LAND, WATER USE AND MANAGEMENT

INTRODUCTION
In the process of developing the land, the Ifugaos look at it as a partner and trust it with care and
respect. They do not contest with nature rather abide with it or enhancing it. They have innate sense of
reverence to whatever is God-made. This belief is highly observable in the rice terraces where the
structure follows the contours of the landscape. Big rocks are left undisturbed even in the pond field, this
serves as a cornerstones or boundary mark. With this arrangement, erosions are not likely to happen. This
is the case where there is harmony between man and the environment, between the Ifugaos and its
habitat.
Villages and hamlets are also situated in such a way the people are near the rice fields, their main
workplace and not so far from the forests, the source of fuel and materials for handicrafts and other
necessities. The kind of landscape in a way determines to a large extend the culture of the people.
Indigenous knowledge is simple and very practical way to meet the challenges of day to day living. This
people have not forgotten the knowledge and wisdom of their forebears, they have sustained it until today
even being duped as a primitive.
During the last decades of the 20th century, there is a growing consciousness and awareness about
the importance of the knowledge and wisdom of indigenous people. Alan R. Emery (1997) stated it so
truthfully when he said, “Around the world, there is a sense of urgency to collect traditional knowledge
because the elders die, there is a danger that the knowledge will die with them because young people are
not following the traditional ways”. There are four traditional land management systems of the Ifugaos:
protected areas, production areas/agricultural areas, settlement areas and infrastructure areas.
IFUGAO TOPOGRAPHY
Ifugao is located in Northern Philippines at the foot of the Cordillera mountain ranges. It is bounded
on the north by Mt. Province, on the east by Isabela, on the west by Benguet and on the south by Nueva
Vizcaya. It is a landlocked province where there is no outlet to the sea. According to DENR (CY 2007), the
natural boundaries which surround Ifugao are as follows: Eastern "lagud" side between the provinces of
Ifugao-Isabela is the Magat River; Western "kay-ang" side between Ifugao-Benguet is Mount Pulag;
Northern "huddokna" between Ifugao - Mountain Province - Mount Polis; and on the Southern muyadna"
portion lies the Lamut river that separates Ifugao and Nueva Vizcaya.
A functional knowledge about the significant mountains, rivers and other landforms and water
forms will provide a databank to guide discussions and understanding not only of its land use management
styles but also of its history, beliefs, governance, customs and traditions.
Ifugao, in the Gran Cordillera Central is generally mountainous. The Pulag mountain range is found
on the west at the municipality of Tinoc. Thickly forested, this mountain chain gives rise to creeks, streams
and gullies that are tributaries to the major rivers. These rivers flow from a north to south-southeast
direction to join the Magat river heading to the Cagayan River. Rising from the southwestern side of the
province, from Asipulo and Kiangan flowing south is the Lamut river. From the northern mountain ranges
of Mt. Polis flowing to Banaue and passing through Hingyon, Kiangan and Lagawe is the Ibulao river.
Tributaries coming from Kiangan, Tinoc and Hungduan also feed the Ibulao river. From the Mt. Amuyao
chain of mountains in the north passing through Mayoyao, Aguinaldo and the eastern barangays of Lagawe
flow the Alimit river. Ifugao terrain observes a generally mountainous west-northwest region that gradually
melts into rolling hills, valleys, and narrow plains towards the south-southeastern area of the province that
is Lamut, Kiangan, Lagawe, Aguinaldo and Alfonso Lista.
LANDFORMS IN IFUGAO
Landforms refer to the shape and form of a land or region including its characteristics. They are the
naturally formed features of the land surface like the following: valley (nundotal), mountain (duntug, bilid),
and hill (pugu), plains (nundoddotal). Other landforms are: rocky (talugtug, kalipkip), slopes (natigging,
nunyopah), cliffs (doplah), and ridges (bantiligna, fhuludna).
1. Duntug/Juntug/bilid/pfuludna (Mountains)
The mountain peaks mentioned below are actually the highest elevations of the Cordillera
mountain ranges situated at the central portion of northern Luzon. On the east is the whole stretch of the
Cagayan valley and on the west is the Ilocos region.
a.) Mt. Amuyao is the highest point of Mayoyao. Rising at the southeastern edge of the Cordillera
particularly in Ifugao is this highly significant mountain, measuring 2, 702 meters above sea level. It can be
spotted from along the highway from Lagawe to Banaue Because of its elevated location; it was chosen to
be the site of two transmitters, those of the PT&T and ABS-CBN. Climbing Mt. Amuyao is very tiring
because of the steep terrain to the top of the mountain.
b.) Mt. Atugu, this mountain towers over barangay Burnay on the southeast, Umalbong on the northeast,
Mompolia and Anao on the north and northwest, respectively. For the past years and until now, the people
of said barangays had been so much influenced by Mt. Atugu. Its fertile slopes serve as kaingin where root
crops and vegetables are produced. The water coming from the forests goes to the creeks and gullies
which drain into the rice terraces in the barangays of Mompolia, Anao, Umalbong of Hingyon municipality
and Burnay and Boliwong of Lagawe. In the olden times there was plenty of game in its forests and
thickets. On the negative side however, Atugu is so high, so wide and rugged that communication between
and among the communities living in its vicinity is very difficult and hazardous especially during the early
times when travel was mainly by foot. Today, functional roads connect the barangays which help them
develop more quickly.
c.) Mt. Kappugan or the Three Kings is an idyllic trekking and camping destination. The mountain was
developed as an eco-tourism attraction in 2004 where men would hunt wild boars. Two trails lead to the
summit. One is through the north where it is forested and with various medicinal flora as well as coffee
trees. It takes one and a half hours to reach the summit from this side. The other trail is through the south,
where it is grassy and steep. In this trail, gloves must be worn because of irritating shrubs and sharp cogon
grasses that may hurt the hands. It takes around one hour to reach the top from the grassland. Eleven of
the fifteen barangays of Kiangan, some parts of Lagawe, Hingyon and other areas of Nueva Vizcaya may be
viewed from the top of Mt. Kappugan including the magnificence of the rice terraces.
d.) Mt. Kesimelan which is almost perfect cone is located partly at barangays Namal and Antipolo, Asipulo,
Ifugao. Many visitors dubbed it as the little "Mayon" of Ifugao. It is also the habitat of few remaining
wildlife like deer (makawa, ulha), wild pigs (laman, namulo), wild chicken (habag, hapfag), monkeys (tuag,
kaag, bulangon) and birds (hamuti).
e.) Mt. Nagchayan is a historical testimony to the fall of the Japanese Imperial Army It was once filled with
crawling Japanese soldiers who tried to defend this post and resist the Americans until the American
bombers came in 1945. Soon, the Eleventh Infantry, where Sgt. Khinnum Ab-alon was included, advanced
from Chaya with his group to finish off the Japanese at the peak of Nagchayan. Sgt. Ab-alon was from
Alimit and an acclaimed son and hero of Mayoyao. Although not nationally recognized, his bravery and
heroic action during World War II as he fought along with the American soldiers to drive away the
Japanese were noteworthy.
f.) Mt. Napulawan is considered by the locals as a magical or miraculous mountain because of the ocular
illusions that occur during a definite hour of the day. People say that things appear to grow 20 times their
original size at Mt. Napulawan. It measures 1,580 meters above sea level and takes 9 hours hike to the
summit Mountain trekker who have climbed this peak are awed by the thick tropical rain forest and the
rare fora Trees near the peak are typically short
g.) Mt. Polis mountain range lies between the provinces of Ifugao and Bontoc. The Halsema road winds
and traverses it from Banaue to Bontoc across its rugged terrain and steep slopes. To date, the road needs
real improvement to prevent vehicular accidents especially during the rainy season
h.) Mt. Pulag, the second highest mountain in the Philippines is located between the provinces of Ifugao
and Benguet. As expected, the climate here is cool throughout the year. It is very rich in fauna and flora
that could be objects of interests to scientists, doctors and researchers.
i.) Mt. Binahagan is a mountain range located in Lagawe surrounded by the barangays of Jucbong and
Abinuan on the northwest and barangays Ponghal and Pullaan on the Southeast. According to some
residents, it is still an alah (communal forest) which is a rich watershed for the valley downstream. This
gives rise to the Boliwong river that joins the Burnay river and both drain into the Ibulao river. To
contribute to its sustainability, students go there to plant trees in fulfillment of the requirements for
graduation or for their extension activities.
j.) Mt. Munsuyusuy is located on the boundary between the Municipality of Tinoc and Buguias, a
municipality of Benguet. Because of its height, it is freezing cold almost throughout the year. The people
trade their products in Buguias perhaps because of its proximity and most of them are Kankanaey of the
Benguet community
2. PUGU (HILLS)
Bugat Hills is found in barangay Buyabuyan stretching towards barangay Abinuan. This used to be an
extensive grazing area of the Ayangan people of Eastem Lagawe since a large portion is grassland. It is now
slowly being developed as watersheds by the inhabitants.
A popular pugu in Kiangan is the Million Dollar Hill. It is called so because accordingly, during WW II, the
American forces spent plenty of ammunitions worth a million dollars to claim victory over the Japanese
soldiers. The Japanese were defeated by the combined American and Filipino forces. The battle on this hill
was very significant because it led to the capture of General Yamashita, known as the Tiger of the Malay
race and the eventual surrender of the Japanese to the American forces.
Rolling Hills of Pugol in Lamut was previously dry and good only for corn and pastureland for cattles and
other live stocks. Lately however, because of the construction of the irrigation canals by the National
Irrigation Administration (NIA), these hills are turned into rice paddies or fish ponds for tilapia. Some parts
are planted with fruit trees like mangoes. In effect, it is now a big boost to the economic profile of the
province.
3. NUNDOTAL (VALLEY, PLAIN)
The barangays of Lagawe namely Poblaciones North, East, West and South, constitute the Lagawe
Valley because it is plain though small in area and also surrounded by mountains and hills. In fact, the old
name of Lagawe is "Dotal". The plains of Alfonso Lista are utilized as cornfields as well as rice fields. The
hilly parts are used as ranches and pastureland for cattle.
4. LINGAB/ LIYANG (CAVE)
Nahtoban Cave is found two kilometers away from Poblacion, Boliwong towards Jucbong. It has three
chambers: small, medium and large. Today the local government is trying to develop and promote it as a
park or beauty spot.
Bintacan Cave is just a few meters away from the Ibulao bridge on the Lagawe side. The cave is shallow
with a bell shaped dome and only one chamber.
Pangaggawan Cave is found on top of one of the mountains of Bolog, Kiangan is unknown to many. It has
still to be developed for the people of Ifugao for local as well as foreign tourists. According to the folks, it
will take a day to explore the depth, breadth and beauty of the inside.
WATER FORMS IN IFUGAO
Water forms refer to the inland bodies of water like rivers, lakes, falls, creeks brooks or streams and
springs. These inland waters give life to the Ifugao Rice Terraces. The Ifugaos have stories of the origin of
the different water forms in their localities.
1. Wangwang, gwanggwang (River)
Rivers are the natural streams of water which are larger than creeks. The nive systems in Ifugao
flow from the high mountains and follow a month to southeast direction. All the rivers of Ifugao drain into
the Magat River and into the Cagayan River.
Rivers in Ifugao

River Location (Municipality) Destination

1. Alimit River Mayoyao Magat River
2. Ducligan River Banaue Alimit River
3. Galong River Hungduan Ibulao River
4. Galgalong River Lagawe Ibulao River
5. Hapao River Hungduan Ibulao River
6. Hingyon River Hingyon Lagawe River
7. Ibulao River Lagawe, Kiangan Magat River
8. Lagawe River Lagawe Ibulao River
9. Lamut River Lamut Magat River
10. Matuno River Tinoc Magat River
11. Montabiog River Lagawe Lagawe River
12. Munggayang River Kiangan Ibulao River
13. Payawan River Lamut Lamut River
14. Potia-Taotao River Alfonso Lista Magat River
15. Umalbong River Hingyon Lagawe River
Source: Socio-Economic Profile; (Province of Ifugao) CY 2007
2. LOBONG, FHANNAW (LAKES)
These are large inland bodies of water usually fresh water that do not have any outlet. The water is
stagnant. Ambuaya Lake which is located some two kilometers away from Poblacion Kiangan, is one of the
tourist attractions of Ifugao because of its beauty and its interesting legend.
A.) Munpoy-ah, Munphoja-a (Falls)
These refer to water falling over a cliff usually steep rock. There are waterfalls in Ifugao but few are
discovered and are given names because of the cultural belief that those waterforms are inhabited by
unseen beings called bibiyo or pinading (fairies),
The rice terraces in Batad are also as awfully wonderful and beautiful as those in central Banaue only the
terraces here gently hug the lower slopes of the mountain before they climb abruptly to the mountain
peak. On the side of the Batad rice terraces around one kilometer walking distance away is the Tappiya
Falls with a height of more or less 20 meters. A pool at the base of the falls can serve as swimming pool to
tired trekkers and mountain climbers
O'pfaw Mahencha (Leap of Mahencha) Falls in Mayoyao is six kilometers away from the town proper. It
features a series of high cataracts. Local folklore says a beautiful woman named Mahencha had to jump 13
to 15 meters into the water to retrieve her native amber necklace which fell while she was taking a bath.
Each of the maiden's leap is represented by a waterfall and a natural pool.
Tenogtog Falls is found in Mayoyao five (5) kilometers away from the town proper. It has three natural
pools arising from the waterfall about 12 meters high.
Other falls worth mentioning are the Balentimol Falls in Hungduan, Munbungug Falls in Liwon, Asipulo and
Uttu Falls in Kiangan.
MAATUNG AN OB-OB (HOT SPRINGS)
1. Bogya Hot Spring was formerly at the bank of the Hapao River, a few meters away from Hapao proper
but now it is found between sitio Matukutki and Dayandi. According to the folk stories this hot spring was
owned by a mythical person named, "Inhaybung”. But on one of the harvest festivals, she was not invited
by the rich people of Hapac hence, she got hurt and said 'Kababain peman hi eta mihag-on nah
kakadangyan', (It is shameful really to be a neighbor to rich people) so she disappeared, and took with he
the hot spring and established herself at Bogya
2. Ahin Hot Spring located at Ahin Tinoc, Ifugao.
3. Tukukan Hot Spring is located at Tukukan, Tinoc,Ifugao. People from the place claim it is so hot that it
can cook an egg in a few minutes. It is also sulfuric and maybe medicinal to specific diseases.
LAND MANAGEMENT
Conklin(1980), in his book, "Ifugao Ethnographic Atlas", presented a 96 sq. km land surface except
rivers and rock outcrops. Needless to mention that with the passing- of time, the land area of Ifugao
underwent changes. The DENR (2007) came out with data of 2,517 sq km land area of Ifugao inclusive of all
features found within its present delineated boundaries. From his study, Conklin identified eight landscape
types and gave each a percentage. They are: grassland (3%), forest (22.2%), caneland (27.2%), woodlot
(24.8%), swidden (4.3%), house terrace (7%), drained field (.4%), and pondfield (17.4%). The percentages
must have changed over the years like for example on settlement. Some owners even of the famous
Banaue rice terraces are not spared. They chose to abandon their prized inheritance in exchange of a
better life or a career that is more lucrative in the cities or in other provinces or even abroad. The pond
fields become dry and eventually become grassland, caneland or forest area.
1. Acquisition and Loss of Land
To understand better how the early Ifugaos managed their land resources, a rundown on how land
is acquired and disposed is important. Boltan (Inheritance), gatang/ hubli (purchase), pallog (barter),
hakmo/pidon /balal/hapoa (mortgage), prize in winning in a land dispute, pun-anupan (hunting ground),
pinangahan or inuhatan, punlubukan (burial) and punhalopan (fishing ground) are modes or indicators of
land possession.
1.1. Modes of Acquisition
a. Boltan (Inheritance). The early Ifugaos give their children whatever they own. They follow the
primogeniture way of distributing their properties like real estates, jars, personal adornments, implements,
house and everything they possess. The first born gets the lion's share, the second gets less and the third
gets least. The fourth to the last child gets nothing if the properties are not enough. The parents would
advise the child who gets nothing. "Ot athina te hinae pange'-en di aammod handi. Maid maat tauh” (It is
like that because that was the way of our ancestors, we cannot do anything.) This system of the first born
to get the biggest share of the properties entails a big responsibility also. When the parents get sick, and
the honga ritual is to be performed, he is obliged to provide the biggest pig. He/ She who inherited nothing
is not obliged to help in the expenses but he must be there anyway. The same principle applies when the
parents die. They provide for the jangli (pigs and carabaos butchered to feed all the people who come for
the wake) according to their share in the property. Today however, the practice could be disregarded
especially when the children are economically well off.
b. Gatang/hubli (Purchase) is another way of acquiring land property. This is the transfer of ownership of a
parcel of land in exchange of money from the seller to the buyer.
c. Pallog (Barter) takes place when money or cash is not available but the seller and buyer agree that they
exchange property. A small piece of land may be worth one carabao or a set of gongs (3-4 units).
d. Pinangahan or inuhatan happens when a person is the first to cultivate the land and continues to do so.
He plants whatever crops and maintains it until the present He could make it into swidden or ricefield.
e. Hakmo/Pidon/balal/hapoa (Mortgage) is done when a person receives money in exchange of a piece
of land that he owns for a stipulated number of years or harvest seasons. If it were a pond field, the
mortgagor tills this or does whatever he wants until the cash is returned on the agreed time.
f. Prize in a land dispute. There are times when boundaries of land properties become a source of dispute
among landowners. When the indigenous legal process is done and a winner is proclaimed, then the
disputed land area is awarded to him. It becomes officially a part of his property (The indigenous legal
system is discussed in the chapter on indigenous laws).
g. Pun-anupan (Hunting ground). In the days of old, a strong and powerful individual may claim exclusive
hunting right over an area. It may be because he was the first to explore the area or he is feared by other
hunters because of his exceptional skill in the use of the spear.
h. Punlubukan (Burial ground). Usually in the early days, the dead are kept in mar made caves, lingab. The
area is owned by a family or a clan.
i. Punhalopan (Fishing ground. Creeks, rivers, lakes, and springs are for the use of everybody especially of
the community people. Anybody who wants to go fishing in these water is but if the catch is plenty the
other people may share.
LOSS OF LAND PROPERTY
When it comes to loss of real estate like land, the parents who bequeathed their land to their
children lose said property. The one who sells or exchanges his land for money or some other valuables
ceases to be the owner of that particular property. The mortgagor temporarily stops to develop his land
until such time he returns in full the money of the mortgagee at the stipulated time. In land disputes, when
a winner is declared the contested piece of land goes to him and the loser gives up permanently his claim
over the contested area.
2. Management of Land Surface
To use and manage the land sustainably is the expertise of Indigenous people like the Ifugaos. It is
for this reason that Ifugao was inscribed by UNESCO in 1995 as a world heritage site. Their villages, forests,
pond fields and grasslands are situated in such a way that the natural setting of the natural resources is
sustained. Whatever developments they introduce should enhance not upset in anyway the natural order
of the environment. There is an observed pattern of arrangement of the settlement area, forest zone, pond
fields, swidden and grassland throughout the province. In the succeeding pages, the methods of how the
early Ifugaos appropriated the land surface to develop its maximum potential with the least depletion of
the natural resources are enumerated and described.

Figure 17 (Illustration by Guimbatan, 2005) shows a typical Ifugao community with the areas identified.
The protected area is the topmost part (red boundary) which is the muyung/alah considered as the
community forest. Next to the alah is muyung (green boundary) still but this time it is owned by a private
individual or a family or clan. These two areas are well managed; the trees and the soil are taken cared of
because of its role as the watershed. At the foot of the slopes, just below the muyung are the terraces.
They serve as catchment basin for the water from the creeks/gullies and therefore cultivated into pond
fields or rice terraces (light pink boundary). A stream may be formed at the lowest part where the extra
water will drain. This areal arrangement is common throughout the province with little variations in some
places. On a chosen portion of the landscape is the boble/village or the residential area (dark pink
boundary). The choice of the residential area varies from community to community, however easy access
to the other areas is one of the factors that influence the decision. In this picture, it is on an elevated
section of the land.
a.) Numboblayan/Boble/Pfuglay (Village/ Residential)
This pertains to the area or a piece of land where the houses of the people are built. They call it
boble/nunboblayan / nunhituwan / ponhetogwan. Indigenous people usually live together in villages
because they believe that doing so is a deterrent from enemy attack either from people or animals.
Generally the villagers are interrelated either by blood or by affinity.
The boundaries of residential areas were done and kept binding even without documents from
generation to generation. Whoever is the inheritor or possessor can recount how that particular piece of
land came to be. He could identify the previous occupants of the residential lot
The surrounding areas of the villages are usually planted with moma (betelnut palm) and
indigenous fruits like tabuyug/lupfan (pomelo), gugullu (lemon), bulinnayu, niyog/liyog (coconut), etc. In
the illustration, the area is with green boundary.
Some Ifugaos though, prefer to live a little away from the community to be near their rice fields or
kaingin, forests or beside a river or a spring. They are also individualistic by nature and they love to be free.
b.) Munmogmog/Livestock raising in the Bobleh
Native chickens are raised at residential areas. They are free to scavenge the soils in the yard, fields
or forest nearby. Like any other fowls, the native chickens are used as food, sold in the market or sacrifice
during a ritual ceremony. They are the free range chicken and people today prefer their meat to the
broiler. It is claimed to be tastier and more nutritious. Pigs too are raised along side with the chickens. They
are fed with lapne, gattuk/ camote or lamtung /camote tubers, papaya or galiang/bila. Just like the
chickens, these is may be butchered for rituals, marriage celebrations, or dangli/chohar (pigs or animals
butchered) to feed the people who come to attend the wake of a deceased family member or during
bogwa/pfugwa (exhumation rites) or they are sold in the market.
PUNPAYOHAN/POND FIELDS
a.) Payoh in plains, valleys, rolling hills and mountain slopes
In this mountainous region of the Cordillera including Ifugao, there are very narrow plains and
valleys mostly along the lower parts of the rivers. In Ifugao, these areas are found on the southeastern part
of the province. These plains and valleys including the mountainsides are utilized for rice production. Rivers
and creeks are harnessed to water these rice fields. These narrow plains and valleys can be found in some
portions of Lagawe, Kiangan, Lamut and Alfonso Lista. Generally, as long as there is water from the creeks
or rivers even during the summer months, planting of these pond fields may be done twice a year. The one
cropping system is generally practiced in areas of higher elevation like Hungduan, Banaue and Hingyon
Terracing involves the conversion of a sloping area into rice terraces in consideration of the water source
located just above the terraces or about 1-2 kilometers away. The water source is an disturbed
forest/pinugu/pinuchu bout 2 kilometers hectares wide, taken care of and managed by the community
people.
The world famous Ifugao Rice Terraces found in Banaue, believed to have been constructed a
before Christ, is a classic example of terracing the mountain slopes. It follows the contour of the terrain
and therefore the paddies are small in size called pukung/ poong, or narrow but long naguanet/nawanit.
Terracing help prevent slides and erosions and using banong to store water in the pond helps retain the
water longer for the next planting season.
There are two types of rice terraces; the stonewalled and the unstonewalled. The construction of
rice terraces among Kalanguya, which is true to the other two ethnic tribes except stone walling, is as
follows:
1. Site selection. The most preferred site where the rice terraces will be constructed along an area slightly
sloping having less stones, below the muyung/forest/watershed, availability of water for irrigation, and
along an area should be exposed to the sun.
2. Hikwatan/Clearing. Clearing is done by cutting all the vegetation in the area with the use of otak (bolo).
Trees good for lumber are taken. Tall vegetations adjacent to the terraces are pruned or cut.
3. Apuyan/Burning is accomplished late in the afternoon. This is done cautiously to avoid the burning of
adjacent areas. Just like kaingins, burning may start from the side or from the top to the bottom of the area
so that fire will fully burn the cut vegetation slowly and avoid wildfire. Unburned wood are cut and charred
wood are cleaned and utilized for firewood or for the construction of shack as resting place or shelter.
4. Tuping/Stone walling and terracing. Stone walling and terracing which could be simultaneous or one
after the other is done from bottom to top of the slope. Gaud /spade is usually used in accomplishing the
activity.
5. Banong/Dike construction. A banong, a foot or less in width and height are finally constructed out of
clay mud to contain the water from the rain or paluk
6. Paluk/Irrigation. The last stage in preparing the rice terraces is irrigating the field via gravity from the
hebheb/ob-ob (spring) or constructed fongfong (bongbong) in the river or creek/Alak (irrigation canals)
with a width of 2 feet and 1-2 feet deep are constructed to bring water to the terraces.
**The pond fields are also utilized not only for rice production but also for many other purposes like the
following:
b. Payoh utilized as fish pond
The rice paddies are used for fish and other shell production simultaneously with the
tinawon/tinagon production. In one area, usually at the center of the field, a lawu/luho'/luhuk, which is a
deep hole is constructed to serve as housing and breeding area for the mudfish in times of extreme
weather condition.
Sustainability of the fish production is regulated by some observance of rituals and beliefs. For
instance, gathering of fish and other pond products will only be allowed after they have brought home the
harvested rice and after the tungo /rest period and when they have performed the ritual called kahiw. This
is now the time to catch tuyyong/tadpoles, yuyu/pikaw/Japanese eel, ginga, kulippo, aggudung, ag'gojong
and battikul/shells, etc for food.

If we relate this to scientific agriculture, during this period of hiwang/higuang the fish are with eggs thus,
they should not be taken for food. During the luwa/lugua the fishes have already laid their eggs so they
can be taken for food. This practice allowed the sustainability of fish production in the pond fields.
3. Habal/kaingin/umah (swidden)
Swidden farming or habal/lkaingin/inum-an/uma system is said to be the oldest form of agro-
forestry. Portions of land in the mountain slopes, in the valleys, or in the plains which are not irrigated are
used for swidden farming.
To sustain the fertility of the soil of the habal, it may be abandoned for a while especially after a
long period of cultivation. This is to fallow in order to rejuvenate the soil. Swidden farmers do not really
abandon the area but simply allow it to "rest". During this period, nobody is allowed to clean up the
fallowed area for possession except the original farmer.
The kaingin system involves the clearing of a patch of sloping grassland/secondary growth forest by
removing all the vegetation including the roots and retaining selected species of trees. Lapne/gattuk/luhtu
sweet potato is the usual crop planted. Other agricultural crops are also raised like itab, gahhilang/corn,
for 25 years depending on the fertility of the soil.
The habal is usually started by the farmers when they finished transplanting rice seedlings. The
habal among all the Tuwali and Ayangan involved seven steps while Kalanguya claims that they practice
eight steps.
a. Site selection. The choice of area is based on the presence of tall runos (Mescantos species), black soil,
not stony, and not too steep. However, among the Ayangan in Batad, the people prefer the area that was
previously cultivated as kaingin so that the natural succession will not be destroyed.
Among the Kalanguya, the husband usually chooses the site. However, suggestions from the wife are
accepted. While for the Tuwali and Ayangan, either male of female may take the initiative to choose the
site.
b. Hikwatan/Clearing. The Tuwali and Ayangan usually start by establishing about 1-2 meters cleared strip
called gohat/ghohat through the use of otak (Bolo) around the proposed kaingin site. This indicates that
the area is to be converted into a kaingin by somebody and no one should trespass the gohat because it's a
sign of disrespect. After a few days, the area is cleared by removing all the vegetation. Clearing is
accomplished by the men.
Among the Kalanguya, when the site is determined, markings called bah-lak are placed at the four
corners of the site to inform people that the area is reserve. The bah-lak is accomplished by stripping the
bark of the tree and forming it like an arrow or a cross. If the area has site trees and dominated by
weeds/tall grasses, a narrow half clearance is made around the site. For the Kalanguyas any member of the
family does the clearing. During the uma all vegetations such as grasses, shrubs and other weeds are cut
down except trees which are de-branched. The branches are cut later to be used for alad fence.
c. Apuyan/Burning of the cut vegetation is done late in the afternoon. This is done cautiously to avoid the
burning of adjacent areas. Burning in sloping area may start from the side or from the top to the bottom of
the kaingin so that fire will slowly and fully bum objects on its path and avoid wildfire. In flat areas, fire
breaks are made around them.
After the burning, a Kalanguya cuts the unburned and charred wood, gathers them and utilizes them for
firewood or for the construction of a-abong (shack) near the kaingin to serve as resting place or shelter.

d. Lotang/gohang/fencing/trench making. To protect the kaingin from astray or wild animals a

fence/trench is made around it. The fence is of two types;
(1). Alad - makes use of poles and branches previously selected during the clearing. This is skillfully
placed on top of the other pole through the use of kapot (any kind of durable vine, rattan or bark of
trees) which are used to fasten and hold the poles and branches together so as not to collapse). A
teytey/tete/ladder is made in the alad to make it passable by people.
(2). Atol/atul /stonewall- A fence made of stones placed strategically one on top of the other.
Selected elongated stones are inserted and made to protrude from the wall to serve as steps going
up and down the fence.
e. Muntanom/Planting is done through the use of dohag, a flat sharpened iron with wooden handle with a
length of 1-1.5 feet and done in any of the following:
(1). Ohay nitanom /mono cropping - one type of crop usually camote, is planted in one kaingin.
Camote cuttings are collected at least 3 days prior to planting. This will allow the cutting to harden
and grow
(2). Dakol di nitanum /multiple cropping - two or more crops are planted in the same habal/inum-
an. Such crops may be sweet potato, corn, beans, etc.; and
(3). Relay cropping - two or more crops are planted at different periods of planting while the earlier
crop is still existing. The crops could be itab, kuldih, kawwat and ubi. Multiple and relay cropping
systems are being used to make sure that farmers will have food when the other crop is not
productive.
f. Mungabut/Weeding is usually done through the use of dohag. Weeds like cogon, giant mimosa,
thornless amaranth, asparagus and other unwanted plants are uprooted and placed on the stem of plants
and vacant spaces between plants. During the gabut, it is a common practice to retain wildlings of trees
like palayon, lauaan, udyo (narra) bannutan(yakal), amug-awon(molave)and other premium species that
grow naturally in the kaingin.
g. Harvesting. Several months after planting depending on the kind of crops raised the fruits of the crops
are harvested. For sweet potatoes, the tubers are gathered by women using their bokka huwan/dohag
(iron digging tools) and hauled through the use of basket made of rattan or bamboo known as
kayabang/hakolbayag Harvesting is done from 3 to 4 times in one planted area depending on some factors
like fertility of the soil, weather condition, etc.
h. Fallowing. When the kaingin produces low yield, it is abandoned for at least 2. 5 years in order to
become fertile again. This resting period of kaingin is locally called at kinnebba for Kalanguya, Tahgwurnon
for Ayangan and Tawonon for Tuwali.
4. MUYUNG, ALAH, PINUGU/PINUCHU (FOREST)
Forest is a very important part of the ecological surrounding because it is needed to conserve water
for the terraces and supply the daily needs of the people. It is a very efficient means to control soil erosion
and to preserve the environment from toxic carbon dioxide. Muyung simply means forest. There are
muyungs that are family-owned and community-owned. Family-owned is exclusive for that particular
family or clan whereas community-owned means its resources may be utilized by any member of the
community while observing certain unwritten laws. These communal forests are usually located at a
considerable distance away from the villages.
Those muyung most often adjunct to the rice field is the privately owned forest The owner/farmer
maintains it because he derives water to irrigate his pondfields, he gets lumber and firewood from it.
When the logs are rotten, mushrooms "ulat" and "fbofbotoy" grow and may be gathered for viand.
As a tree lot, the muyung is also utilized for growing fruit trees. The lituku, variety of rattan vine found only
in Ifugao, are often grown in the muyung. (The fruit sweet-sour when ripe and fetches a good price in the
market).
Since the Ifugaos began wet farming, they have come to understand the relationship between
forest and rice field cultivation. They have learned that forests conserve water and eventually drip to
creeks, the flow of which is directed through ditches and tulaluk or troughs (made of bamboo, betel palm,
or wood) to the rice paddies. To maintain water supply for most part of the year, the Ifugao evolved
certain practices the development and maintenance of their forests.
Dulawan (2006) forward the following intensive indigenous practices:
1. Hikwatan/Regular Cleaning. An owner makes it a habit to do some cleaning whenever he has
occasion to go to his muyung. He clears away reeds, vines and underbrush that impede the growing
saplings.
2. Tanoman/Planting and Replanting. Forest owners plant tree seeds and seedlings of desired
varieties, usually of hardwood class. After felling a tree, they plan seeds or seedlings around the
area where the tree used to stand.
3. Selective cutting. Forest owners cut down mature trees only either for lumber or firewood.
Crooked trees are fit for fuel while straight ones are for lumber Branches and twigs of felled trees
are cut into same lengths or topong and taken home for fuel.
4. Technique of Felling. A woodcutter observes the hapi practice of felling a tree. This is the pre-
determination of the direction in which the tree will fall and is taken into consideration in order to
avoid or minimize destruction to other plants. When the direction of the wind is against the
intended area of the fail, the cutter suspends chopping until the wind stops or changes direction
5. Permission to Cut. A forest owner may allow an individual to cut trees in his muyung for lumber
or firewood, provided that the latter observes certain practices. He can only cut the number of
trees he is permitted by the owner and he is required to clean the area around each tree he has cut
down and do some tree planting.
6. Maintenance of Boundaries. Boundaries between adjacent private forests are cleaned and
maintained by the owners. This is done to maintain the visible limits of adjacent family forests and
 to preclude possible boundary disputes, especially when a muyung changes ownership through
inheritance or sale
7. Resolution of Boundary Disputes. In case of boundary disputes, the same may be resolved by
means of huhumangan. This is the mediation between contenders in the presence of a third party
who acts as a mediator. If the mediation fails the uh-uh is resorted to.
Traditionally, the indigenous people do not plant any vegetation in their communal forest. Natural
regeneration occurs to replace what is harvested. It's only in their private woodlots that they do
enhancement planting of trees and agricultural crops. In all tribes wherein woodlots are directly or
indirectly damaged by somebody like creation of wild fire or damaged by animals, the usual punishment is
to replace the loss or to produce one pig.
Livestock is one important components of the silvipasture. The two common indigenous production
management practice are Tetherins (tie the animal with rope and have them graze), and extensive
production or free grazing. Thus, farms and houses adjacent to the site are well fenced to force the animals
to graze on forage such as grasses, fodders and legumes. Exit points, deep ravines as well are fenced
5. PA'LABAN (PASTURE LAND)
Wide grasslands that cannot support rice, corn or legume production may be turned into ranches or
graze lands for carabaos, cattles or goats.
III. OTHER METHODS IN WATER MANAGEMENT
If land is life, so is water. The main function of the water from the creeks, streams and rivers is to
water the rice terraces aside from the daily kitchen use for cooking, washing, etc because there is a direct
connection between the forest and water product of the ifugao sees to it that the muyung is sustained.
The interconnectedness of the natural resources, the pinuggu, grassland, settlement, and the rice terraces
is very clear in mind. Depletion of one resource will lead to the next and the cycle goes on its disadvantage.
There are also some indigenous ways where the produce these water resources is managed. They are the
following:
1. The halop method
The Ifugaos have used herbal pesticides like umli(vines), tuba(shrub) and others kind of herbals to
catch fishes the volume of water in its natural path then apply any of these herbal pesticide cause dizziness
among the fishes for easy catching. The fingerlings and small fishes not be taken. After catching the big
fishes, they release the water to its original path water is diluted and the fishes that were not caught
survive.
A.)The use of pituk (iron rod)
The indigenous pituk which was made out of bamboo or wood, rubber and steel (tuwik) has been
used by the Ifugaos to catch fishes at the rivers and creeks. The instrument is used simultaneously
with goggles "antokot/diggal' to catch fish. This strate allowed the Ifugaos to catch only the bigger
fishes without killing the smaller ones and those fingerlings.
B.)The use of pinaad (torch)
One way to catch fishes, frogs, shrimps and crabs in rivers and creeks is the use of the torch made
of dried runos bound together called pinaad/pakad. The fishes: crabs come out during the night
because they are attracted by the bright light of t torch. They become so tame that you can just
pick them one after the other
C.)The Use of Bunwit, pfongguet
This method is indigenous but it is still very much in use until today. With the use of the string, hook
and sinker, earthworms are taken and used as bait. It is an environment friendly because only the
big fishes are taken home. The small ones released for next round of bunwit.
IV. CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES ON LAND USE AND MANAGEMENT
Ancestral domain/Ancestral land (R.A. 8371) - It is an act to recognize, protect and promote the rights of
indigenous cultural funds therefore indigenous peoples, establishing implementing mechanism appropriate
funds therefore, and for other purposes.
This refers to the land on which a tribe is dependent for its existence in a holistic fashion. It is the
land area that an ordinary member of a socio-economic communities navigates to generate and living for
his family in the olden times. The ancestral domain includes all the surroundings of the community the
hunting ground, farm lands, water sources, residential areas, trading centers and the like. In simple terms,
it is the land area as far as the feet can reach in a day and not as far as the eyes can (Saturnino Cablinan,
2009)
Ancestral Domain refers to all areas generally belonging to ICCS/IPs comprising lands, inland
waters, coastal areas and natural resources therein, held under a claim of ownership, occupied or
possessed by ICCS/IPs, by themselves or through their ancestors communally or individually since time
immemorial continuously to the present except when interrupted by war, force majeure or displacement
by force deceit, stealth or as consequence of government projects or any other voluntary dealings entered
into by government and private individuals/corporations, and which are necessary to ensure their
economic, social and cultural welfare. It shall include ancestral lands, forests, pasture residential,
agricultural, and other land individually owned whether alienable and disposable or otherwise, hunting
grounds, burial grounds, worship areas, bodies of water mineral and other natural resources, and lands
which may no longer be exclusively occupied by ICCS/IPs but from which traditionally had access to for
their subsistence and traditional activities, particularly the home ranges of ICCS/IPs who are still nomadic
and/or shifting cultivators (Section 56, R.A. 8371)
Ancestral Lands refer to land occupied possessed and utilized by individuals families and clans who
are members of the ICCS/IPs since the time immemorial by themselves or through their predecessors-in-
interest, under claims of individual of traditional group ownership, continuously, to the present except
when interrupted by war force majeure or displacement by force deceit, stealth, or as a consequence of
government projects and other voluntary dealings entered into by government and private
individuals/corporations, including, but not limited to, residential lots, rice terraces or paddies, private
forests, swidden farms and tree lots (Section 56, R.A. 8371)
1. Ancestral Domain
At the onset of the autonomous movement, this issue of ancestral domain was thoroughly
discussed and it was found that it is not hard to identify or delineate because often the land was
divided based on the location of the ethnic communities.
When the political government was set in place in the early 20th century, the political
divisions of the Province of Ifugao almost spelled out the ancestral domains of the tribes which
were made into municipalities. However, there are still boundary issues and disputes between
some municipalities of the province.
2. Land Titling
 This is the act of formal government in order to classify lands according to their different
uses as watershed/forest or timberland, parks and wildlife reservations, alienable and disposable
lands for agriculture, residential and commercial use. In Ifugao, 85% of the land is classified as
watershed hence, it cannot be alienable and disposable for private owners. Most of the 15% A and
D lands are concentrated in Alista, Aguinaldo, Mayoyao and Lamut Except for some parts of central
Ifugao that was titled by DA DENR and the courts most of the land in Ifugao cannot be titled
because it is watershed forest in classification making the occupants squatters in their own land.
3. Watershed
Today, the muyung system of the Ifugaos is recognized as a forest management model by
many world renowned institutions. It also debunked the notion that the Ifugao a forest killer since
he also is a kaingero. For all the years that the Ifugao practiced the muyung system which provide
water for the lowlands especially Nueva Vizcaya and Isabela, Dams were built to irrigate their nice
fields and generate electricity for their region and rake in millions of pesos their provinces year in
and year out. It is a good thing that we are given a share in Income but there should be a revisit to
the sharing scheme for a better equitable sharing of the profits.
V. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS
There are two major educational implications that this chapter would contributed. First is
integration of IK in the Curriculum. This attempt of incorporating Indigenous Knowledge (IK) on land use
and management into the curriculum will help the students be aware of the hazards of modern technology
alongside its enormous advantages modern life. The students should be conscious of their responsibility to
help sustain t environment with the proper attitudes, practices and technology. It guides students
especially in the agriculture and forestry courses about the indigenous agro-forestry practices of the
Ifugaos which are effective, productive and sustainable.
The second is the development of conceptual framework. The indigenous knowledge on land use
and management of the Ifugaos could serve as a conceptual framework or a working model for
researchers, environmentalists, scientists, teaches and policy makers of non government and government
entities in the local, national are international levels.
SUMMARY
1. Ifugao province is marked by rugged mountains, massive forest and rivers, creek and streams coming
from the north and west and by gently rolling hills and plain towards the southeast portion of the province.
2. Indigenous acquisition and loss of land. The Ifugaos claim right to land ownership through ancestral
domain/ancestral land. Other ways of acquiring lands: inheritand purchase, mortgage, barter and prize in
winning in a land dispute.
3. Land use. Land is life to the Ifugaos. Inherited lands for the Ifugaos are valued, possible should not be
sold by any family member but should be added through purchase. Uses of land: residential,agricultural,
forest or watershed, hunting ground, pasture land, burial grounds.
Although the Ifugao IPs had occupied their lands for centuries, all lands in Ifugao with the exception of
Lamut and Alfonso Lista are considered forest zone. To help the Ifugaos benefit from the land they are
occupying, land titling should be given priority by our government.