Gramatica Inglesa 2

Final Exam
Green Book
Chapter I :Meaning in Language Chapter VI: The organization of time in the textual
The place of lexicogrammar word
The organization of Lexicogrammar Time Frames and Time Shift in Discourse
From Clause to Text Written Narratives
Genre Written Descriptions
Oral Discourse
Chapter II: Cohesion

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Grammatical Book
Lexical Unit I: The Grammar of Texts
Lock, Graham (1996), Chapter 1: Some Basic Concepts
Chapter III: Information Management Bloor & Bloor (2013) Chapter 1
Thematic Structure Eggins, Suzanne (2004), Chapter 2: From Introduction
Information Structure until Analysing cohesive resources.

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Syntactic strategies to manage information Unit II: Cohesion
Eggins, Suzanne ( 2004), Chapter 2: From Analyzing
Chapter IV: Clause Combining and the use of Junctives Cohesive Resources onwards.
Structural Relationship between clauses Unit III: Information Management
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Punctuation Problems Lock, Graham (1996), Chapter 11:
Clause Reduction Organizing messages: Theme and focus.
Dangling Constructions Bloor & Bloor (2013), Chapter 5: Grammar and text
Chapter V: Mood and Modality, Language as Unit IV: Clause Combining and the Use of Junctives
interaction Lock, Graham (1996), Chapter 12: Combining
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The system of mood messages: complex sentences.

Epistemic modality Unit V:Interpersonal Meaning: Mood and Modality
Non-Epistemic modality Lock, Graham ( 1996) Chapter 10:
Expressing Judgements and Attitudes: Modal Auxiliaries
and Modality
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Chapter I :Meaning in Language

The place of lexicogrammar
The organization of Lexicogrammar


From Clause to Text

Genre

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 The difference between Formal Grammar and Functional Grammar

Formal Grammar s​ees grammar as a set of rules which specify all the possible grammatical
structure of the language. In this approach, there is a clear distinction between grammatical and
ungrammatical sentences. So the basic concern of this approach is with the ​forms of grammatical
structures and their relationship to one another. It refers to grammar in isolation.

Functional Grammar ​sees language as a system of communication and analyzes grammar to

discover how it is organized to allow speakers and writers to make and exchange meanings. The focus
is usually on the ​appropriateness of a form for a particular communicative purpose in a particular

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context. The primary concern is with the ​functions of structures and their constituents and with their
meaning in context. It refers to grammar and its context.

Levels of Analysis
Grammar includes two aspects; (1) the arrangement of words and (2) the internal structure of words.
Syntax is interested in how the words combine to form a meaningful sentence.

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Semantics refers to the systems of meaning in language. for example, how sentences relate to the real
world of people, actions, places, and so on.

The organization of Lexicogrammar

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It provides us with the means to combine words in different grammatical structures to make
different meanings. The lexicogrammar is hierarchically organized as a rank scale. It is a hierarchy of
units based on composition: units of one rank are composed of the units of the rank immediately
below In english, the lexicogrammatical rank scale is clause- group/phrase- word. This means that the
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clause is the highest unit on the rank scale and it consists of group or phrases, which are units of the
rank immediately below and which are made up of words. A clause may be combined with other
clauses to form clause complexes.
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Test for constituency:

There are some tests that can be used to divide a clause into its constituents.
1) Movability: if an element is an immediate clause constituent, it is likely to be independently
movable.
2) Substitution: Elements which are acting together as a single clause constituents should be


reducible to a single substituted item. For example, with a nominal group you should be able
to substitute it with a pronoun; with a verbal group you should be able to compress the verbal
meaning into a lexical verb.

Lexicogrammar strata
Rank ​refers to different levels of organization within grammar. The ranks are: ​word,
group/phrase, clause and sentence​.

Sentences and ​Words are two ranks of grammatical organization. It is necessary to recognize
ranks between a sentence and a word. These units are called ​Groups​. One group may consist of one
or two words. And the rank between a sentence and a group is called ​Clause ​which consist of a
sentence, which also consist of groups

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 Class ​Terms like noun ​and ​verb are names of word classes. The same class level are also
used to label groups.

Clases of words:
● Noun (Pronouns are a subcategory of a noun, thus they are into the noun class group)
● Adjective
● Verb
● Adverb

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Phrases
​A group can also be called a Phrase, but the only phrase that is not called group is the
Prepositional Phrase.

Embedding
it is a case where one of the noun groups contains within it a clause. Cases of this kind, where
one unit is used as a constituent of another unit at the same or at a lower rak, is known as Embedding.

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Defining relative clauses will always be embedded.
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Ex: ​People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones.

One of the groups in the example ( people who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones) contains
within it a clause ( who lives in glass houses).
Cases of this kind where one unit is used as a constituent of another unit at the same or a lower rank,
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are known as​ Embedding.

Ranking Clauses

(Usual order) (Embedding)

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● Clause ● Clause ● Group

● Group ● Clause ● Clause
● Word ● Word ● Word


​ Meaning in Grammar

There are three types of meanings within grammatical structures and those can be identified as:

● Experiential Meaning​: It has to do with the ways language represents our experiences of the
world as well as the inner world of our thoughts and feelings. It is concerned with how we
talk about actions, happenings, feelings, beliefs, situations, states and so on the people and
things involved in them, and the relevant circumstances of time, place, manner, and so on.

● Interpersonal Meaning: It has to do with the way in which we act upon one another through
language and the ways in which we express our judgements and attitudes.

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 ● Textual Meaning: It has to do with the ways in wich a stretch of a language is organized in
relation to its context. It is important in the creation of coherence in spoken and written text.

​ Grammatical Functions

Subject and Finite

The ​Subject ​is closely associated with Finite. The realization of ​Subject ​and ​Finite are crucial to the

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realization of ​Mood.

Subject:​ It can be identified by the other formal characteristics

1) Subjects are typically noun groups but certain kinds of clauses can also function as Subject.
These include: That clauses, Wh-Clauses, To+V2(Infinitive) Clauses and Ving Clauses, Also

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Nominal Clauses.
2) Five pronouns have special subjects forms: I, She , He, We and They.
3) In declarative mood clauses, the subject is normally a noun group which immediately
precedes the Finite.
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Identifying Finite

Finites can similarly be identified by the addition of Tag, which picks up not only the subject
but also the Finite of the preceding clause.
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Finites have the following characteristics:

1) If a verb group contains a Finite, the Finite will always be the first constituent of the verb
group. If the verb contains only one word, it may function as a Finite.
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2) Only Finites are marked for Tense.

3) Only Finites are marked for number agreement, their form changes according to the number
and person of the Subject. However, with other Finites, number distinctions are neutralized in
the past tenses and there is no unique form to agree with I. There are also some Finites which


show no agreement at all, the Modal Auxiliaries.

Other constituents in Clauses

Object, Complement. Adjunct and Predicator

Subject and ​Finite are just two functions that can be identified in clauses. Two other
functional constituents can be identified in this​ Clause​: ​Object ​and​ Adjunct.

Objects ​normally follow the Finite and the rest of the verb groups. Some clauses may have two
Objects:
● Indirect Object (Oi)
● Direct Object ( Od)

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However, clauses which have linking verbs have ​Complements. ​They can be realized by ​noun
groups, nominal clauses, adjective groups ​and ​Prepositional Phrases​.

Adjuncts: are typically realized by prepositional phrases or adverb groups. They cannot function as
Subject and it is often possible to omit then without making the clause ungrammatical.

The predicator: is everything in the verb group except for the Finite. A nonfinite verb group such as
Having been examined ​consist only of a Predicator, whereas a finite verb group such as ​has been
examined​ consist of a ​Finite​ ( Has) and a ​Predicator​ (Been examined).

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Genre
The activity language users engage in with a purpose in mind is referred to as a Genre. They
are stage goal oriented, purposeful activities in which speakers engage as members of a culture. For
example, types of genres are reports, book reviews, lectures, etc.
Genres have developed as predictable are relatively stable language patterns since developing

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patterned ways of achieving tasks is useful and time saving for human beings.

How are genres recognized? The way in which texts that belong to the same genre are similar has to
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do with the ​Schematic structure​ and the ​Patterns of lexicogramatical choices​ in the text.

A) Schematic Structure
Genres have predictable compositional structures. The purpose that we have in mind when we
produce a text cannot be achieved all at once. Each stage contributes a part of the overall
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meaning that must be made for the genre to be accomplished successfully. In turn, stages,
which are highly predictable segments in each genre, consist of one more phases that vary in
relation to the subject matter.

B) Patterns of Lexicogrammatical Choices

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We can predict that since genres are ways of achieving different communicative goals
through language, speakers will make different lexico-grammatical choices according to the
different purposes they want to achieve. Texts of different genres will reveal different
lexico-grammatical choices- different words and structures. If each genre is made up of a


number of different stages, then we should find that different elements of schematic structure
will reveal different lexicogrammatical choices.

Speech and Writing

The meaning that we make in context are realized through lexicogrammatical choices which are in
turn realized through a network of expressions. They make use of the medium of sound or the
graphic medium.
The context in which language is used and not just the medium that influences linguistic choices.
The variable of context that influences the role that language plays in an interaction is called ​mode.
The two dimensions along which mode can be analyzed: the immediate feedback between the
interactants and the role of language as action or as reflection.

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 A) The immediacy of feedback
This continuum classifies situations according to the possibilities of immediate feedback
between participants.

B) The role of Language as action or as reflection

It ranges situations according to whether language is used to accompany an activity
participants are engaged in or to reflect on experience. In such situations, language is just one
of the means being used to achieve ongoing action.
If we combined these two dimensions of mode, we can characterize the basic contrast

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between spoken and written situations of language use.

MODE: TYPICAL SITUATIONS OF LANGUAGE USE

SPOKEN WRITTEN

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Interactive
Face-to-face
Language as action
Spontaneous
●
●
●
●
Non-interactive
Not Face-to-face
Language as reflection
Not spontaneous
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● Casual ● Not casual

Linguistic choices are influenced by the context in which language is used.

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SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE: THE LINGUISTIC IMPLICATION OF MODE

SPOKEN LANGUAGE WRITTEN LANGUAGE

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● Context dependent ● Context independent

● Dynamic structure ● Synoptic structure
● Spontaneity phenomena ● No spontaneity
● Everyday lexis ● Prestige lexis
● ●


Non- standard grammar Standard grammar

● Lexically sparse ● Lexically dense

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 Lexical Density
It is the proportion of lexical items to the total discourse. One of the ways of measuring it to work out
the ratio of lexical items per clause in a text. The lexical density is closely related to whether the text
is most active or reflective.

We have different techniques to make a text lexically dense and those are the following:
- Nominalizations
It is one of the processes by means of which lexical density is achieved. It is the process of “Turning
things that are not normally nouns into nouns, with consequences for other parts of sentences”. And
since nouns can be pre and post modified, this allows for more information to be packed in the same

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clause, making the rate of lexical density higher.
- Passive Voice
- Embedded clauses

Chapter II: Cohesion

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Lexical
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Text: ​A text is a unit of a language in use. It is not a grammatical unit like a clause or a
sentence. It is a semantic unit, a unit not of form ut of meaning.

Texture: ​Is the property that distinguishes text from non-text. ​Texture ​is what holds the
clause of a text together to give them unity. Halliday and Hasan suggest that texture involves the
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interaction of two components: ​Coherence, the text’s relationship to its extra-textual context. And
Cohesion, The way the elements within a text bind it together as a “unified whole”. The result of the
interaction of these two dimensions is a piece of language which is using linguistic resources in a
meaningful way within a situation and cultural context.
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Coherence​: it refers to the way a group of clauses or sentences relate to the context.
Two types of Coherence are involved in Texture:
Registerial Coherence: ​A text has this type of coherence when we can identify one
situation in which all the clauses of the text could occur.


Generic Coherence: ​A text has this type of coherence when we can recognize the text
as an example of a particular genre. It occurs when we can identify a unified purpose motivating a
language usually expressed through a predictable generic or schematic structure.
Cohesion is the types of meaning relations between different parts of the text which contribute to
textual unity.

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Types of Cohesive Devices

GRAMMATICAL

- Reference: ​It is the cohesive resource of reference to how the speaker introduces participants
and then keeps track of them once they are in a text. Participants are people, places and things
that get talked about in text.
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- Types of reference:
- Endophoric: ​when the identity of the referenced item is retrieved

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from within the text.

- Types of Endophoric reference:

- Personal or pronominal: ​I, you, he, she , it, we, they
and the possessive case.
- Demonstrative: ​This, that, these, those, the.
- Comparative: ​Same, equal, such, similar, other, and,

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adjective or adverb in the comparative degree.

Anaphoric:​ ↶, cohesive
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- Cataphoric: ​↷, in the same clause or in the following
- Esphoric: ​The referent is in the same noun group or clause.
Non cohesive.

- Homophoric: The extralinguistic ground that is where the referent

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is.
- Exophoric: ​The referent is to be found in the immediate context of
situation.

- Substitution
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- Noun:​ one, ones, same

- Verb: ​do, does, did, doing
- Clause:​ so


- Ellipsis
- Noun
- Verb
- Clause

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LEXICAL

- Repetition: ​Words, noun groups.

- Synonym: ​words with the same meaning as other words.
- Hyperonym
- Superordinate ​→( Country)→ Classification → general
- Hyponym​→ ( Arg, Brasil, Chile)→ Type of → particular

- Meronomy

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- Parts to whole: ​When two lexical items are related as whole to parts.
- Co-meronomy: ​When two lexical items are related as parts of the same
whole.

- Antonym: ​opposite
- Semantic Fields: ​They come from the same general area of vocabulary.

.C Chapter III: Information Management

Thematic Structure
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Information Structure
Syntactic strategies to manage information

A relevant aspect of the organization of information in texts is the structuring of the

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information within the clauses that realize it.

The constituents in a clause may be arranged in different ways, giving rise to different
grammatical structure. Not all of them will be equally suitable for any textual context. Clauses that
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contribute to textual continuity are those in which appropriate choices of thematic and information
structure and made: bothe the theme of the clause and what is presented as given/new should be
adequate for its textual context.

The possibility of arranging the constituents in a clause opens up a range of choices that


should be assessed against the background of the discursive context in which the clause is inserted.
Whereas appropriate selections contribute to textual unity, inadequate ones interrupt information flow.

The thematic and information structure principles help organize the message within and
between clauses are thus part of the textual metafunction. In this unit we will explore these concepts
together with some syntactic strategies like ​Clefting, Fronting, Postponement and Passivization​.

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 Thematic Structure
The Theme is the point of departure the speaker has chosen for his clause. Theme indicates
what the message will be about and takes initial position in the clause. The rest of the clause is the
Rheme.

If the ​Theme coincides with the Subject ​of the declarative clause, then we say that is
unmarked​. In the imperative clause the unmarked ​Theme is the ​Predicator, in yes-no interrogative
clauses the ​Finite ​together with the ​Subject and in wh- interrogative clauses the wh element. If the
Theme is realized by a topical element other than the typical one, then the Theme is ​marked​.

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The most common marked Themes are realized by Circumstantial Adjuncts. More highly
marked are Themes realized by nominal groups that are not the Subject.

We have different types of themes: Experiential, ​Textual​, discourse markers, junctives, or

Interpersonal, vocatives, modal Adjuncts. These themes, Textual and interpersonal, are optional and
can combine to create multiple themes, but it is the Topical(Experiential) Theme that anchors the

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starting point of the message. In other words, the Theme will extend up to the first topical element of
the clause.
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Information Structure
Given- New makes up the information structure of the clause. While Given refers to the
previously mentioned or the un-newsworthy information, New reveals new information, what is
considered newsworthy or the focus, and is often indicated by the placement of the Tonic nucleus
Given information is optional, since it is considered retrievable, but New information is
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obligatory. New does not necessarily mean mentioned for the first time. We may present as new
information that was already mentioned but to which we refer again with corrective, contrastive or
emphatic meaning.
In clause the Given unit of information tends to coincide with the Theme whereas the New is
typically found in the Rheme. However, Given units are not always thematized and New units do not
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always take place in Rheme position, but there should be a good reason for this choice. In those cases
we speak of marked information structure.


Ways to Organize Theme and Given-New in Texts

Method of development ​is the way certain themes are selected, which can be marked or unmarked,
with a regular frequency or pattern.

- Chronological
- From whole to parts
- From general to specific
- Topographical

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Thematic Progression ​is another way of approaching the analysis of information flow in a text, it is
the sequencing of themes and the way in which they are related to previous Themes and Rhemes in
the text. It shows how utterances link up to one another and make the text progress. It contributes to
the production of text connexity and facilitates the reading process. The most typical types of
Thematic Progression are the following:

- Linear Thematic Progression ( The Rheme of the first clause becomes the Theme of the
following clause)
- Derived Themes ( There is a hypertheme from which the subsequent Theme derive)
- Topic Continuity, Constant Themes or Themes reiteration ( The same Theme is repeated in

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different clauses and new Rhemes are added)
- Themes with divided Rheme ( The Rheme is made up of two or more elements that are taken
up as Themes of the following clauses.)

Syntactic strategies to manage information

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There are 4 different strategies to manage information:

a) Fronting/Thematization
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We front elements not typically found in initial position for various discursive reasons: To
focus on the fronted element; To focus on the elements place towards the end of the clause;
To build a particular method of development; To contrast periods in time, etc.
Thematization of elements may or may not imply inversion of Subject and verb or of Subject
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and Operator.
- Without Inversion: When fronting circumstance adjuncts we do not alter the normal
placement of Subject and verb.

- With Inversion S-V: When fronting some adjuncts of place( position), objects,
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complements or participles we may need to reverse the normal order of Subject and
verb.

- With Inversion S-O: Negative and restrictive adverbials require an inversion of



Subject and operator.

b) Postponement: Anticipatory It and Existential clauses

- The Anticipatory It ​( Subject and Object)

When the subject or object in a clause is either complex and lengthy or the focus or
both, it is shifted from its normal position to the end of the clause. This is typically
the case with non-finite or finite that or wh clauses. The subject or object position is
filled by the anticipatory It and the non-finite clause then functions as postponed
subject or object.

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 - Existential Clause
There is another kind of grammatical subject used to introduced the real subject,
which is placed in end position to observe the principle of end-focus since the
element presented last is the new information, a weighty or the most noteworthy
element. The postponed subject is usually an indefinite unstressed noun group.

c) Cleft Sentences
It cleft
They are the result of changing the normal sentence pattern to emphasize a particular
piece of information. The emphasis is on the phrase/group after It+ be. Because there are two

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parts to the sentence it is called cleft, which means “divided into two”.

Cleft sentences are particularly useful in writing where we cannot use intonation for
purposes of focus or emphasis, but they are also frequently used in speech. The main purposes
are to give extra focus to a piece of information and they are also used for contrastive
purposes.

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This other type is also used for extra emphasis or for contrastive purposes. They are
also frequently used when the focus is an action.
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d) Passive Voice
We use the passive for discursive purposes when the structure of the clause or the relationship
between two clauses determines that the New information should come last.
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Most clauses with a passive verb do not mention the agent. However, there are cases where
disclosing the agent is necessary and thus becomes a meaningful option discourse. For example, when
we need to focus on the doer of the action, we place the agent in end position. Also, the passive allows
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us to select a desired Theme or avoid an undesired one.



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 Chapter IV: Clause Combining and the use of Junctives
Structural Relationship between clauses
Punctuation Problems
Clause Reduction
Dangling Constructions

Green Book
Clause combining and the use of junctives

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Logico-Semantic Relations

Logical meaning create continuity in a text by linking massages in terms of clarification, addition,
time, consequence and comparison.

Types of Logico-Semantic relations

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Words or phrases that express logico-semantic relations are called junctives or linking words.
The main types of junctives are ​coordinators ( And, or, but), subordinators ( although, because) ,
conjuncts​ or ​sentence connectors( in other words, therefore, for instance) a​ nd ​prepositional
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clusters( apart from, on account of). ​There is a wide range of meaning relations that can hold
​ laboration​,​ one clause may elaborate the
between clauses or clauses complexes. You can have E
message in another clause by restating the meaning in different words, giving more details, being
more specific, giving examples of clarifying in some way; E
​ xtension​, one clause may extend the
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meaning in another clause by addition or alteration; and ​Enhancement,​ one clause may enhance the
meaning of another clause by providing circumstantial information, including the categories of time,
space, manner, cause or reason, purpose, condition and concession.
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Elaboration: ( =)
➢ Restatement: ( in other words, that is Enhancement: (x)
to say) ➢ Time ( while, meanwhile, before,
➢ Exemplification ( for example, for after…)


instance) ➢ Space ( where, there)

➢ Clarification (in fact, actually)
➢ Description. ( non- defining relative
clauses)
Extension: (+)
➢ Addition ( and, besides, moreover,
also, furthermore)
➢ Alternative ( or, alternatively)
➢ Manner ( similarly, likewise, by…)
➢ Cause7 result (because, as, since)
➢ Effect ( therefore, so, as a result,
consequently)
➢ Purpose ( so that, in order that)
➢ Condition ( of, otherwise)
➢ Concession/Contrast ( but, yet,
although, however, even though)

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These types of relations between clauses or clause complexes are not always explicitly signaled.

Structural relationships between clauses

When two or more clauses are combined, they form clauses complexes. There are two basic
kinds of structural relationships between clauses in clauses complexes: ​Parataxis ​and ​Hypotaxis.

Paratactically​ ​related clauses are clauses that are in a relation of equality. They can be juxtaposed (
comma, colon, semicolon or dash) or joined by a coordinator ( and, but, or), a correlative pair( not
only ... but also, either ... or) or a conjunction( moreover, in addition, similarly, on the contrary, yet,

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namely.)

Hypothetically​ related clauses are in a relation of inequality. Dependent clauses may be marked by
subordinators ( although, because, unless, until, if, while), relatives ( determiner or pronoun ( who,
which, whose, when), by subject operator inversion, or by being a non-finite clause - either with no
other meaning or preceded by a conjunction or a preposition or prepositional cluster.

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Only ranking clauses can be syntactically related with other clauses, so embedded clause do
not enter into the system of tactic relations, so they have no structural relation. This kind of clauses
that are rankshifting are the following:
Defining relative clauses
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The only person who was kind to her was Peter. ( Post Modifier, Noun group)
Noun Clauses:
Wh interrogatives
What caused the accident is not clear ( Head in a Noun group- Subject) ( Part of a clause)
Nominal Relatives
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I want to check what you’ve done (Head in a Noun group- Direct Object) ( Part of a clause)

It has taxis ​Non Finite clauses

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The distinction between Finite and non finite dependent clauses is that finite clauses must have both
finite and subject and the non finite one does not.
Prepositions used with non finite dependent clauses: As in, by, without, despite, in spite of, as a result
of, because of.


Conjunctions used in both: while, when, since, until, if, unless, although.

Punctuation problems
1. Comma Splice​: a comma splice occurs when a comma separates two independent clauses.
Ex: My brother is blond, he doesn't look like me.

2. Run-on sentences​: a run-on ( or fused) sentences occurs when no punctuation at all separates
independent clauses.
Ex: My sister is an early bird she likes to get up early in the morning.

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 3. Incomplete or segment fragment​: A sentence fragment occurs either when the subject or the
verb is missing in the main clauses or when the independent clause is missing in a clause
complex.
Ex: He is very industrious. Works extremely hard every day.

Clause Reduction
Reduced clauses are non-finite or verbless clauses created by reducing or contracting a finite
clause. They are used to compress information and they may be structurally dependent on another
clause or embedded in it.
They can be ​Dependent​:

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Ex:
When ripe, the apples are picked and sorted.
Or ​Embedded:
Ex:
A farmer is interested in how to apply the practice.

Dangling Constructions

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Sometimes the subject of the reduced clause is different from the subject of the main clause,
but it is not explicitly stated. The reduced clause becomes a ​dangling construction​, because the
subject is still assumed to be the subject of the main clause, but it isn't.
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Ex: Reading the morning news, My boyfriend got a call.

By making the subject in both clauses co-referential or by turning the non-finite into a finite
clause with an explicit subject can we make them grammatical.
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Ex: Reading the morning news, I heard that my boyfriend got a call.
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 Chapter V: Mood and Modality, Language as interaction
The system of mood
The semantics of a communicative interaction

We use language to interact, and by doing so we establish a relationship between ourselves and the
interlocutor; we take different speech roles. We may ​give or demand something.​ The combination of
these roles determines the basic speech functions of:
- Statement
- Question
- Offer

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- Command

These semantics categories ​are realized by grammatical MOOD choices​.

MOOD​ is typically associated with the speech functions:

- Statements by the choice of the ​declarative mood​.

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Questions by the choice of the​ interrogative mood​.
Offers have​ no typically associated mood choice.
Commands by the choice of the​ imperative mood.
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Metaphorical uses of moods​ occur when the mood structure chosen by the speaker/writer is not
congruent with the typical associated speech function assigned to that grammatical mood. The
motivation for using indirect realizations may be determined by the context.
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Constituents of mood:

- Subject
- Finite:
- temporal finite ​verbal operators​ - they give tense to the Finite.
FI

- modal finite ​modal operators​: they give tense and​ MODALITY​. They express the
judgement of how likely/unlikely something is.

MODALITY ​has to do with how the writer expresses his attitudes and judgements:


- Epistemic​: LIKELIHOOD: ​high, mid, low ​expressed by:

- modal auxiliaries ​(must, should, may)
- modal verbs​ (seem, appear)
- modal adjunct ​(certainly, perhaps)
- mental process clauses​ (I think)
- ​attributive clauses ​( I am sure it is
possible)

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 - Non-epistemic​:
- REQUIREMENT:
- ​high​(obligation, prohibition, necessity)
- ​mid ​(advice, criticism, regret)
- ​low ​(permission or lack of necessity).
Expressed by:
- modal auxiliaries​ (must, should, may)
- Semi-modals​ (have to, need to)
- modal verbs​ (allow, require, forbid)
- attributive clauses​ (It’s

OM
advisable/convenient/recommended)

- INCLINATION:
- high

- mid } degree of ​determination, intention

.C - low
or willingness
DD
Expressed by:
- modal auxiliaries​ (will, shall, would)
- attributive clauses ​(I am willing, He is determined)
- modal verbs ​(intend, mean)
LA

- FREQUENCY

Expressed by:
- modal adjuncts ​(always, never, sometimes)
- modal auxiliaries ​(would, will, could)
FI

- attributive clauses​ (it is usual/unusual)

- ABILITY / POTENTIALITY
Expressed by:


- Can ( Modal Verb)

- Be able (Semi-Modal)
- It is possible ( Attributive clause)

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 Chapter VI: The organization of time in the textual word
Time Frames and Time Shift in Discourse
The organization of time in the textual world

The study of the ​interplay of various tenses​ in context, and the role they have in the construction of
the textual world.

Times Frames vs ​Tense

OM
The three linear universal concepts of A linguistic device that​ expresses
time:​ past, present and future. events as occurring at points
situated​ along the time frames​.

Time-frame Shift vsi Tense Shift

.C
The use of time markers (tenses) that
changes from one time frame to
another time frame.
The use of ​different tenses​, but
within the same time frame.
DD
From the present to the past:
- to explain or support a general
statement with past description or
elaboration on a topic.
- To support a claim about the
LA

present with examples from the

past.
- To provide background info on a
topic.
FI

- To support a general statement

about a change by comparing
past and present situations.
From the past time frame to the
present:


- To express a comment or an
opinion about a topic.

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 Written Narratives Written Descriptions Oral Discourse
Certain text types and genres are often associated with the use of particular time-frame and certain
tenses.
Written Narrative
Verbs typically used:
Simple Past
Past Perfect
Past Progressive
Simple Present
Reasons why writers used these
particular tenses:
Simple past: To build a storyline
.C
they resort to action process verbs
to refer to various events or steps
in a story. And mental process
verbs to express what the actors
DD
feel or think.
Past perfect: To provide in a
narrative background information
and flesh out the main narrative. It
is also used to locate events that
LA
took place before the main events
in the story.
Past progressive: It is mostly used
to locate events that were
simultaneous with the events in the
main storyline.
FI
Simple present: To begin a
narrative by setting the scene for
the reader, by establishing a link to
the here and now of the reader. It is
also used to interrupt the basic
storyline when we find it to
introduce a general statement.
Examples
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vs Written Description
Descriptions of objects, places
OM
and people are usually done in
the present tense.
Simple present: To provide
the basic time frame.
Present perfect: It is often used
in descriptions when the writer
wants to indicate that an action
that took place in an
unspecified time in the past
has produced some effects in
the present, and these effects
are relevant to the description
in question.
Simple past:We can also find
this tense in descriptions of
things, places and people in
the past.
Examples
vs Oral Discourse
Conversations are part of the oral
discourse. It takes part between two or
more interlocutors.Apart from being
part of our everyday lives, it can be
inserted as dialogues in narratives. A
whole range of tenses can be used in
conversations.
Present progressive: To refer to future
actions or actions that are occurring at
the moment of speaking
Simple present: To refer to mental
processes.
Past Tenses:
- To narrate and describe
situations
Combination of tenses and aspects
- Tell stories, anecdotes and jokes
We may begin narrating an event in the
past and then suddenly shift to the
present
The historic present: It is often used to
add more vividness to actions and
events in the past. It can include
changes from the simple to the
progressive aspect. These changes occur
at crucial junctures to place emphasis on
certain actions and/or to indicate or
signal suspense.
Examples