Lesson 1: Morphology of volcanoes

Volcanism - Eruption of Magma

Magma - Under the earth
Lava - Magma on the earth’s surface

Two reasons why magma rises:

- Molten rocks are generally less dense
- Magma chamber can be squeezed by tectonic plates, then moves upward due to
pressure

Volcano - Vent for magma, gases, and volcanic ash

Vent - Central opening of the volcano
Throat - Uppermost section of the main vent; Entrance of the volcano = Lava and Volcanic
ash are ejected
Crater - Funnel-shaped depression; Pit at the top of the volcano
Caldera - Large, circular/Basin Shaped depression; It is when the summit of a volcano
collapses
Fumarole - Secondary vent; Releases gas only
Fissures - Long, narrow cracks on earth’s crust

Sites where volcanoes are formed:

- Pacific ring of fire - Most volcanoes are active
- Convergent plate boundaries - Compressive forces
- Trench - Narrow depression
- Divergent plate boundaries
- Ridge - Chain of folds in the oceanic crust
- Hotspots - Volcanic regions where molten rocks find their way onto earth’s surface
- Convection currents - Responsible for moving the plates; Hot magma rises and
cool magma sinks

Career for volcanoes:

- Volcanologists
- Field: Volcanology

Lesson 2: Nature of magma (Volcanic materials)

Factors affecting the volcanoes eruptive style

- Magma’s temp
- Chemical composition
- No. of dissolved gases it contains

Viscosity - Resistance to flow ← Liquids thickness and stickiness

- More viscous = Greater resistance to flow & vice versa
Low viscosity(V) = Magma will flow
High viscosity(V) = Magma will explode

Low viscosity(V) to gases(G) - Escapes easily

High viscosity(V) to gases(G) - Can’t escape easily
Magma’s temp:
- Higher the temp = Lower viscosity/resistance to flow & vice versa (Inverse variation)
- As lava flows, it cools and hardens. The ability to flow decreases

Chemical Composition: Silica

- High silica = High viscosity/resistance to flow (Direct variation)
- Less silica is relatively fluid and travels far.

No. of dissolved gases:

- Gas(water vapor mainly) dissolved in magma tends to increase its ability to flow.
- Loss of gases = Magma is more viscous (Direct to V but inverse to T)

Relationship of viscosity: (Summary)

- Silica content magma - Directly proportional (High silica = High Viscosity)
- Temp. magma - Inverse proportion (High temp = Low viscosity)
- Amount of gas = Direct to V but inverse to T (High Amounts of gases = High
Viscosity but low T)

Violent/Explosive volcano - Lava is violently blown out

Quiet Eruption - Lava flows out of volcano’s vent

Property of diff. Types of magma:

Silica Viscosity Tendency to form Tendency to form
lava pyroclastic materials

Basaltic - ~50% Basaltic - Least Basaltic - Highest Basaltic - Lowest

Least

Andesitic - ~50% Andesitic - Andesitic - Andesitic -

Least Intermediate Intermediate Intermediate

Granitic - ~70% Granitic - Most Granitic - Least Granitic - Highest

Most

Lesson 3: Types of volcanoes

Composite cone volcano: (Stratovolcanoes)

- Alternating layers of rock particles and lava
- Nearly perfect cone
Cinder cone volcano:
- Pyroclastic materials ejected from a single vent
- Steep slope and wide crater
Shield volcano:
- Broad and slightly doomed volcanic cone
- Accumulation of fluid basaltic lava
Volcanic activity:
- Active - Erupted the last 10,000 years; Pacific ring of fire (75% of volcanoes are
active)
- Dormant (Sleeping giants)- Temporarily inactive; Haven’t erupted the last 10,000
years
- Extinct - Hasn’t erupted in 10,000 years and is unlikely

Effects of volcano eruption:

- Negative
- Destroys anything in their way
- Causes loss of lives and properties
- Climate changed (Due to gases of fine-grained debris)
- Positive
- Spectacular scenery
- Produces very rich soil for farming
- Making earthenware

(Shape of the cone can be classified as composite, cinder, or shield volcanoes.)

Lesson 4: Energy from volcanoes

Geothermal energy - Heat inside the earth
- Geo(earth) & Thermal(heat)
- Renewable energy source
- Philippines is ranked second in the world’s production of geothermal energy (14.4%)
- Geothermal power plants/heat pumps generate electricity

Diff. of power plant and heat pumps:

- Power plant - Deep inside the earth; just below the surface
- Heat pump - Heat is close to the earth’s surface

Condensation - Gas to liquid

Evaporation - Liquid to gas

How do geothermal power plants generate electricity? (In order)

- Wells are drilled deep into earth to pump steam
- Water reaches surface, pressure makes them turn to steam
- Steam spins in a turbine, connected to a generator that produces electricity
- Cooling tower cools the steam and condenses into water
- Cold water is pumped back to earth to repeat the process

(Best geothermal energy are found in the “Pacific ring of fire”)

Lesson 5: Volcanic materials and hazards
Volcanic gases = High temp mixed with water vapours, H, S^-2, S02,CO,HCL, and HF

Pyroclastic flow - Fast movement; Fragmental materials mixed with hot gases
Lava flow - Flow of incandescent, molten rock materials
Debris avalanche/Volcanic landslide - Massive collapse of a huge portion of a volcano
Tsunami - Waves with sudden displacement of water
Ashfall/Tephra Fall - Shower of fire-coarse grained volcanic materials; airborne products
Climate change - Emit huge amounts of gases and fine-grained debris; blocks solar
radiation

Signs of an impending volcano:

(According to PHIVOLCS/Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology)
- Volcanic quakes
- Increased steam activity
- Crater glow
- Ground swells
- Localized landslides
- Drying up vegetation around the volcano
- Increase in temp of hot springs and wells
- Variation in the chemical content of springs/water
- Drying up of springs
- New thermal areas; Appearance of solfataras
- Solfataras - Fumarole that gives off only sulfurous gases.

(Yung ‘preparing for volcanic eruptions halos common sense lang)

Lesson 6: Weather and climate

Weather - Specific place or time; Short term state; Vary from time or location
Climate - Long term pattern of weather (long term - 30 yrs+); Average weather over many
years in one specific place

Latitude - Distance north and south of the equator

Low-latitude climates - Tropical-moisty, wet-dry tropical and dry-tropical (Philippines)

Mid-latitude - Affected by air masses: Tropical air towards poles & Polar air in equator
High-latitude - Polar & Arctic air masses (Cold)
Lesson 7: Factors affecting climate change
- Places near the equator = Warm climate
- Places far from the equator = Cool climate

Polar zone:
- 60° latitude
- Polar climates → Lowest avg. temp
- Yearly temp is below freezing, doesn’t rise above 10°
- Little precipitation
Temperate zones:
- 30-60° latitude
- Rain or snow may fall
- Avg. temp - 6°(Coldest) to 12°(warmest month)
Tropical zones:
- 30° on both sides of the equator
- High temp/humidity
- Avg. temp - Above 18°

Wladimir Köppen
- German botanist & climatologist
- First developed this system in the 19th century
Köppen classification of climate
- Categorizes climate zone based on local vegetation

Dry climate:
- Very low precipitation
Polar climate:
- Cold all year round
- Minimal precipitation
Continental climate:
- Moderate precipitation
Mild climate:
- Warm summers and mild winter, with precipitation, humid
Tropical climate:
- Very high precipitation

PH Two seasons:
- Dry season (Nov-May)
- Wet season (June-Oct)

Four climate types in the PH:

(According to PAGASA/Philippine Atmospheric Geophysical and Astronomical Services
Administration)
- Climate type 1 - Dry season (Nov-May) & Wet Season(June-Oct)
- Climate type 2 - No dry season but with rainfall (Nov-Jan)
- Climate type 3 - Seasons are not too pronounced; May be dry(Nov-April) or
wet(During the rest of the year)
- Climate type 4 - Rainfall is evenly distributed throughout the year
Altitude - Elevation/distance above sea level
Altitude of the place - Air temp is lower as altitude increases (Inverse variation)
- Every 1000m, there is a drop of 6.5°
- High elevation = Less Air (Inverse)
- Low air temp = Low air pressure (Direct)
- Air molecules are farther apart, making the air less dense
- Lighter air cannot absorb much heat, making air temp lower.

Factors affecting temp:

- Ocean currents - Water flows in definite path
- Warm currents from the equator carry warm water
- Cold currents from the poles carry cold water
- Ocean currents that carry cold water makes climate cold
- Ocean currents that carry warm water makes climate warm
- Ocean currents that carry cold water make air above it cold

Factors affecting precipitation:

Precipitation - For precipitation to form, cloud droplets must grow in volume roughly 1M
times
- Prevailing wind - Wind that blows more often
- Moisture that warm air cannot hold falls back to earth count as some form of
precipitation
- Affected by mountain ranges as a barrier to prevailing winds
- Windward side:
- Facing the wind
- Clouds form due to condensation of water vapor
- High precipitation and low temperature
- Cold and wet climate
- Leeward side:
- Faces away from the wind
- No cloud formation
- Little to no precipitation
- Warm and drier climate

Lesson 9: Global phenomenon

Global warming - Increase of earth’s avg temp due to a build-up of greenhouse gases
Climate change - Change in avg. temp and cycles of weather over a long period of time
Earth is surrounded by thin-layered gases called ‘Greenhouse gases’

Greenhouse gases - Carbon Diox.(CO2), Methane(H2), Water Vapor(H20),

Chlorofluorocarbon(CFCs), and Nitrous Oxide(N20)
Greenhouse effect:
- Greenhouse gas molecules absorb some of the energy, dropping it in the
atmosphere
- Process keeps the earth warm and is essential to life
- Higher the proportion of greenhouse gases, More radiation absorbed (Direct)
- Result in the increase of global temp

Impacts of climate change:

- Climate change disrupts weather patterns
- Hurricanes, floods, droughts, etc
- Stable climate supports life
- If climate changes quickly, we won’t have time to adapt
- Rising sea level
- Ice melt - Atmosphere and ocean becomes warmer
- Thermal Expansion - Water gets warmer = It will expand
- Ice is very reflective

Three main human activities:

- Burning fossil fuels
- Releases Carbon Diox.
- Deforestation
- Releases Carbon Diox.
- Reduction of biodiversity
- Unstable ecosystem