What is Behavior?

Behavior refers to the actions of an organism or system, usually in relation to its environment, which includes the
other organisms or systems around as well as the physical environment. It is the response of the organism or system
to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt or covert, and voluntary
or involuntary.

Behavior can also be defined as anything that you do that can be directly observed, measured, and repeated. Some
examples of behavior are reading, crawling, singing, holding hands and the likes.

What is Human Behavior

Human Behavior is the range of actions and mannerisms exhibited by humans in conjunction with their
environment, responding to various stimuli or inputs, whether internal or external, conscious or subconscious, overt
or covert, and voluntary or involuntary. Human Behavior is influenced by many factors, including:

a. attitudes,

b. emotions,

c. culture,

d. ethics,

e. authority,

f. motivation,

g. coercion,

h. beliefs,

i. reasoning.

j. values,

k. religion,

1. rapport,

m.persuasion, and

n. genetics.

What is Human Development?

Human development is the process of a person's growth and maturation throughout their lifespan, concerned with
the creation of an environment where people are able to develop their full potential, while leading productive and
creative lives in accordance with their interests and needs. Development is about the expansion of choices people
have in order to lead lives they value.

Four Pillars of Human Development

1. Equity- It is the idea that every person has the right to an education and health care, that there must be fairness for
all.

2. Sustainability - It encompasses the view that every person has the right to earn a living that can sustain him or
her, while everyone also has the right to access to goods more evenly distributed among populations.

3. Production It is the idea that people need more efficient. social programs to be introduced by their governments.

4. Empowerment - it is the view that people who are powerless, such as women, need to be given power.
Theories of Child (Human) Development

A. Personality Theory

I. Psychoanalytic Theory (Sigmund Freud)

The Structure of Personality (Tripartite Personality)

The structure of personality, according to Sigmund Freud, is made up of three major systems: the id, the ego and the
superego. Behavior is always the product of an interaction among these three systems; rarely does one system
operate to the exclusion of the other two.

1. Id- Id allows us to get our basic needs met. Freud believed that the id is based on the pleasure principle i.e. it
wants immediate satisfaction, with no consideration for the reality of the situation. Id refers to the selfish, primitive,
childish, pleasure-oriented part of the personality with no ability to delay gratification. Freud called the id the "true
psychic reality" because it represents the inner world of subjective experience and has no knowledge of objective
reality.

2. Ego As the child interacts more with the world, the ego begins to develop. The ego's job is to meet the needs of
the id, whilst taking into account the constraints of reality. The ego acknowledges that being impulsive or selfish can
sometimes hurt us, so the id must be constrained (reality principle). Ego is the moderator between the id and
superego which seeks compromises to pacify both. It can be viewed as our "sense of time and place".

3. Superego (Conscience of Man) - The superego develops during the phallic stage as a result of the moral
constraints placed on us by our parents. It is generally believed that a strong superego serves to inhibit the biological
instincts of the id (resulting in a high level of guilt), whereas a weak superego allows the id more expression-
resulting in a low level of guilt. Superego internalizes society and parental standards of "good" and "bad", "right"
and "wrong" behavior.

Levels of Awareness (Topographical Model by Sigmund Freud)

1. The Conscious Level - It consists of whatever sensations and experiences you are aware of at a given moment of
time.

2. The Preconscious Level - This domain is sometimes called "available memory" that encompasses all experiences
that are not conscious at the moment but which can easily be retrieved into awareness either spontaneously or with a
minimum of effort. Examples might include memories of everything you did last Saturday night, all the towns you
ever lived in, your favorite books, or an argument you had with a friend yesterday.

3. The Unconscious Level It is the deepest and major stratum of the human mind. It is the storehouse for primitive
instinctual drives plus emotion and memories that are so threatening to the conscious mind that they have been
repressed, or unconsciously pushed into the unconscious mind. Examples of material that might be found in your
unconscious include a forgotten trauma in childhood, hidden feelings of hostility toward a present, and repressed
sexual desires of which you are unaware.

Freud's Model of Personality Development (Psychosexual Stages)

1. Oral Stage (0-18 Months)

This is the first psychosexual stage in which the infant's source of id gratification is the mouth.
Infant gets pleasure from sucking and swallowing. Later when he has teeth, infant enjoys the aggressive pleasure of
biting and chewing. A child who is frustrated at this stage may develop an adult personality that is characterized by
pessimism, envy and suspicion. The overindulged child may develop to be optimistic, gullible, and full of admiration
for others.

2. Anal Stage (18 Months-3 Years)

When parents decide to toilet train their children during anal stage, the children learn how much control
they can exert over others with anal sphincter muscles. Children can have the immediate pleasure of expelling feces,
but that may cause their parents to punish them.

This represents the conflict between the id, which derives pleasure from the expulsion of bodily
wastes, and the super-ego which represents external pressure to control bodily functions. If the parents are too
lenient in this conflict, it will result in the formation of an anal expulsive character of the child who is disorganized,
reckless and defiant. Conversely, a child may opt to retain feces, thereby spiting his parents, and may develop an
anal retentive character which is neat, stingy and obstinate.

3. Phallic Stage (3-6 years)

Genitals become the primary source of pleasure. The child's erotic pleasure focuses on masturbation,
that is, on self-manipulation of the genitals. He develops a sexual attraction to the parent of the opposite sex; boys
develop unconscious desires for their mother and become rivals with their father for her affection.

This reminiscent with Little Hans' case study. So, the boys develop a fear that their father will punish
them for these feelings (castration anxiety) so decide to identify with him rather than fight him. As a result, the boy
develops masculine characteristics and represses his sexual feelings towards his mother. This is known as:

a. Oedipus Complex - This refers to an instance where in boys build up a warm and loving relationship
with mothers (mommy's boy).

b. Electra Complex - This refers to an occasion where in girls experience an intense emotional
attachment for their fathers (daddy's girl).

Note: The Oedipus Complex is named for the king of Thebes who killed his father and married his
mother

4. Latency Stage (6-11 Years)

Sexual interest is relatively inactive in this stage. Sexual energy is going through the process of
sublimation and is being converted into interest in schoolwork, riding bicycles playing house and sports.

5. Genital Stage (11 Years on)

This refers to the start of puberty and genital stage; there is renewed interest in obtaining sexual
pleasure through the genitals. Masturbation often becomes frequent and leads to orgasm for the first time. Sexual and
romantic interests in others also become a central motive.

Interest now turns to heterosexual relationships. The lesser fixation the child has in earlier stages, the
more chances of developing a "normal" personality, and thus develops healthy meaningful relationships with those
of the opposite sex.

Freud Psychosexual Theory believes that we are born with two basis instincts:

1. Eros This is named after the Greek god for love. Eros includes the sex drives and drives such as hunger and
thirst.

2. Thanatos This is named after Greek god for death. This includes not only striving for death but also
destructive motives such as hostility and aggression. These drives highly influence the personality of a person."

II. Trait Theory

Trait approach identifies where a person might lie along a continuum of various personality characteristics.
Trait theories attempt to learn and explain the traits that make up personality, the differences between people in
terms of their personal characteristics, and how they relate to actual behavior.

Trait refers to the characteristics of an individual, describing a habitual way of behaving, thinking, and feeling.

Kinds of Trait by Allport

1. Common Traits - These are personality traits that are shared by most members of a particular culture.

2. Individual Traits - These are personality traits that define a person's unique individual qualities.

3. Cardinal Traits - These are personality traits that are so basic that all person's activities relate to it. It is a
powerful and dominating behavioral predisposition that provides the pivotal point in a person's entire life. Allport
said that only few people have cardinal traits.
 4. Central Traits - These are the core traits that characterize an individual's personality. Central traits are the
major characteristics of our personalities that are quite generalized and enduring. They form the building blocks of
our personalities.

5. Secondary Traits - These are traits that are inconsistent or relatively superficial, less generalized and far less
enduring that affects our behaviors in specific circumstances.

Kinds of Trait by Goldberg (Big Five or Five Factor Theory)

1. Extraversion - This dimension contrasts such traits as sociable, outgoing, talkative, assertive, persuasive,
decisive, and active with more introverted traits such as withdrawn, quiet, passive, retiring, and reserved.

2. Neuroticism - People high on neuroticism are prone to emotional instability. They tend to experience
negative emotions and to be moody, irritable, nervous, and prone to worry.

3. Conscientiousness-This factor differentiates individuals who are dependable, organized, reliable,

responsible, thorough, hard-working, and preserving from those undependable, disorganized, impulsive, unreliable,
irresponsible, careless, negligent and lazy.

4. Agreeableness - This factor is composed of a collection of traits that range from compassion to
antagonism towards others. A person high on agreeableness would be a pleasant person, good-natured, warm,
sympathetic, and cooperative.

5. Openness to Experience - This factor contrasts individuals who are imaginative, curious, broad-minded,
and cultured with those who are concrete-minded and practical, and whose interests are narrow.

Personality Trait by Eysenck

1. Extrovert - It refers to a person that is sociable, out-going, and active.

2. Introvert - It refers to a person that is withdrawn, quiet, and introspective.

3. Emotionally Unstable It is a trait that is being anxious, excitable, and easily disturbed.

Eysenck theorized that criminality and antisocial behavior are both positively and causally related to high
levels of psychoticism, extroversion and neuroticism.12,13,14] The theory says that in extroverts, and possibly also
in people high on the psychoticism scale, biologically determined low degrees of arousal and arousability lead to
impulsive, risk-taking and sensation-seeking behavior that increase the level of cortical (brain) arousal to a more
acceptable and enjoyable amount.

Eysenck did find that extroverts experience cortical under arousal, prefer higher levels of stimulation, and
are less responsive to punishment - they therefore do not learn behavioral alternatives with the use of disciplinary
action.

What is Temperament?

Temperament refers to the fundamental groundwork of character, generally presumed to be biologically

determined and existent early in life, inclusive of traits like emotional reactiveness, energy level, reaction tempo, and
motivation to explore.

Four Types of Temperament

Melancholic - sad, gloomy

Choleric- hot-tempered, irritable

Phlegmatic- sluggish, calm

Sanguine- cheerful, hopeful!"