Contents

 Introduction About Terrorism

 History of Terrorism
 Forms and Nature of Terrorist Groups
 Cause and Consequence of terrorism
1. Introduction

1.1Definition of Terrorism

Defining terrorism is not a straightforward matter. There is no single internationally

accepted definition of what constitutes terrorism and It is not a straightforward matter.
Even there is no single internationally accepted definition of what constitutes terrorism,
There is no universal agreement on the definition of terrorism. Various legal systems
and government agencies use different definitions. The definition of terrorism is a
difficult concept to map and has been the source of contention in academia and policy for
a several years now. Why?

 Terrorism is equated with the liberation struggle. Often it has been stated that one
man’s terrorist is another man’s freedom fighter. How can we understand
terrorism as an aspect of liberation struggle in the world from this perspective?
 There is a tendency to see terrorism in the context of being Islamic only, because
an increasing number of modern perpetrators of terrorism claim to be fighting the
cause of Islam. This creates a serious problem for Africa in view of the large
population of Muslims on the continent.
 The abuse of human rights in the course of countering terrorism raises the
question of how the African state (which has already been criminalized) can cope
with confronting terrorism without abusing citizens’ rights

Terrorism is defined in the Oxford Dictionary as “the unlawful use of violence and
intimidation, especially against civilians, in the pursuit of political aims.” We quickly see
that this definition is unspecific and subjective. The issue of subjectivity in this case
means that there is no internationally recognized legal definition of terrorism. Despite
considerable discussion, the formation of a comprehensive convention against
international terrorism by the United Nations has always been impeded by the lack of
consensus on a definition. Difficulties arise from the fact that the term has become
politically and emotionally charged.
Those are mostly considered as some definition of terrorism

 terrorism is classified as the use of violence or of the threat of violence in the pursuit
of political, religious, ideological or social objectives and

 acts committed by non-state actors (or by undercover personnel serving on the behalf
of their respective governments)

 acts reaching more than the immediate target victims and also directed at targets
consisting of a larger spectrum of society

 both mala prohibita (i.e., crime that is made illegal by legislation) and mala in se (i.e.,
crime that is inherently immoral or wrong)

The following criteria of violence or threat of violence fall outside of the definition of
terrorism:

 wartime (including a declared war) or peacetime acts of violence committed by

a nation state against another nation state regardless of legality or illegality that are
carried out by properly uniformed forces or legal combatants of such nation states

 reasonable acts of self-defense, such as the use of force to kill, apprehend, or

punish criminals who pose a threat to the lives of humans or property

 legitimate targets in war, such as enemy combatants and strategic infrastructure that
form an integral part of the enemy's war effort

 collateral damage, including the infliction of incidental damage to non-

combatant targets during an attack on or attempting to attack legitimate targets in war
1.2 What are the criteria for terrorism

A few key distinguishing factors are common to most definitions of terrorism, with minor
variations. The following criteria are adapted from the definition given by Bruce
Hoffman in Inside Terrorism.

To be considered an act of terrorism, an action must be:

 Violent, or threaten violence As such, political dissent, activism, and nonviolent

resistance do not constitute terrorism.
 An action must also be carried out for political, economic, religious, or social
purposes to count as terrorism

For example, the terrorist organization Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL) has
clearly stated its political goal to establish itself as a caliphate. Likewise, attacks
perpetrated by white extremists have discernible sociopolitical motivations, and so are
considered acts of terrorism. By contrast, violent acts committed without a political,
economic, religious or social goal are not classified as terrorism, but instead as ‘violent
crimes’

 Actions must be designed to have far-reaching psychological repercussions beyond

the immediate victim or target. In other words, an action must aim to create terror
through “it’s shocking brutality, lack of discrimination, dramatic or symbolic
quality and disregard of the rules of warfare.

What are other form of which are Distinguishing from terrorism forms of violence based
on the criteria above, we can begin to separate terrorism from other types of violence
some of very simplified distinctions:

 killings perpetrated by non-state actors against civilians, which are not ideological
in nature i.e. not motivated by a particular political, economic or social goal, are
classified as homicide;
  violence perpetrated by non-state actors against civilians, specifically based on
ethnicity, sexuality, gender, or disability, without political or social intent to cause
widespread fear, is classified as a hate crime;
 violence involving open combat between opposing armed forces is classified
as state-based armed conflict, if at least one of the parties is the government of a
state;
 if, in the scenario above, none of the parties is the government of a state, this is
classified as a non-state conflict;
 Violence perpetrated by governments against civilians is classified as one-sided
violence.

2. History of Terrorism

The term ‘terrorism’ originates from Latin word ‘terrere’ that means ‘to frighten’. It
obtained its modern form ‘terrorism’ during the Reign of Terror in France from 1793–
1794. Today, in 2019, we find ourselves in a world where there is an ongoing ‘war on
terror’. Although acts of terror and violence have been committed for centuries,
terrorism's modern roots can be traced to the French Revolution's Reign of Terror in
1794–95, with its gruesome public beheadings, violent street battles, and bloodthirsty
rhetoric. It was the first time in modern history that mass violence was used in such a
fashion, but it would not be the last.

In the latter half of the 19th century, terrorism would emerge as the weapon of choice for
nationalists, particularly in Europe as ethnic groups chafed under the rule of empires. The
Irish National Brotherhood, which sought Irish independence from Britain, carried out
multiple bomb attacks in England in the 1880s. About the same time in Russia, the
socialist group Narodnaya Volya began a campaign against the royalist government,
ultimately assassinating Tsar Alexander II in 1881.

In the 20th century, acts of terrorism became more prevalent throughout the world as
political, religious, and social activists agitated for change. In the 1930s, Jews living in
occupied Palestine conducted a campaign of violence against the British occupiers in a
quest to create the state of Israel.

In the 1970s, Palestinian terrorists used then-novel methods such as hijacking airplanes to
further their cause. Other groups, espousing new causes like animal rights and
environmentalism, committed acts of violence in the 1980s and '90s.

By the mid-1980s, state sponsored terrorism reemerged the catalyst for the series of
attacks against American and other Western targets in the Middle East. Countries such as
Iran, Iraq, Libya and Syria came to the fore as the principle such sponsors of terrorism.

Such state sponsored terrorism remains a concern of the international community today
(especially its Western constituents), although it has been somewhat overshadowed in
recent times by the reemergence of the religiously inspired terrorist.

From the Sarin attack on the Tokyo Subway by the Aum Shiurikyo in 1995 to the
Oklahoma bombing the same year, religion was added to the complex mix of motivations
that led to acts of terrorism.

The al Qaeda attacks of Sept.11, 2001, brought home to the world and most particularly
the United States, just how dangerous this latest mutation of terrorism is. Since then, in
the United States at least, terrorism has largely been equated to the threat posed by al
Qaeda a treat inflamed not only by deadly nature of the Sept 11, attacks themselves, but
by the fear that future strikes might be even more deadly and employ weapons of mass
destruction.

In Europe year by year there were large terrorism attacks, such as the Madrid train
bombings in 2004; 2005 London bombings; 2011 Norway attacks; 2015 Paris attacks; the
truck attacks in Nice and the Berlin Christmas market attack in 2015; and the Manchester
and Barcelona attacks in 2017-have occurred since the turn of the century.
And in the 21st century, the rise of pan-nationalist groups like ISIS that use social media
to connect its members killed thousands in attacks in Europe, the Middle East, and Asia.
Four of the terrorist groups that have been active since 2001 are Boko Haram, Al Qaeda,
The Taliban and ISIL. These groups have been most active in Iraq, Afghanistan,
Pakistan, Nigeria and Syria and 80% of all deaths in recent years from terrorism occurred
in one of these five countries.

In Ethiopia the well-known terror act was the “RED TERROR” which officially
unleashed in 1976 by the then regime, following “White Terror” the opposition party
declared on the Derg officials. During this time campaign, which has been divided in to
“three waves” thousands of Ethiopians arrested, tortured and summarily executed. The
EPDRF also have been enabled to brand as ‘terrorist’ groups, some ethnic based political
revolutionist and private Medias that have domestic grievances but do use violent
methods. This branding has happened mainly through associating such groups with the
transnational’s, radicalism and Separatist.

3. Forms and Nature of Terrorist Groups

Anyone who has traveled watched TV or listened to the radio or use social media as
source of information in recent years knows that terrorism has radically impacted world
society. There are a number of category group of terrorist and terrorism in general.
Usually they are categorized as

 Religious,
 Separatists vs. Ethnocentric vs. Nationalistic,
 Revolutionary, Political,
 Social,
 Domestic vs. International or Transnational terrorisms.

Religious terrorism: Religious terrorism is a type of religious violence where terrorism

is used as a tactic to achieve religious goals or which are influenced by religious identity.
According Raazaq (2003) with this category most people are familiar due to the
widespread media coverage of Islamic extremism. The major danger with religious
terrorist groups lies in the rigidity of their beliefs. Religiously motivated terrorists see
their objectives as holy and therefore infallible and non-negotiable.

Religious terrorists often believe themselves to be the only “righteous remnant” of their
fellow believers. Because they are the only ones willing to truly sacrifice for what their
version of god has called them to do, anyone who claims to be a fellow believer but is
unwilling to take up arms in support of the group are considered apostate--outside of
god’s will. While all religious terrorist groups justify, legitimize, and even see their
attacks as commanded by God. They should not be lumped together—not even groups
emerging from a common religious tradition. For instance, the Taliban, Al-Qaida and
Hezbollah are all Islamic organizations, but their use of religion and belief systems are
very different. The Taliban is the Sunni-based group that ruled Afghanistan from 1996 to
2001. Under their control, Afghanistan was controlled according to the Taliban’s
interpretation of Islamic principles.

According to the world Global Terrorism Index (2017), religious extremism has
overtaken national separatism and become the main driver of terrorist attacks around the
world. Since 9/11 there has been a five-fold increase in deaths from terrorist attacks. The
majority of incidents over the past several years can be tied to groups with a religious
agenda. Before 2000, it was nationalist separatist terrorist organizations such as
the IRA and Chechen rebels who were behind the most attacks. The number of incidents
from nationalist separatist groups has remained relatively stable in the years since while
religious extremism has grown. The prevalence of Islamist groups
in Iraq, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Nigeria and Syria is the main driver behind these trends.

Based on their report in 2017, Iraq, Afghanistan, Nigeria, Syria, and Pakistan remain the
top five countries most affected by religious terrorism. However, Nigeria also saw the
greatest reduction in deaths. In 2016, deaths attributed to Boko Haram decreased by 80
percent, however, deaths attributed to ISIL increased by 49 percent. Together these five
countries accounted for three-quarters of all deaths from terrorism in 2016.
Unlike Nigeria, OECD countries have experienced a rise in terrorism, accounting for one
percent of global deaths from terrorism in 2016. In 2010 OECD countries accounted for
just 0.1 percent of deaths. Attacks in OECD countries have shifted tactics since 2014 to
utilize simpler methods against non-traditional targets. Less sophisticated attacks can be
executed at a lower cost and can be more difficult to detect. Positively, the first six
months of 2017 have recorded 82 deaths from terrorism, lower than the 265 deaths in
2016.

Separatists: is another type of terrorist groups, they use terrorism as a means of

obtaining political autonomy, though separatists could also be categorized as insurgents.
An example of this would be the Confederacy during the American Civil War.
Ethnocentric terrorist groups, such as the Ku Klux Klan (KKK), believe in their own
superiority based on inherent racial characteristics and are motivated by the concept of
„ethnic cleansing‟ by way of extermination and/or subjugation of all other races A
Nationalistic terrorism is much like separatism in that there is a desire for political
autonomy; however, this is generally based on a certain widespread cultural idealism
such as was the case with the Irish Republican Army (IRA). It is linked to
a national, ethnic, religious, or other identifying group, and the feeling among members
of that group that they are oppressed or denied rights, especially rights accorded to others.

As with the concept of terrorism itself, the term "nationalist terrorism" and its application
are highly contentious issues. What constitutes an illegitimate regime and what types
of violence and war are acceptable against such a state are subjects of debate. Groups
described by some as "nationalist terrorists" tend to consider themselves "freedom
fighters," engaged in valid but asymmetric warfare.

Other nationalistic terrorism can include violence against immigrants in a country.

Nationalists in many countries see immigration as a threat to the prosperity of the local or
native population of that country. The following are examples of groups who engage in
terrorism for nationalistic reasons.

Arabs living in the land known as Palestine from which the Jewish nation, Israel, was
created in 1948 began nationalistic terrorist activities around 1970. The most active Arab
Palestinian terrorist organizations in the early 2000s were HAMAS (Islamic Resistance
Movement) and Hezbollah (Party of God). HAMAS cells (small units serving as part of or
the center of a larger political movement) are based in the West Bank, Gaza Strip, and
Israel. Hezbollah (also spelled Hizbollah) cells are based in Lebanon and worldwide.
Other active Arab Palestinian groups include Palestine Islamic Jihad (PIJ), Palestine
Liberation Front (PLF), and Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP). Hoping
to convince the Spanish government to create an independent Basque homeland, Basque
terrorists of northern Spain carry out activities within Spain. The largest Basque terror
group is Basque Fatherland and Liberty, or Euzkadi Ta Askatasuna (ETA). Because their
goal is to separate the Basque people from Spain, ETA is also commonly referred to as the
Basque Separatists.

Revolutionary Terrorism:- is dedicated to the overthrowing of an established political

order and replacing it with a new social and/or political structure. The United States is
known throughout the world to have trained many citizens of foreign nations in
revolutionary terrorism as a method of covertly spreading democracy in various countries
oversea. An example of this is the South American nation of Honduras which became a
constitutional democracy in the 1980s with the assistance of U.S. Special Forces, who
trained and assisted contras in overthrowing their former government (Coutsoukis, 2004).
Political terrorism is simply a broad category which encompasses all types of politically
motivated terrorism. Social terrorism pertains to terrorist acts carried out in regards to a
special interest, such as abortion, animal rights, minority rights, and environmentalists.

The Irish Catholic population of Northern Ireland, ruled by Britain, wants independence
from Britain and to be part of the Republic of Ireland. The Protestant population of
Northern Ireland resists the movement away from Britain. The major nationalistic
terrorist group in 2004 working for separation from England is the Real Irish Republican
Army (RIRA). Again, the RIRA's nationalist struggle has religious overtones.

There is also International terrorism. This terms which more describes the operational
influence, reach, and support of these groups. International groups operate in multiple
countries, but usually focus on a specific geographical region for their activities.
Difference between International terrorist groups and Transnational Criminal Organization
(TCOs): terrorist groups are generally politically motivated and criminal groups are
essentially economically motivated. „

 Drug cartels „
 Trafficking in human beings for sexual exploitation and forced labor „
 Trafficking in nuclear materials in Europe „
 Organized criminal networks in areas of the former Soviet Union and East Bloc „
Mafias, cartels, yakuza, and triads „ International money laundering „ Sale of
pirated and counterfeit products „ Pirating or Privateering of merchant ships in
eastern Africa and the south China Sea.

State terrorism refers to acts of terrorism conducted by a state, whether against foreign
targets or against its own citizens. There is some disagreement about how to exactly define
what is and what is not state terrorism, but most of state terrorist work cyber-attack.

4. Cause and Consequence of terrorism

4.1. Causes of terrorism

There are numerous possible causes. No single factor can be identified as the key cause.
Although people resort to terrorism for many reasons, experts attribute most acts of
violence to three major factors:

 Psychological/Social-Psychological: this explanation of terrorism-the idea that

terrorists are mentally disturbed in some way. †while there is no doubt that this is
sometimes true; to claim that all terrorists are mentally disturbed is wrong. Most of the
time, terrorists would be considered "normal".

 Political: Terrorism was originally theorized in the context of insurgency and guerrilla
warfare, a form of organized political violence by a non-state army or
group. Individuals, abortion clinic bombers, or groups, like the Vietcong in the 1960s,
can be understood as choosing terrorism when they are trying to right what they
perceive to be a social, political or historical wrong. During the "Troubles" in Northern
 Ireland, which stretched from 1968 to 1998, Catholic and Protestant groups waged an
ongoing campaign of violence against one another in Northern Ireland and in England,
seeking political dominance.

 Religious: In the 1990s, several attacks carried out in the name of religion made
headlines. The Japanese doomsday cult Aum Shinrikyo perpetrated two deadly sarin
gas attacks in the Tokyo subways in 1994 and 1995, and in the Middle East, numerous
suicide attacks since the 1980s have been celebrated as the work of Islamic
martyrs. Career terrorism experts began to argue that a new form of terrorism was on
the rise, with concepts such as martyrdom and Armageddon seen as particularly
dangerous. However, as thoughtful studies and commentators have repeatedly pointed
out, such groups selectively interpret and exploit religious concepts and texts to
support terrorism. Religions themselves do not "cause" terrorism.

 Socioeconomic: Socioeconomic explanations of terrorism suggest that various forms

of deprivation drive people to terrorism, or that they are more susceptible to
recruitment by organizations using terrorist tactics. Poverty, lack of education or lack
of political freedom are a few examples. There is suggestive evidence on both sides of
the argument. Comparisons of different conclusions are often confusing because they
don't distinguish between individuals and societies, and they pay little attention to the
nuances of how people perceive injustice or deprivation, regardless of their material
circumstances. The group Shining Path carried out a years-long campaign of violence
against Peru's government in the 1980s and early '90s in an attempt to create a Marxist
state.

This explanation of the causes of terrorism may be difficult to swallow. It sounds too
simple or too theoretical. However, if you look at any group that is widely
understood as a terrorist group, you will find these elements are basic to their story.

4.2. Measurement of consequence and Consequence of terrorism

There are few numbers of international organizations who actively report terrorism
accident, the cause, and the consequence and at same time many world scholars actively
participate on analyzing the impact on the global world. And a lot of countries have been
combating terrorism while few other countries have been considered as the hidden
supporters of this contemporary historical terrorism. A global institute for economics and
peace (IEP) is the one from most common know institutes who have been engaged in
measuring and combating terrorism. IEP is headquartered in Sydney, with offices in New
York, The Hague, Mexico City, Brussels and Harare. This institutes use the global
terrorism index to rank counties according to the impact of terrorism which is mainly
depends on number accidents, number death and economic lost, IPE (2019).

Global terrorism indexes (GTI): is based on the Global Terrorism Database (GTD); the
most authoritative data source on terrorism today. The GTI produces a composite score so
as to provide an ordinal ranking of countries on the impact of terrorism. as source of
information they most commonly use GTD- is unique in that it consists of systematically
and comprehensively coded data. For instance in between 1970 - 2017 they use 170,000
terrorist incidents to make annual report about terrorism. The GTI was developed in
consultation with the Global Peace Index Expert Panel. The GTI scores each country on a
scale from 0 to 10; where 0 represents no impact from terrorism and 10 represents the
highest measurable impact of terrorism. Countries are ranked in descending order with the
worst scores listed first in the index.

Many of the impacts of a terrorist event on the socio economic activities are last long
after the event itself has finished. It indeed overshadows every aspects of economic,
social, cultural and political life. While it brings instability and disrupts peace and
coexistence environment, it directly endangers the lives of people and brings every types
of violence in the society.

The effect of terrorism on society

Loss of Life & Property Damage: This is the main impact of a terrorist event. But as we
know, casualties are not the only way terrorists can achieve their goals. It also worsens the
condition for humanitarian efforts. For instance 3,217 deaths from terrorism were recorded
in 2018 in Iraq. Before 2003 Iraq was no longer the country that most engaged impacted
by terrorism.

According to world global terrorism database Middle East, Africa or South Asia
accounted for 95% deaths in terrorism. Less than 2% of deaths were in Europe, the
Americas and Oceania combined. This is also true when we look at the number of incidents,
rather than the number of deaths. But this fact is not always true but it depends on time.
Guerrilla movements in Central and South America, for example, dominated terrorism in
the 1980s.

Terrorism is often regionally-focused. But within these regions it’s also concentrated
within specific countries. The Middle East and North Africa had by far the largest number
of deaths in 2017; but not all countries were affected. The country Iraq with the most
fatalities in 2017 – accounted for 60% of deaths in the Middle East & North Africa. This
was one-in-four terrorism deaths globally. Combined, Iraq and Syria accounted for nearly
80% in the region and one-in-three globally.

 Long Term Psychological Damage: This can be accomplished with just threats and
no real action on the part of terrorists. Although harder to quantify, the
psychological aspect can be a huge impact to a nation.

Terrorist acts have an enormous potential to produce trauma, especially in vulnerable

groups such as children and adolescents. However, few studies have analyzed the
potentially adverse effects of terrorism on child victims.

 The impact of terrorism on human rights: Terrorism has a direct impact on the
enjoyment of a number of human rights, in particular the rights to

 life,

 liberty and

 Physical integrity.
Terrorist acts can destabilize Governments, undermine civil society, jeopardize peace and
security, threaten social and economic development, and may especially negatively affect
certain groups. All of these have a direct impact on the enjoyment of fundamental human
rights.

 Loss of Business, Either Due to Real or Perceived Threats: When people stop
leaving their homes and carrying out their lives as normal due to real or perceived
terrorist threats, businesses see the impact on their bottom line.

I. Consequence on the economy

Terrorist acts can cause ripple effects through the economy that have negative impacts.
The most obvious is the direct economic destruction of property and
lives. Terrorism indirectly affects the economy by creating market uncertainty,
xenophobia, loss of tourism, and increased insurance claims. The most common impacts
of terrorism will be discussed below:

1. Direct Economic Destruction

The most immediate and measurable impact of terrorism is physical destruction.

Terrorists destroy existing plants, machines, transportation systems, workers, and other
economic resources. On smaller scales, acts of terrorism may blow up cafes, churches, or
roads. Large-scale attacks, most infamously the World Trade Center bombings on Sept.
11, 2001, can destroy billions of dollars’ worth of property and senselessly kill thousands
of productive workers. The impact of terrorism and war is always negative for the
economy, and physical destruction is a large reason why. Productive resources that might
have generated valuable goods and services are destroyed, while other resources are
almost invariably diverted from other productive uses to bolster the military and defense.
None of this creates wealth or adds to the standard of living, even though military
spending is often erroneously cited as a stimulant; this is the "broken window fallacy"
sometimes mentioned by economists.

2. Increased Uncertainty in the Markets

Even if you do not live anywhere near terrorist attacks, you might still be negatively
impacted indirectly. This is because all kinds of markets hate uncertainty, and terrorism
creates a lot of it. The financial markets literally shut down after Sept. 11 and did not
really recover until months after the 2003 invasion of Iraq.

There is plenty of debate about the depth and pervasiveness of the actual impact
on financial markets. As the threats and publicity of global terrorism continue to rise,
markets appear to be more and more resilient. Stock market indexes did not decline much
after the terrorist attacks in France killed at least 129 people in 2015. However, the
deadly attack in Nice, France, in 2016 only adds to the sentiment that France may be an
increasingly unstable place to live and do business in. The real threat of global terrorism
from an investor's perspective is about the broader picture, not individual incidents.
International investment and cooperation are lower in a world full of terrorism.

3. Insurance, Trade, Tourism, and FDI

There are two obvious industries especially vulnerable to the effects of terrorism:
insurance and tourism. Not all insurance companies pay out in the event of international
terrorism or foreign wars, so the impact is likely less than you might first expect.
Nevertheless, terrorism is risky business for everyone, and insurance companies hate risk
as much as anyone else.

Tourism is even more concerning. In France, for example, tourism accounts for
approximately 7% to 8% of total gross domestic product (GDP). War Is the Health of the
State. There is an old saying in the study of political economy that reads "war is the
health of the state." It means that during times of conflict, reactive governments and
nervous citizens are far more inclined to give up economic and political freedoms in
exchange for security. This could result in higher taxes, higher government deficits, and
higher inflation. During wartime, the government often implements price controls and
sometimes even the nationalization of industries.

Governments are less effective at managing resources for productive economic activity
than private individuals, especially when those resources are co-opted to achieve a
strategic military objective. When governments militarize, the private economy suffers.
As economist and historian Robert Higgs demonstrated in his book "Crisis and
Leviathan," many government controls stay in place long after military campaigns end.

4. Increased Nationalism and Foreign Skepticism

The final risk to the economy is a political risk. This is already on display in the United
States and Europe in 2016, where there has been a rise in skepticism of foreign cultures,
businesses, immigrant workers, and refugees. Populist movements already won a victory
of sorts in the United Kingdom, where anti-globalist and anti-trade sentiments helped
pass Brexit. These kinds of major political events have uncertain economic fallout on
everything from currency to trade and diplomacy.

Closing down borders to trade and immigrant workers reduces the size and diversity of
economic transactions and limits productive resources. Economists as early as Adam
Smith contended that the division of labor and gains from trade are limited to the size of
available factors of production. Just as a single household or town is less productive if it
only relies on internal resources, so too do national economies limit themselves to the
extent that they wall off external producers and consumers.
Reference

ZIYANDA STUURMAN (2019)Terrorism as Controversy: The Shifting Definition of

Terrorism in State Politics