1/3/2022

Determination of Pipe Sizes 1

• The size of the pipe is determined by considering the discharge through the
pipe and permissible velocity of the flow in the pipe.

Q = A*V

Where, Q = discharge (m3/s)

V = permissible velocity (0.6 to 1.50m/s)
A = Cross sectional area of pipe (m2)

Cont.… 2

 The size of the pipe used in the water distribution system can be determined
by one of the following formulas:

1.Hazen-Williams formula

2.Darcy –Weisbach formula

3.Manning’s Formula

 The most common pipe flow formula used in design and evaluation of a
water distribution system is the Hazen-Williams’ formula.

1
 1/3/2022

Cont.… 3

Darcy-Weisbach Formula Hazen-Williams Formula

𝑓𝐿𝑉 2
𝑕𝑓 =
2𝑔𝐷
Where,
hf = head loss due to friction (m)
f = Darcy’s friction factor
L = length of pipe (m)
V = average velocity of flow (m/s)
D = internal diameter of pipe (m)
G = Acceleration due to gravity (9.81
𝑕𝑓
𝑄 = 0.278𝐶𝐷2.63 𝑆 0.54 , 𝑆 =
𝐿
Where,
Q=discharge (m3/s)
hf = head loss due to friction (m)
L = length of pipe (m)
D = internal diameter of pipe (m)
S=Hydraulic gradient (m/m)
m/s2 C=coefficient of roughness of pipe

Cont.… 4
 Hazen William’s formula is very Values of C for the Hazen-Williams formula
complex, and is usually solved with Pipe Material C
the help of nomographs Asbestos Cement 140
 There are four variables in Cast Iron
nomographs  Cement lined 130 – 150
 Discharge Q (m3/sec or liters/sec)  New, unlined 130
 Diameter of pipe (mm)  5 years-old, unlined 120
 Head loss (m/1000m length of pipe)  20 years old, unlined 100
 Velocity of flow (m/sec)
 Given any two of the parameters Concrete 130
Copper 130 - 140
(Q, D, hf or V) the remaining can Plastic 140 -150
be determined from the New welded Steel 120
intersections along a straight line New riveted Steel 100
drawn across the nomograph.

2
 1/3/2022

5
These nomographs
are valid for a value
of C=100
For other value of
C, find the head loss
from the chart &
multiply it by the
factor C/100.

Cont.… 6

Manning’s Formula
𝐴𝑅2 3 𝑆 1 2
𝑄= R = D/4, S = hf/L
𝑛
Where,
Q=discharge (m3/s)
hf = head loss due to friction (m)
L = length of pipe (m)
D = internal diameter of pipe (m)
n = Coefficient of roughness

3
 1/3/2022

Cont.… 7

The water supply pipes sizes available are given in the following table:

Example 5 8

Total population of a town = 80,000

Average daily consumption of water = 150liters/capita/day

If the flow velocity of an outlet pipe from intake is 1.5 m/s, determine the
diameter of the outlet pipe.

4
 1/3/2022

Example 6 9

A town has a population of 100,000 persons. It is to be supplied with water

from a reservoir situated at a distance of 6.44km. It is stipulated that one-half
of the daily supply of 140lit/capita should be delivered in 6 hours. If the loss
of head is estimated to be 15m, calculate the size of pipe. Assume f = 0.04.

Example 7 10

Find out the size of water main required to carry the water from a source 3.218
km away from the town. The yield from the source (spring) is 180 liters per
minute. The reduced levels of spring and the heart of the town are 1828.8m
and 1767.84m, respectively. Assume f = 0.04.

5
 1/3/2022

Energy Losses in Pipes 11

 When water flows through pipes, head loss takes place

 Total head loss is composed of:
 Major Losses=head loss associated with friction per length of pipe
 Minor losses= head loss due to pipe arrangements and flow direction .
 The following are losses which occur in a flowing fluid.
1. Loss of head due to friction
2. Loss of head due to sudden enlargement
3. Loss of head due to sudden contraction
4. Loss of head due to bends
5. Loss of head at entrance
6. Loss of head at exit.

Cont.… 12

Major Losses Minor losses

• All such losses are expressed in terms of
 Head loss due to friction may be
velocity head.
computed from the following
𝑉2
formulas: 𝑕𝑚 =𝐾
2𝑔
1. Hazen-Williams formula
Where, hm = minor head loss (m)
2. Darcy –Weisbach formula V = average velocity of flow (m/s)
g = acceleration due to gravity (9.81 m/s2)
3. Manning’s Formula K =constant (Kexit=1, Kentrance=0.5)

6
 1/3/2022

Example 8 13

Find the loss of the head due to friction in a pipe of 1000mm diameter and 2.0
km long. The velocity of water in the pipe is 2m/sec. Take coefficient of
friction, f = 0.005

Example 9 14

For given data of Q= 30 l/s, D=200mm, C=100,

L= 1500m, Determine the hf using:

• Nomograph

• Formula

7
 1/3/2022

• Solution of hf Using Nomograph

15
From the red lines on the graph
• Q= 0.03 m3/s
• D=200 mm
• S= 8.1*10-3
• hf= S*L= 8.1*10-3*1500
= 12.15m

Pipe Appurtenances 16

 Appurtenances: is various devices fixed along

the water distribution system.
 Necessity of pipe appurtenances
 To control the rate of flow/pressure
 To release or admit air into pipeline
 To meet the demand during
emergency

8
 1/3/2022

Cont.…. 17

 Appurtenances used in the water distribution system:

(i) Valves
(ii) Fire hydrants and
(iii)Water meter
 In water works practice, valves are required:
 to isolate segments of a pipeline,
 to regulate rate of flow,
 to control pressure, and
 to allow release or entry of air from pipe

Cont.…. 18

 The following are the various types of valves:

 Sluice valves

 Check valves

 Air valves

 Altitude valves

 Pressure regulating valves

9
 1/3/2022

Sluice Valve 19

 It also known as gate valves or stop valves

 It control the flow of water through pipes
 Dividing the water mains into the suitable sections
 They are provided in straight pipeline at 150m-
200m intervals
 The flow of water can be controlled by raising or
lowering the handle or wheel

CHECK VALVE or REFLUX VALVE 20

 It is an automatic device which allows water to

go in one direction only
 When the water moves in the direction of
arrow, the valve rotate around the pivot and
kept in open position
 When pump fails or stops, the water will not
run back to the pump and thus pumping
equipment will be saved from damage.

10
 1/3/2022

Air-Release and Vacuum Valves (Air Valves) 21

 Air is accumulated at the summit of pipelines and blocks

the flow of water
 This can be removed from the pipe lines automatically by
means of air relief valves.
 Vacuum valves open automatically and allow air to enter
into the pipeline so that the development of negative
pressure can be avoided in the pipelines.
 When there is flow under pressure, water occupies the
float chamber and close the outlet.

Altitude Valves 22

 To automatically control the flow into and out of an

elevated storage tank or standpipe to maintain
desired water level elevations.

 An altitude valve controls the level of a tank

 The altitude valve will remain open while the tank is

not full and it will close when the tanks reaches its
maximum level.

11
 1/3/2022

Pressure Relief Valves 23

 The power of the spring of the valve is so adjusted

that the valve always remains in closed position up to
some permissible water pressure in the pipe line.

 When the pressure of the water suddenly exceeds the

permissible pressure, then the valve is opened
automatically and the excess pressure is released
instantaneously.

Fire Hydrants 24
 A hydrant is an outlet provided in water pipe for tapping
water mainly in case of a fire.
 The hydrants are provided on the main line at important
points
 They are located at 100 to 150 m a part along the roads
 A good fire hydrant:
Should be cheap
Easy to connect with hose
Easily detachable and reliable
Should draw large quantity of water

12
 1/3/2022

Water Meter 25

 These are the devices to measure the quantity

of water flowing at particular point along the
pipe
 The readings obtained from the meters help
in working out the quantity of water supplied
and the consumers can be charged
accordingly.

Methods of Laying Distribution Pipes 26

 Layout of distribution pipes generally follows the layouts of roads.

 Lay out of Water Distribution System:

1. Dead end system (or) Tree System (or) branch system

2. Grid-iron system (or) Reticulation System

3. Circular System (or) Ring System

4. Radial System

13
 1/3/2022

Dead End System 27

 One main pipe line runs through the center of the

populated area and sub-mains takeoff from this to
both sides
 The sub-mains divide into several branch lines from
which service connections are provided.
 It is suitable for old towns having no definite pattern
of roads
 Water flows in one direction only into sub-mains
and branches
 The diameter of pipe decreases at every tree branch

Cont.… 28

Advantages
 Discharge and pressure at any point
is calculated easily
 Lesser number of shut-off valves
 Shorter pipe lengths and hence the
system is cheap and economical
 Pipe-laying is simple
Disadvantages
 There is stagnation of water and
accumulation of sediment at dead end
 During repairs of pipes or valves at any
point the entire downstream end are
deprived of Supply
 The water available for firefighting will
be limited in quantity

14
 1/3/2022

Grid-Iron System 29

 The main supply line runs through the center of

the area and sub mains takeoff from this in
perpendicular directions.
 The branch lines interconnect the sub-mains.
 This system is suitable for cities laid out in a
rectangular plan
 All of the pipes are interconnected and there are
no dead ends.

Cont.… 30

Advantages
 Water is available at each point with
minimum loss of head
 Very small distribution area will be
affected during repair
 Good for fire fighting (enough
water is available)
 Free circulation of water, without
any stagnation
Disadvantages
 More length of pipes and number of
valves are needed and hence there is
increased cost of construction
 The analysis of discharge, pressure and
velocities in the pipes is difficult and
cumbersome.
 The cost of pipe-laying is higher

15
 1/3/2022

Ring Systems 31

 Supply to the inner pipes is from the

mains around the boundary
 Main water line is divided in to two parts;
in two direction left and right
 It is suitable for well planned town or city
 The advantages and disadvantages are
same as that of grid-Iron system

Radial Systems 32

 The area is divided into different zones

 The water is pumped into the distribution
reservoir kept in the middle of each zone
 Distribution pipes run radially towards the
periphery of the distribution district
 The design calculations are much simpler
 For city or a town having a system of
radial roads emerging from different
centers

16
 1/3/2022

Design of Distribution Systems 33

• Design flow: Max (Peak hour demand or maximum day demand + Fire demand)
Pipe sizes:
• Minimum main sizes: generally, 150mm (6 in);
high value districts, 200mm (8 in);
major streets, 305mm (12 in);
domestic flows only, 100mm (4 in);
small communities, 50-75 mm
• Velocity (typical values) : minimum = 0.6 - 1 m/s;
maximum = 2.5 m/s

Cont.… 34

• Pressure: should be within acceptable ranges

• High pressures are wasteful in terms of the extra costs of the equipment and
energy, and leakage.
• Pressure: typical minimum value = 140 kPa (14 m) and
maximum not to exceed 410 kPa - 784 kPa (42 m-80m).
• But mainly depends on pressure ratings of the pipes and appurtenances used
and regulatory requirements

17
 1/3/2022

Cont.… 35

 Pressure zones: are required in areas where the

topography results in pressure level changes
outside the acceptable ranges

 To obtain the desired pressure; pressure relief

valves and booster pumps are employed.

• Difference between pressure zones is between

24m and 37m.

Hydraulic Analysis of Distribution Systems 36

 It is concerned with the determination of the:

• Discharges and head losses in each pipeline
• Pressure heads at critical points.
 Network analysis is important for:
• Designing new systems
• Assessing the capacities of existing systems
• Monitoring and upgrading existing systems

18
 1/3/2022

Cont.… 37

• Commonly used hydraulic analysis methods include:

a)Dead-End Method

b)Equivalent Pipe Method

c)Hardy-Cross Method

d)Computer Software (Epanet, Water CAD and Water GEMs)

Simple Distribution System- Design Procedures 38

i. Assign the required demand at each node

ii. Estimate the discharge flowing through the pipes
iii. Assume possible pipe diameters considering velocity constraint
iv. Calculate the head loss through the pipes
v. Find the residual pressure at the end of the pipe.
vi. Compare this terminal pressure with the desired minimum and maximum
pressures.
vii. If the required condition is not satisfied, then repeat steps (ii) through (vi)
until the required conditions are met.

19
 1/3/2022

Example 10 39

Determine velocity and residual pressure at El. 1167D Q = 0.75 m3/min

the demand centers. (use C=100)

75 mm
50 m
El. 1250
El. 1207
El. 1185
R 150 m A 200 m 250 m
200 mm 200 mm 75 mm E
C
El. 1177 Q = 0.25 m3/min
75 mm
75 m

El. 1192 B Q = 1 m3/min

Solution: Velocity Calculation 40

D Q = 0.75 m3/min
Discharge is calculated as
Q = 0.75 m3/min

El. 1250

R Q = 2 m3/min A Q = 1 m3/min Q = 0.25 m3/min

E
C Q = 0.25 m3/min
Q = 1 m3/min

B Q = 1 m3/min

20
 1/3/2022

Solution: Velocity Calculation 41

Q = 0.75 m3/min
Velocity is calculated as: D

Q = 0.75 m3/min
D=100 mm
El. 1250 v = 1.6 m/s
Q = 1 m3/min
R Q = 2 m3/min A D=125 mm Q = 0.25 m3/min
D=150 mm E
v = 1.9 m/s
v = 1.4 m/s
C D=75 mm
v = 0.9 m/s Q = 0.25 m3/min

Q = 1 m3/min
100 mm
v = 2.1 m/s

B Q = 1 m3/min

Solution: Head loss calculation 42

Head loss is calculated as, Hazen William: D

Q = 0.75 m3/min
100 mm, 50 m
hL = 2.36 m
El. 1250
Q = 1 m3/min
R Q = 2 m3/min A 125 mm, 200 m Q = 0.25 m3/min
150 mm, 150 m hL = 5.43 m 75 mm, 250 m E
C
hL = 6.04 m hL = 6.27 m

Q = 1 m3/min
100 mm, 75 m
hL = 6.03 m

21
 1/3/2022

Solution: Residual pressure calculation 43

Residual pressure is calculated as: D El. 1167
hres = Elv. 1 – Elv 2 - hL hres = 69.17 m

hL = 2.36 m
El. 1250 El. 1207
hres = 36.96 m
R hL= 6.04 m A hL = 6.27 m
E
hL = 5.43 m C
hres, A = 1250 – 1207 – 6.04 El. 1185
hL = 6.03 m

El. 1177
hres, A = 36.96 m hres = 61.53 m hres = 47.26 m
hres, B = 1250 – 1192 – 6.04 – 6.03
= 45.93 m
or
hres, B = 1207 + 36.96 – 6.03 – 1192 B
= 45.93 m El. 1192
hres = 45.93 m

Example 11 44

A typical layout of pipes in dead end patter is given in the figure below. The
rate of supply is 180lit/capita/day and the populations in different residential
blocks of houses are given in the table below. The R.L of the bottom of the
elevated storage tank is 150, R.L of points A, B, C and D are 130, 129, 131, 128
respectively. If the minimum pressure head of water is to be 10m, Design
suitable size of pipes AB, BC and CD length are 300, 400 and 500m
respectively. Assume peak rate of demand to be 2.5 times the average demand.

22
 1/3/2022

Dead end layout system 45

Table: Population Data 46

Block Number Population Block Number Population

2 500 13 600
3 600 14 600
4 600 15 700
5 700 16 500
6 700 17 600
7 400 18 800
8 400 19 500
9 300 20 1000
10 300 21 700
11 500 22 200
12 700 23 500

23
 1/3/2022

Analysis of looped pipe Networks 47

• The computation in this method is of very complex nature

• The main problem is to determine the distribution of flow through the
various pipes
• Once the discharges are known, designs can be carried out on the same basis
as dead end system.
• The most common used method of analysis:
1. Hardy Cross method.
2. Computer programs (e.g EPANET, WaterCAD).

Hardy Cross Method 48

• It is an iterative procedure based on initially estimated flows in pipes.

• The outflows from the system are assumed to occur at the nodes (NODE:
end of each pipe section).
• The Hardy-Cross analysis is based on the principles that
1. Flow continuity criterion: At each junction, the total inflow must be equal
to total outflow.
2. Head balance criterion: algebraic sum of the head losses around any
closed-loop is zero.
Q  0
Junction
h
Loop
f 0

24
 1/3/2022

Procedures 49

1. Assign the required demand at each node

2. Assume the best distribution of flow that satisfies continuity by careful
examination of the network.
“The flow entering a node must be equal to the flow leaving the same node”
3. Calculate the head loss, around any loop in the grid, the sum of head
losses must equal to zero:
• Flows in a clockwise direction are considered to be positive (+) and flows in
CCW direction are considered to be negative(-)
• Head losses from CW flows are considered to be positive (+), Head losses
from CCW flows are negative (-).

Cont.…. 50

4. Calculate the correction factor for each loop by:

Correction discharge for assumed discharge
  kQo n
  hF
  K= constant depending on pipe
 nkQ  n 1
o
h
n F
Qo Qo= assumed flow in a pipeline
n=1.85 to 2 (1.85 for Hazen-William)
 Lines common to two loops receive both corrections with due attention to sign.
5. Apply the correction discharges to the assumed flows Q  Qo  
6. Repeat the above computations with the corrected flows until the corrections for
each pipe are negligible

25
 1/3/2022

Example 12 51

Find the flow distribution in the gravity supply system through the following
pipe network shown below. Use Hazen – Williams formula (C= 100) . If the
pressure at point A is 490.5 KPa, find the pressures at points B & C. Assume all
pipe junctions are at the same elevation.

Cont.…. 52

Pipe Length (m) Diameter (mm)

AD 1000 250
DE 2000 150
EF 1000 200
FA 2000 250
AB 2000 250
BC 1000 200
CD 2000 100

26
 1/3/2022

Solution

53

54

27
 1/3/2022

55

56

28
 1/3/2022

57

Flow Distribution 58

Therefore, the flow distribution will be:

29
 1/3/2022

Pressure 59

P=γ*h
Point Point Head (m) Pressure (kpa)
A 50 490.50
B 16.59 162.75
C 6 58.86
D 25.83 253.39
E 14.14 138.71
F 21.39 209.84

60

30