2017 International Conference on Advanced Computing and Applications
Path Planning and Path Following Using Arrival
Time Field for Nonholonomic Mobile Robot
Alfabi Muhlisin Sakti, Adha Imam Cahyadi, and Igi Ardiyanto
Department of Electrical Engineering and Information Technology
Universitas Gadjah Mada
Yogyakarta, Indonesia
e-mail: {adha.imam;igi}@ugm.ac.id
Abstract— Arrival-time-field based method for path planning
of non-holonomic mobile robot is proposed in this work. Path
following strategy using kinematics control is also presented. First,
map dilation at the obstacles region of the map is performed based
on mobile robot’s maximum radius to guarantee the mobile robot
safety. Arrival time field is then generated which the source is at
the goal point. Collision-free path is obtained by applying gradient
descent to the arrival time field. In order to generate smoother and
safer path, speed function variation is added into the arrival time
field. Mobile robot is also driven to follow the previously generated
path using kinematics control based on simplified kinematics
model of mobile robot that has been converted to polar
coordinates. Numerical simulation are provided to verify all of
these proposed methods.
Keywords— Path Planning, Arrival Time Field, Nonholonomic
Mobile Robot, Path Following
I. INTRODUCTION
Nowadays, the need of mobile robot application is largely
increasing since it can be used to handle various problems in
very wide area such as industry, science, education,
entertainment, military application [1], and even entertainment
such as robot soccer games [2]. In certain situations like
planetary and space explorations, military applications, mine
excavation, nuclear inspection, deep-sea surveying, search and
rescue operations [3], where human interference is limited due
to hazardous and incapability, the need of autonomous mobile
robot becomes so crucial. Other than that, autonomous mobile
robot has been widely used to assist human in repetitive or
boring work both in industrial and home applications, such as
serving food, cleaning the house, transporting component
between distant machining and disassembly sites.
Path planning problem is simply defined as find collision-
free route from initial robot pose to the desired pose in an
environment cluttered with obstacles while satisfying certain
optimization criteria such as distance, computation time, delay
in the communication and energy consumption [4] [5] [6].
Moreover, path planning is not enough to make mobile robot
applicable in real world. The next step after the path planner
generates optimal path is designing control strategy so that the
robot can follow the previously defined path. The objective are
minimizing the distance between the robot and the desired path,
minimizing the angle between the orientation of the robot and
978-1-5386-0607-0/17 $31.00 © 2017 IEEE
DOI 10.1109/ACOMP.2017.21
the desired angle, and limiting the steering angle changes to
improve the stability of the robot and smooth out its motion [7].
Many researchers have tried to overcome the path planning
and path following problem with various methods. In path
planning field, some researchers have used geometric methods
with various approaches, such as visibility graphs [8] and
triangulation of the environment [9], while another researchers
has used graph-based methods which most of the algorithm are.
Graph-based also has various approach, such as Dijkstra [10],
A* [11], artificial potential field [12], and arrival time field [13]
which are based on grid map, RRT [14] which are based on
sampling. Heuristic and meta-heuristic method were also able
to be used such as genetic algorithm [15], particle swarm [16],
and ant colony [17]. However, some researchers did not take
any robot constraints into account, robot is modelled as point
mass [18]. In the real application, the robot has kinematics and
dynamics constraints, such as velocity, acceleration, and
possible motion, researchers who take both kinematics and
dynamics constraints into account, which is known as
kinodynamic path planning can be found at [12].
Path following field is also challenging, many researchers
have proposed many methods to solve this problem. Some
researchers have used Serret-Frenet frame to define the path-
following errors [19], i.e. the cross tracks and heading angle
errors. Other researchers have used virtual robot moving on the
reference path. Others have used transverse feedback
linearization method [20] which converts the path following
problem to input-output feedback linearization problem.
In this research, arrival time field for path planning is utilized
to create collision-free path for non-holonomic mobile robot.
This path then will be followed by mobile robot. Since the
mobile robot has certain dimension, before arrival time field is
calculated, map which represents mobile robot’s environment is
dilated at the obstacles region to guarantee that the generated
path for mobile robot will not collide with any obstacle. After
that, arrival time field is generate in dilated map. The goal point
of mobile robot is assigned as arrival time field source point.
Gradient descent method is utilized to find maximum gradient
starting from mobile robot’s starting point to the goal point.
Since the mobile robot is non-holonomic, orientation of mobile
robot is also calculated during path planning phase utilizing
gradient descent. After the path is generated, mobile robot is
driven to follow the path using kinematics control.
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 Our contribution is two-fold. First, unlike the previous work
[13] which is focused on the holonomic robot, we investigate the
planning strategies on the non-holonomic robot. Later, we use a
separation principle for the path generation and path controlling,
which is differed from the work in [14]. Using such approaches,
we can optimize each problem separately.
The paper is organized as follows. In the section II, we
explain arrival time field method for path planning and our
proposed algorithm. Section III deals with the problem of
designing kinematics controller for mobile robot path
following. In the section IV, several simulation results are
discussed. And finally, section V concludes this paper.
II. PATH PLANNING STRATEGY
A. Arrival Time Field
The term arrival time field in path planning research is
coined by Ardiyanto [14], which defined arrival time field as a
space that stores the information about time needed by each
point in a defined environment to reach the target point. The
environment in this research is restricted to two dimensional
space that has two regions, i.e. free space region as well as
obstacle region. To calculate arrival time field of an
environment, consider a simple kinematics equation that relates
velocity , position , and time as
∆ = ∆ ,
With simple algebraic operation, this equation can be rewritten
as
∆ (2)
=
∆
For higher dimension, equation (2) becomes
| |=
Equation (2) known as Eikonal equation. This equation
represents the time needed by monotonic wave in a space for
propagating with certain velocity value, started from its origin
point until certain point within the space. This equation can be
solved using Godunov approximation [21]. For 2D case, the
equation is given by
, , , , + ,
=
, longitudinal and lateral force exerted on by the castor wheel,
where
= −
, , , the moment exerted by the tool.
, = , − , The complete kinematic and dynamic of that mobile robot
, = , − , can be written as [25]
, = , − ,
This approximation is a discretization of Eikonal equation. ,
denotes the arrival time value at grid , which represents point
, in continues form. , is the velocity value at cell , .
B. Fast Marching Method
The solution of equation (4) can be obtained using some
solvers such as Fast Marching Method [22], Fast Sweeping
Method [23], and Fast Iterative Method [24].
In this research, we use Fast Marching Method to solve
discretized Eikonal equation, similar to [14]. Readers are
directed to refer [14] for the detail of Fast Marching Method.
III. PATH FOLLOWING STRATEGY
A. Mathematical Model of Mobile Robot
Consider a mobile robot in the form of dynamic unicycle-
like robot. The mobile robot is non-holonomic and has only two
control input, its right motor and left motor velocities, while it
has three degrees of freedom, because it moves in a 2-
dimensional plane and it has orientation. We use the model
proposed in [25].
(1) (1)
(3)
Fig. 1. Mobile Robot with differential driving model
Figure (1) illustrated the mobile robot, where is the center
of mass, is the wheel baseline center, ℎ = [ ] is the point
that is required to track a trajectory, and are the longitudinal
and lateral velocities of the center of mass; and are angular
velocity and orientation of the robot, , , , and are
distances, and are the longitudinal and lateral tire
(4)
, , , forces of the right wheel, and are the longitudinal
and lateral tire forces of the left wheel, and are the
and are the longitudinal and lateral forces exerted on
by the tool (for example, a robotic arm or a gripper), and is
(5)
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 − The control signals we used are linear velocity of the robot
̇ ⎡ ⎤ ⎡0 0
⎡ ̇⎤ ⎢
−
⎥ ⎢0 0⎤ ⎡ ⎤ and angular velocity . These control signal must be designed
⎢ ⎥ ⎥ ⎢ ⎥ to drive the robot from its actual configuration to the sub-goal
̇⎥ = ⎢ ⎥ + ⎢0 0⎥ +⎢0⎥ (6)
⎢ − 0⎥ position. From equation (11), it is clear that there is an
⎢ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢
̇⎥ ⎢ ⎥
⎣ ⎦ ⎢ ⎥ ⎢0 ⎥ discontinuity at = 0. Based on robot kinematics model in
̇ − − ⎣ ⎦
⎣ ⎦ ⎣ ⎦ polar coordinates that is shown by equation (11), Siegwart [26]
has proposed the linear control law as follow
where and are the robot linear and angular velocities,
=
respectively, = ( , ) is coordinate of the robot in the (12)
plane, is the robot orientation, and are the = +
desired values of the velocities. The equation (6) describing the Then closed-loop system described by
parameter , = {1, … , 6} were firstly presented in [25],
and we use the same value.
̇ − cos
B. Kinematics Control ̇ = sin − − (13)
Based on the kinematics model of the robot, the kinematics ̇ − sin
controller can be designed. Recall equation, by neglecting
lateral forces of the wheel of mobile robot and assuming that The system does not have any singularity at = 0 and has
the disturbance term in that equation is a zero vector, we obtain
unique equilibrium point at [ ] = [0 0 0] . Hence,
the simplified kinematics model as follows
mobile robot will be driven to the sub-goal point.
̇ If we utilize this control law without modification, robot
0
̇ = movement is not smooth, the velocity of the robot will be
0 (7)
̇ 0 1 smaller and approaching zero as the value is getting smaller.
This problem will occur unless mobile robot reaches the global
The next step is find the distance between robot current goal. To tackle this problem, we keep , , constant
position and next waypoints, and also its orientation difference with its initial value. We are not only considering the
between robot current orientation and next desired orientation. smoothness of mobile robot, but also the safety. Therefore, the
It is solved by converting cartesian coordinate with following control law is given by
equations
=
(8) (14)
= − + − = +
−
= − + (9)
− where is relative velocity obtained from velocity function.
=− −
(10) IV. SIMULATION AND RESULTS

where is the distance between the center of the robot's

wheel axle and the next waypoints/sub-goals, with and
is the next waypoint/sub-goal, while and are current
robot position. is difference angle between current
orientation and orientation in the next waypoint/sub-goal, with
is current orientation of mobile robot and is initial
orientation.
This conversion leads to kinematics equation in the polar
coordinates as given by

− 0 Fig. 2. Map Environment for Path Planning Simulation

⎡ sin ⎤
̇ −1⎥
⎢
̇ =⎢ ⎥ (11) To verify the performance of the algorithm, the resulted
̇ ⎢− sin ⎥ algorithm is simulated. We simulate the deployment of mobile
1
⎣ ⎦ robot with defined start and goal pose in a 20 m x 20 m square
We use control law from Siegwart [26] with slight environment with obstacles as shown by Figure (2).
modification and adjustment in order to be utilized in our case. Environment in path planning phase is represented by binary

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digital image which white represents free space area, and black
represents obstacle area. Initial and goal position as well the
orientation can be seen in Figure (2). First step to be done before
generating arrival time field is map dilation on the obstacle
region based on maximum robot radius. This step is very
important, because it able to guarantee that the generated path
for mobile robot will not collide with any obstacles. Map
dilation can be seen on Figure (3).
The generated path from uniform velocity function has
shorter distance to the goal than the generated path from with
non-uniform velocity function. However, it is not smooth path
and too close to the obstacles. Theoretically, the generated path
is collision-free based on map dilation. To verify, the generated
path is plotted in map without dilation in order to check whether
the generated path for mobile robot is collision-free or not. It is
shown on Figure (6)

(a) (b)

`
Fig. 3. Dilated Map Environment for Path Planning
To generate arrival time field for dilated map above, we
define velocity function that will be used by Fast Marching
method. We use two velocity functions, uniform and non-
uniform, as also mentioned in [14]. Uniform velocity function
has the same velocity in free-space area of the map that denoted
by white color, and it has zero value in obstacle area of the map
denoted by black color. Non-uniform velocity function yields
velocity variation at free-space area and shown on Figure (4), (c) (d)
and it has zero value in obstacle area. Fig. 5. (a): Arrival Time Field Uniform Velocity, (b): Generated Path in Dilated
Map (c): Arrival Time Field Non-uniform Velocity, (d): Generated Path in
Dilated Map

Figure (6) above show generated path for mobile robot

considering the mobile robot dimension. Those two figures
show that the generated path is free of collision, it indicates that
arrival time field both using uniform and non-uniform velocity
function are able to generate collision-free path for mobile
robot. Figure (6b) has smoother and safer path than Figure (6a),
but its path is longer.

Fig. 4. Velocity Function of Arrival Time Field

Now, arrival time field of the map above is calculated using

Fast Marching method as shown on Figure (5). Source of arrival
time field, that is = 0, is denoted by small circle sign inside
the map, and stopping point of arrival time field, that is the
initial point of mobile robot, denoted by cross sign inside the
map. The color of each point inside the grid map represents the
arrival time on that point from source point as shown by color- (a) (b)
bar beside the Figures (5a) and (5c). After arrival time field is
generated, the shortest path from initial point of mobile robot is Fig. 6. Generated Path on Environment Map. (a): Uniform Velocity (b): Non-
uniform Velocity
extracted by applying gradient descent as shown on Figure (5b)
and (5d).

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 Path planning has been performed, safe and collision-free robot is passing through the long corridor, because the distance
path for mobile robot has been obtained. Now mobile robot is with the obstacle is not too far.
driven to follow the paths based on kinematics control in
section III. The environment we used in path following
simulation is shown on Figure (7).

(a) (b)

Fig. 8. Path Following Result. (a): Path created by Robot motion (b):
Comparison Actual and Reference Path

Fig. 7. Path Following Simulator Environment

Path generated by mobile robot when it was following the
reference path and its comparison are shown on Figure (8).
Figure (8a) shows that path following strategy works well,
mobile robot is able to follow the generated path from its initial
point until reaches the goal point. However, it is almost collide
the obstacle near the goal point. It indicates that arrival time
field with uniform velocity has bigger possibility to collide the
obstacle, especially when the accuracy of path following
algorithm is low. Our path following has good accuracy, (a) (b)
although the error is getting bigger before approaching goal
point. We extract the path of mobile robot into position
( ) and orientation as function of time, and compare
to the desired one from path planning phase. This comparison
is given by Figure (9). Those figures indicate that the accuracy
of path following is good, although there is small error.
Velocity profile of mobile robot when it is following the path is
also presented in Figure (9d), it is almost constant because the
velocity function used is uniform.
The path following strategy is also applied on generated path (c) (d)
with non-uniform velocity. It is shown by Figure (10). Figure
(10a) shows the actual path that generated by mobile robot Fig. 9. Actual and Reference Comparison. (a): X Position (b): Y Position. (c):
Orientation. (d): Velocity
when it is following the path, and Figure (10b) shows the
comparison between the actual path and reference path
generated by path planning algorithm.
Based on Figure (10a), path following strategy works well,
mobile robot is able to follow the generated path from its initial
point until reaches the goal point. Compare to figure (10a), it
has smoother and safer path. Our path following strategy has
good accuracy as indicated on Figure (10b), the error is small,
although it is getting bigger when before approaching the goal
point. To be concise, we extract the path of mobile robot into
position and orientation as function of time, and compare to the
desired one from path planning phase.
We can see that the accuracy is good enough, although there
(b) (b)
are small errors, but it can still be tolerated. Figure (11d)
indicates that the velocity level of mobile robot is smaller than Fig. 10. Path Following Result based on Arrival Time Field with Non-uniform
before (see Figure (9d)), and it is getting smaller when mobile Velocity (a): Path created by Robot motion (b): Comparison Actual and
Reference Path

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(c) (b)
Fig. 11. Actual and Reference Comparison. (a): X Position (b): Y Position.
(c): Orientation. (d): Velocity
VI. CONCLUSIONS
Arrival-time-field-based method for path planning of mobile
robot and path following strategy using kinematics control are
presented in this paper. This work was divided into two main
parts, the first is about how to generate collision-free path
between initial pose of mobile robot and specified goal pose
considering the geometry and kinematics of mobile robot. The
second part explains how to control mobile robot which has
kinematics and dynamics to follow the previously generated
path. Through several simulation scenarios, we have verified
that mobile robot was able to follow the previously defined path
with smooth motion.
In the future, we will examine broader range of system, such
as Dubin Car, aerial vehicles, etc. Stability examination also
becomes possible interesting direction of the research.
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