UNIT–1

INTRODUCTION

A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by

communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the
network.
“Computer network’’ to mean a collection of autonomous computers inter
connected by a single technology. Two computers are said to be interconnected if
they are able to exchange information. The connection need not be via a copper
wire; fiber optics, microwaves , infrared, and communication satellites can also
be used.
Networks come in many sizes,shapes and forms,as we will see later.They
are usually connected together to make larger networks, with the Internet being
the most well known example of a network of networks.
There is considerable confusion in the literature between a
computernetwork and a distributed system. The key distinction is that in a
distributed system, a collection of independent computers appears to its users as a
single coherent system. Usually, it has a single model or paradigm that it presents
tothe users. Often a layer of software on top of the operating system, called
middleware, is responsible for implementing this model. A well-known
example of a distributed system is the World Wide Web. It runs on top of the
Internet and presents a model in which everything looks like a document
(Webpage).
Data communication refers to the exchange of data between a source and a
receiver via form of transmission media such as a wire cable. For data communications to
occur, the communicating devices must be part of a communication system made up of a
combination of hardware (physical equipment) and software (programs)

Data Communication Networking:

Data communications refers to the transmission of digital data between two or more
computers and a computer network or data network is a telecommunications network that
allows computers to exchange data. The physical connection between networked computing
devices is established using either cable media or wireless media. The best-known computer
network is the Internet.

The communication system that consists of the interconnection between two or more
devices is referred to as a Network. A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes)
connected by communication links. A node can be a computer, printer, or any other device
capable of sending and/or receiving data generated by other nodes on the network.

A Basic Communication Model:

A data communications system has five components.

1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.

2. Sender: The sender is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, video camera, and so on.

3. Receiver:The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.

4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a

message travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include
twisted-pair wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.

5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an

agreement between the communicating devices.

Advantages of Computer Networks

1. File sharing
The major advantage of a computer network is that is allows file sharing and
remote file access. A person sitting at one workstation that is connected to a network can
easily see files present on another workstation, provided he is authorized to do so.

2. Resource sharing
All computers in the network can share resources such as printers, fax machines,
modems, and scanners.

3. Better connectivity and communications

It allows users to connect and communicate with each other easily. Various
communication applications included e-mail and groupware are used. Through e-mail,
members of a network can send message and ensure safe delivery of data to other
members, even in their absence.

4. Internet access
Computer networks provide internet service over the entire network. Every single
computer attached to thenetwork can experience the high speed internet.

5. Entertainment
Many games and other means of entertainment are easily available on the internet.
Furthermore, Local Area Networks (LANs) offers and facilitates other ways of
enjoyments, such as many players are connected through LAN and play a particular game
with each other from remote location.
6. Inexpensive system
Shared resources mean reduction in hardware costs. Shared files mean reduction
in memory requirement, which indirectly means reduction in file storage expenses. A
particular software can be installed only once on the server and made available across all
connected computers at once. This saves the expense of buying and installing the same
software as many times for as many users.

7. Flexible access
A user can log on to a computer anywhere on the network and access his files.
This offers flexibility to the user as to where he should be during the course of his routine.

8. Instant and multiple access

Computer networks are multiply processed .many of users can access the same
information at the same time. Immediate commands such as printing commands can be
made with the help of computer networks.

Disadvantages of Computer Networks

1. Lack of data security and privacy

Because there would be a huge number of people who would be using a computer
network to get and share some of their files and resources, a certain user’s security would
be always at risk. There might even be illegal activities that would occur, which you need
to be careful about and aware of.

2. Presence of computer viruses and malwares

If even one computer on a network gets affected by a virus, there is a possible
threat for the other systems getting affected too. Viruses can spread on a network easily,
because of the interconnectivity of workstations. Moreover, multiple systems with
common resources are the perfect breeding ground for viruses that multiply.

3. Lack of Independence
Since most networks have a centralized server and dependent clients, the client
users lack any freedom whatsoever. Centralized decision making can sometimes hinder
how a client user wants to use his own computer.

4. Lack of Robustness
As previously stated, if a computer network’s main server breaks down, the entire
system would become useless. Also, if it has a bridging device or a central linking server
that fails, the entire network would also come to a standstill.

5. Need an efficient handler

For a computer network to work efficiently and optimally, it requires high
technical skills and know-how of its operations and administration. A person just having
basic skills cannot do this job. Take note that the responsibility to handle such a system is
high, as allotting permissions and passwords can be daunting. Similarly, network
configuration and connection is very tedious and cannot be done by an average technician
who does not have advanced knowledge.
Applications of Networks:
Networking of computers provides a communication link between the users, and
provides access to information. Networking of computers has several applications, described
as follows:

1. Resource Sharing—The most frequently used shared network environment objects are
files, data, multimedia and hardware resources like printers, fax machines and scanners.

2. Sharing of Information: In addition to the sharing of physical resources, networking

facilitates sharing of information. Information stored on networked computers located at
same or different physical locations, becomes accessible to the computers connected to the
network.

3. As a Communication Medium: Networking helps in sending and receiving of electronic-

mail (email) messages from anywhere in the world. Data in the form of text, audio, video and
pictures can be sent via e-mail. hear and see each other simultaneously.

4. For Back-up and Support: Networked computers can be used to take back-up of critical
data. In situations where there is a requirement of always-on computer, another computer on
the network can take over in case of failure of one computer.

5. Server: Client Communication: One can imagine a company's information system as

consisting of one or more databases and some employees who need to access it remotely. In
this model, the data is stored on powerful computers called Servers. Often these are centrally
housed and maintained by a system administrator. In contrast, the employees have simple
machines, called Clients, on their desks, using which they access remote data.

6. E-Commerce: A goal that is starting to become more important in businesses is doing

business with consumers over the Internet. Airlines, bookstores and music vendors have
discovered that many customers like the convenience of shopping from home.
7. Interactive entertainment: Interactive entertainment includes:
▪ Multi-person real-time simulation games.
▪ Video on demand.
▪ Participation in live TV programs likes quiz, contest, discussions etc.

In short, the ability to merge information, communication and entertainment will surely give
rise to a massive new industry based on computer networking.

8. Retrieving Remote Information: Through computer networks, users can retrieve remote
information on a variety of topics. The information is stored in remote databases to which the
user gains access through information systems like the World Wide Web.

9. VoIP: VoIP or Voice over Internet protocol has revolutionized telecommunication

systems. Through this, telephone calls are made digitally using Internet Protocols instead of
the regular analog phone lines.

Network Structure and Network Architecture

Network architecture is the design of a computer network. It is a framework for the
specification of a network's physical components and their functional organization and
configuration, its operational principles and procedures, as well as communication protocols
used.

There are two major types of network architectures:

• Peer-To-Peer Architecture
• Client/Server Architecture

Peer-To-Peer Architecture

• In a peer-to-peer network, tasks are allocated to every device on the network.

• Furthermore, there is no real hierarchy in this network, all computers are considered equal
and all have the same abilities to use the resources available on this network.
• Instead of having a central server which would act as the shared drive, each computer that’s
connected to this network would act as the server for the files stored on it.
Advantages of Peer-To-Peer Network:
• It is less costly as it does not contain any dedicated server.
• If one computer stops working but, other computers will continue working.
• It is easy to set up and maintain as each computer manages itself.

Disadvantages of Peer-To-Peer Network:

• In the case of Peer-To-Peer network, it does not contain the centralized system. Therefore, it
cannot back up the whole data as the data is different in different locations.
• Security and data backups are to be done to each individual computer.
• As the numbers of computers increases on a P2P network; performance, security, and
access become a major headache.

Client/Server Architecture
• Client-server architecture, architecture of a computer network in which many clients
(remote processors) request and receive service from a centralized server (host computer).
• In a client/server network, a centralized, really powerful computer(server) act as a hub in
which other computers or workstations(clients) can connect to. This server is the heart of the
system, which manages and provides resources to any client that requests them.
• A server performs all the major operations such as security and network management.
• A server is responsible for managing all the resources such as files, directories, printer, etc.
• All the clients communicate with each other through a server. For example, if client1 wants
to send some data to client 2, then it first sends the request to the server for the permission.
The server sends the response to the client 1 to initiate its communication with the client 2.

Advantages of a client/server network

• Resources and data security are controlled through the server.
• Not restricted to a small number of computers.
• Server can be accessed anywhere and across multiple platforms.

Disadvantages of a client/server network

• Can become very costly due to the need of a server as well as networking devices such as
hubs, routers, and switches.
• If and when the server goes down, the entire network will be affected.
• Technical staff needed to maintain and ensure network functions efficiently.
TOPOLOGIES:

The term topology refers to the way in which a network is laid out physically.
Two or more devices connect to a link; two or more links form a topology. The
topology of a network is the geometric representation of the relationship of all the
links and linking devices (usually called nodes) to one another.
There are four basic topologies possible: “Mesh, Star, Bus and Ring”

1. MESH:
A mesh topology is the one where every node is connected to every other node in the
network. A mesh topology can be a full mesh topology or a partially connected
mesh topology.
In a full mesh topology, every computer in the network has a connection to
each of the other computers in that network.
The number of connections in this network can be calculated using the
following formula (n is the number of computers in the network) :n(n-1)/2
In a partially connected mesh topology, at least two of the computers in the
network have connections to multiple other computers in that network. It is
aninexpensivewaytoimplementredundancyinanetwork.Intheeventthatoneof the
primary computers or connections in the network fails, the rest of the network
continues to operate normally.

Advantages of a mesh topology

1. Can handle high amounts of traffic, because multiple devices can transmit
data simultaneously.
2. A failure of one device does not cause a break in the network or
transmission of data.
3. Adding additional devices does not disrupt data transmission between
other devices.
Disadvantages of a mesh topology

1. The cost to implement is higher than other network topologies, making it a

less desirable option.
2. Building and maintaining the topology is difficult and time consuming.
3. The chance of redundant connections is high, which adds to the high costs and
potential for reduced efficiency.

2. STAR:
A star network, star topology is one of the most common network
setups. In this configuration, every node connects to a central network device,
like a hub, switch, or computer. The central network device acts as a server
and the peripheral devices act as clients. Depending on the type of network
card used in each computer of the star topology, a coaxial cable or a RJ-45

network cable is used to connect computers together.

Advantages of star topology

1. Centralized management of the network, through the use of the central

computer, hub, or switch.
2. Easy to add another computer to the network.
3. If one computer on the network fails, the rest of the network continues to
function normally.
4. The star topology is used in local-area networks (LANs),High-speed LAN
soften use a star topology with a central hub.

Disadvantages of star topology:

1. Can have a higher cost to implement, especially when using a switch or router
as the central network device.
2. The central network device determines the performance and number of nodes
the network can handle.
3. If the central computer, hub, or switch fails, the entire network goes down and
all computers are disconnected from the network.
 3. BUS:
A line topology, a bus topology is a network set up in which each
computer and network device are connected to a single cable or
backbone

Advantages of bus topology

1. It works well when you have a small network.
2. It's the easiest network topology for connecting computers or peripherals in a
linear fashion.
3. It requires less cable length than a star topology.

Disadvantages of bus topology

1. It can be difficult to identify the problems if the whole network goes down.
2. It can be hard to trouble shoot individual device issues.
3. Bus topology is not great for large networks.
4. Terminators are required for both ends of the main cable.
5. Additional devices slow the network down.
6. If a main cable is damaged, the network fails or splits into two.

4. RING:

A ring topology is a network configuration in which device connections

create a circular data path. In a ring network, packets of data travel from one device
to the next until they reach their destination.
Most ring topologies allow packets to travel only in one direction, called a
unidirectional ring network. Others permit data to move in either direction, called
bidirectional.
The major disadvantage of a ring topology is that if any individual connection
in the ring is broken, the entire network is affected.
Ring topologies may be used in either local area networks (LANs) or wide area
networks(WANs).
Advantages of ring topology
1. All data flows in one direction, reducing the chance of packet
collisions.
2. A network server is not needed to control network connectivity
between each work station.
3. Data can transfer between work stations at high speeds.
4. Additionalworkstationscanbeaddedwithoutimpactingperformanceofthen
etwork.
Disadvantages of ring topology
1. All data being transferred over the network must pass through each
work station on the network, which can make its lower than a star
topology.
2. The entire network will be impacted if one work stations huts down.
3. Thehardwareneededtoconnecteachworkstationtothenetworkismoreex
pensivethanEthernetcardsandhubs/switches.

5. Hybrid Topology
A network can be hybrid. Hybrid topologies combine two or more different topology
structures—the tree topology is a good example, integrating the bus and star layouts.
Hybrid structures are most commonly found in larger companies where individual
departments have personalized network topologies adapted to suit their needs and network
usage.
For example, we can have a main star topology with each branch consisting several stations
in a bus topology as shown below.

Advantages of Hybrid topology

1. The main advantage of hybrid structures is the degree of flexibility they provide, as there
are few limitations on the network structure itself that a hybrid setup can’t accommodate.

Disadvantages:
1. A network grows in complexity, so too does the experience and know-how required
on the part of the admins to keep everything functioning optimally.
2. There’s also the monetary cost to consider when creating a hybrid network topology.

6. Tree Topology
It has a root node and all other nodes are connected to it forming a hierarchy. It is also
called hierarchical topology. It should at least have three levels to the hierarchy. In this
topology, the various secondary hubs are connected to the central hub which contains the
repeater. The data flows from top to bottom i.e., from the central hub to secondary and then
to the devices or from bottom to top i.e., devices to secondary hub and then to the central hub.
Advantages of Tree topology

1. It allows more devices to be attached to a single central hub thus it increases the
distance that is travel by the signal to come to the devices.
2. It allows the network to get isolate and also prioritize from different computers.

Disadvantages:
1. If the central hub gets fails the entire system fails.
2. The cost is high because of cabling

Types of network:

1. Local Area Networks (LAN):

Local area networks, generally called LANs, are privately-owned networks within
a single building or campus of up to a few kilometers in size.
They are widely used to connect personal computers and workstations in company
offices and organizations to share resources (e.g., printers) and exchange information.
LANs are distinguished from other kinds of networks by three characteristics:
(1) Their size,
(2) Their transmission technology
(3) Their topology.

LANs are restricted in size, which means that the worst-case transmission time is
bounded and known in advance. Knowing this bound makes it possible to use certain kinds of
designs that would not otherwise be possible.
It also simplifies network management. Traditional LANs run at speeds of 10 Mbps
to 100 Mbps, have low delay (microseconds or nanoseconds), and make very few errors.
Newer LANs operate at up to 10 Gbps.
Characteristics of LAN:
• LANs are private networks, not subject to external control
• Simple and better performance
• Work in a restricted geographical area

Advantages:
• Resource sharing
• Software applications sharing
• Easy and Cheap communication
• Data Security
• Internet sharing

Disadvantages
• Restricted to local area

2. Metropolitan Area Network (MAN):

A MAN is a network with a size b/n a LAN and a WAN. It normally covers
the area inside a town or a city. It designed for customers who need high speed
connectivity normally to the internet and have end point spread over a city or part of the
city. A good example of a MAN is the part of the telephone company network that can
provide high speed DSL line to costumer. Another example is the cable TV network that
originally designed for cable TV. But today can also be used for high speed data
connection to the internet.

Characteristics:
• Generally, covers towns and cities (up to 50km)
• Transmission medium used for MAN is optical fiber, coaxial cable etc.
• Data rates adequate for distributed computing applications

Advantages
• Extremely efficient and provide fast communication via high-speed carriers, such as fiber
optic cables
• Good backbone for larger networks and provides greater access to WAN
Disadvantages
• Complex, more cabling required and expensive

3. Wide Area Network (WAN):

A WAN provide long distance transmission of data, image, audio, and video.
Information over large geographic areas that may comprise a country or a continent or
even the whole world. A WAN can be complex as the backbones that connect the internet
or simple as dialup line that connect whole computer to the internet. We normally refers
to the first as a switched WAN and to the second as point-to-point WAN. The switched
WNA connects end system which usually compress a router [Internet working connecting
device] that connects to another LAN or WAN.

The point-to-point WAN is normally a line leased from a telephone or cable TV

provider that connects the whole computer or a small LAN to an internet service provider
(ISP). This type of WAN is often used to provide internet access

Characteristics:
• Covers large distances (states, countries, continents)
• Communication medium used are satellite, public telephone networks which are
connected by routers

Advantages
• Covers large geographical area
• Shared software and resources with connecting workstations
• Information can be exchanged to anyone else worldwide in the network

Disadvantages
• Data security
• Network is very complex and management is difficult
• As size increases, the networks become more expensive
OSI Reference model

➢ OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes
how information from a software application in one computer moves through a
physical medium to the software application in another computer.
➢ OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
➢ OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.
➢ OSI model divides the whole task into seven smaller and manageable tasks. Each
layer is assigned a particular task.
➢ Each layer is self-contained, so that task assigned to each layer can be performed
independently.
➢ The OSI model is a layered framework for the design of network systems that allows
communication between all types of computer systems.

1. Physical Layer:
o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual bits from one
node to another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface specifications.
Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be connected
physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is simplex, half-
duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the information.

2. Data Link Layer:

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.
o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device that resides on a
local network.

Functions of the Data-link layer

o Framing: The data link layer translates the physical's raw bit stream into packets
known as Frames. The Data link layer adds the header and trailer to the frame. The
header which is added to the frame contains the hardware destination and source
address.

o Physical Addressing: The Data link layer adds a header to the frame that contains a
destination address. The frame is transmitted to the destination address mentioned in
the header.
o Flow Control: Flow control is the main functionality of the Data-link layer. It is the
technique through which the constant data rate is maintained on both the sides so that
no data get corrupted. It ensures that the transmitting station such as a server with
higher processing speed does not exceed the receiving station, with lower processing
speed.
o Error Control: Error control is achieved by adding a calculated value CRC (Cyclic
Redundancy Check) that is placed to the Data link layer's trailer which is added to the
message frame before it is sent to the physical layer. If any error seems to occurr, then
the receiver sends the acknowledgment for the retransmission of the corrupted frames.
o Access Control: When two or more devices are connected to the same
communication channel, then the data link layer protocols are used to determine
which device has control over the link at a given time.
3. Network Layer:

o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of devices on the
network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the destination based on the
network conditions, the priority of service, and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and used to provide the
routing services within an internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as Network layer protocols.
Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Internetworking: An internetworking is the main responsibility of the network layer.

It provides a logical connection between different devices.
o Addressing: A Network layer adds the source and destination address to the header
of the frame. Addressing is used to identify the device on the internet.
o Routing: Routing is the major component of the network layer, and it determines the
best optimal path out of the multiple paths from source to the destination.
o Packetizing: A Network Layer receives the packets from the upper layer and converts
them into packets. This process is known as Packetizing. It is achieved by internet
protocol (IP).

4. Transport Layer:
o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are transmitted in the order in
which they are sent and there is no duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into smaller units known
as segments.
o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a point-to-point
connection between source and destination to deliver the data reliably.

The two protocols used in this layer are:

o Transmission Control Protocol

o User Datagram Protocol
Functions of Transport Layer:

o Service-point addressing: Computers run several programs at same time. So source

to destination delivery means delivery not only from one system to other but also to
specific process
o Segmentation and reassembly: When the transport layer receives the message from
the upper layer, it divides the message into multiple segments, and each segment is
assigned with a sequence number that uniquely identifies each segment.
o Connection control: Transport layer provides two services Connection-oriented
service and connectionless service.
• A connectionless service treats each segment as an individual packet, and they
all travel in different routes to reach the destination.
• A connection-oriented service makes a connection with the transport layer at
the destination machine before delivering the packets. In connection-oriented
service, all the packets travel in the single route.
o Flow control: The transport layer also responsible for flow control but it is performed
end-to-end rather than across a single link.
o Error control: The transport layer is also responsible for Error control. Error control
is performed end-to-end rather than across the single link. The sender transport layer
ensures that message reach at the destination without any error.

5. Session Layer:
o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the interaction
between communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

o Dialog control: Session layer acts as a dialog controller that creates a dialog between
two processes or we can say that it allows the communication between two processes
which can be either half-duplex or full-duplex.

o Synchronization: Session layer adds some checkpoints when transmitting the data in
a sequence. If some error occurs in the middle of the transmission of data, then the
transmission will take place again from the checkpoint. This process is known as
Synchronization and recovery.

6. Presentation Layer:
o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of the
information exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
 o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from one
presentation format to another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation: The processes in two systems exchange the information in the form of
character strings, numbers and so on. Different computers use different encoding
methods, the presentation layer handles the interoperability between the different
encoding methods. It converts the data from sender-dependent format into a common
format and changes the common format into receiver-dependent format at the
receiving end.
o Encryption: Encryption is needed to maintain privacy. Encryption is a process of
converting the sender-transmitted information into another form and sends the
resulting message over the network.
o Compression: Data compression is a process of compressing the data, i.e., it reduces
the number of bits to be transmitted. Data compression is very important in
multimedia such as text, audio, video.

7. Application Layer:
o An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access
network service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer
functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Functions of Application layer:

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM): An application layer allows a user
to access the files in a remote computer, to retrieve the files from a computer and to
manage the files in a remote computer.
o lMail services: An application layer provides the facility for email forwarding and
storage.
o Directory services: An application provides the distributed database sources and is
used to provide that global information about various objects.
The TCP/IP reference model:

❖ TCP/IP Model helps you to determine how a specific computer should be connected
to the internet and how data should be transmitted between them.
❖ It helps you to create a virtual network when multiple computer networks are
connected together.
❖ The purpose of TCP/IP model is to allow communication over large distances.
❖ TCP/IP stands for Transmission Control Protocol/ Internet Protocol.
❖ TCP/IP Stack is specifically designed as a model to offer highly reliable and end-to-
end byte stream over an unreliable internetwork.

Characteristics of TCP IP protocol:

• Support for a flexible TCP/IP architecture

• Adding more system to a network is easy.
• In TCP IP protocols suite, the network remains intact until the source, and destination
machines were functioning properly.
• TCP is a connection-oriented protocol.
• TCP offers reliability and ensures that data which arrives out of sequence should put
back into order.
• TCP allows you to implement flow control, so sender never overpowers a receiver
with data.

Four Layers of TCP/IP model

1. Application Layer
Application layer interacts with an application program, which is the highest level of
OSI model. The application layer is the OSI layer, which is closest to the end-user. It means
the OSI application layer allows users to interact with other software application.

Application layer interacts with software applications to implement a communicating

component. The interpretation of data by the application program is always outside the scope
of the OSI model.
 Example of the application layer is an application such as file transfer, email, remote
login, etc.

The function of the Application Layers are:

• Application-layer helps you to identify communication partners, determining resource

availability, and synchronizing communication.
• It allows users to log on to a remote host
• This layer provides various e-mail services
• This application offers distributed database sources and access for global information
about various objects and services.

2. Transport Layer
Transport layer builds on the network layer in order to provide data transport from a
process on a source system machine to a process on a destination system. It is hosted using
single or multiple networks, and also maintains the quality of service functions.

It determines how much data should be sent where and at what rate. This layer builds
on the message which are received from the application layer. It helps ensure that data units
are delivered error-free and in sequence.

Transport layer helps you to control the reliability of a link through flow control, error
control, and segmentation or de-segmentation.

The transport layer also offers an acknowledgment of the successful data transmission
and sends the next data in case no errors occurred. TCP is the best-known example of the
transport layer.
Important functions of Transport Layers:

• It divides the message received from the session layer into segments and numbers
them to make a sequence.
• Transport layer makes sure that the message is delivered to the correct process on the
destination machine.
• It also makes sure that the entire message arrives without any error else it should be
retransmitted.

3. Internet Layer
An internet layer is a second layer of TCP/IP layes of the TCP/IP model. It is also
known as a network layer.

The main work of this layer is to send the packets from any network, and any
computer still they reach the destination irrespective of the route they take.

The Internet layer offers the functional and procedural method for transferring
variable length data sequences from one node to another with the help of various networks.

Message delivery at the network layer does not give any guaranteed to be reliable
network layer protocol.
Layer-management protocols that belong to the network layer are:
 1. Routing protocols
2. Multicast group management
3. Network-layer address assignment.

4. The Network Interface Layer

Network Interface Layer is this layer of the four-layer TCP/IP model. This layer is
also called a network access layer. It helps you to defines details of how data should be sent
using the network.
It also includes how bits should optically be signaled by hardware devices which
directly interfaces with a network medium, like coaxial, optical, coaxial, fiber, or twisted-pair
cables.
A network layer is a combination of the data line and defined in the article of OSI
reference model. This layer defines how the data should be sent physically through the
network. This layer is responsible for the transmission of the data between two devices on the
same network.

The Transmission media:

Transmission media is a communication channel that transmits information
from the source/transmitter to the receiver.

Classes of transmission media:

Guided Media: Guided media, which are those that provide a medium from
one device to another, include twisted-pair cable, coaxial cable, and fiber-optic cable.

➢ Twisted-Pair Cable: A twisted pair consists of two conductors (normally copper),

each with its own plastic insulation, twisted together.
One of the wires is used to carry signals to the receiver, and the other is used
only as a ground reference.

➢ Unshielded Versus Shielded Twisted-Pair Cable(UTP)

The most common twisted-pair cable used in communications is referred to as unshielded
twisted-pair (UTP). STP cable has a metal foil or braided mesh covering that encases each
pair of insulated conductors. Although metal casing improves the quality of cable by
preventing the penetration of noise or crosstalk, it is bulkier and more expensive.

The most common UTP connector is RJ45 (RJ stands for registered jack)

Applications:

1. Twisted-pair cables are used in telephone lines to provide voice and datachannels.
2. Local-area networks, such as l0Base-T and l00Base-T, also use twisted-pair
cables.

➢ Coaxial Cable
Coaxial cable (or coax) carries signals of higher frequency ranges than
those in twisted pair cable. coax has a central core conductor of solid or stranded
wire (usually copper) enclosed in an insulating sheath, which is, in turn, encased
inan outer conductor of metal foil, braid, or a combination of the two.
The outer metallic wrapping serves both as a shield against noise and as the
secondconductor, which completes the circuit.
This outer conductor is also enclosed in an insulating sheath, and the whole
cable is protected by a plastic cover.
Applications
1. Coaxial cable was widely used in analog telephone networks,digital telephone
networks
2. Cable TV networks also use coaxial cables.
3. Another common application of coaxial cable is in traditional Ethernet LANs

➢ Fiber-Optic Cable

A fiber-optic cable is made of glass or plastic and transmits signals

in the formof light. Light travels in a straight line as long as it is moving through
a single uniform substance.
If a ray of light traveling through one substance suddenly enters
another substance (of a different density), the ray changes direction.

Bending of light ray

Optical fibers use reflection to guide light through a channel. A glass or

plasticcore is surrounded by a cladding of less dense glass or plastic.

Applications

1. Fiber-optic cable is often found in backbone networks because its wide bandwidth is cost-
effective.
2. Some cable TV companies use a combination of optical fiber and coaxial cable, thus
creating a hybrid network.
3. Local-area networks such as 100Base-FX network (Fast Ethernet) and 1000Base-X also
use fiber-optic cable.
 Unguided Media: Wireless Unguided media transport electromagnetic
waves without using a physical conductor. This type of communication is often
referred to as wireless communication.

Radio Waves, Micro waves, Infrared waves

Unguided signals can travel from the source to destination in several ways:
ground propagation, sky propagation, and line-of-sight propagation.

➢ Radio Waves

Electromagnetic waves ranging in frequencies between 3 kHz and 1 GHz are normally
called radio waves. Radio waves are omni directional. When an antenna transmits radio
waves, they are propagated in all directions.
This means that the sending and receiving antennas do not have to be aligned. A
sending antenna sends waves that can be received by any receiving antenna.
The omni directional property has a disadvantage, too. The radio waves transmitted by
one antenna are susceptible to interference by another antenna that may send signals using the
same frequency or band.

Omni directional Antenna

Radio waves use omnidirectional antennas that send out signals in all directions.
Based on the wavelength, strength, and the purpose of transmission, we can have several
types of antennas. Figure shows an omni directional antenna.

Applications:
1. The Omni directional characteristics of radio waves make them useful for
multicasting, in which there is one sender but many receivers.
2. AM and FM radio, television, maritime radio, cordless phones, and paging
are examples of multicasting.
➢ Micro Waves

Electromagnetic waves having frequencies between 1 and 300 GHz are called
microwaves. Microwaves are unidirectional. The sending and receiving antennas need to be
aligned. The unidirectional property has an obvious advantage. A pair of antennas can be
aligned without interfering with another pair of aligned antennas.

Unidirectional Antenna
Microwaves need unidirectional antennas that send out signals in one direction. Two
types of antennas are used for microwave communications: the parabolic dish and the horn

Applications:

1. Microwaves are used for unicast communication such as cellular telephones,

satellite networks, and wireless LANs

➢ Infrared Waves:

Infrared waves, with frequencies from 300 GHz to 400 THz (wavelengths
from 1 mm to 770 nm), can be used for short-range communication. Infrared waves,
having high frequencies, cannot penetrate walls.
This advantageous characteristic prevents interference between one system and
another a short- range communication system in one room cannot be affected by another
system in the next room.
When we use our infrared remote control, we do not interfere with the use of the
remote by our neighbors. Infrared signals useless for long-range communication.
In addition, we cannot use infrared waves outside a building because the sun's rays
contain infrared waves that can interfere with the communication.

Applications

Infrared signals can be used for short-range communication in a closed

area using line-of-sight propagation.
Switching

A network is a set of connected devices. Whenever we have multiple devices, we

have the problem of how to connect them to make one-to-one communication possible. One
solution is to make a point-to-point connection between each pair of devices (a mesh
topology) or between a central device and every other device (a star topology).
These methods, however, are impractical and wasteful when applied to very large
networks.
The number and length of the links require too much infrastructure to be cost-
efficient, and the majority of those links would be idle most of the time.
A better solution is switching. A switched network consists of a series of interlinked
nodes, called switches. Switches are devices capable of creating temporary connections
between two or more devices linked to the switch.

In a switched network, some of these nodes are connected to the end systems
(computers or telephones, for example). Others are used only for routing.

Switched network can be divided into 3 types

1. Circuit Switching Network:

A network consists of a set of switches that are connected by the physical links
commonly known as Circuit-Switched Network.

• Whenever one device communicates with another device then a dedicated

communication path is established between them over the network.
• There is only a dedicated channel on each link used by each connection. Also, each
link can be easily divided into n channels by using the TDM (Time Division
Multiplexing) or FDM (Frequency Division Multiplexing) technique.
• The Circuit Switching technique is mainly used in the public telephone
network for voice communication as well as for data communication.
• Data communication is less efficient than voice communication.
 • The Circuit switching technique mainly takes place at the physical layer.
• In Circuit-switched networks, the data transfer mode mainly involves a dedicated end-
to-end connection. Until the end of the communication, this dedicated path is
maintained. After the communication is over the link is released.

Phases in Circuit Switching

In order to transfer data using Circuit switching there is a need to establish a circuit
(these circuits can either be permanent or temporary) so that data transfer can take place
smoothly. Given below are three phases that are used in Circuit Switching for actual
communication:
• Setup Phase
• Data Transfer Phase
• Teardown Phase

1. Setup Phase

It is the first phase of the Circuit switching technique and in this, there is an
establishment of the circuit that simply means a dedicated link is established between the
sender and the receiver with the help of several switching centers or nodes.

2. Data Transfer Phase

After the establishment of the circuit, the connection is established which means that
data transfer can take place between sender and receiver.

3. Teardown Phase

On the completion of communication between the sender and receiver the circuit
disconnects. In order to disconnect a signal is sent either by the sender or receiver
One of the best examples of Circuit switching is a telephone.

Suppose there are two persons Person A and Person B; they both want to communicate with
each other and located at a distance far from each other.

Person A makes a call to Person B this phase is the setup phase of circuit switching. After
the establishment of the connection and after call pick up by Person B; they both can
communicate with each other. This is the data transfer phase of Circuit switching

Once the communication is complete one of them can cut the call or break the connection.
This is a teardown phase.

Advantages of Circuit Switching

1. Offers Dedicated Transmission

As there is a dedicated link between the sender and the receiver. Thus Circuit-
Switched network provides a guarantee of dedicated transmission.

2. No Delay in Transmission
There is a dedicated path between sender and receiver thus there are no chances for
the delay.

3. The Circuit Switching technique is best for long transmission because it facilitates a
dedicated link between sender and receiver.

Disadvantages of Circuit Switching

• One of the main disadvantages of Circuit switching is that as there is a dedicated path
between sender and receiver; thus this path is received for these two particular devices
and cannot be used by any other device.
• There is a need for more bandwidth as a dedicated path requires more bandwidth.
• Utilization of resources is not done properly as resources are allocated to a connection
for the entire duration and thus became unavailable for all other connections.
• It becomes inefficient in the case if the connection is established between sender and
receiver but there is no data transfer between them.
• Sometimes it takes a long time to establish the connection between sender and
receiver.
• As there is a dedicated path between sender and receiver; thus, this technique is
expensive.

2. Message Switching Network

The Message-Switching Technique was mainly developed to act as an alternative to

circuit switching, this was before packet switching was introduced. Basically, the message
is a smaller unit.

• In the Message-Switching technique, the communication between end users is done

by sending and receiving the message, and this message includes the entire data to
be shared.
• In Message-Switching there is no dedicated path between the sender and receiver like
circuit switching.
 • The sender and receiver are connected by way of several intermediate nodes which
helps and ensures proper data transfer between them.
• Message-Switched data networks are also known as hop-by-hop systems.

Characteristics of Message Switching

• Store and Forward: As we have already told you that the sender and the receiver are
not directly connected to each other. Thus intermediate nodes between sender and
receiver are, mainly responsible for transferring the message to the next node in the
path. Thus in order to transfer the message, intermediate nodes must have the storage
capacity because any message will only be delivered if the next node and the link
between them are available to connect otherwise this message will be stored
indefinitely.
A store-and-forward switch thus forwards a message only if sufficient
resources are available and the next node is ready to accept the data. The process
continues till the data is delivered to the destination computer. Hence, it is called
store-&-forward property. The store-and-forward property was earlier used in
telegraph message switching centers.

• Message delivery: In the Message Switching the entire information is compiled into a
single message and then that message is transmitted from source to destination. To
successfully reach its destination each message must contain the routing information
in its header section.

Advantages of Message Switching

• In this Switching, data channels are shared among network devices.

• There is Management of traffic in an efficient way by assigning priorities to the
messages.
• There is an improvement in efficiency as a single channel can now be used for
transferring many messages.
• There is a reduction in network traffic congestion because in this technique we are
using store and forward property and also any switching node can store the messages
till the availability of the network.
• With the use of Message Switching, messages of unlimited size can be sent.
• It requires less bandwidth while broadcasting the messages; thus it consumes less
bandwidth than circuit switching.
• In Message switching, if the next node or link is not available then the current node
stores the message
Disadvantages of Message Switching

• For the whole network, message switching requires a large capacity.

• This technique cannot be used for real-time applications because the storing of
messages causes delay.
• The message-switched networks are very slow in nature because the processing takes
place in each and every node and thus it may result in poor performance.

3. Packet Switching Network:

Packet Switching is a technique of switching in which the message is usually divided

into smaller pieces that are known as packets.

• Every packet contains a header that contains the knowledge of the destination. With
the help of this knowledge/information, these packets find the route.
• A unique number is given to each packet in order to identify them at the receiving
end.
• One of the biggest examples of the Packet-switched network is the Internet.
• The header of the Packet mainly comprises of two things: header and payload.
o where the header mainly contains the routing information.
o and the payload contains the data that is to be transferred.
• This switching is also based on the store and forward method.
• In the Packet Switched network, there is no resource reservation, and resources are
allocated on demand.
• As we know that each packet contains the information of source and destination in
their headers. Thus all packets can independently travel in the network.
• Packets related to the same file might take different paths and it mainly depends upon
the availability of the path. These packets will be then re-assembled at the destination.
It is the responsibility of the receiver node to re-arrange the received packet in order
to get the original data.
• The message of acknowledgment will be sent by the receiver if packets reach the
receiver in the correct order.
• In case of a missing packet or corrupted packet, the message will be sent by the
receiver to the sender to resend the message.
 Advantages of Packet Switching

• More efficient utilization of bandwidth.

• Latency in the transmission is minimum in packet switching.
• This technique is cheaper to implement and thus it is cost-effective.
• The same channel can be used by many users simultaneously.
• As there are improved protocols, thus packet switching is used by many applications
like Skype, WhatsApp, etc.
• The fault tolerance in this technique is more in case of any link down because packets
may follow different paths.
• This technique is more reliable than other techniques because it can easily detect
missing packets.

Disadvantages of Packet Switching

• This technique cannot be used by those applications that cannot afford more delays
like applications of high-quality voice calls.
• Protocols used in this technique are complex and thus their implementation cost is
high.
• In the case of an overloaded network, the packet may get lost or there might occur
delay which causes the loss of critical information.
• On the receiver's side sorting of the packets sent by the sender is required.

 Datagram Packet Switching

In Datagram Switching, the packet is commonly known as a datagram. Datagram

Packet switching is also known as Connectionless Packet Switching. In this technique, each
packet routed individually by network devices on the basis of the destination address that is
contained within each packet.

• Each packet is basically treated independently of all others.

• Datagram packet switching is done at the network layer.
• This is Connectionless packet switching because the packet switch does not keep the
information about the connection state.
• In the Datagram packet switching the path is not fixed.
• Routing decisions are taken by the intermediate nodes in order to forward the packets.
• Thus all datagrams that belong to the same message may travel through different
paths in order to reach their destination.
• On the receiving node, all the packets are reassembled to get the message in the
original form.
• Due to lack of resources packets may also be lost or dropped.
• In most of the protocols, it is the responsibility of the upper-layer protocol to reorder
the datagrams or to ask for the lost datagrams before passing them on to the
application.
 •

 Virtual Circuit Switching

Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as Connection-Oriented Switching. This

switching contains the characteristics of circuit switching as well as datagram packet
switching.

In this type of packet switching the data-packets are first assembled and then
sequentially numbered. Now they are ready to travel across a predefined route, sequentially.
The information about the address is not required here, because all the data packets are sent
in sequence.

• In addition to the data transfer phase, there are setup and teardown phases.
• The resource allocation is done during the setup phase like it is done in the circuit-
switched network or it can be done on demand like in datagram networks.
• The data is in the form of packets like the datagram network and also each packet
carries the destination address in the header.
• Like the circuit-switched network, all packets in the Virtual network follows the same
path that is established during the connection.
• This switching is normally implemented in the data link layer

Multiplexing:

The set of techniques that allows the simultaneous transmission of multiple signals
across a single data link is commonly referred to as Multiplexing. Multiplexing is done by
using the hardware that is called as Multiplexer(MUX).

The Multiplexer(MUX) mainly combines 'n' input lines in order to generate '1' output
line (this is simply many-to-one) on the sender side. And on the receiver side, this stream is
fed into the demultiplexer(DEMUX), which then separates the stream back to its component
transmission (this is one-to-many) and then directs them to their corresponding lines.

Multiplexing Can be divided into 3 types

1. Frequency-division multiplexing
2. Wavelength-division multiplexing
3. Time-division multiplexing

1. Frequency division multiplexing:

Frequency-Divison Multiplexing i.e FDM is an analog technique.

• With this technique, signals having different frequencies are combined in a composite
signal and then transmitted on the link
• It is mainly applied at the time when the bandwidth of the link is greater than the
combined bandwidths of the signal to be transmitted.
• In this, each signal is of a different frequency.
• The channel is usually separated by the strips of unused bandwidth that is the guard
bands in order to prevent the signals from overlapping.
• In the case of frequency division multiplexing, suppose the input signal is in the
digital form then it must be converted to analog before giving it as the input to the
modulator.
Advantages

• The Simultaneous transmission of a large number of signals is done easily.

• The demodulation of FDM multiplexing is easy.
• There is no need for synchronization between the transmitter and receiver for proper
operation.
• In the case of slow narrowband fading, there is only one single channel that gets
affected.

Disadvantages

• Communication channels must have a very large bandwidth.

• There occurs the problem of crosstalk while using FDM.
• In the case of wideband fading, all channels in the FDM gets affected.
• There is a need for a large number of filters and modulators.

Applications:

• One of the main applications of FDM is that it is AM and FM radio broadcasting.

• Another application of FDM is that it is used in television broadcasting.
• FDM is also used by first-generation cellular telephones.

2. Wavelength-Division Multiplexing

Wavelength-Division Multiplexing i.e. WDM is an analog technique.

• This technique is similar to FDM.

• With the help of Wavelength Division multiplexing different signals that
include: optical or light signals are transmitted through the Optical fiber.
• With the help of the WDM technique, the high data rate capability of optical fiber
cable gets utilized.
• With this technique, various light waves from different sources are combined into a
composite light signal and this signal is transmitted across the channel to the receiver.
• On the receiver side, this composite light signal gets broken down into different light
waves with the help of De multiplexer.
• The process of combining and splitting the light waves is done with the help of Prism.
• This Prism helps to bend the beam of light on the basis of the angle of incidence and
frequency of light.
• In the WDM technique mainly the role of the multiplexer is played by the Prism and it
then combines the various optical signals in the order to form a composite signal after
that this composite signal is transmitted through an Optical fiber cable.
Advantages

• With the help of WDM, the full-duplex transmission is possible.

• WDM is easy to reconfigure.
• Various Signals can be transmitted simultaneously with the help of WDM.
• This technique is less expensive and the expansion of the system is easy.
• This technique provides high security.
• As we are using an optical fiber in WDM; also Optical components are more reliable
and they also provide high bandwidth.

Disadvantages

• There is the use of optical equipment so cost increases.

• Utilization of bandwidth can be inefficient which causes difficulty in wavelength
tuning.
• The main concern in this technique is scalability.

3. Time-Division Multiplexing
Time-Divison multiplexing is a digital technique for multiplexing.

• In this technique, the channel/link is divided on the basis of time instead of frequency.
• The total available time on the channel is divided between the different users on the
channel.
• A particular time interval is allotted to each user on the channel and it is known as
time slot/slice.
• In the time-division multiplexing, the data rate capacity should be much greater than
the data rate that is required by the sending and receiving device.

TDM is further categorized into two:

• Synchronous Time-Divison Multiplexing

• Asynchronous Time-Divison Multiplexing