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voltage flickering mitigation

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DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.1.2776.0726

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VOLTAGE FLICKERING
MITIGATION USING D-STATCOM

by

ANOOP B K
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
ELECTRONICS AND COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
VIMAL JYOTHI ENGINEERING COLLEGE
KANNUR

DR.C.SHREESHA
PROFESSOR
MANIPAL INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
MANIPAL
           


CONTENTS
PAGE .NO

CHAPTER 1 ,1752'8&7,21««««««««««««««

1.1 MOTIVATION««««««««««««««««««««

1.2 OBJECTIVE«««««««««««««««««««««

1.3 SCOPE OF WORK«««««««««««««««««««

1.4 LITERATURE REVIEW««««««««««««««««

1.5 ORGANIZATION 2)%22.««««««««««««««

CHAPTER 2 VO/7$*()/,&..(5««««««««««««

2.1 IEEE FLIC.(5,1*67$1'$5'6«««««««««««

2.2 SOURCES OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS«««««««

CHAPTER 3 METHODS USED FOR VOLTAGE FLICKERING

MITIGATION«««««««««««««««««

3.1 CAPACITOR BANKS«««««««««««««««««««3

3.2 SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER«««««««««««««««
3.3 STATIC VAR &203(16$7256««««««««««««««

CHAPTER 4 D-67$7&20««««««««««««««««««
4.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF D-67$7&20««««««««««««
           

4.2 CONSTRUCTION OF D-STATCO0«««««««««««««
4.3 INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR«««««««««
4.4 WORKING OF D-ST$7&20««««««««««««««««
4.5 MODELLING OF D-67$7&20«««««««««««««««
4.6 D-STATCOM MODEL«««««««««««««««««««
4.7 CONTROL SYSTEM MODEL««««««««««««««««

CHAPTER 5 SIMULATION RESULT««««««««««««««

CONCLUS,21«««««««««««««««««««««««

$11(;85(«««««««««««««««««««««««««38

REFE5(1&(6««««««««««««««««««««««««
           

LIST OF FIGURES

Fig 2.1 Flicker Curves«««««««««««««««««««««««««««08

Fig 3.1 Compensation Using Capacitor Banks««««««««««««««««««

Fig 3.2 Static VAR Compensator«««««««««««««««««««««««

Fig 4.1Simplified Diagram of a D-STATCOM Connected to Distribution Network«««

Fig.4.2 D-STATCOM operation«««««««««««««««««««««««

(a)Inductive operation,

(b) Capacitive operation

Fig.4.3 Basic Building Blocks of the D-67$7&20««««««««««««««« 18

Fig.4.4 Symbol and Circuit diagram of IGBT««««««««««««««««««

Fig 4.5 Inverter Operation of D-67$7&20««««««««««««««««««

Fig.4.6 Equivalent One-line Circuit diagram of D-67$7&20«««««««««««
Fig.4.7 D-STATCOM System Model«««««««««««««««««««««

Fig.4.8 Control System Model««««««««««««««««««««««««

Fig. 5.1 Stabilisation of DC Link Voltages«««««««««««««««««««

Fig. 5.2 Stabilisation in The Voltage at PCC«««««««««««««««««««

Fig.5.3 Without D-STATCOM WLWKRXW/RDG««««««««««««««««««

Fig.5.4 Without D-STATCOM :LWK/RDG«««««««««««««««««««

Fig.5.5 With D-STATCOM WitKRXW/RDG«««««««««««««««««««

            


CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION
Power quality in distribution systems has been attracting an increasing
interest during recent years. Research studies include the quality of voltage
supply with respect to temporary interruptions, voltage dips, harmonics and
voltage flicker. Voltage flicker occurs when large industrial loads, such as electric
arc furnaces, rolling mills, and pumps operate periodically in a weak power
distribution system. It causes voltage fluctuation at the Point of Common
Coupling (PCC) with other loads and can annoy residential consumers by
causing visible lighting flicker on incandescent or fluorescent lamps. In addition
to the perceptible and sometimes irritating lighting flicker to humans, voltage
flicker can also cause electrical equipment efficiency drop, torque and
power oscillations and interference in protection systems. Modern consumers
require high quality power supply for their sensitive f a c i l i t i e s . Voltage flicker
h a s t h e r e f o r e b e e n a n important power quality concern for both power
companies and customer.

Problems with electricity supply may always occur regardless of time

and place. This may cause an impact to the electric supply thus may affect the
manufacturing industry and impede the economic development in a country. The
major electric problems that always occur in power systems are the power quality
problems that have been discussed by the electrical engineers around the world,
since problems have become a major issue due to the rapid development of
sophisticated and sensitive equipment in the manufacturing and production
industries.
The increased concern for power quality has resulted in measuring
power quality variations, studying the characteristics of power disturbances and

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providing solutions to the power quality problems. In distribution systems, the

power quality problems can reduce the power supplied to the customers from its
nominal value. Voltage sag, harmonic, transient, overvoltage and under voltage are
major impacts to a distribution system. The utility and the users are responsible in
polluting the supply network due to operating large loads.

There are many solutions to mitigating the power quality problems at a

distribution system such as using surge arresters, active power filters, isolation
transformer, uninterruptible power supply and static VAR compensator. Blazic et al.
proposed a new D-STATCOM control algorithm which enables separate control of
positive and negative sequence currents and decoupled control of d- and q- axes
current components. From the studies, it is shown that all these equipmHQW¶V are
capable to solve power quality problems. The best equipment to solve this problem
in distribution systems at minimum cost is Custom Power family of D-STATCOM.

Environmental effects also give an impact to the power quality

and its reliability. Major concerns on industrial p o w e r quality problems are that
they affect the production, due to sensitive equipment in the industries. Where
there are power quality problems, equipment may mis-operate or machine may
possibly shut down. Installations like Adjustable Speed Drive (ASD), switch
mode power supplies and high frequency switching by industries may also affect
the power quality. High sensitivity equipment such as high speed motor, super
computer, microprocessors and medical instruments may also be affected by the
power quality problems occurring in the system.
Voltage sag is the most important power quality problems faced by
many industries and utilities. It contributes to more than 80% of power quality (PQ)
problems that exist in power. By definition, voltage sag is an rms (root mean

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square) reduction in the AC voltage at the power frequency, for duration from a
half-cycle to a few seconds. Voltage sags are not tolerated by sensitive equipments
used in modern industrial plants such as process controllers, programmable logic
controllers (PLC), adjustable speed drive (ASD) and robotics. It has been reported
that, high intensity discharge lamps used for industrial illumination get
extinguished at voltage sags of 20% and industrial equipments like PLC and ASD
at about 10%.
Various methods have been applied to reduce or mitigate voltage sags.
The conventional methods are by using capacitor banks, introduction of
new parallel feeders and by installing uninterruptible power supplies (UPS).
However, the PQ problems are not solved completely due to uncontrollable
reactive power compensation and high costs of new feeders and UPS.

The D- STATCOM has emerged as a promising device to provide

not only for voltage sags mitigation but a host of other power quality solutions
such as voltage stabilization, flicker suppression, power factor correction and
harmonic control. The D-STATCOM has additional capability to sustain reactive
current at low voltage and reduction in the space required. Hence it can be developed
as a voltage and frequency support system in place of capacitors with batteries as
energy storage elements.

1.1 MOTIVATION
In many residential areas, switching of heavy loads like flour mill etc.
cause voltage flickering in the nearby houses. Hence sensitive
equipments/electronic gadgets can not be operated properly or may get damaged as
well. Mitigation of voltage flickering is a sensible solution for such a problem. In
this work many methods to overcome voltage flickering and their merits are
discussed. In a particular problem in FACTS[3] DSTATCOM has been proposed

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as a suitable method for mitigating voltage flickering, which claims to give superior
performance.

1.2 OBJECTIVE
Reduction of the effect of voltage flickering is the main objective of
this project work. For avoiding voltage flickering power factor needs to be
improved[5]. The main aim of the project is to maintain the voltage across the
capacitor of DSTATCOM a constant value. Secondly the voltage across common
coupling needs to be maintained relatively at a constant value. DSTATCOM draws
current for capacitor charging and supply current for pseudo power.

As a summary the main objectives of this project are:

x Reduce voltage flickering
x Maintain voltage across capacitor at a constant value.
x Maintain voltage in PCC at a relatively constant value.
x Design a control system for DSTATCOM.

1.3 SCOPE OF WORK

Today everyone is speaking about quality rather than quantity in
providing a better service. In this scenario we need to maintain certain methods for
the power quality improvements. Using DSTATCOM a regulation of about 10% is
achieved. Thus, implementing the work in power distribution systems definitely
enables good quality of power.

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1.4 LITERATURE REVIEW

The literature surveys conducted on voltage mitigation using STATCOM
are briefly explained below.
A voltage flickering mitigation using PWM based Distribution
STATCOM in 69 kV line was developed and good results were obtained[1]. As per
this paper a frequency change of 10Hz will reflect a huge variation in output of the
lamp ie flickering.
A STATCOM Modeling for Mitigation of Voltage Fluctuations caused
by Electric Arc Furnaces was developed [2]. This paper describes a model for a
PWM-based STATCOM used in a distribution system for mitigation of voltage
fluctuations produced by an Electric Arc Furnace.
Voltage flicker, a phenomenon of annoying light intensity fluctuation, caused
by rapid change in industrial and domestic load such as Electric Arc Furnaces and
flour mills was developed using STATCOM and ESS [4]. SVC's and STATCOM
have been able to solve the voltage flicker problems by rapidly controlling the
reactive power. However control of active power along with reactive power control
helps to mitigate the voltage flicker problem more effectively.
A voltage flickering in a electric furnaces using STATCOM was
developed[5]. This paper covers contrasting approaches; dealing with the voltage
flicker mitigation in three stages and assessing the related results in details.
Initially, the voltage flicker mitigation, using FCTCR (Fixed Capacitor Thyristor
Controlled Reactor), was simulated. Secondly, the compensation for the Static
Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM) has been performed. In this case, injection
of harmonics into the system caused some problems which were later overcome by
using 12-pulse assignment of STATCOM and RLC filters.

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1.5 ORGANIZATION OF BOOK

Rest of the thesis report is organized as follows. Chapter 2 describes
about voltage flickker. In Chapter 3, methods to mitigate voltage flickering are
elaborated. Modelling and working of DSTATCOM is discussed in Chapter 4.
Simulation model is presented in Chapter 5. Results and conclusions were
discussed in Chapter 6.

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CHAPTER 2

VOLTAGE FLICKKER

Residential customers near large industrial plants often experience

flickering of lights. This voltage flickering can be extremely harmful to sensitive
electronic equipment. Computerized equipment requires stable voltage to perform
properly. For this reason, voltage flicker is a major power quality problem. Flicker is
a difficult problem to quantify and to solve. The untimely combination of the
following factors is required for flicker to be a problem: i) some deviation in voltage
supplying lighting circuits and ii) a person being present to view the possible change
in light intensity due to the voltage deviation. The human factor significantly
complicates the issue and for this reason flicker has historically been deemed "a
problem of perception." The voltage deviations involved are often much less than the
thresholds of susceptibility for electrical equipment, so major operating problems are
only experienced in rare cases. To office personnel, on the other hand, voltage
deviations on the order of a few tenths of one percent could produce extremely
annoying fluctuations in the output of lights, especially if the frequency of repetitive
deviations is 5-15 Hz.

Due to the not so clear relationship between voltage deviation and light
response, the term "flicker" often means different things to different people with the
interpretations. In each case, the deviation may or may not be strictly periodic and is
usually expressed as a change (as indicated by the change in rms value) relative to
the steady-state level (expressed as an rms value averaged over some time period).
For voltage variations, the change is usually expressed as DV/V. A similar
expression for light intensity variations also exists.

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Fig 2.1 Flicker Curves

From a utility application point of view, voltage fluctuations have

usually been of interest, perhaps because voltage changes are easily measured with
existing instrumentation. Historically, these voltage changes have been used in
conjunction with "flicker curves" such as those shown in Fig 2.1. These curves,
derived from controlled experiments, offer thresholds of perception and/or irritability
when periodic rectangular voltage fluctuations occur continuously. Even though the
use of a simple curve leaves much to be desired (including an accepted industry-wide
definition of the essential DV/V term), it is comforting to note that IEEE and
UIE frequency weightings are very similar.

Standards-making bodies tend to focus on the changes in light intensity

output in order to account for the human observability factor. As standards have
evolved, significant attempts have been made to include the years of experience

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obtained using the "flicker curve" method described previously. There are, however,
a number of degrees of freedom that must be addressed in the development of a
universally-accepted standard including lighting circuit voltage, type of lamp
involved, randomness of voltage fluctuation and human factors which affect
perception.

At this time, there are no widely-accepted flicker standards in the United

States and Canada. In Europe and other countries, however, the International Electro
technical Commission (IEC) has developed a group of standards which
systematically account for many of the difficulties in the "flicker curve" methods.
The IEEE Task Force on Light Flicker is presently considering modifications to these
IEC standards that are required for them to be considered for adoption in the United
States and Canada. The following sections describe the existing IEEE and IEC
Standards

2.1 IEEE FLICKER STANDARDS

The IEEE publishes voltage flicker limits in the form of recommended

practice documents. The two most notable are IEEE 519-1992 and IEEE 141-1995.
Although intended to be identical, they have very slight differences. Both display the
recommended practice on a xy graph as shown in Fig2.1. The graph presents a
borderline of visibility and a borderline of irritation curve with each related to the
continuity, the amplitude and the frequency aspects of the voltage fluctuations.

The research behind the IEEE flicker curves is more than 50 years old.
Researchers subjected people to a variety of flicker magnitude and duration
combinations from incandescent light bulbs. They used a variety of bulb wattages,
but 60 W bulbs dominate the research. The observers reported their feelings about
each flicker dosage. They could report that they did not see it, that they saw it but
were not irritated, or that the flicker dosage was irritable to them. The results have a
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statistical nature because observers do not always agree about visibility and irritation.
Researchers drew the visibility and irritation curves at "reasonable" levels. A flicker
dosage just slightly below the irritation limit might produce mild irritation from a
very few observers. Increasing flicker dosage to slightly above the irritation line will
produce two results. First, a larger percentage of the population will be irritated.
Second, people irritated at the lower dosage will become more irritated. The
percentage of irritable population and irritation level both increase with higher flicker
dosage.

It is important to remember that most of the research assumed 60 W

incandescent 120 V bulbs. Lower wattage incandescent bulbs have shorter time
constants. They tend to produce the first complaints especially for flicker frequencies
faster than one per second. Higher wattage bulbs have longer time constants and are
less responsive. New lighting technologies have yet different responses to voltage
fluctuations.

It is also important to recognize that the laboratory experiments used

sudden voltage changes. Rectangular modulation of the 60 Hz sine wave was the
most popular approach. Slower voltage changes, such as sinusoidal modulation, are
less likely to produce flicker complaints. It is also important to note that most of the
experiments used repetitive single point exposures. The experiments used steady
voltages except for the single magnitude and frequency combination. Most practical
applications have combinations of several flicker dosages with multiple amplitudes at
various frequencies that possibly are produced by more than one source. Further, the
voltage modulation often is not rectangular and not periodic.

For example, consider the complexity of a typical residential circuit that also
happens to serve a large seam welder. The customer will experience flicker from
motor starts and other load changes in his or her home. If they share a common
distribution transformer and secondary, they will also experience flicker from other
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customer loads on the same transformer. They also see lamp flicker from the seam
welder. The total flicker experience then is a combination of these individual flicker
dosages. The IEEE curves do not address multiple dosage issues.

The situation becomes even more complex if the utility adds an adaptive
VAR compensator for flicker control. A seam welder typically generates rectangular
modulation. However, the single or half cycle VAR compensator control adds
significant complexity. The system sees the full voltage drop until the compensator
responds. The voltage moves to a new point which is unlikely to match the voltage
prior to the weld. Voltage over-shoot is common at the end of the weld due to
compensator response time. This voltage modulation is far more complex than
anything anticipated by the IEEE flicker curves.

The IEEE flicker curves have served the industry well for many years.
However, better techniques are available. A flicker measurement protocol developed
by the International Union for Electro heat (UIE) and embraced by the IEC shows
great promise. Cooperative efforts between the IEC, UIE, EPRI and IEEE allow the
IEC standard to be modified for a variety of lighting technologies and a variety of
system voltages. This effort promotes one universal standard for flicker.

It should be mentioned that there are many significant advances beyond

the use of single curves such as those in Figure 2.1. There are numerous major
manufacturers in North America offering flicker measurement products and each is
different. Furthermore, many of the utilities in North America have their own limits
for flicker which are not necessarily based on a formal measurement process. The
large number of approaches presently in use is largely responsible for this attempt by
the Task Force on Light Flicker to standardize the measurement, evaluation, and
assessment procedures.

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2.2 SOURCES OF VOLTAGE FLUCTUATIONS

The primary cause of voltage changes is the time variability of the

reactive power component of fluctuating loads. Such loads include arc furnaces,
rolling mill drives and mine winders ² all of which are loads with a high rate of
change of power with respect to the short-circuit capacity at the point of common
coupling (PCC).

Small power loads, such as starting of induction motors, welders,

boilers, power regulators, electric saws and hammers, pumps and compressors,
cranes and elevators also can be sources of flicker.

Other causes are capacitor switching and on-load transformer tap

changers, which can change the inductive component of the source impedance.
Variations in generation capacity of wind turbines, for example, also can have an
effect. Sometimes, voltage fluctuations are caused by low-frequency voltage inter-
harmonics.

In this chapter voltage flickering and various standards for permissible

flickering is discussed. As per the objective of this project we need to eliminate
voltage flickering. Various methods used for voltage flickering mitigation are
discussed in next chapter.

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CHAPTER 3

METHODS USED FOR VOLTAGE FLICKERING MITIGATION

In this Chapter various methods used for voltage flickering mitigation

are discussed. Industrial loads, which are normally operated with poor power factor
are induction motors, arc and induction furnaces. Fluorescent tubes, fans etc. also
operate at low value of power factor. All these loads, working at low power factor,
need large amount of reactive power which results in reduced voltage level at the
load terminals. A low voltage at the consumer terminals is undesirable as it leads to
impaired performance of their utility devices.

The various methods of power quality improvement are as under:

i) Use of capacitor banks

ii) Use of synchronous condensers

iii) Use of static VAR Compensators.

3.1 CAPACITOR BANKS

A bank of capacitors is connected across the load as shown in Fig. 3.1. Since
the capacitor takes leading reactive power, over all reactive power taken from the
source decreases, consequently system power factor improves.

In this method capacitance across the motor terminals must be varied as the
load on the induction motor alters. Thus a continuous control of power factor would
entail the need of a large number of capacitors of small rating. The switching in or
out is carried out by means of relays and circuit breakers. However these approaches
are quite cumbersome and expensive. The mechanical switches and relays are
sluggish, unreliable, require frequent maintenance and introduce switching transients.

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Fig 3.1. Compensation Using Capacitor Banks

3.2 SYNCHRONOUS CONDENSER

A 3phase synchronous motor when over excited works as a synchronous

condenser or a capacitor. It gives dynamic power factor correction over a wide range
of its excitation. When under excitation, it operates at a lagging power factor and
therefore absorbs reactive power from the bus. When over excited, a synchronous
motor works at leading power factor and therefore acts as a generator of reactive
power and therefore behaves as a capacitor. A static capacitor bank provides power
factor control in discrete steps whereas a synchronous condenser furnishes a
continuous control of power factor improvement and the associated reactive power
flow. A synchronous condenser has more losses and it is very slow as compared to a
capacitor bank and also it can be installed at one place only. These are the
disadvantages of synchronous condenser.

3.3 STATIC VAR COMPENSATOR

It consists of a thyristor controlled reactor (TCR) in parallel with a

fixed capacitor C. Thyristor controlled reactor is a major component of a Static VAR
Compensator. Static thyristor controlled reactors are connected in parallel with the
load for the control of reactive power flow. With increase in size of industrial
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connected loads fast reactive power compensation has become necessary. A Static
VAR Compensator equal to TCR + fixed capacitor C is shown in dashpot rectangle
in Fig 3.2

Fig 3.2 Static VAR Compensator

Out of these three methods static VAR compensators are widely used because
of its advantages over others. In this project we are using D-STATCOM, detailed
study and design about D-STATCOM are discussed in next chapter.

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CHAPTER 4

D-STATCOM
In this Chapter design of D-STATCOM has been presented. There are
many methods for voltage flickering mitigation. Among them D-STATCOM is
chosen due to the faster response and its ability to provide a reactive current even in
low voltages.

The D-STATCOM is a three-phase and shunt connected power

electronics based device. It is connected near the load at the distribution systems.
The major components of a D-STATCOM are shown in Fig.4.1. It consists of a
DC capacitor, three-phase inverter (IGBT, thyristor) module, AC filter, coupling
transformer and a control strategy.

Distribution Static Compensator (DSTATCOM), which

consists o f a n I G B T -based v o l t a g e s o u r c e inverter, u s e s advanced power
switches to provide fast response and flexible voltage control at the
connection for power quality improvement i n distribution s y s t e m s . The
h i g h s w i t c h i n g frequency of modern power switches, together with multi-level
inverter topologies make it viable to use Pulse Width Modulation (PWM)
in high power applications. Using high frequency PWM, the inverter will provide
smooth current with low harmonic content.

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Fig 4.1 Simplified Diagram of a D-STATCOM Connected to a Distribution Network

In distribution networks, D-STATCOM (Distribution Static
Compensator) is a shunt device that regulates the system voltage by absorbing or
generating reactive power. The D- STATCOM consists mainly of a PWM inverter,
connected to the network through a transformer. The DC link voltage is provided by
capacitor C which is charged with power taken from the network. The control system
ensures the regulation of the bus voltage and the DC link voltage.

The D-STATCOM¶V function is to regulate the bus voltage by absorbing

or generating reactive power to the network like a Thyristor Static Compensator. This
reactive power transfer is done through the leakage reactance of the coupling
transformer by using a secondary voltage in phase with the primary voltage. This
voltage is provided by a voltage source PWM inverter. The D-STATCOM operation
is illustrated by the phasor diagrams shown in Fig. 4.2. When the secondary voltage
(Vd) is lower than the bus voltage (Vb), the D-STATCOM acts like an inductance
absorbing reactive power from the bus. When the secondary voltage (Vd) is higher
than the bus voltage (Vb), the D-STATCOM acts like a capacitor supplying reactive
power to the bus. In steady state, due to inverter losses, the bus voltage always leads
the inverter voltage by a small angle to supply a small active power.

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Fig.4.2.D-STATCOM operation
(a)Inductive operation, (b) Capacitive operation

4.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM OF D-STATCOM

The D-STATCOM is a three-phase and shunt connected power
electronics based device. It is connected near the load at the distribution
systems. The major components of a D-STATCOM are shown in Fig 4.3. It
consists of a DC capacitor, three-phase inverter (IGBT, thyristor) module, AC
filter, coupling transformer and a control strategy. The basic electronic block of the
D-STATCOM is the voltage-source inverter that converts an input DC voltage into
a three-phase output voltage at fundamental frequency.

Fig.4.3 Basic Building Blocks of the D-STATCOM

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The D-STATCOM employs an inverter to convert the DC link voltage Vdc

on the capacitor to a voltage source of adjustable magnitude and phase. Therefore
the D-STATCOM can be treated as a voltage-controlled source. The D-STATCOM
can also be seen as a current-controlled source. Fig.4 .3 shows the inductance L
and resistance R which represent the equivalent circuit elements of the step- down
transformer and the inverter will be the main component of the D-STATCOM. The
voltage Vi is the effective output voltage of the D-STATCOM and į is the power
angle. The reactive power output of the D-STATCOM is inductive or capacitive
depending upon operation mode of the D- STATCOM.

Referring to Fig.4.3, the construction controller of the D- STATCOM is

used to operate the inverter in such a way that the phase angle between the
inverter voltage and the line voltage is dynamically adjusted so that the D-
STATCOM generates or absorbs the desired VAR at the point of connection. The
phase of the output voltage of the thyristor-based inverter, Vi, is controlled in the
same way as the distribution system voltage, Vs.

Fig. 4.2 shows the two basic operation modes of the D- STATCOM
output current, I, which varies depending upon Vi. When Vi is greater than Vs, the
D-STATCOM shows an inductive reactance connected at its terminal. The current, I,
flows through the transformer reactance from the D-STATCOM to the AC system,
and the device generates capacitive reactive power.

If Vs is greater than Vi, the D-STATCOM shows the system as a

capacitive reactance. Then the current flows from the AC system to the D-
STATCOM, resulting in the device absorbing inductive reactive power.

4.2 CONSTRUCTION OF D-STATCOM

A digital simulation model of the D-STATCOM connected to a three

phase source along with a normal household load and a heavy load is developed
ϭϵ

            


using the MATLAB/SIMULINK power system block set (PSB). The PSB is a
graphical tool that allows for building schematics and simulations of Power Systems.
It unifies power network, power electronics and control systems in the
MATLAB/SIMULINK environment.

Modeling the D-STATCOM including the power network and its

FRQWUROOHULQVLPXOLQNHQYLURQPHQWUHTXLUHV³HOHFWULFEORFNV´IURPWKHSRZHUV\VWHP
block set and control blocks from simulink library. Fig 4.7 shows the simulink
diagram of a D-STATCOM along with its control system.

At the input side, a 3 phase AC source (415V, 50Hz) is provided. Since

a 415V source is considered, distribution line parameters are not considered, instead
a three phase series RLC branch is provided so as to satisfy the properties of
transmission line. As the short distance transmission is considered, the capacitance
element is assumed to be zero and only R and L elements are considered.

This RLC branch is given to a three phase V-I measurement unit 1which
measures per unit value of voltage and current at the source side. The connections to
the D-STATCOM are taken from the lines coming out of this unit and this junction is
point of common coupling. The second V-I measurement unit which accounts for the
per unit values of voltage and current at the load side is also taken from PCC. A three
phase parallel RLC load 1 which may be normal household appliances is taken as
shunt. The three phase breaker given will load and unload three phase parallel RLC
load unit which is a heavy load, like an induction motor. The transition times set in
the breaker enables to load/unload as desired.

The D-STATCOM construction begins with a three phase breaker 1

which is to on/off the D-STATCOM as desired so as to show its effectiveness in the
simulation.

ϮϬ

            


This breaker is connected to another three phase series RLC branch1 in

which R&C is taken as 0, so as to get the effect of inductance only. This inductor is
for charging the capacitor to a high voltage than the supply voltage. Then it is
connected to the universal bridge arrangement.

This arrangement consists of 3 arm 6 pole IGBT bridge. A capacitor

connected across the universal bridge act as a DC link. The DC link voltage is
measured using a VI measurement unit. This unit is then connected to the scope for
viewing the DC stabilization.

The DC link voltage is given to a numerical unit which does the

mathematical operation of division. This value is given to a voltage regulator block
which generates an error signal by comparing with a reference voltage. The load
current which is in abc frame is converted to dq0 frame. This conversion is
established using the instantaneous values of sin_cos terms obtained from the three
phase PLL. The d, q and 0 are extracted using a demultiplexer, the d term and the
earlier generated error signal are summed together and fed to the input of MUX.

The load voltage is then fed to input of voltage regulator whose other
input is a reference voltage. The output of PCC voltage regulator is summed up with
WKHµT¶FRPSRQHQWJHQHUDWHGIURPWKH'e-multiplexer and fed to the second input of
the multiplexer. The output of the multiplexer is in dq0 frame. This is converted to
abc by using the input of the PWM generator, the pulses generated from the PWM is
fed to the gate of the IGBT.

Ϯϭ

            


4.3 INSULATED GATE BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR

Fig.4.4 symbol and circuit for an IGBT

The insulated gate bipolar transistor or IGBT is a three-terminal power
semiconductor device, noted for high efficiency and fast switching. It switches
electric power in many modern appliances. Since it is designed to rapidly turn on and
off, amplifiers that use it often synthesize complex waveforms with pulse width
modulation and low-pass filters. The IGBT combines the simple gate-drive
characteristics of the MOSFETs with the high-current and low±saturation-voltage
capability of bipolar transistors by combining an isolated gate FET for the control
input and a bipolar power transistor as a switch, in a single device. The IGBT is used
in medium- to high-power applications such as switched-mode power
supply, traction motor control and induction heating. Large IGBT modules typically
consist of many devices in parallel and can have very high current handling
capabilities in the order of hundreds of amperes with blocking voltages of 6000 V.
The IGBT is a fairly recent invention. The first-generation devices of the
1980s and early 1990s were relatively slow in switching and prone to failure through
such modes as latch up and secondary breakdown. Second-generation devices were
much improved and the current third-generation ones are even better, with speed
rivalling MOSFETs and excellent ruggedness and tolerance of overloads.
The extremely high pulse ratings of second- and third-generation
devices also make them useful for generating large power pulses in areas
like particle and plasma physics, where they are starting to supersede older devices
like thyratrons and triggered spark gaps.

ϮϮ

            


Availability of affordable, reliable IGBTs is a key enabler for electric

vehicles and hybrid cars. Toyota's second generation hybrid Prius has a 50 kW
IGBT inverter controlling two AC motor/generators connected to the DC battery
pack.
4.4 WORKING OF D-STATCOM

D-STATCOM is used to supply the reactive power required by the load.

When the load requires large amount of reactive power, it has to be supplied by the
source driving the load. It leads to large power loss. The STATCOM is used to
supply this required reactive power by consuming a small amount of active power.
Thus the loss produced by the load in the transmission line can be decreased. D-
STATCOM consists of 6 pulse IGBT based inverter, capacitor connected parallel to
the inverter, PWM generator and control system.

Inverter operation
Inverters are used to convert DC signal to AC signal. In this work a 3-
phase inverter has been developed. The DC source in the system is the DC
capacitor. This is located in parallel with the D- STATCOM [3].

There Phase
Inverter

Modulator
(3 phase)

Current
Control

Output
Control

Fig .4.5 Inverter Operation of STATCOM

Ϯϯ

            


Capacitor Operation
Capacitor sizing is referred to the fault current in the system. The
difference b e t we en the current before and after the fault is considered as fault
current. In capacitor sizing, a suitable range of DC capacitor is needed to store the
energy to mitigate the voltage sag. The DC capacitor, CDC is used to inject
reactive power to the D-STATCOM when the voltage is in sag condition. In the
design, the harmonic effects must be considered because the load is inductive and
this may affect the value of CDC. The following equation is used to calculate CDC

½ CDC[VCMAX2-VDC2] = ½ VSM.¨IL.T (1)

(1) is used for harmonic mitigation in single phase system but for a
three phase system the equation is given by,

CDC = 3 x VS.¨IL.T (2)

2
VCMAX - VDC2
where,

VS = peak phase period of one cycle of voltage and current

VCMAX = pre-set upper limit of the energy storage C (per-phase),
VDC = voltage across C (per-phase).

VDC= ¥Vs.FRVĮ (3)

ʌ
where,
Į GHOD\DQJOH
LIĮ WKHHTXDWLRQEHFRPHs,

Ϯϰ

            


VDC ¥Vs (4)

ʌ

The value of VCMAX is the present upper limit of CDC and is two or three times
of the VDC.
The heavy load is connected to the PCC through a circuit breaker. It is
designed in such a way that it is initially open and get closed at 0.2sec and sustain its
action. Due to this heavy load there occurs a voltage sag in the PCC and nearby
consumers suffer a voltage flicker.

This voltage dip is mitigated by using D-STATCOM connected at the

PCC. The circuit breaker connected to the D-STATCOM is designed in such a way
that it is initially open and transition occurs at 0 and 0.4 sec and open after 0.4 sec.
Hence the STATCOM works upto 0.4sec. Initially IGBT works as a converter and
produce a DC output voltage, which charges the capacitor to a high value with the
help of series inductance.
The voltage across the capacitor terminal is measured and it is given to a
numerical divider. The Vpc gets divided with a constant value set as 1000. This is fed
to a PI controller named as Vpc regulator. The output of the controller is the
correction for compensating the active power consumed by the STATCOM. The load
current Iabc is converted to dq0 frame and it is extracted to d, q and 0 component by
using a demultiplexer .

(5) is used for for the conversion of Va, Vb, Vc to Vd, Vq, V0

(5)

Ϯϱ

            


The correction Iloss is added with the d component of the

load current. The per unit value of the load voltage is compared with Vref, a constant
value using the PCC voltage regulator. It is also a PI controller and the output will be
the correction in the q component of the load current. This correction Iqr is added
with the q component.

Instantaneous phase of the voltage is obtained from a three-phase PLL.

The extracted dq and 0 components are then given to a multiplexer. The output of the
multiplexer is in dq0 frame. It is then converted into abc frame. The output of dq0 to
abc frame is compared with load current Iabc. This output will be an error signal.
This signal is fed to the SPWM.

4.5 MODELLING OF STATCOM

Fig.4.6 Equivalent One-line Circuit diagram if DSTATCOM

Fig.4.6 shows the simplified one-line equivalent circuit of the

DSTATCOM, including a DC side capacitor, an IGBT inverter and series resistance
and inductance. The inverter is connected to capacitor C which supplies the DC
voltage. The resistance R accounts for the sum of the transform winding resistance
loss and the inverter conduction losses. The inductance L accounts for leakage
inductance of transformer.
The three-phase system voltage is given by [3]

Ϯϲ

            


(6)

where
Vs is the rms value of the AC system line-line voltage.

When the fundamental positive component is used as the synchronizing

signal, the output voltage of the inverter is expressed as follows[3].



(7)

where
VDC is the inverter DC-side voltage
k is the ratio of the inverter output line-line voltage to the DC-side voltage
and
is the phase angle by which the DSTATCOM equipment leads the system
voltage.
The AC-side circuit operation can be expressed in terms of instantaneous
variables [3]

Ϯϳ

            


(8)

The DSTATCOM model can be described in the state space by the dq-
component as follows [3]

(9)

Using the definition of reactive power theory and considering that Vq=0, the
real power(p) and the reactive power(q) injected into the system by the DSTATCOM
can be expressed under the dq reference frame as [3]:

(10)

Ϯϴ

            


It can be seen that id and iq can completely describe the instantaneous

values of the real and reactive powers produced by the DSTATCOM when the
system voltage remains constant. Therefore the control of the power injected into the
system can be implemented by controlling id and iq.

The steady state operation can be obtained from (9) and expressed as follows :

(11)

The characteristic equation of the DSTATCOM model is expressed as

=0 (12)

Here in the design,

5 Ÿ
L=2mH
C=2.2mF

Ϯϵ

           

Note that (12) is independent of the control angle. It has three roots: a
real eigen value and a pair of complex eigen values. All the roots have negative real
parts, which means that the DSTATCOM is a damped and stable system.
4.6 D-STATCOM MODEL

Three-Phase
Parallel RLC Load2

C
A

B
a

c
Three-Phase Breaker2

C
A

B
Discrete,
Terminator
Ts = 1e-005 s.
pow ergui Mag

Phase
abc

A A A A
Iabc
Vabc Three-Phase
A Parallel RLC Load
a
B B B B
Iabc
b B a
A a A
C C C C b B b B
c
C
Three-Phase Source Three-Phase c
Three-Phase C c C
Series RLC Branch Three-Phase
V-I Measurement1 Three-Phase Breaker
V-I Measurement2
A

Three-Phase Breaker1
C
A

B
a

Three-Phase
Parallel RLC Load1
Vlabc (pu)

Ilabc (pu)

Isabc (pu)
Vdc
Subsystem

ieabc

C
A

Three-Phase
Series RLC Branch1
C
A

1
Uref Pulses
z
g

Discrete
PWM Generator Universal Bridge
+

Scope1
+
-

Voltage Measurement
v

Fig.4.7 D-STATCOM System Model

ϯϬ
            


4.7 CONTROL SYSTEM MODEL

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Fig.4.8 Control System Model

Thus the simulation model was designed for the project. Next chapter
deals about the results after simulation.

ϯϭ

            


CHAPTER 5
SIMULATION RESULT
This chapter deals with simulation results with various conditions. This
results highlights the importance of D-STATCOM in a power distribution systems

Fig 5.1

Stabilisation of DC Link Voltages

  ͘ Fig 5.1 shows the stabilization of DC link voltages. The

capacitor initially charged to 1200V and gets stabilized at 1250V.

ϯϮ

            


Fig.5.2
Stabilisation In The Voltage at PCC

Fig 5.2 shows the voltage profile at load 2 and load 3 side. The STATCOM is
on from 0 sec to 0.4 sec and the heavy load2 is switched on only at 0.2 sec and
another load 3 is switched on at 0.3sec. The voltage dip at the starting is due to
capacitor charging. At 0.2 sec the heavy load starts working. It draws more reactive
current and STATCOM supplies the required amount. At 0.3 sec third load starts
working. It draws much more reactive current and STATCOM supplies the required
amount. At 0.4 sec the STATCOM is turned off and no more reactive power is
supplied by STATCOM. Thus the entire reactive power required by the load need to
be given by the source itself, which leads to more losses which in turn results in
further voltage dip.

ϯϯ

            


Fig.5.3
without D-STATCOM without load

Fig 5.3 gives the output of without STATCOM without load. It

is an hypothetical condition and shows no voltage flicker.

ϯϰ

            


Fig.5.4 output
Without D-STATCOM with load
Fig5.4 gives the output of real condition what happens when a load is
powered on. It is without STATCOM and with load.

ϯϱ

            


Fig .5.5 output

With D-STATCOM Without Load
.
Fig 5.5 gives the condition were DSTATCOM is present and no load is there.

  This Chapter presented the exact result of simulation and which gives
output with reduced flickering͘From the results we can able to understand the effect
of voltage flickering and the importance of voltage flickering mitigation.

ϯϲ

            


CONCLUSION
In the present situation, where even the power system is going to be
privatized, a number of companies are moving towards the production and
distribution of electric power. So power quality and its improvement plays a
significant role. Hence introduction of DSTATCOM shall become popular.
A detailed model of DSTATCOM has been developed for using
Simulink environment with the power system block set. Models of both power circuit
and control system have been implemented in the same Simulink diagram allowing
smooth simulation. The MATLAB simulation results show that the fast response and
flexible control of the DSTATCOM allow for efficient voltage flicker mitigation in
distribution system.
Here by using DSTATCOM in 415 voltage three phase AC source along
with a heavy load of 5kW, it is shown that voltage dip can be improved by 30V and
the overall power quality of the system gets improved.






















ϯϳ

            


ANNEXURE
MATLAB/Simulink:
MATLAB is a high-level technical computing language and interactive
environment for algorithm development, data visualization, data analysis and
numeric computation. MATLAB product can solve technical computing problems
faster than with traditional programming languages, such as C, C++, and Fortran.

MATLAB used in a wide range of applications, including signal and

image processing, communications, control design, test and measurement, financial
modeling and analysis, and computational biology. Add-on toolboxes (collections of
special-purpose MATLAB functions, available separately) extend the MATLAB
environment to solve particular classes of problems in these application areas.

MATLAB provides a number of features for documenting and sharing

the work. It can integrate MATLAB code with other languages and applications, and
distribute MATLAB algorithms and applications.

Key Features
ƒ High-level language for technical computing
ƒ Development environment for managing code, files, and data
ƒ Interactive tools for iterative exploration, design, and problem solving
ƒ Mathematical functions for linear algebra, statistics, Fourier analysis, filtering,
optimization, and numerical integration
ƒ 2-D and 3-D graphics functions for visualizing data
ƒ Tools for building custom graphical user interfaces
ƒ Functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external applications
and languages, such as C, C++, Fortran, Java, COM, and Microsoft Excel

ϯϴ

            


Developing Algorithms and Applications

MATLAB provides a high-level language and development tools that
will quickly develop and analyze algorithms and applications.
The MATLAB language supports the vector and matrix operations that
are fundamental to engineering and scientific problems. It enables fast development
and execution.
MATLAB language can develop algorithms and programs faster than with traditional
languages because it do not need to perform low-level administrative tasks, such as
declaring variables, specifying data types, and allocating memory. In many cases,
0$7/$%HOLPLQDWHVWKHQHHGIRUµIRU¶ORRSV

MATLAB execute commands or groups of commands one at a time,

without compiling and linking, quickly iterates and give optimal solution.

SIMULINK

Simulink is an environment for multidomain simulation and Model-

Based Design for dynamic and embedded systems. It provides an interactive
graphical environment and a customizable set of block libraries for design, simulate,
implement, and test a variety of time-varying systems, including communications,
controls, signal processing, video processing, and image processing.Add-on products
extend Simulink software to multiple modeling domains, as well as provide tools for
design, implementation, and verification and validation tasks.

Simulink is integrated with MATLAB, providing immediate access to

an extensive range of tools for developing algorithms, analysing and visualizing
simulations, create batch processing scripts, customize the modeling environment,
and define signal, parameter, and test data.

ϯϵ

            


Key Features

ƒ Extensive and expandable libraries of predefined blocks

ƒ Interactive graphical editor for assembling and managing intuitive block diagrams
ƒ Ability to manage complex designs by segmenting models into hierarchies of
design components
ƒ Model Explorer to navigate, create, configure, and search all signals, parameters,
properties, and generated code associated with your model
ƒ Application programming interfaces (APIs) that let you connect with other
simulation programs and incorporate hand-written code
ƒ Embedded MATLAB Function blocks for bringing MATLAB algorithms into
Simulink and embedded system implementations
ƒ Simulation modes (Normal, Accelerator, and Rapid Accelerator) for running
simulations interpretively or at compiled C-code speeds using fixed- or
variable-step solvers
ƒ Graphical debugger and profiler to examine simulation results and then diagnose
performance and unexpected behavior in your design
ƒ Full access to MATLAB for analyzing and visualizing results, customizing the
modeling environment, and defining signal, parameter, and test data
ƒ Model analysis and diagnostics tools to ensure model consistency and identify
modeling errors

POWER SYSTEM BLOCK SET

Power system block set extends Simulink with tools for modelling and
simulating the generation, transmission, distribution, and consumption of electrical
power. It provides models of many components used in these systems, including
three-phase machines, electric drives, and libraries of application-specific models
such as Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS) and wind-power generation.
ϰϬ

            


Harmonic analysis, calculation of Total Harmonic Distortion (THD), load flow, and
other key power system analyses are automated. Power system block set models can
be discretized to speed up simulations.

PowerSystem block set model of an asynchronous motor and diesel-

generator uninterruptible power supply (UPS). The Simulink scope shows stator
currents and speed of the asynchronous machine.

PowerSystem block set supports the development of complex, self-

contained power systems, such as those in automobiles, aircraft, manufacturing
plants, and power utility applications. PowerSystem block set can combine with other
MathWorks physical modeling products to model complex interactions in
multidomain physical systems. The block libraries and simulation methods in
PowerSystem block set were developed by Hydro-Québec of Montreal.

KEY FEATURES

ƒ Modeling environment for building electrical power system models for AC, DC,
and mixed AC/DC systems
ƒ Libraries of application-specific models, including models of common AC and DC
electric drives, Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS), and wind-power
generation
ƒ Discretization and phasor simulation modes for faster model execution
ƒ Ideal switching algorithm, enabling fast and accurate simulation of power
electronic devices
ƒ Analysis methods for obtaining state-space representations of circuits and
computing load flow for machines
ƒ Demonstration models of key electrical technologies
ƒ

ϰϭ

            


REFERENCES

[1]. J. Sun, D. Czarkowski and Z. Zabar, "Voltage Flicker Mitigation Using

PWM-Based Distribution STATCOM", Power Engineering Society Summer
Meeting, 2002 IEEE Volume 1, Issue , 25-25 July 2002 Page(s):616 - 621
vol.1

[2]. J. L. Agüero, F. Issouribehere, P. E. Battaiotto , ³STATCOM Modeling for

Mitigation of Voltage Fluctuation caused by Electric Arc Furnaces´ ,(((
,2006.
[3]. K. R.Padiyar, ³)$&76FRQWUROOHUVLQSRZHUWUDQVPLVVLRQDQGGLVWULEXWLRQ´
First edition, New Age international publishers , 2007.
[4]. 10RKDQ708QGHODQGDQG:35REELQV³3RZHU(OHFWURQLFV&RQYHUWHUV
$SSOLFDWLRQVDQG'HVLJQ´UGHG-RQ:LOH\ 6RQV
[5]. V. B. Virulkar, and M. V. Aware ³9ROWDJH )OLFNHU 0LWLJDWLRQ 8VLQJ
67$7&20´,(((
[6]. Mahmood Joorabian, Davar Mirabbasi, Alireza Sina ³9ROWDJH )OLFNHU
&RPSHQVDWLRQXVLQJ67$7&20´,(((
[7]. 0XKDPPDG +5DVKLG ³3RZHU (OHFWURQLFV´ 7KLUG HGLWLRQ 3UHQWLFH +DOO
publications, 2008,Page No 147.

ϰϮ

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