Teaching and learning

methods
Contents
◼ Lectures.
◼ Learning in small groups.
◼ Teaching in the clinical skills center.
◼ Bedside teaching.
◼ Ambulatory care teaching.
◼ In the community.
◼ Distance education.
◼ Peer-assisted learning.
 Objectives
◼ At the end of this lecture the audience must:
◼ Know the main methods of teaching and learning
◼ Know the advantages and disadvantages of each.
I. Lectures
Lecture
A process by which the notes of a teacher
become the notes of a student without
passing through the minds of either.

O’Donnel 1997
 Role
◼ An opening lecture of a course will
stimulate interests and curiosity.
◼ A lecture should have a stated aims;
e.g. at the end of the lecture, the
audience should be able to list, to
know, to…..
Types of lecture sessions
◼ Didactic lecture: Spoon feeding the students
with predigested facts.
◼ Overview.
◼ Core: series of lectures presenting the core
content of the course.
◼ Non-core: A lecture presenting materials beyond
the core. E.g. recent research developments.
◼ Assessment material. The style of examinations
can be introduced.
Types of lecture sessions, cont.
◼ Interactive lecture (lecturer-student-patient)
◼ Shared lecture: two or more lecturers may share
the session to present multi-professional
approaches or opinions on a topic.
◼ Mini-symposium: several participants can take
part to demonstrate multi-professional
approaches to management of a clinical
problem.
Components
▪ Selection.
-Materials chosen as key points should lead to
the stated objectives.
-Generally, 5 key points are suitable for a lecture
of one hour.
▪ Sequencing.
- Between key points the lecture should proceed
in a logical progression.
Components, cont.
-Within key points the use of a variety of
examples, illustrations, and elaborations will
increase the chance of new information being
retained.
▪ Linking

A summary should be made at the end of the

presentation of each key point before
progressing to the next.
Duration
◼ Students’ attention decrease after 45
minutes.
◼ There must be time for answering
questions.
◼ Lectures delivered by more than one
person may last longer, but better to
give a break in between the two
sessions.
Format
◼ Introduction.
◼ Body.
◼ Conclusion.
Note:
Students are more receptive in the first and
last few minutes of the lecture. So these are
the times to emphasize the key points of
the lecture.
Introduction
◼ Last around 5 minutes.
◼ The lecturer must attract attention, establish
rapport, and provide motivation to the audience
to concentrate for the main body of the lecture.
◼ The key points of the lecture must be indicated.
The lecturer can provides a statement of the
objectives of the lecture (e.g. at the end of this
lecture you should be able to……….) so
students can arrange their thoughts.
◼ The students’ preexisting knowledge base should
be identified.
Body
◼ The classical method: This divides the lecture into
sections and sub-sections. Easy to plan and take notes
from, but can be boring soon.
◼ The problem centered method: Begins by stating a
problem and then argues for and against various
solutions.
◼ The sequential method: Consists of a series of linked
statements which lead to a conclusion as one part
logically leads to the next. E.g:
definition of problem, Signs and symptoms, prognosis,
investigation, management, and lastly monitoring.
Conclusion
◼ Finish the lecture with a review of the objectives
and key points which were stated in the
introduction.
◼ You can indicate avenues of self-directed
learning which the students might wish to
follow.
◼ Some lecturers ask for feed back for their
performance.
 A, E, I, O, U
◼ Attract attention.
◼ Establish rapport.

◼ Identify knowledge base.

◼ Provide advance organizer-Objectives and

key points.
◼ Indicate Usefulness.
 Presentation
◼ Where to stand?
◼ How to speak?

◼ Eye contact.

◼ Lights (beware of dimming lights).

◼ When to change style?

 Highlights
◼ An important question for any lecturer to
consider when planning a teaching session is,
“How can I help my students to learn during my
lecture?”
Cantillon, 2003
◼ Say what you are going to say, say it and say
what you have said.
◼ Ensure that you have arrived at the correct
lecture theatre to avoid beginning your lecture
with the wrong audience.
Highlights, cont.
◼ If you are unsure of the answer to a
question raised, ask the student to meet
you later to discuss it.
◼ Always end your lecture with a summary of
the content rather than a discussion of
some obscure points raised as question.
II. Learning in small
groups
 Learning in small groups
◼ An educational method to promote student’s
learning.
◼ There is movement from a teacher-centered
approach of education to a more student
centered approach.
◼ Characterized by student participation and
interaction.
◼ Small number of students doesn’t always mean
student participation.
Advantages
◼ Familiarizes students with an adult approach to
learning.
◼ Encourages students to take responsibility for
their own learning.
◼ Promotes deeper understanding of material.
◼ Encourages problem solving skills.
◼ Encourages participation. So it is more
enjoyable.
Advantages, cont.
◼ Develops:
Interpersonal skills
Communication skills
Social team-working skills
Presentation skills
Disadvantages
◼ Needs:
More teachers
More rooms
More resources
 Examples of small groups sessions
◼ Seminars.
◼ Workshops.
◼ Clinical skills session.
◼ Communication skills sessions.
◼ Problem based learning tutorials.
◼ Clinical teaching sessions
ward-based
ambulatory care
community-based
Requirements of a tutor
◼ Tutor guide must be provided to the tutor,
so that the objective would be clear for
him.
◼ New tutors have to enter special training
courses.
◼ Tutors should be the first to appear at the
appointed hour, not the last. They have to
check the venue, the seating, and the
resources.
 Issues of importance during group
work
◼ Participation of all group members.
◼ Critical thinking (interpretation and synthesis of
information).
◼ Articulation of thoughts/views.
◼ Learner interaction.
◼ Review of objectives.
◼ Intermittent summary of achievements.
◼ Observation of agreed time constraints
(development of time management skills).
 The role of the student
◼ The positive commitment of the student is
the key to success.
◼ Learners must realize that what they get
out of the process directly reflect what they
put into it.
◼ The input: prior reading and active
participation.
◼ Student groups may function satisfactorily
in the absence of a tutor.
Finally:
◼ A mixed approach to the learning situation
is often appropriate and may be positively
encouraged.
◼ The use of both lectures and small groups
may be complementary to the learning
process.
VII. Distance education
 Definition
The term ‘distance education’ covers the various
forms of study at all levels which are not under
the continuous, immediate supervision of tutors
present with their students in lecture rooms, or
in the same premises, but which nevertheless,
benefit from the planning, guidance, and tuition
of tutorial organization.
Holmberg 1997
Why distance education?
◼ It is an excellent alternative to continuing
medical education courses when there are
certain constraints like time, funding, and
geography.
◼ Distance education can allow learners to
study a topic to the depth they desire and
at a pace that suits them.
VIII. Peer-assisted
learning (PAL)
Definition of Peer Assisted Learning
◼ Any situation where people learn from, or with,
others of a similar level of training, background
or other shared characteristic.
◼ In the undergraduate curriculum this could
include any small group work (e.g. problem
based learning). In postgraduate medicine, e.g.
peer review of journal articles, clinical team
meeting and appraisal.
Advantages
◼ Advantages for tutors:
▪ Provides opportunities to reinforce and revise their
learning.
▪ Encourages responsibility and increased self-
confidence.
▪ Develops teaching and verbalization skills.
▪ Enhances communication skills, and empathy.
▪ Develops appraisal skills (of self and others) including
the ability to give and receive appropriate feedback.
▪ Enhance organizational and team-working skills.
Advantages, cont.
◼ Advantages for tutees
▪ Feel more relaxed, and more supported.
▪ Can ask questions, even the silly ones.
▪ Provides opportunity to obtain detailed
feedback on their knowledge and skills.
▪ Associated with social benefits, role modeling,
and increased motivation to learn.
▪ It is efficacious: peer tutors seem to be as good
as staff in certain areas.
“The peer tutors were great teachers. They
are students as well, so they know what
and how we think, the mistakes we tend to
make”

Tutee (Howman et al 2003)

Advantages, cont.
◼ Advantages for medical school
▪ Cost and resource-effective.
▪ Students feel more involvement in the course and
ownership.
▪ It is easier to standardize tutoring from peers than from
professional teachers.
▪ Meets obligation to train medical students in teaching
skills.
▪ Encourage a culture of collaborative learning instead of
competitiveness.
 Disadvantages of PAL
◼ Student tutors may have inadequate depth of
knowledge.
◼ Student tutors may teach ‘the wrong thing’ or
give incorrect information.
◼ Tutors lack experience and may transfer
knowledge and skills poorly.
◼ Tutors’ ego and personality issues may cause
groups to be dysfunctional.
Disadvantages of PAL, cont.
◼ Students may be encouraged to examine each
other, with potential peer pressure,
embarrassment, and inappropriate behavior.
◼ Time and effort are required to organize PAL
programs, train tutors, and monitor outcomes.
◼ Student tutors may be used as ‘cheap labor’,
teaching on established courses, where there is
no real benefit for the tutor, because there are
insufficient faculty staff.
 Summary
◼ More than one teaching method is needed.
◼ There is movement from a teacher-centered
approach of education to a more student
centered approach.