Engineering Fracture Mechanics 71 (2004) 913–921

www.elsevier.com/locate/engfracmech

An evaluation of the resistance of pipeline steels to

initiation and early growth of stress corrosion cracks

ern
I. C y *, V. Linhart
Strength Department, SVU M a.s., Research Center B

echovice, CZ-19011 Praha 9, Czech Republic
Received 30 October 2002; accepted 5 November 2002

Abstract
Safety and reliability are basic requirements on the operation of systems of high-pressure pipelines. One of the
dangerous mechanisms endangering the safe operation is stress corrosion cracking (SCC). In this work, SCC initiation
in two types of pipeline steels––a carbon pipeline steel and an X60 high-strength thermo-mechanically treated steel––in
carbonate solution was studied. An influence of surface microstructure, different stress/strain conditions and temper-
ature was evaluated. The X60 steel was more sensitive to the SCC process in comparison with the carbon steel. Surface
local microscopical inhomogeneities were the predominant initiation sites of microcracks.

2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Stress corrosion cracking; Pipeline steels; Carbonate environment; Microcrack initiation and growth

1. Introduction

Corrosion and stress corrosion mechanisms are not the most frequent causes of pipelines disasters, they
cause from 15% to 20% of failures of gas pipelines, according to the pipelines age [1,2]. Particularly stress
corrosion cracking is a dangerous, often discussed mechanism, probably the most complicated from the
point of view of prevention and safety not only of pipelines, but in other areas [3]. On older Czech gas
pipelines, numerous occurrence of SCC has been found recently [4,5]. An example of stress corrosion cracks
on the inside surface of a Czech gas pipeline is in Fig. 1.
The main reasons why stress corrosion cracking is complicated can be summarized as follows:

• SCC damage cannot be detected by usual internal inspection methods indicating changes of walls thick-
ness. Cracks, creating usually networks, are very thin. Several advanced NDT methods to detect SCC
damage are being developed [6], Fig. 2, they are not yet, however, able to be widely used in the field.
• A visual inspection is mostly not able to detect them [7]. If their thickness is bigger, they are usually filled
with corrosion products [8,9], which make the detection difficult, as well.

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: +420-2-22724084/157; fax: +420-2-22724509.

erny).
E-mail address: Ivo.Cerny@seznam.cz (I. C

0013-7944/$ - see front matter
2003 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/S0013-7944(03)00011-0
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Fig. 1. Example of SCC on gas pipeline in acid environment.

Fig. 2. Network of very thin stress corrosion cracks between welds documented by two methods: (a) magnetic powder and (b) X-ray
radiography.

• Various SCC mechanisms can occur in environments of different acidity including diluted ground solu-
tions (preferably transgranual SCC––TGSCC [2]), in a big range of potentials [10] including cathodic
polarization [7,11]. Not only material microstructural inhomogeneities affect the process [12], but also
e.g. micropolarization––an occurrence of the local anode near the crack tip and the cathode close to
the mouth [13], then inhomogeneities of corrosion environments inside cracks, affected by dissolution
of particles etc.
• Generally, cathodic protection cannot exclude SCC, particularly in the stage of a growth of existing
cracks [14]. On the contrary, it may accelerate the process creating carbonate corrosive environments
[15]. The inside surface with frequent SCC [5] cannot be protected.
• Different SCC mechanisms can occur in different conditions. In practice, both cases of SCC in high pH
(carbonates), characteristic predominantly by intergranular crack growth [7,10,15,16], and in mild acid
solutions of pH 6–7 with frequent occurrence of transgranular growth [8,15] exist.

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• Pipelines pressure fluctuations, destroying surface oxide films, accelerate the SCC process, particularly in
basic environments [13,17].

Especially complex mechanisms including combinations of mechanical fatigue and corrosion are the
main features of SCC. Numerous factors affect the process: fracture resistance of a material, its compo-
sition, microstructure and inhomogeneity, quality of the surface affecting the initiation period, service
conditions (global and local stresses), quality of insulation etc. Natural barriers against the fracture process
are reduced or destroyed by the corrosion. The process significantly differs form those of mechanical fatigue
in the air as well as surface corrosion.
In this paper, a specific problem of the complex of questions connected with stress corrosion cracking is
discussed, namely the behaviour of two types of pipeline steels, manufactured with different technologies
and having different microstructures, in the basic carbonate environment, at different stress conditions, at
two different temperatures.

2. Experiments

SN 11375 normalized
Experiments were performed on a X60 thermomechanically treated steel and on a C
steel (chemical equivalent DIN RSt 37-2), taken out from the real operated Czech Transgas Pipeline and

SN 11375 steel.
Fig. 3. Basic microstructure of (a) X60 steel and (b) C
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Central Czech Arterial Pipeline, respectively. The typical character of ferritic-pearlitic microstructure of the
X60 steel and the character of mostly ferritic microstructure of the C
SN 11375 steel are in Fig. 3.
Specimens of the basic material, their welds and heat affected zones after the different pre-stressing were
exposed for the periods up to 245 days in the carbonate environment composed from one part of 1 N
Na2 CO3 solution and one part of 1 N NaHCO3 solution in distilled water, at free corrosion potential and at
two different temperatures 10 and 75 C, respectively. The stress corrosion process was evaluated on the
basis of quantitative statistics of microcracks initiation and growth and of qualitative evaluation of their
character.
Three different pre-stressing levels were applied: the loading corresponding to the 1% plastic deforma-
tion, 0.5% plastic deformation and 0.95% ry (with no pre-strain). Additionally, a C
SN 11 375 specimen was
loaded cyclically to simulate an effect of real pressure fluctuations (rmin =rmax ¼ 160=255 MPa).

3. Results and discussion

3.1. Quantitative evaluation

The quantitative evaluation was carried out on the basis of the measurement of the dependence of
microcracks frequency on their length, related to the 100 mm2 of the surface area. Categories of micro-
cracks length were divided at 10 lm. Microcracks shorter than 20 lm were not included. A total surface
damage of an evaluated area was then expressed by a summarized value of lengths of all microcracks longer
than 30 lm.

SN 11375 with welds is presented in
The total evaluation of the surface damage of specimens X60 and C
Fig. 4. The diagram can be analyzed as follows:

1. In spite of that the evaluated dependence on the loading and on the plastic pre-strain is not unambiguous
due to the scatter of the results, some features are evident. Heat affected zone in higher pre-strained spec-
imens epl ¼ 1%) had the worst resistance to the stress corrosion in all cases in comparison with both basic

Fig. 4. Summarized length of microcracks per 100 mm2 of surface area of specimens with the different pre-strain: 1––1%, 2––0.5%, 3––
no pre-strain.

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Fig. 5. Summarized length of microcracks per 100 mm2 of surface area of specimens not taking account of the different pre-strain.

material and weld metal of the same specimens. Moreover, in the 1% pre-strained X60 specimen, the heat
affected zone had the worst resistant from all the cases.
2. If basic material is evaluated separately without taking account of heat affected zone, the 1% pre-strain-
ing did not prove to be unfavourable in comparison with the 0.95 dy loading with no pre-strain.
3. The fatigue loaded specimen was characteristic by the unambiguously deteriorated resistance to the SCC
in basic material. The summarized value of microcracks lengths was about 2.5-times bigger in compar-
ison with the same material loaded only statically.
4. Weld metal of specimens of both the material groups was almost one order less damaged in all evaluated
test conditions. It does not mean, however, that the weld metal is insusceptible in general. This can be
demonstrated from the evaluation of reasons of the transit pipeline break-down [4], where numerous
cracks were found even in the weld metal.

The existence of the quite not unambiguous dependences of the evaluated SCC damage on the loading
level provides to exclude this variable from the subsequent evaluation. The summarized crack lengths re-
lated to the 100 mm2 area are presented in Fig. 5. It is evident that the scatter of results evaluated from the
three-times greater area––300 mm2 ––decreased and that some connections suggested in Fig. 4 became more
distinct:

1. On the bases of the 60-days exposure, the C
SN 11375 steel seems to be more resistant to SCC, especially
at the temperature 10 C. At the lower temperature, SCC process was as expected slower in comparison
with the higher temperature, it has not been, however, negligible, especially in the X60 steel. It is evident
from Fig. 6 that relatively long microcracks, longer than 0.1 mm, which are the most dangerous from the
point view of a possible growth, initiated even in these conditions.
2. In the X60 steel, the SCC resistance of the heat affected zone was evidently lower with respect to basic
material. The metallographic analysis of the surface structure and of its connection with microcracks ex-
plained this effect.

The diagram in Fig. 7 represents a time dependence of the SCC damage expressed by a total microcracks
length related to the 100 mm2 area, evaluated on specimens exposed for 90 and 245 days, respectively. In
spite of that the time development of the process is evident, it cannot be overlooked that, in the second
stage, the damage development was relatively slow with respect to the significant longer exposure. This fact
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SN 11375 steels.
Fig. 6. Occurrence rate of microcracks per 100 mm2 in heat affected zones of X60 and C

Fig. 7. Time dependence of summarized length of microcracks after testing at 75 C.

demonstrates that only the first stage of the process, characteristic by a relatively progressive microcracks
initiation and a subsequent retardation occurred.

3.2. Qualitative evaluation

The character of microcracks in both the evaluated steels was similar. Both thin and widely corroded
microcracks, frequently with corrosion micropits around previous inclusions could be observed.
A big part of microcracks either initiated apparently on inclusions or corrosion pits connected with
inclusions were present in their paths (Fig. 8). Cracks initiated on inclusions were mostly more branched.
This can be explained by a more significant local plastic deformation around hard inclusions, especially in
the pre-strained specimens. The SCC process was probably intensified partly by local microstresses con-
nected with the local plastic deformation and partly by the material interface between inclusions and basic
material giving rise to microcells.
One of the types of a surface microcracks relief is considered to be particularly dangerous from the point
of view of a possible subsequent growth by a coalescence: lines of microcracks. Although such cases were

SN 11375 steel occurred, too (Fig. 9). An example of one of
found more frequently in the X60 steel, in the C
the most expressive surface lines of microcracks, close to the X60 weld, has been documented in Fig. 10. In
the X60 steel, such the lines of microcracks were explained by etching a surface structure. The surface
structural interfaces between zones containing preferentially pearlite and zones with ferrite were priority

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SN 11375 steel. The arrow indicates direction of

Fig. 8. Stress corrosion cracking on inclusions in heat affected zone of specimen from C
main stress.

SN 11375 steel pre-strained to 1% plastic

Fig. 9. Lines of stress corrosion microcracks in heat affected zone of specimen from C
deformation. The arrow indicates direction of main stress.

Fig. 10. SCC in zones with different microstructure in heat affected zone of X60 steel pre-strained to 1% plastic deformation.
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Fig. 11. Development of microcrack in specimen of X60 steel pre-strained to 1% plastic deformation microcrack after (a) 43 days and
(b) 56 days of exposure.

nucleation sites of microcracks. The orientation of the microstructure close to the weld in the X60 steel was
inclined to the surface. Therefore, in this case, the non-homogeneous zones were more frequent than in
basic material. This can be one of the reasons of the mentioned higher sensitivity of this area of the X60
material to SCC. A similar connection was found also in the X60 basic material, where structurally different
surface areas were present due to a non-parallel direction of structural layers in comparison with the surface
plane or due to locally homogeneized areas. Such areas probably gave rise to microcells.
A partially different character of microcracks was found on the surface of the fatigue loaded C
SN 11375
specimen. Microcracks initiated on inclusions frequently, too. They were, however, evidently more frequent
and mostly very thin. It demonstrates different corrosive conditions caused either by braking a surface
corrosive microfilm due to repeated elastic deformation or by entirely different surface and subsurface
conditions, e.g. different dislocation structures especially around inclusions.
A fundamental question in the SCC process is whether initiated cracks grow or arrest. An evident
corrosion microcracks growth including small length increments has been documented in Fig. 11. However,
in most of the cracks evaluated in this work, only significant width corrosion extensions could be observed.
Although the observed cracks grew only slightly, it did not mean that the whole process arrested. The
summarized microcrack length namely grew. It indicated that during further periods, new microcracks
initiated rather than the previous ones grew. If the process continues by this way, it could result in a
formation of a main crack by a crack coalescence even in these conditions.

4. Conclusions

The most important results of the evaluation stress corrosion cracking of the two types of steels used for
high-pressure pipelines, exposed in the carbonate solution, at free corrosion potential and at two different
temperatures can be summarized as follows:

SN 11375, respectively, were sensitive to the SCC initiation. At

1. Both the basic types of steels, X60 and C
the temperature 10 C, the process was less intensive in comparison with that at 75 C, especially in the

SN 11375 steel.
C
2. The C
SN 11375 steel suggested somewhat better resistance to the SCC process. The crack morphology
on both the materials was similar.

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3. The time dependence of the SCC process was documented both quantitatively and qualitatively. Besides
growing microcracks, numerous arresting microcracks were found.
4. Surface structural inhomogeneities, either different microstructure zones in the X60 steel or sulphide and
other inclusions were priority initiation sites of microcracks.

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