creativity
Why Investment?
According to Sternberg …….
Creativity is a decision and a Creative person becomes an
investor of that decision with the confluence of multiple factors
like environment, personality, the skills where the creativity is
highlighted.
For Instance: The way Mark Zuckerberg who invested his
creativity to come up with the idea of Facebook where people
can interact and socialize virtually online. So Zuckerberg
became an investor of hid idea and with the help of the
multiple ideas created today’s Facebook.

115
 Sternberg interpreted that
creativity emerges from a
confluence due to 6 factors

1. Intellectual Abilities i.e., abilities to reason and

understand
2. Knowledge about the field where one is utilising his
or her creativity
3. Appropriate Styles of thinking
4. Personality attributes like outgoing, liberal, open to
have all kind of experiences
5. Intrinsic motivation to come up with novel ideas
6. A supportive Environment

These factors are critical for the creative

116
process in an Individual for Creative
Achievement
They are all investor of their
ideas and have a Common
thread in them and that is
Creativity
So, Creativity is certainly a Confluence Approach. People are
not born creative or uncreative. They develop a set of
attitudes towards life that characterize their way of Creativity.
Confluence Approach of creativity emphasise the importance
of various internal resources for successfully engaging in
creative work as well as the importance of the environment in
which creative works takes place.

118
Aspects of Creativity
• Guilford (1986) considered creative thinking as involving
divergent thinking, which emphasises fluency, flexibility,
originality, and elaboration.
• Guilford, however, noted that creative thinking is not the same
as divergent thinking, because creativity requires sensitivity to
problems as well as redefinition abilities, which include
transformations of thought, reinterpretations, and freedom
from functional fixedness in driving unique solutions.
Theories /approaches of
creativity
• Psychodynamic,
• Humanistic,
• Developmental,
• Psychometric
Psychodynamic approach
• Freud: creativity arises from the tension between conscious
reality and unconscious drives.
• Creative work provides an acceptable way to express
unconscious wishes publicly.
• These wishes refer to things like power, wealth, fame, love.

• Kris (1952)adaptive regression: intrusion of unmodulated

thoughts into consciousness
• laboration: reworking of those thoughts into reality-oriented
thoughts.
• This approach used case studies only, so has not been central
in scientific study of creativity.
Humanistic perspective of
creativity
• The humanistic perspective rose to
prominence in the mid-20th
century in response to
psychoanalytic theory and
behaviorism; this perspective
focuses on how healthy people
develop and emphasizes an
individual's inherent drive towards
self-actualization and creativity.

• The humanistic
approach emphasizes the personal
worth of the individual, the
centrality of human values, and
the creative, active nature of
human beings. The approach is
optimistic and focuses on the noble
human capacity to overcome
hardship, pain and despair.
Psychometric Approach
• Cox
estimated IQ for 301 eminent people who lived between 1450 and
(Average ratings)found correlation between IQ and rank order of
eminence = .16. Simonton (1975): r = 0.Cox: Highest persistence + OK
intelligence > Highest intelligence + OK persistence
Psychometric Approach - Torrance
Torrance (1974) – Tests of Creative Thinking.
simple tasks requiring divergent thinking and problem-solving scored for
fluency, flexibility, originality, and elaboration e.g., Asking Questions,
Circles, Product Improvement, Unusual Uses.
• Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking
Asking questions – write out all questions you can think of based on a
drawing of a scene.
• Circles – expand empty circles into different drawings and give the
drawings titles.
• Unusual uses – list interesting and unusual uses of a cardboard box.
• Product Improvement – ways to change a toy monkey to make it more
fun
Psychometric Approach
• Psychometric Approach - Mednick
Mednick – Remote Associates Test Creative thinking involves forming new
relations among elements, such that relations are useful or match a standard.
• Example test items: Cake _____ Cottage _____? Surprise Line Birthday _____?
Task: find word that goes with all three in a line
• Quick & objective test – but is it a good theory?

• Psychometric Approaches - Sternberg

Sternberg & Ben-Zeev on IQ and creativity:
• Creative people tend to have IQs > 120.Above 120, IQ does not seem to matter
Role of IQ varies depending upon which aspect of intelligence is involved, as well
as field of creativity (e.g., art & music vs. science & math).

• Guilford (1950): It’s difficult to study only eminent people such as Einstein or
Michelangelo, because there are so few of them.
• Guilford suggested studying creativity in ordinary people using tasks like the
Unusual Uses Test (e.g., “think of as many uses as possible for a brick”).
Factors Affecting Creativity:.
• Genetic,
• Neurobiological,
• Environmental
• and Sociocultural
Neurobiological,

• Neurobiology is the study of the nervous system and how the

brain works. The field studies nervous system functions, brain
function and the related structures such as the spinal cord.
Neurobiology is a subset of both physiology and neuroscience.
• neurobiological investigations, along with the clinical and
neuropsychological analysis of neurological disorders in man,
have increased our knowledge of the brain organization for
cognitive functions.
• Also, in order to attempt a neurobiological investigation, one
must be aware about the thorough processing of the brain
and it’s linking with the nervous system.
Socio cultural factors
• Sociocultural is a term related to social and cultural
factors, which means common traditions, habits, patterns
and beliefs present.
• It examines the influences of social and cultural
environments on behavior.
• The term is mostly used in sociologic and marketing
contexts and refers to the most remarkable drivers
behind the way people makes decisions in a society.
Factors of socialculture
• Socio-cultural factors include culture
,language,preferences,lifestyles, habits, education,
religion, beliefs, values, demographics, social classes,
sexuality and attitudes.
three fundamental concepts of
sociocultural theory:
• (1) social interaction plays an important role in learning,
• (2) language is an essential tool in the learning process,
and
• (3) learning occurs within the Zone of Proximal
Development.
Importance
• Sociocultural factors play a critical role in individuals'
development and functioning.
• They also play a significant role in treatment outcomes
because sociocultural support, stressors, and other factors
commonly have significant facilitative or debilitative effects on
the course of treatment.
Unit 4
• Creativity and Intelligence, Creativity and
Personality, Creativity and Motivation, Creativity
and Culture, Creativity in Everyday Life.
• Assessment of Creativity: Projective- Inkblot,
Word Association; Psychometric Batteries
Torrance, Guilford.
• Creativity in eminent people. Enhancing
Creativity: Programs and Strategies.
Creativity and Intelligence
• Relationship Between Creativity and Intelligence
• The relationship between intelligence and creativity is that both of them
are functions of the brain that process formation to determine a solution
or an answer to a problem. Intelligence and creativity are different
abilities but they are closely linked with each other.
• The general belief is that people with high IQ are generally more creative
and people who are highly creative have high IQ. This isn't necessarily true
Following theories will shed light on relationship between intelligence and
creativity.
Creativity and Personality,
• Creativity is the ability to generate,
create, or discover new ideas,
solutions, and possibilities.
• Enhances our adaptation, allows
us to transform
• …even beyond what is considered
impossible.
• Foundation for art, science,
philosophy, and technology
• Understanding creativity is
still a challenge that “might
transform our view of
ourselves and our societies”
• Everyday ways of feeling,
thinking and acting of an
individual
• Personality refers to the
enduring characteristics and
behavior that comprise a
person’s unique adjustment to
life, including major traits,
interests, drives, values, self-
concept, abilities, and
emotional patterns.
• Multidimensional
• Personality as a continuum
where personality disorders
are the extreme.
Relation between Creativity and Personality

• Personality traits present in highly creative

individuals (temperament and character)

• Effects of personality on the realization of the

creative potential.

• Effects of creative potential in personality

development

• Events during development can impact

personality development and creativity
maturation
 RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
CREATIVITY AND CULTURE
 The relationship between cultural and creative expression is
complex.
 Culture exerts a profound effect on creative expression.
 Cultural factors clearly have a profound influence on appropriate
outlets for creative expression, on the nature of the subject
matter and form of expression, on the functions that various
forms of expression serve, and on the types of individuals
selected for, or engaged in, creative activity.
 There are many different ways by which societies shape all aspects of
creative expression, ranging from the availability of resources to the
provision of rewards or punishments.

 It also becomes apparent that the association of creativity with originality is

largely a Western outlook and that artistic achievements in other cultures do
not necessarily have this requirement.

 Despite the powerful impact of culture on the creative expression of

individuals, this relationship is often reciprocal.
 Culture is the general expression of humanity, the
expression of its creativity.

 Culture is linked to meaning, knowledge, talents,

industries, civilization and values.

 In a sense, creativity is inherent to culture. Simply

speaking, if culture is the “background,” then
creativity is the “object” that is likely to become a
new “background” for emerging and forthcoming
“creativity (objects).”
 Nobody can live well and be creative without
the involvement of culture

 Creativity is a key product of human culture and

a tool for enriching culture, has an extremely
intimate but complex relationship with culture.

 Creativity is deeply rooted in all cultures, but its

definition and attributes vary across cultures.
Creativity and Motivation
• What is the relation between creativity and motivation?
• People will be most creative when they feel motivated primarily by
the interest, enjoyment, satisfaction, and challenge of the work
itself--when they are driven by a deep involvement in their work and
a passion for it.
• Creativity motivation (CreMo) as the force (high-quality experience,
instrumental purpose, and value) which drives individuals into
creativity-related behaviors shown so as to do, learn, and
accomplish new things.
• Educators, psychologists, and researchers may find the
CMS (creativity motivation scale) a useful tool for measuring
individuals' creativity-related behavior dispositions, as well as
explaining the force behind them.
• Immediate future research should focus on exploring the
relationship between the CreMo and other creativity-related factors.
Creativity in Everyday Life.

• Creativity allows us to view and solve problems more openly

and with innovation. Creativity opens the mind. A society that
has lost touch with its creative side is an imprisoned society, in
that generations of people may be closed minded. It broadens
our perspectives and can help us overcome prejudices.
Assessment of Creativity
• Assessment of Creativity: Projective- Inkblot, Word
• Association; Psychometric Batteries Torrance, Guilford
Assessment of Creativity:
Projective- Inkblot
In the Rorschach inkblot test, the person is asked to describe what they
see in ambiguous inkblot images. The therapist then interprets the
person's answers. This projective test often appears in popular culture
and is frequently portrayed as a way of revealing a person’s unconscious
thoughts, motives, or desires.

Rorschach wasn't the first to suggest that a person's interpretation of an

ambiguous scene might reveal hidden aspects of that individual's
personality. Alfred Binet also experimented with the idea of using
inkblots as a way to test creativity and originally planned to include
inkblots in his intelligence tests.
Uses of the Rorschach Inkblot Test

• The Rorschach test is used in psychotherapy and counseling,

although not as frequently as in the past.1
• Practitioners use it to gain qualitative information about their
patients, including their personalities, emotional functioning,
and thinking patterns. The results serve as a springboard to
further discussion about issues they purportedly illustrate. In
fact, psychologists once used the Rorschach to diagnose
mental conditions such as schizophrenia.
• Likewise, organizations use the test to measure attributes such
as creativity, intelligence, and temperament and to assess
suitability for employment, acceptance into organizations, and
adoption approval.
Assessment of Creativity: Word
Association
• The relationship between the tendency to opposite responding on
word-association tests and creativity or originality was tested in this
experiment. Standard word-association stimuli are administered
individually to identified as high and low in creativity, and responses
are timed.
• That rapid opposite responding is significantly greater in highly
creative supports the hypothesis that the capacity to conceive and
utilize one or more contradictory or opposite concepts, ideas or
images simultaneously is associated with creativity (Janusian
thinking). This finding also indicates that uncommon responses are
not necessarily associated with creativity, as has been assumed in
word-association originality studies, and it helps account for the lack
of consistency in studies based on commonality of response.
 DIFFERENT MODELS FOR CREATIVE ASSESSMENT

• TO MEASURE HOW CREATIVE A PERSON IS – GUILDFORD MODEL

• TO MEASURE HOW CREATIVE WORK IS – TAXONOMY OF CREATIVE
DESIGN
• MEASURING CREATIVE WORK AGAINST A PROGRAM IS – THE
REQUIREMENT MODEL
• THE SOCIAL VALUE OF CREATIVE WORK – CSIKSZENTIMIHALYI’S
MODEL
• Before Guilford it was believed that IQ and creativity
are correlated ie more the intelligence more the
tcreativity.
• Guilford proved otherwise in his model called the
structure of Intellect (SOI).
• Guilford used two distinctive forms of thinking
• Divergent thinking – unique answers to open
questions
• Convergent thinking (one right answer for each
question
GUILDFORD’S TEST OF
DIVERGENT THINKING
• THE MAIN FOUR COMPONENTS HELPED SCORING
• ORIGINALITY – UNUSUAL RESPONSE
• FLUENCY – Number OF RESPONSES
• FLEXIBILITY - VARIOUR TYPES
• ELABORATION – AMOUNT OF DETAILS
TORRANCE’S CONTRIBUTION

• E Paul Torrance based on Guilford’s research

developed Torrance Test of Creative Thinking
(TTCT) it psychometrically measures divergent
thinking and other problem solving skills.
• In psychological literature Torrance has been
called as The father of Creativity Research.
Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking
(TTCT)
• Torrance (1966, 1974) has explained six components of creativity
• Fluency: The number of relevant ideas; shows an ability to produce a
number of figural images.
• 2) Flexibility: Flexibility is the individual’s ability to produce not only a
large number of responses, ideas or solutions to a problem, but also a
variety of responses, ideas or solutions to a problem.
• 3) Originality: The number of statistically infrequent ideas; shows an
ability to produce uncommon or unique responses.
• 4) Elaboration: The number of added ideas; demonstrates the subject’s
ability to develop and elaborate on ideas.
• 5) Abstractness of Titles: The degree beyond labeling; based on the
idea that creativity requires an abstraction of thought. It measures the
degree a title moves beyond concrete labeling of the pictures drawn.
• 6) Resistance to Premature Closure: The degree of psychological
openness; based on the belief that creative behaviour requires a person
to consider a variety of information when processing information and to
keep an “open mind.” Self Assessment Question
• TTCT has two parts
• TTCT VERBAL – Consists of five tasks and guess,
product improvement, unusual uses, unusual
questions and hypothetical questions.
• TTCT FIGURAL ; Consists of three tasks - picture
construction, picture completion and repeated
figures of lines and circles.
• Apart from the four scoring factors ie Originality,
flexibility, elaboration and two additional factors
were added in 1990 they are;
• Abstractness of titles – abstract thought
• Resistance to Premature Closure – seeks to
measure open mindedness.
 FINAL SCORE
• The final score is called creativity thinking quotient or CQ.
• IQ Scores – reflect the recall of facts.
• CQ scores reflects innovation, original and novel thoughts,
ideas and images.
• Conclusion-
• Measurement of creative thinking is difficult when compared
to measurement of intelligence as we are trying to measure
different thinking pattern of cognition some even say that
creativity cant be measured.
Creativity in eminent people
• Creativity can sometimes be of such importance that its effects endure for decades,
centuries, even millennia. This is the magnitude of creativity seen in the epic poem
Iliad, the ceiling frescoes of the Vatican's Sistine Chapel, and the philosophical treatise
Discourse on the Method.
• This latter degree of creativity is sometimes styled Big-C Creativity and renders their
creators famous. However, the expression Big-C Creativity can be also applied to cases
that are not nearly so outstanding. Anyone creative enough to publish a poem in a
major literary magazine, have an application approved by the U.S. Patent Office,
publish a highly cited scientific article in a top-tier journal, or write the score to a
mainstream feature film might be said to exhibit lower levels of Big-C Creativity.
• In other words, the latter label might be attached to all creators who generated an
identifiable product without necessarily rendering the person highly eminent. So
when we talk about the creativity at the highest level we are really talking about
Boldface-C Creativity—the creativity of highly eminent individuals. It's easy to provide
a crude operational definition of this grade of creativity. It's called the "Google test."
Pick a given creative individual and then use google.com to search the creator's name.
If you get thousands of internet sites—perhaps including a link to a corresponding
Wikipedia article—the person has passed the preliminary exam. If the links include at
least one site dedicated specifically to that individual, then Google certification attains
the highest level of confidence. Most often these highly eminent creators are
recognized as creative geniuses.
Enhancing Creativity:
Programs and Strategies.
• 1. Brainstorm Ideas
• Structured processes and rules often restrict a group
from freely expressing their ideas so this is why
brainstorming is more encouraged among groups.
• Brainstorming provides an environment that allows
people to open up and share thoughts and ideas freely,
without limitations and prejudice.
• There are generally two types of brainstorming:
Individual and Group brainstorming.
• Individual brainstorming – you brainstorm on your own
without the fear of getting blocked or limited when in a
group. This type of brainstorming works best for simple
problems that you can solve without the need to escalate
to a bigger group.
Group brainstorming – you throw in ideas at one another
in a group so others can help further develop an idea. This
type of brainstorming works best for complex problems
given you have just the right number of members
participating in the activity.
• Here are some popular techniques to employ when
brainstorming with a group:
• Rolestorming – group members portray roles while
brainstorming
• Round-Robin brainstorming – every member of the
group contributes an idea first before having the entire
group discuss it
• Starbursting – generates questions to boost creative
juices
• 2. Mind Maps
• Unlocking creativity with the use of mind maps is also
one great strategy. A mind map is a diagram that links
information around a central topic. Unlike most note-
taking methods, you can make use of images and colors
other than words.
• This graphical tool of boosting your creativity is highly
effective because it makes idea generation easier as it
allows you to go deeper about a concept or topic,
narrowing it down to the most specific in an organized
manner.
Here’s what a sample mind
map looks like
• Mind Mapping makes problem-solving faster as ideas are
broken down along the process. The following are some
business activities wherein you can leverage the use of
mind-maps:
• drafting a presentation
• developing goals and objectives
• deciding on opportunities
• creating a marketing plan
• creating a content plan
3. Reframe Your Way of Thinking
If you want something you’ve never had, you must do
something you’ve never done. Reframing your thinking
essentially means changing your perspective. To become
more creative through reframing your thinking, you have
to:
• be curious and eager to ask questions
• be intentional in your search for new information
• make time for imagination
• withdraw yourself every now and then from the noise
What makes reframing an even more powerful creativity
tool is that it allows you to feel differently about a certain
matter at hand.
4. Roleplay
• Roleplaying is a strategy that allows you to generate
ideas based on possible outcomes of interactions and
circumstances. This is a strategy that is most useful in
coming up with ideas for a product and predicting how it
will work in the market.
• If you roleplay with your co-workers or other members of
your team, you will be surprised to see several
revelations of solutions that you missed when you were
just writing down notes.
5. Reconceptualize Problems
You could hit a wall at any point wherein you are trying to
solve a problem through creativity. Unless you
reconceptualize the problem by taking a step back, you will
find it hard to carry on.

How do you reconceptualize a problem?

Reconceptualizing a problem entails the following:
• examining a problem from a different angle
• searching for what appeals to emotions the most
• having a different mindset
• considering other perspectives
• considering the needs of your target audience
6. Explore the Different Creativity Theories: There are
different theories of creativity but here are 5 of the interesting
ones:
• Psychoanalytical Theory of Creativity – According to this
theory, you become creative as a response to challenging
circumstances or repressed emotions.
• The Mental Illness Theory of Creativity – Some people only
become creative if they are mentally ill in a way.
• Creative Theory of Psychoticism – All people who are
creative also have psychotic tendencies like those of what
people who have schizophrenia or bipolar disorder suffer from.
• The Addiction Theory of Creativity – Substances such as
alcohol and drugs contribute to creativity, according to those
who are proponents of this theory.
• The Humanistic Theory of Creativity – Unless humans have
already met their basic needs, they cannot be creative.
There are also other theories of creativity that relate to
innovation in business. Among such theories are the
following:
• Triarchic Theory of Human Intelligence – This theory
believes that creativity is a balance among other forms of
thinking, including analytical thinking and practical
thinking.
• Investment Theory – There has to be perseverance in
selling a creative idea according to this theory.
• Multiple Intelligences Theory – This popular theory
proposes that creative strengths are domain-specific.
The strength of one’s creativity depends highly on which
of the eight domains of intelligence is most dominant in a
person
7. Daydream
Ever got scolded for daydreaming in the middle of a busy day at
work?
• Daydreaming is often associated with laziness and lack of
focus.
• But did you know that daydreaming could also be the reason
why you are being highly creative at work?
• A study in the Psychological Science journal reveals that
allowing your mind to daydream and wander helps boost your
creativity.
• High levels of daydreaming help best in tasks that do not
restrict the mind from coming up with weird ideas.
• Harvard psychologists say that we spend 50% of our time
thinking about things other than work. If you channel your
daydreaming about business challenges and projects that
need solutions, you may be able to come up with new
8. Ask A Lot of Questions
• Asking the right questions is an art you should be able to
master in order to achieve optimal creativity.
• These questions are the kind that explores possibilities and
turns challenges into opportunities. Often, these are the
questions that encourage higher-order critical thinking
skills such as the ones that start with: how and why.
Center your questions around the challenges concerning:
• the nature of the problem
• product features
• time constraints
• existing competition
• customer feedback
Your questions don’t have to be logical all the time. But, they
work best if they are critical questions because these are the
questions that encourage the use of creative thinking skills.
9. Determine Your Best Mood to Create
• Understanding yourself better is the key to determining your
best mood for creative activities.
• Positive moods generally boost creativity. According to the
researchers from the University of Western Ontario, positive
moods enable cognitive flexibility that leads to having a
positive mood that welcomes ideas freely. Now, negative
moods can also help according to a research by Professor
Joseph Forgas at the University of New South Wales. Negative
moods remove cognitive biases and improve memory and
motivation which in turn boost creativity.
• Now, there is no right or wrong mood to be in. Surely, a
positive mood generally helps but a negative mood could be
your way through a creativity challenge. This does not mean
though that you should be in a negative mood if you could help
it. If you can find a way to be creative in a positive mood, that
is more ideal.
10. Distance Yourself from the Noise
• There are several research studies that have found
coffee shops to be the best place for being creative
primarily because, in most coffee shops, the level of
noise is moderate. Too much noise can cause
distractions but lack of “acceptable” noise can also be
deafening, to the point of being demotivating. Now if you
truly can’t work in a noisy environment but you have to
be at the office where there are plenty of interruptions to
manage, you can:
• use headphones
• find a corner where noise is less
• go to a nearby cafe with permission
• confront a co-employee in a polite way
• 11. Just Start
Some Other Strategies
OPINION SWAP
VISUALIZATION
THINK -
PAIR -
SHARE -
EDWARD DE
BONO’S 6 HATS:
6 HATS
MORPHOLOGICA
L CHART
Drawing
concept by
help of
Morphologic
al chart
GRID
METHOD
SCAMPER
METHOD
TRIZ MATRIX
SYNECTICS
ANC
Applied Neuro
Creativity

NeuroCreativity,
consisting of five key
concepts based on basic
brain processes (priming,
close and remote
associations, inhibition,
fixation and the release
BRAIN WAYS:

Your best creative work happens when you're Calm & Energized.

i.e. High levels of serotonin & Dopamine; thus usually hobby and

profession are advised to be kept closer.

#continuous stimulation is always required*

The Double
Diamond (DD). A
model focusing
solely on
combining
periods of
divergent
thinking with
periods of
convergent
thinking,
emphasizing that
divergent
thinking alone is
not a sufficient
condition for
creativity
EnhancingCreativity:
• Programs and Strategies

1: understanding creativity, its nature and its

characteristics.
2: where all its applicable?
3: in state of quality of mind; creativity with
determinants of age, lifecycle stage, area of work,
problem specific.
4: various models and theories of creativity and its
enhancement.
5: factorised proven strategies for enhancement
based on different settings.
WHAT IS TO BE ENHANCED?
 Where we should lay our exact focus?

 Creativity has a multifaceted nature. Thus inclusion of cognitive,

affective, interpersonal and environmental components needs to be
taken into consideration.

 These components can be taken from any model from systems,

interac6tioanists and interdisciplinary theories of creativity.
Questions for Revision
Very Short Questions ( 30-40 words)
1. Define Intelligence
2. Define creativity
3. What is the racial and gender difference in intelligence?
4. What is the Genetic Basis of Intelligence?
5. Define Brain Size Volume
6. What is EEG?
7. Define Psychometry
8. What is inkblot test?
9. Define Word-association
10. What is meant by knowledge and wisdom?
Short Answers Type Questions (50-100 words)
1. State the Nature of Intelligence
2. Write a brief note on neurological foundations of Intelligence
3. State the environmental influences on Intelligence
4. What are the factors affecting creativity?
Short Answer Type Questions
5. Write a brief note on psychodynamic theory
6. Differentiate/ Compare/ Contrast between creativity and Personality
7. Differentiate/ Compare/ Contrast between creativity and motivation
8. Differentiate/ Compare and Contrast between creativity and culture
9. Write a note on Creativity in everyday life?
10. Briefly describe Information Processing Theory
11. Discuss Neurobiological and Sociocultural aspect of Creativity
12. Discuss Cattell’s theory of intelligence
13. Discuss Thurston theory of intelligence
14. Write a note on Guilford theory of intelligence
15. Write a note on Horn’ theory of intelligence
Long Answers Type Questions (180-250 words)
1. Write in detail about theories of Intelligence.
2. Write in detail about theories of creativity
3. Explain the strategies to enhance creativity
4. Explain the methods of assessment of creativity
5. Discuss in detail about the hierarchical theories of
intelligence
6. Differentiate between Projective tests and non projective
tests
7. Describe the methods of measurement of intelligence
8. Discuss the relationship between creativity and intelligence
9. Describe the historical aspects of intelligence
10. “Eminent People are more Creative” Share your thoughts on
above mentioned phrase in not less than 250 words.
Thank You