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RESUMENES Keynes y La Creación Del Dinero
RESUMENES Keynes y La Creación Del Dinero
Abstract:
The document discusses the equation of exchange, also known as the quantity equation, which relates the circular flow
of money in an economy to the flow of goods and services. The document presents different versions of the equation of
exchange, including the transactions version, income version, and cash balance approach. It also discusses the factors
determining the supply and demand for money and the implications for monetary policy.
Chapter 1: Introduction
- The equation of exchange is one of the oldest formal relationships in economics.
- The equation relates the flow of money in an economy to the flow of goods and services.
- Different versions of the equation of exchange have been formulated over time.
Chapter 2: The Formal Theory
- The equation of exchange distinguishes between the nominal quantity and real quantity of money.
- The transactions version of the equation relates the flow of money to the flow of goods and services.
- The income version of the equation relates the flow of money to the flow of national income.
- The cash balance approach views money as a temporary abode of purchasing power.
Chapter 3: The Supply of Money
- The nominal supply of money is determined by the amount of high-powered money, the deposit-reserve ratio, and the
deposit-currency ratio.
- The factors determining the nominal supply of money depend on the monetary system and the policies of the
monetary authorities.
- The quantity of high-powered money is determined by the balance of payments under an international commodity
standard.
Chapter 4: The Demand for Money
- The demand for money by ultimate wealth holders depends on total wealth, the division of wealth between human and
non-human forms, expected rates of return on money and other assets, and other variables affecting the utility of
money.
- The demand for money by business enterprises depends on the scale of the enterprise, rates of return on money and
alternative assets, and other variables affecting the productivity of money balances.
Chapter 5: Reconciliation of Demand with Supply
- The demand for money and the supply of money are reconciled through the interaction of the variables on the supply
and demand sides.
- Changes in the nominal supply of money can produce offsetting changes in other variables, with the ultimate impact on
prices.
- The transmission mechanism for the quantity equation is similar to that for demand-supply analysis of other products.
Questions:
1. What are the different versions of the equation of exchange?
There are several different versions of the equation of exchange:
1. Fisher's version: MV=PT
- This version was formulated by Irving Fisher in 1922 and is widely known.
- It relates the flow of money (MV) to the flow of goods and services (PT).
- M represents the total quantity of money in the economy, V is the velocity of circulation (the average number of times
a unit of currency changes hands), P is an appropriate price index, and T is the total physical volume of transactions.
2. Pigou's income version: MV=PY
- This version was proposed by A.C. Pigou in 1927 and emphasizes national income.
- It relates the flow of money (MV) to the flow of national income (PY).
- M represents the total quantity of money in the economy, V is the income velocity of circulation, P is the implicit price
deflator, and Y represents national income expressed in constant dollars.
3. Cambridge Cash Balance Version:
- This version focuses on the demand for money and volition.
- It is the starting point for the Keynesian approach to the demand for money and modern quantity theory of money.
- It highlights the proportion of resources that people choose to keep in the form of legal tender.
These versions offer different perspectives on the relationship between money and the economy, and each has its own
implications and applications.
2. How is the supply of money determined under an international commodity standard?
Under an international commodity standard, the supply of money in a country is determined by the links between that
country and other countries that use the same commodity as money. The commodity, such as gold or silver, serves as the
standard of value and is used as the basis for the currency.
According to the specie-flow mechanism developed by economists like David Ricardo and Henry Thornton, if a country
has an excess supply of money relative to other countries, prices in that country will be higher compared to the rest of
the world. This encourages imports and discourages exports, leading to a deficit in the balance of trade. To finance this
deficit, specie (actual gold or silver) is shipped from the country with the excess supply of money to other countries,
reducing the quantity of money in the former and increasing it in the latter.
These changes in the quantity of money help to lower prices in the country with the excess supply of money and raise
them in the rest of the world, correcting the initial imbalance. This adjustment process continues until price levels in all
countries reach a level at which balance of payments are in equilibrium. In some cases, specie may continue to flow
between gold- or silver-producing countries and non-gold- or silver-producing countries, or between countries
experiencing different rates of economic growth.
It's important to note that most countries haven't had pure commodity standards but a mixture of commodity and
fiduciary standards. In such cases, changes in the fiduciary component of the money supply, such as the issuance of
paper currency or bank deposits, can replace specie flows as a means of adjusting the quantity of money.
Overall, the supply of money under an international commodity standard is determined by the balance of payments and
the flow of specie between countries.
3. What factors determine the demand for money by ultimate wealth holders and business enterprises?
The demand for money by ultimate wealth holders depends on several factors:
1. Total wealth: The total wealth held by individuals affects their demand for money. Wealth is divided among various
forms of assets, and money is one of them. The more wealth someone has, the greater their potential demand for
money.
2. Division of wealth between human and non-human forms: Ultimate wealth holders possess assets that include
personal earning capacity and non-human wealth. The ratio of non-human wealth to total wealth can influence the
demand for money. If individuals have substantial non-human wealth, they may have a higher demand for money.
3. Expected rates of return on money and other assets: Ultimate wealth holders consider the expected rates of return on
money compared to other assets. The nominal rate of return on money can be zero, negative (in case of net service
charges on demand deposits), or positive (when interest is paid on deposits). The rates of return on other assets, such as
bonds and equities, also play a role in determining the demand for money.
On the other hand, the demand for money by business enterprises depends on different factors:
1. Scale of the enterprise: The scale or size of the business enterprise can influence the demand for money. Larger
enterprises may require more money to finance their operations, investments, and transactions.
2. Rates of return on money and alternative assets: Business enterprises consider the rates of return on money in
comparison to alternative assets. They aim to maximize returns on their capital, so the expected rates of return on
money and other assets significantly impact their demand for money balances.
It is worth noting that there is limited empirical research on the business demand for money compared to the demand
by ultimate wealth holders. Therefore, the determinants for business enterprises' demand for money are less explored,
and further investigation is needed.