Microbiology Parasitology Notes

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Microbiology & parasitology notes
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MICP 211: MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY

WEEK 1: SCOPE OF MICROBIOLOGY
SECOND SEMESTER, S.Y. 2021-2022 BSN 1-Y2-9
MRS. IMELDA MARCOS SEVILLA February 9, 2022 (Lecture) PART I
ORGANISMS THAT MAKE UP THE bacteria, such as Acetobacter, convert

MICROBIAL WORLD glucose to acetic acid (vinegar) by
fermentation, thus, ruining the taste of the
- Germ is derived from the Latin word wine.
germen, which means to sprout or
germinate. First applied to bacteria in the 3. JOSEPH LISTER
nineteenth century to explain disease- - During the 1860s Joseph Lister, an
causing cells that grew quickly. English surgeon, reasoned that surgical
- Microbes, often known as infection(sepsis) might be caused by
microorganisms, are microscopic living microorganisms.
organisms that are visible only with a Sepsis - The condition resulting from
microscope the presence of pathogenic microbes or
- Microbiology is the study of all living their products in blood or tissues.
organisms that are too small to be visible - Devised methods to prevent microbes
with the naked eye. This includes bacteria, from entering the wounds of his patients. His
archaea, viruses, fungi, prions, protozoa and procedures came to be known as antiseptic
algae, collectively known as 'microbes' (against sepsis) surgery, and included
handwashing, sterilizing instruments, and
EVOLUTION OF MICROBIOLOGY dressing wounds with carbolic acid (phenol)
THE DEVELOPMENT OF MICROBIOLOGY
4. IGNAZ PHILIP SEMMELWEIS
PIONEERS IN THE SCIENCE OF - About this same time (1840s), a
MICROBIOLOGY physician by the name of Ignaz Philip
Semmelweis began using antiseptic
1. ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK (1632–1723) procedures to prevent "childbirth infection"
- Referred to as the “Father of or puerperal fever (a serious and often fatal
Microbiology,” the “Father of Bacteriology,” disease associated with infection
and the “Father of Protozoology” contracted during delivery)
- As a hobby, he ground tiny glass
lenses, which he mounted in small metal 5. ROBERT KOCH
frames, thus creating what today are known - Direct evidence demonstrating that
as single-lens microscopes or simple bacteria were disease-causing agents
microscopes. (etiological agents) was provided by Robert
- In many of these specimens, he Koch, a German physician, in 1867.
observed various tiny living creatures, which - Koch was working with a disease of
he called “animalcules.” sheep and cattle called anthrax, and
determined the causative agent to be a
2. LOUIS PASTEUR (1822–1895) type of bacteria he called Bacillus anthracis.
- Discovered forms of life that could Koch established a sequence of
exist in the absence of oxygen. He experimental steps that could be used to
introduced the terms “aerobes” (organisms demonstrate beyond a doubt that a
that require oxygen) and “anaerobes” specific type of microorganism was
(organisms that do not require oxygen). responsible for a specific disease. These
- Developed a process (today known came to be known as Koch's postulates
as pasteurization) to kill microbes that were - Made many significant contributions
causing wine to spoilage to the germ theory of disease. For example,
- Developed a vaccine to prevent he proved that the anthrax bacillus (B.
rabies in dogs and successfully used the anthracis), which had been discovered
vaccine to treat human rabies. earlier by other scientists, was truly the cause
- Discovered what occurs during of anthrax. He accomplished this using a
alcoholic fermentation. He also series of scientific steps that he and his
demonstrated that different types of colleagues had developed; these steps
microbes produce different fermentation later became known as Koch’s Postulates
products. For example, yeasts convert the - Koch discovered that B. anthracis
glucose in grapes to ethyl alcohol (ethanol) produces spores, capable of resisting
by fermentation, but certain contaminating adverse conditions.

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- Koch developed methods of fixing, EUKARYOTES

staining, and photographing bacteria. - cells where genomes not contained
- Koch’s work on tuberculin (a protein within a nucleus. Include such
derived from M. tuberculosis) ultimately led microorganisms as fungi, protozoa, and
to the development of a skin test valuable in simple algae. Eukaryotic cells are larger and
diagnosing tuberculosis. more complex than prokaryotic cells. They
contain variety of cellular bodies called
6. FANNY HESSE organelles.
- developed the use of agar as a
solidifying agent for microbiological media. PROKARYOTES
- genome contained in a nucleus; are
7. RICHARD J. PETRI probably the smallest living organisms. They
- developed the Petri dish in which can range in size from 0.15 μm
microbial cultures could be grown and (mycoplasmas) to 2.0 microscopic(many of
manipulated. the bacteria). Some bacteria have a
comma shape (vibrio) or a flexible, wavy
8. HANS CHRISTIAN GRAM shape (spirochete)
- developed the Gram stain, a stain
technique that could be used to separate BACTERIA
two major groups of disease causing - are prokaryotic organisms with no
bacteria. nucleus or nuclear membrane in their cells. It
- Koch discovered the bacterium (M. takes the form of rods (bacilli), spheres
tuberculosis) that causes tuberculosis and (cocci), or spirals (spirals) (spirilla or
the bacterium (Vibrio cholerae) that causes spirochetes). It reproduces through binary
cholera fission, has unique ingredients in its cell walls,
and can be found in nearly all of the world’s
9. EDWARD JENNER ecosystems. It can survive in temperatures
- In 1796, Edward Jenner (a British ranging from 0° to 100°C and in oxygen-rich
Physician) reported the use of material or oxygen-depleted environments.
scraped from the skin of an individual
infected with cowpox to immunize a child FUNGUS
against smallpox - Eukaryotic microorganisms such as
multicellular molds and unicellular
10. ALEXANDER FLEMING (singlecelled) yeasts are classified as fungi.
- A short time later (1928), Alexander Yeasts are slightly larger than bacteria and
Fleming, a Scottish physician, discovered are employed in the production of alcoholic
penicillin. beverages and bread. Candida albicans,
- Noticed that mold growing on one of for example, is a pathogenic yeast (disease
his culture plates inhibited the growth of causing).Molds are filamentous, branching
bacteria there, and eventually isolated the fungus that reproduce through spores. The
substance responsible fungi prefer acidic surroundings, and the
majority of them can survive at ambient
11. PAUL EHRLICH temperature in an oxygen-rich environment.
- A German physician by the name of A fungus is what the common mushroom is.
Paul Ehrlich searched for a “magic bullet”,
and in around 1910 developed the first PROTOZOA
effective cure for a bacterial disease. - are unicellular eukaryotic creatures.
- The drug he developed was called Many species have a feature of movement,
salvarsan, and was an arsenic compound and protozoa can be classed according on
that was effective against syphilis how they move: Some protozoa have
flagella, where as other shave cilia or
MICROORGANISMS pseudopodia. Some animals are not mobile.
Because they lack cell walls, protozoa can
Two major categories of microbes take on an unlimited number of shapes.
1. ACELLULAR MICROBES Malaria, sleeping sickness, dysentery, and
- also called infectious particle toxoplasmosis are all caused by different
2. CELLULAR MICROBES species
- also called microorganism
ALGAE
PROKARYOTES / EUKARYOTES - refers to a wide range of plant-like
- Prokaryotes and eukaryotes are creatures. Several species of single celled
distinguished on the basis of their cellular algae are essential in microbiology. Their
characteristics cells are surrounded by cell walls made of

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cellulose, a type of carbohydrate. Diatoms evolutionary battle of competing gene

and dinoflagellates, which live in the oceans products.
and are found at the bottom of marine food
chains, are examples. In the process of MICROBIAL GENETICS
photosynthesis, most algae catch sunlight - Study of how genes are structured
and convert it to chemical energy in the and regulated in microbes in relation to their
form of carbohydrates. cellular functions Closely related to the field
of molecular biology
VIRUSES
- are tiny amounts of genetic material EVOLUTIONARY MICROBIOLOGY
(DNA or RNA) encased in a protein shell and, - Study of microbial evolution. This field
occasionally, a membranous envelope. can be classified into the following
Because viruses lack a metabolism, categories:
interfering with their structures or activities 1. Microbial Systematics
with medications is challenging. Viruses - Study of microbial diversity and
reproduce in living cells & utilize cells' genetic relationships.
chemical machinery for their own purposes. 2. Microbial Taxonomy
In process of duplicating, they frequently - Science of naming and classifying
damage the cells microbes.
BACTERIOPHAGES GENERATION MICROBIOLOGY

- A special type of virus that infects - Study of those microorganisms that
primarily bacteria have the same characters as their parents
DIVISION OF MICROBIOLOGY PHYLOGENY

- Study of the genetic relationships
BRANCHES OF MICROBIOLOGY between different organisms
Branches of microbiology can be SYSTEMS MICROBIOLOGY

classified into: - Bridge systems biology and
1. Pure Sciences, and microbiology.
2. Applied Sciences
ASTRO MICROBIOLOGY
BRANCHES OF MICROBIOLOGY - Study of microorganisms in outer
(PURE MICROBIOLOGY) space
Pure Microbiology - Organisms are BIOLOGICAL AGENT

thoroughly investigated. It can be - Study of those microorganisms which
subdivided further to the following: are being used in weapon industries.
MICROBIAL CYTOLOGY NANO MICROBIOLOGY

- Study of microorganisms' microscopic - Study of those microscopic organisms
and submicroscopic features. on nano level.
MICROBIAL PHYSIOLOGY PREDICTIVE MICROBIOLOGY

- study of how the biochemistry of a - Quantification of relations between
microbial cell works. Includes the study of controlling factors in foods and responses of
microbial growth, microbial metabolism and pathogenic and spoilage microorganisms
microbial cell structure using mathematical modelling
MICROBIAL PATHOGENESIS BRANCHES OF MICROBIOLOGY

- Study of the process by which a (APPLIED MICROBIOLOGY)
microorganism causes a disease.
Applied Microbiology - Organisms
MICROBIAL ECOLOGY themselves are not examined in applied
- Relationship between microorganisms microbiology; rather,they are applied to a
and their environment specific process. They are as follows:
CELLULAR MICROBIOLOGY
- Reveals how pathogenic
microorganism interacts with host cells in
what is turning out to be a complex

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MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY

- Study of the pathogenic microbes - Study of the function and diversity of
and the role of microbes in human illness. microbes in their natural environments. This
Includes the study of microbial pathogenesis involves the characterization of key
and epidemiology and is related to the bacterial habitats such as the rhizosphere
study of disease pathology and immunology. and phyllosphere, soil and groundwater
This area of microbiology also covers the ecosystems, open oceans or extreme
study of human microbiota, cancer, and the environments (extremophiles). This field
tumor microenvironment. includes other branches of microbiology
such as:
PHARMACEUTICAL MICROBIOLOGY Microbial ecology
- Study of microorganisms that involved Microbially mediated nutrient cycling
in the manufacturing of antibiotics, enzymes, Geomicrobiology
vitamins, vaccines, and other Microbial diversity
pharmaceutical goods that cause Bioremediation
pharmaceutical contamination and spoil. - Use of micro organisms to clean air,
water and soils
INDUSTRIAL MICROBIOLOGY
- Explore microbes for use in industrial WATER MICROBIOLOGY
processes. Examples include industrial - (or aquatic microbiology)
fermentation and wastewater treatment. - Study of those microorganisms that
Closely linked to the biotechnology industry. are found in water.
This field also includes brewing, an important
application of microbiology. AERO MICROBIOLOGY
- (or air microbiology)
MICROBIAL BIOTECHNOLOGY - Study of airborne microorganisms.
- Manipulation of microorganisms at
the genetic and molecular level to BIOTECHNOLOGY
generate useful products - Related to recombinant DNA
technology or genetic engineering.
FOOD MICROBIOLOGY
- Study of microorganisms causing food BRANCHES OF MICROBIOLOGY
spoilage and foodborne illness. Using BY TAXONOMY
microorganisms to produce foods, for
example by fermentation. BACTERIOLOGY
- Study of bacteria.
AGRICULTURAL MICROBIOLOGY
- Study of agriculturally relevant IMMUNOLOGY
microorganisms. This field can be further - Study of the immune system. It looks
classified into the following: at the relationships between pathogens
such as bacteria and viruses and their hosts.
1. Plant Microbiology and Plant
Pathology MYCOLOGY
- Study of the interactions between - Study of fungi, such as yeasts and
microorganisms and plants and plant molds. Nematology. Study of nematodes
pathogens. (roundworms)
2. Soil Microbiology PARASITOLOGY

- Study of those microorganisms that - Study of parasites. Not all parasites
are found in soil. are microorganisms. Protozoa and bacteria
can be parasitic; the study of bacterial
VETERINARY MICROBIOLOGY parasites is usually categorized as part of
- Study of the role of microbes in bacteriology.
veterinary medicine or animal taxonomy.
PHYCOLOGY
- Study of algae.
PROTOZOOLOGY
- Study of protozoa, single-celled
organisms like amoebae.
VIROLOGY
- Study of viruses

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PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS OF
MICROBIOLOGY
is an organism that lives on dead or
1. GENETIC ENGINEERING decaying organic matter.
- Engineered microorganisms are used
to make hormones, antibiotics, vaccines 5. MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY
and other products. New genes can be - is important because it aids in
inserted into plants and animals. detection, isolation, diagnosis, and
treatment of pathogenic bacteria, as well
2. BIOTECHNOLOGY as the production of helpful organisms such
- Commercial applications include the as yeasts and antibiotics.
synthesis of acetone, organic acids,
enzymes, alcohols and many drugs. There are 500 to 1,000 different species of
bacteria on and in humans, according to
3. BIOLOGICAL WARFARE estimates. They are known as our indigenous
- Also known as germ warfare, is the microflora (also known as our indigenous
use of biological toxins or infectious agents microbiota). Mostly beneficial to us.
such as bacteria, viruses, insects, and fungi
with the intent to kill, harm or incapacitate Opportunistic pathogens are microbes that
humans colonize (inhabit) human body. Although
these microbes usually do not cause
4. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY problems, if they gain access to a part of
- Recycling Vital Elements. Martinus the body where they are not supposed to
Beijerinck and Sergei Winogradsky were the be. they might cause diseases.
first to show how bacteria help recycle vital
elements between the soil and the Microbes that cause disease are known as
atmosphere. Microbial ecology, the study of pathogens. Those that do not cause disease
the relationship between microorganisms are called nonpathogens.
and their environment
- Microbes are essential for life. Some Disease-causing microorganisms are
produce oxygen by the process technically known as pathogens (also
photosynthesis. Ex. algae & cyanobacteria referred to as infectious agents). Only
(group of photosynthetic bacteria that around 3% of known microorganisms have
produce oxygen). the ability to cause
- Plenty of microbes are involved in disease. Thus, nonpathogens
the decomposition of dead organisms and microorganisms that do not cause disease
the wasteproducts of living organisms. make up the vast majority of known
Collectively, they are referred to as microbes.
decomposers or saprophytes. A saprophyte

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WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY
CHAPTER I: MICROBIOLOGY - THE SCIENCE
MRS. IMELDA MARCOS SEVILLA February 9, 2022 (Lecture) PART II
INTRODUCTION Collectively, these microbes are

known as our indigenous microflora (or
MICROBIOLOGY indigenous microbiota) and, for the most
- the study of microbes using various part, they are of benefit to us.
types of microscopes Some of the microbes that colonize
(inhabit) our bodies are known as
BIOLOGY opportunistic pathogens (or opportunists)
- the study of living organisms - these microbes usually do not cause
us any problems, they have the potential to
*** microbiology includes the study of cause infections
certain nonliving entities as well as certain - For example: Escherichia coli (E. coli) –
living organisms. Intestinal Tracts
- microbes awaiting the opportunity to
LANGUAGE OF MICROBIOLOGY cause disease
Many microbes are involved in the
MICROBES decomposition of dead organisms and the
- non - living entities and living waste products of living organisms
organisms They are referred to as decomposers
MICRO or ***saprophytes: organism that lives on
- means very small - anything so small dead or decaying organic matter.
that it must be viewed with a microscope Some microbes are capable of
decomposing industrial wastes (oil spills, for
MICROSCOPE example).
- an optical instrument used to observe We can use microbes—genetically
very small objects engineered microbes, in some cases to
clean up after ourselves
TWO MAIN CATEGORIES OF MICROBE Use of microbes in this manner is
called BIOREMEDIATION
ACELLULAR MICROBES
- (also called infectious particles)it Plankton
include viruses and prions - microscopic organisms in the ocean
Phytoplankton
CELLULAR MICROBES - tiny marine plants and algae
- (also called microorganisms), Zooplankton
include all bacteria, all archaea, some - whereas tiny marine animals
algae, all protozoa, and some fungi
Microbes live in the intestinal tracts of
TYPES OF MICROBES animals, where they aid in the digestion of
food and, in some cases, produce
PATHOGENS substances that are of value to the host
- disease-causing microbes (also animal. For example, the E. coli bacteria
referred to as infectious agents or microbial that live in the human intestinal tract
enemies produce vitamins K and B1.
Many microbes are essential in various
NON – PATHOGENS food and beverage industries, whereas
- microbes that do not cause disease others are used to produce certain enzymes
(microbial allies),some are beneficial to us, and chemical.
whereas others have no effect on us at all Bacteria and fungi produce
antibiotics that are used to treat patients
WHY STUDY MICROBIOLOGY? with infectious diseases.
We have, living on and in our bodies ANTIBIOTICS

(e.g., on our skin and in our mouths and - substance produced by a microbe
intestinal tract) that is effective in killing or inhibiting the
growth of other microbes.

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Healthcare profession must be aware Syphilis made its first appearance in

of infectious diseases, the pathogens that Europe in 1493.
cause them, the sources of the pathogens, - French called syphilis the Neapolitan
how these diseases are transmitted, and disease; the Italians called it the French or
how to protect yourself and your patients Spanish disease; and the English called it
from these diseases. the French pox.
Microbes cause two categories of - Other names for syphilis were Spanish,
diseases: German, Polish, and Turkish pocks.
- infectious diseases - Name “syphilis” was not given to the
- microbial intoxication disease until 1530.
INFECTIOUS DISEASE VS. MICROBIAL PIONEERS IN THE SCIENCE OF

INTOXICATION MICROBIOLOGY
INFECTIOUS DISEASE ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK (1632–1723)

- results when a pathogen colonizes the - The first person to see live bacteria
body and subsequently causes disease and protozoa.
- “Father of Microbiology,” the “Father
MICROBIAL INTOXICATION of Bacteriology,” and the “Father of
- results when a person ingests a toxin Protozoology”.
(poisonous substance) that has been - He ground tiny glass lenses, which he
produced by a microbe. mounted in small metal frames, thus
creating what today are known as single-
FIRST MICROORGANISMS ON EARTH lens microscopes or simple microscopes.
- Scientists tell us that Earth was formed LOUIS PASTEUR (1822–1895)

about 4.5 billion years ago and, for the first - a French chemist, began studying
800 million to 1 billion years of Earth’s microbes in 1864.
existence, there was no life on this planet. - different microbes cause different
- Fossils of primitive microbes (as many kinds of spoiling, but heat can kill many of
as 11 different types) found in ancient these microbes.
sandstone formations in northwestern - He suggested that microbes, which
Australia date back to about 3.5 billion years he referred to as “germs,” could cause
ago infectious diseases and were easily spread
- Candidates for the first microbes on by people.
Earth are ARCHAEA and CYANOBACTERIA - Pasteur championed changes in
hospital practices to minimize the spread of
EARLIEST KNOWN INFECTIOUS DISEASES disease by pathogens
- Pasteur developed a process (today
By studying mummies, scientists have known as pasteurization) to kill microbes that
learned that bacterial diseases, such as were causing wine to spoil
tuberculosis, leprosy, and syphilis, malaria, - Pasteur developed vaccines to
hepatitis, and parasitic worm infections, prevent chicken cholera, anthrax, and
such as schistosomiasis, dracunculiasis swine erysipelas (a skin disease).
(guinea worm infection), hookworm, and - Pasteur developed a vaccine to
fluke and tapeworm infections, have been prevent rabies in dogs and successfully used
around for a very long time the vaccine to treat human rabies
First recorded epidemic earliest
known account of a “pestilence” occurred ROBERT KOCH (1843–1910)
in Egypt about 3180 bc. - identified the microbe that caused
1900 bc, near the end of the Trojan anthrax (ANthraks). He later went on to
War, the Greek army was decimated by an identify the microbes that caused
epidemic of what is thought to have been tuberculosis and cholera.
Bubonic Plague - developed methods of fixing, staining,
Ebers papyrus, describing epidemic and photographing bacteria.
fevers, was discovered in a tomb in Thebes, - developed methods of cultivating
Egypt; it was written around 1500 bc. bacteria on solid media.
Smallpox occurred in China around - work on tuberculin (a protein derived
1122 BC. from M. tuberculosis) ultimately led to the
Epidemics of plague occurred in development of a skin test valuable in
Rome in 790, 710, and 640 bc, and in diagnosing tuberculosis
Greece around 430 BC

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4. PROTOZOOLOGISTS explore the area

of PROTOZOOLOGY, the study of protozoa
and their activities.
5. MYCOLOGIST those who specialize in

the study of fungi, or MYCOLOGY
6. VIROLOGY encompasses the study of

viruses and their effects on living cells of all
types. VIROLOGISTS may also study prions
FIELDS OF MICROBIOLOGY and viroids, acellular infectious agents that
are even smaller than viruses
1. MICROBIOLOGIST is a scientist who
studies microbes. He or she might have a 7. MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY, involves
bachelor’s, master’s, or doctoral degree in the study of pathogens, the diseases they
MICROBIOLOGY. cause, and the body’s defenses against
disease. It is concerned with epidemiology,
2. BACTERIOLOGIST is a scientist who transmission, prevention measures and
specializes in BACTERIOLOGY, the study of treatment
the structure, functions, and activities of
bacteria. 8. CLINICAL MICROBIOLOGY
DIAGNOSTIC MICROBIOLOGY, is concerned
3. PHYCOLOGIST is a scientists with the laboratory diagnosis of infectious
specializing in the field of phycology (or diseases of humans.
algology), studies the various types of algae

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WEEK 1: INTRODUCTION TO MICROBIOLOGY
CHAPTER II: MICROBIOLOGY - THE SCIENCE
MRS. IMELDA MARCOS SEVILLA February 9, 2022 (Laboratory)
BASIC LABORATORY EQUIPMENTS - Four objectives: are X4, X10, X40, and
X100 objectives.
MICROSCOPE
- an optical instrument - total magnification: multiply the
- used to observe tiny objects magnifying power of the ocular (X10) by the
- objects that cannot be seen at all magnifying power of the objective that you
with the unaided human eye (the “naked are using.
eye”)
- optical instrument has a limit as to COMPONENTS OF THE COMPOUND LIGHT
what can be seen using that instrument. MICROSCOPE
- This limit is referred to as the resolving
power or resolution of the instrument.
- In ancient Greek, ‘mikro’ means ‘of

minute size’ and ‘skopion’ refers to ‘means
of viewing’.
- Microscopes can be classified in a
number of different ways; based on the
source of light (light, electron etc),
arrangement, number of lenses (simple,
compound), or method of interaction
between the sample and lens (probe, laser
etc). Simple microscopes use the power of
a single lens to magnify a given sample.
While compound microscopes use an A. EYEPIECE
objective lens to collect an image - ocular lens is a X10 magnifying lens
enhanced by a secondary system of lenses
B. REVOLVING NOSEPIECE
TYPES OF MICROSCOPES - Holds the objective lenses
1. SIMPLE MICROSCOPE C. OBJECTIVE LENSES

- a microscope containing only one - magnify objects placed on the stage
magnifying lens.
- a magnifying glass could be D. STAGE
considered a simple microscope. - flat surface on which the
specimen is placed
2. COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
- contains more than one magnifying E. STAGE ADJUSTMENT KNOB
lens - Used to move the stage and
- usually magnify objects about 1,000 microscope slide
times
F. IRIS DIAPHRAGM CONTROL ARM
COMPOUND LIGHT MICROSCOPE - Used to adjust the amount of light
passing through the condenser
- visible light (from a built-in light bulb) is
used as the source of illumination contain G. CONDENSER
two magnifying lens systems - Contains a lens system that focuses
- Eyepiece/ocular lens: it usually has a light onto the specimen
magnifying power of X10

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H. COLLECTOR LENS WITH FIELD DIAPHRAGM - is routinely used to diagnose primary

- Controls the amount of light entering syphilis (the initial stage of syphilis).
the condenser
PHASE-CONTRAST MICROSCOPES
I. RHEOSTAT CONTROL KNOB - used to observe unstained living
- Controls the amount of light emitted microorganisms.
from the light source - contrast is increased, and the
organisms are more easily seen.
J. FIELD DIAPHRAGM LEVER
- Used to adjust the amount of light
passing through the collector lens
K. ON/OFF SWITCH
- Turns the light source on and off
L. BASE
- Contains the light source
M. CONDENSER CONTROL KNOB

- used
FLUORESCENCE MICROSCOPES
to adjust the height of the condenser
- contain a built-in ultraviolet (UV) light
source
N. FINE/COARSE ADJUSTMENT KNOB
- UV light strikes certain dyes and
- used to focus objective lenses
pigments, causing them to glow against a
dark background
O. ARM
- used in immunology laboratories to
- Supports the binocular body and the
demonstrate that antibodies stained with a
revolving nosepiece
fluorescent dye
P. BINOCULAR BODY
- Holds the ocular lenses in their proper
locations
MAGNIFICATION
ELECTRON MICROSCOPES
- use an electron beam as a source of
illumination and magnets to
focus the beam.
OBJECTIVES - There are two types of electron
microscopes:
1. Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEMs)

- object can be magnified up to
approximately 1 million times
- enables scientists to study the
internal structure of cells
VARIOUS TYPES OF MICROSCOPE
BRIGHTFIELD MICROSCOPE
- objects are observed against a bright
background (or “bright field”)
DARKFIELD MICROSCOPE
- illuminated objects are seen against a
dark background (or “dark field”)

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2. Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEMs)

- are used to observe the outer MICROMETER
surfaces of specimens
PROPER MICROSCOPE POSTURE
ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPES

- provides a true three-dimensional
surface profile
OIL IMMERSION
- By placing a substance such as oil

immersion
- More light is directed through the
objective
- A clearer image is observed
- Only be used if you have an
immersion lens
PARFOCAL - Best for viewing samples that are
dead or are not moving
- Refers to objective that can be - Required when viewing individual
changed with minimal or no refocusing bacteria strands
- A procedure which allows to you to - Cedar tree oil
adjust each objective lens so that it will
remain in relative focus with the other CARING FOR THE MICROSCOPE
objective
- Do not let any liquids to come in
contact with the microscope
- Always store the microscope inside a
box after use
- Return the objective lens onto
scanning objective or low power after use
- Carry the microscope by the arm
- Use a soft clean tissue to wipe the
lenses
WORKING DISTANCE
- The distance from the bottom of the

objective in use to the top of the slide

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4. FERMENTATION TUBES
- Is designed to verify and measures
gas production in fermentation experiment.
- Used to collect gas in a broth
culture formed by microorganism
OTHER LABORATORY INSTRUMENTS

5. INOCULATION LOOP
- Also called a smear loop, inoculation
- Most of the exercises conducted in
ward or microstreaker
this course provide students a hands-on
- Used in the cultivation of microbes on
approach to learning.
plates by transferring inoculum for streaking
- The various activities and experiments
require different, apparatus, glassware, and
other tools.
familiarization: important to the students not

only for their safety but also for the
accuracy of the results of their experiments.
1. ALCOHOL LAMP
- Used for heating, fixing, sterilization,
6. PETRI DISH
and combustion in a laboratory.
- shallow, cylindrical, round glass dish
- Uses ethyl alcohol or spirit as a fuel
- Used to culture different
microorganism and cell
- You can observe the growth of the
microorganism very clearly through it
2. AUTOCLAVE TAPE
- An adhesive tape used in autoclaving
- Indicate whether a specific
temperature has been reached 7. STAINING JAR
- Work by changing color after - Used to stain cells and tissues on
exposure to temperatures commonly used microscope slide
in sterilization
3. CENTRIFUGE TUBE
- Keep your sample safe and secure 8. TEST TUBE WITH SCREW
during centrifugation, boiling, freezing - Designed to be leak tight allowing the
- Can be made of glass or plastic, and tubes to be used for storage or transport
resemble miniature test tubes with tapered
tips

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9. APPLICATOR STICKS - Storage of nutrient media that should

- Used for routine spot test sampling be maintained at certain temperature
and drop transfer
10. BEAKER 15. STAINING RACK

- One of the multifunctional lab - Designed for simultaneous staining
equipment of up to 25 microscope slides
- Hold samples to be used later
- Can also be used to for preserving
small chemical reaction
16. TEST TUBE RACK

- Used to hold multiple test tubes at the
11. DROPPER same time
- Glass or plastic - Most commonly used when various
- Used to transfer small quantities of solution are needed
liquid
12. HANGING DROP SLIDE

- Used to observe living, unstained, very 17. WEIGHING BOAT
small organism - Used to weight substances that will be
- Used to test motility transferred to another vessel
- To protect the scale tray
13. INOCULATING NEEDLE 18. AUTOCLAVE

- Used in needle oriented culture - main purpose of this device is to
methods sterilize materials and media under pressure
- Used to stab microbes in thioglycolate and steam
cultures, to study motility, microbial oxygen
requirements
14. REFRIGERATOR
- Used for the storage of the stock
solutions, chemicals and kits

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19. CENTRIFUGE
- Used for separation of fluid, gas or
liquid, based on density
24. STIRRING ROD

- Used to mix chemical and liquids for
laboratory process
20. ERLENMEYER FLASK

- Allow contents to be swirled or stirred
during an experiment- narrow neck keeps
the contents from spilling out
- Reduce evaporative losses compared
to a beaker
25. WEIGHING SCALE
- Used to measure the wt. and mass of
different kinds of solids, liquids or powders.
- Accurately determining the weight of
chemicals is a crucial aspect of a
microbiology lab
21. INCUBATOR
- Work at different temperature
according to the purpose and the work
load of the laboratory
- Used in cultivating, multiplying and in
the characterization test of microorganism
- Provide heat necessary for the growth 26. BIOLOGICAL SAFETY CABINET
of microorganism - is an enclosed, ventilated laboratory
workspace for safely working with materials
contaminated with pathogens requiring a
defined biosafety level
22. MAGNETIC STIRRER

- A device which provides mixing
- keeping the chemical solutions and
mixtures at a certain time and temperature
by the help of magnetic bar
23. SPATULA
- Used for scrapping, transferring or
applying chemical and treatment

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WEEK 2: DIVERSITY OF MICROORGANISMS
SECOND SEMESTER, S.Y 2021-2022 BSN1-Y2-9
MRS. IMELDA MARCOS SEVILLA February 16, 2022 (LEC)
PROKARYOTIC MICROBES
Bacteria Reproduction (by binary fission)
BACTERIA Bacteria divide; one cell splits in half to become
Are metabolically active single-celled two daughter cells.
prokaryotes that divide by binary fission. Generation time – the time it takes for one
Some have an important role in disease bacterial cell to split into two cells.
pathogenesis. Some can survive in severe
temperature and pressures.
THREE BASIC SHAPES OF BACTERIA
Organisms in this domain are broadly
divided into three phenotypic categories COCCI
(physical characteristics):
 Round or spherical bacteria.
 Gram-negative and have a cell wall  May be seen singly or in pairs (Monococci –
 Gram-positive and have a cell wall single)
 Lack a cell wall.
 Diplococci – pairs
Many characteristics of bacteria are Example: Neisseria gonorrhea
examined to provide data for identification Disease: Gonorrhea
and classification
 Streptococci – chains
CELL MORPHOLOGY
Example: Streptococcus pyogenes
Using the compound light microscope, the Disease: Strep throat
size, shape, and morphologic arrangement
of various bacteria are easily observed.  Staphylococci – clusters
Example: Staphylococcus aureus
Bacteria Size Disease: Boils
– sphere measurement usually ranges
from about 0.2 um in diameter to 10.0 um-  Tetrads – packets of four (4)
long spiral shaped bacteria, to even longer Example: Micrococcus luteus
filamentous bacteria. Disease: Rarely pathogenic
 Average coccus is about 1 um in diameter  Octads – packets of eight (8)

 Average bacillus is about 1 um wide x 3um Example: Sarcina ventriculi
long Disease: Rarely pathogenic
 Bacteria range in size from 0.2 to 5
BACILLI
micrometers.
 The tiniest bacteria (mycoplasma) are
about the same size as the largest viruses  Often referred to as RODS.
(poxviruses) and are the tiniest organisms  Maybe short or long, thick or thin, and pointed
capable of surviving outside of a host. or w/ curved or blunt ends.
 Longest bacteria rods are the size of some  They may occur singly.
yeast and human red blood cells (7 um)
 Diplobacilli – in pairs
Examples: Coxiella burnetii, Klebsiella
rhinosceloramatis, Moraxella bovis

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 Streptobacilli – in chains (long filaments - These filaments are key feature that
or branched) distinguishes spirochetes from other bacteria.
Examples: Streptobacillus moniliformis, They travel the length of bacterium, aiding in
Streptobacillus Levaditi, Streptobacillus the twisting of the bacteria’s motility.
felis, Streptobacillus hongkongensis
 Coccobacillia – quite short, resembling - Different species of spirochetes vary in size,

elongated cocci length, rigidity, and the number and amplitude
Examples: Listeria monocytogenes, of their coils.
Haemophilius influenza, Gardnerella
vaginalis.  Tightly coiled:
Treponema pallidum – the cause of syphilis
(sexually transmitted infection), with a flexible
 Diphtheroids – stack up next to each
cell wall that enables them to move readily
other, side by side in a PALASIDE
ARRANGEMENT. through tissues.
Examples: Corynebacterium diphtheriae  Less tightly coiled:
(cause of diphtheria) Borrelia spp. – the causative agents of Lyme
disease and relapsing fever.
MEDICALLY IMPORTANT BACILLI
 Includes members of the family Some bacteria may lose their characteristic
Enterobacteriaceae (large family of
gram-negative bacteria): shape because adverse growth conditions.
 Enterobacter, Escherichia, Klebsiella,  PLEOMORPHIC - bacteria that exist in variety

Proteus, Salmonella, and Shigella spp. of shapes.
 Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Bacillus spp.,  PLEOMORPHISM: the ability to exist in a
and Clostridium spp variety of shapes.
SPRILLA Bacteria in the genus Mycoplasma do not

have cell walls.
1. Curved (commashaped)
 Usually occur singly, but some species STAINING PROCEDURES
may form pairs.
 Pair of curved bacilli resembles a bird - Various staini ng methods have been devised
and is described as having gull wing to enable scientist to examine bacteria.
morphology. - Bacteria are smeared onto a glass
Example: Vibrio spp microscope slide (resulting in what is known as
 V. cholera – cause of cholera. a ―smear‖), air-dried, and then ―fixed‖
 V. parahaemolyticus – cause of
diarrhea. Two most common method of fixation:
 Campylobacter spp – also a  Heat fixation - accomplished by passing
common cause of diarrhea. the smear through a Bunsen burner flame.
 Methanol fixation – accomplished by
flooding the smear with absolute
2. Spiral-shaped
methanol for 30 seconds.
 Bacteria in this group are referred to as
spirochetes. Fixation serves three purpose:
Spirochetes – spiral/helical in shape, 1. It kills the organisms.
flexible and have an axial filament 2. It preserves their morphology (shape)
which helps in motility. 3. It anchors the smear to the slide

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TYPES OF BACTERIAL Steps in the GRAM STAINING technique:

STAINING PROCEDURES
1. Methanol-fix specimen to slide. Flood slide
 SIMPLE STAINING with crystal violet solution; allow it to act for
 Staining with methylene blue. 1 minute.
 Merely to stain the cells so that their 2. Rinse the slide, then flood with iodine
size, shape, and morphologic solution; allow the iodine solution to act for
arrangement can be determined.
1 minute. Before the ethanol decolorization
Step-by-step procedure: (next step), all organisms appear purple,
1. Smear loopful of microbes onto that is, GRAM-POSITIVE.
slides. 3. Rinse off excess iodine. Decolorize with
2. Air-dry ethanol, approximately 5 seconds (time
3. Drip methanol onto specimen to depends on density of specimen)
fix. 4. Wash slide immediately in water. After
4. Flood slide with stain.
ethanol decolorization, those organisms
5. Rinse with water and blot dry.
6. Examine with 100x objective (oil that are gram-negative are no longer
immersion) visible.
5. Apply safranin counterstain for 30 seconds.
 DIFFERENTIAL STAINING PROCEDURE 6. Wash in water, blot, and dry in air. GRAM-
NEGATIVE organisms are visualized after
 Gram Stain – developed by Dr. application of the counterstain.
Hans Christian Gram.
 To differentiate between Gram-
positive and Gram-negative
bacteria.
Differences between GRAM-POSITIVE

and GRAM-NEGATIVE BACTERIA
GRAM GRAM(-)
(+)
Color at the end of Blue to Pink to red
gram staining Purple
procedure
Peptidoglycan in Thick Thin layer
cell walls layer
Teichoic acids and Present Absent
lipoteichoic acids
in the cell walls
Lipopolysaccharide Absent Present
in cell walls.

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MOTILITY
 Bacterium is able to ―swim‖, it is said to be

motile.
 Bacteria unable to ―swim‖ are said to be
nonmotile.
 Associated with the presence of flagella.
 Spiral-shaped bacteria and about one half
of the bacilli are motile by means of flagella,
 Acid-fast Stain – procedure was but cocci are generally nonmotile.
developed in 1882 by Paul Ehrlich
Motility can be demonstrated by stabbing the
- To differentiate between acid-fast
bacteria into a tube of semisolid agar or by
and non-acid fast bacteria. using the hanging drop technique.
- Especially useful in the
tuberculosis laboratory (―TB lab‖)  Growth (multiplication) of bacteria in
- Used carbolfuchsin (a lipid- semisolid agar produces turbidity
soluble and contains phenol) (cloudiness)
-  Nonmotile organisms will grow only along
Step-by-step procedure: the stab line.
1. Apply primary stain of  Motile organisms will spread away from the
carbolfuchsin for 30 seconds. stab line.
2. Heat fix cells to the slide using
flame.
3. Decolorize with acid alcohol to COLONY MORPHOLOGY
15-20 seconds. - A single bacterial cell that lands on the
4. Apply counterstain of methylene surface of a solid culture medium cannot be
blue for 30 seconds then rinse seen.
excess stain.  After it divides over and over again, it
produces a mound or pile of bacteria,
known as a bacterial colony .
 A colony contains millions of organisms.

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ATHMOSPHERIC REQUIREMENTS
- it is useful to classify bacteria on the basis

of their relationship to oxygen (O2) and
carbon dioxide (CO2)
- With respect to oxygen, a bacterial isolate
can be classified Into one of five major
groups:
 OBLIGATE AEROBES
 FACULTATIVE ANAEROBES
- require an atmosphere containing
- capable of surviving in either the
molecular oxygen in concentrations
presence or absence of oxygen;
comparable to that found in room air
anywhere from 0% O2 to 20% to 21% O2.
(i.e., 20%–21% O2).
 Capnophiles (capnophilic organisms)
 MICROAEROPHILES
- grow better in the laboratory in the
(MICROAEROPHILIC AEROBES)
presence of increased concentrations of
- also require oxygen for multiplication,
CO2
but in concentrations lower than that
found in room air, prefer an
FF
atmosphere containing about 5% NUTRITIONAL REQUIREMENTS
oxygen
- Special elements, such as potassium,
calcium, iron, manganese, magnesium,
cobalt, copper, zinc, and uranium, are
required by some bacteria.
- Certain microbes have specific vitamin

requirements and some need organic
substances secreted by other living
microorganisms during their growth.
Fastidious - organisms with especially

demanding nutritional requirements
BIOCHEMICAL AND METABOLISM
 OBLIGATE ANAEROBE - they produce many waste products

- can only grow in an anaerobic and secretions, some of which are
environment (i.e., an environment enzymes that enable them to invade
containing no oxygen) their host and cause disease.
 AEROTOLERANT ANAEROBE GENETIC COMPOSITION

- not require oxygen, grows better in the
absence of oxygen. - Most modern laboratories are moving
- but can survive in atmospheres toward the identification of bacteria
containing molecular oxygen (such as using some type of test procedure that
air and a CO2 incubator). analyzes the organism’s
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or
ribonucleic acid (RNA)

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IKI RICKETTSIAS, CHLAMYDIAS, AND PHOTOSYNTHETIC BACTERIA

F MYCOPLASMAS
 include purple bacteria, green bacteria,
and cyanobacteria
 Unique bacteria, they do not possess all
the attributes of typical bacterial cells  use light as an energy source, they do not
 often referred to as ―unique‖ or all carry out photosynthesis in the same
“rudimentary‖ bacteria way.
 they are so small and difficult to isolate, they  Photosynthesis that produces oxygen is
were formerly thought to be viruses. called oxygenic photosynthesis,
whereas photosynthesis that does not
 RICKETTSIAS
produce oxygen is called anoxygenic
photosynthesis
- is bacteria with a gram-negative type
cell wall.
- obligate intracellular pathogens that THE DOMAIN ARCHAEA
cause diseases in humans and other
 once referred to as archaebacteria/
animals.
archaeobacteria
- All diseases caused by Rickettsia
species are arthropod-borne;  more closely related to eucaryotes than
transmitted by arthropod vectors they are to bacteria; some possess genes
(carriers) otherwise found only in eucaryotes.
 bacteria and archaea diverged from a
 CHLAMYDIA common ancestor
 Many archaea are extremophiles: live in
- term ―chlamydias‖ refers to extreme environments.
Chlamydia spp. and closely related
organisms (such as Chlamydophila
spp.) Name given to
- are referred to as ―energy parasites.‖ Type of extreme these types of
- they preferentially use ATP molecules ENVIRONMENT EXTREMOPHILES
produced by their host cells.
- obligate intracellular pathogens that
are transferred by inhalation of Extremely acidic Acidophiles
aerosols or by direct contact between
hosts—not by arthropods.
Extremely alkaline Alkaliphiles
 MYCOPLASMAS
- smallest of the cellular microbes Extremely hot Thermopiles

- they lack cell walls, they assume many
shapes, from coccoid to filamentous Extremely cold Psychrophiles
- they may be free-living or parasitic
and are pathogenic to many animals
and some plants Extremely salty Halophiles
- resistant to treatment with penicillin
and other antibiotics
Extremely high Piezophiles (formerly
- absence of a cell wall prevents
pressure barophiles)
mycoplasmas from staining with the
Gram stain procedure.

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WEEK 2: STRUCTURE OF MICROORGANISM (CELLULAR STRUCTURE & TAXONOMY)
MRS. IMELDA MARCOS SEVILLA February 16, 2022 (LAB)
THE CELL
MICROBES
 CELL
ACELLULAR CELLULAR
 fundamental unit of any living
organism: exhibits the basic
characteristics of life. VIROIDS PROCARYOTES
 METABOLISM *Archea,
 refers to all of the chemical PRIONS bacteria,
reactions that occur within a cell, cyanobacteria
way of a cell to grow and
reproduce. VIRUSES EUCARYOTES
 CYTOLOGY *algae, protozoa,
 the study of the structure and fungi
function of cells
 ORGANELLES 2 GENERAL CATEGORIES OF CELL

 tiny organlike structures; found in
advanced single-celled organisms 1. PROCARYOTES/PROCARYOTIC CELLS
- less complex cells, which include
bacteria and archaea
. CELL THEORY
2. EUCARYOTES/EUCARYOTIC CELLS
 Robert Hooke - more complex cells, containing a
- was the first person to use the true nucleus and many membrane-
term cells bound organelles, include such
organisms as algae, protozoa, fungi,
 Matthias Schleiden & Theodor plants, animals, and humans.
Schwann
- concluded that all plant and Note: some microorganisms are
animal tissues were composed prokaryotic, some are eukaryotic, and
of cells some are not cells at all.
 Rudolf Virchow
EUKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE
- proposed the theory of
biogenesis (life can only arise
from pre-existing life, and, 1. CELL MEMBRANE
therefore, that cells can Only
arise from pre-existing cells) - like a ―skin‖ around the cell, separating the
contents of the cell from the outside world.
- also referred to as the plasma,
cytoplasmic, or cellularmembrane
- regulates the passage of nutrients, waste
products, and secretions into and out of the
cell.

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- only certain substances may enter and Smooth endoplsmic reticulum

leave the cell - selective permeability. - ribosomes are not attached, packaging
of lipids.
2. NUCLEUS
5. RIBOSOME
- controls the functions of the entire cell - consist mainly of rRNA and protein
and can be thought of as the and play an important part in the
―command center‖ of the cell. synthesis (manufacture) of proteins.
- clusters of ribosomes (called
3 components: polyribosomes or polysomes), held
by a molecule of RNA (mRNA).
 Nucleoplasm
- gelatinous matrix or base material of the 6. GOLGI APPARATUS
nucleus. - also known as Golgi body -
connects or communicates with the
 Chromosomes ER.
- suspended in the nucleoplasm. - sometimes referred to as ―packaging
plants”
 Nuclear membrane - completes the transformation of
- membrane that serves as a ―skin‖ newly synthesized proteins.
around the nucleus; it contains holes
(nuclear pores) through which large 7. LYSOSOMES AND PEROXISOMES
molecules can enter and exit the
nucleus.  Lysosomes
- contain lysozyme and other
Chromosomes – play an important role dIgestive enzymes that break
in heredity, they are rope like structures in down foreign material taken into
the nucleus of the cell which contain the the cell by phagocytosis.
genes. - aid in breaking down worn out
parts of the cell.
Genes – the true determiners of - destroy the entire cell by a
hereditary, functional unit of heredity. process called autolysis if cell is
damaged or deteriorating
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) – a
substance found within the genes, it is  Peroxisomes
known as the code of heredity. - membrane-bound vesicles in
which hydrogen peroxide is both
3. CYTOPLASM generated and broken down
- is a semifluid, gelatinous, nutrient - contain the enzyme catalase,
matrix which catalyzes the breakdown of
- storage of granules and various hydrogen peroxide into water and
organelles oxygen.
- where metabolic reactions occur.
8. MITOCHONDRIA
4. ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
- is a highly convoluted system of - the ―power plants,‖ ―powerhouses,‖
membranes or ―energy factories‖
- interconnected and arranged to form - major sites of adenosine
transport network of tubules triphosphate (ATP) production within
cells
 Rough endoplasmic reticulum - adenosine triphosphate (ATP):
- rough appearance, many ribosomes major energy source for most
attached to the outer surface of the chemical reactions within the cell.
membranes, packaging of proteins.

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9. PLASTIDS 1. CELL MEMBRANE

- type of energy-producing organelle - Enclosing the cytoplasm of a prokaryotic cell
- containing various photosynthetic - Selectively permeable
pigments - Variety of metabolic reactions take place.
- they are the sites of photosynthesis
- found in plant cells and algae. Mesosomes - where cellular respiration takes
place in bacteria.
10. CYTOSKELETON Photosynthetic bacteria - cell membrane
- is a system of fibers
contain chlorophyll and other pigments.
- 3 types: microtubules,
Trap light energy for photosynthesis.
microfilaments (actin filaments), and
intermediate filaments.
2. CHROMOSOME
- serve to strengthen, support, and
- A single, long, supercoiled, circular DNA
stiffen the cell, and give the cell its
molecule.
shape.
- Control center of the bacterial cell.
- Capable of duplicating itself, guiding cell
11. CELL WALL
- external structures that provide division, and directing cellular activities.
rigidity, shape, and protection - Suspended or embedded in the cytoplasm.
Plasmid - circular molecule of double strand
12. FLAGELLA AND CILLIA DNA; extrachromosomal DNA.
 Flagella (sing., flagellum) 3. CYTOPLASM

- relatively long, thin structures. - Complex mixture of all the materials
- spermatozoa and certain types of required by the cell for its metabolic
protozoa and algae are said to be function.
flagellated or motile. Cytoplasmic particles - bacterial cytoplasm
- Enables cells to “swim” through contains many tiny particles.
liquid environments. Ribosomes - occur in cluster
(polyribosomes or polysomes); smaller
 Cilia (sing., cilium) than eukaryotic ribosomes; sites of protein
- also organelles of locomotion. synthesis.
- shorter (more hairlike), thinner, and
more numerous than flagella. 4. BACTERIAL CELL WALL
- found on some species of protozoa - Defines the shape of bacterial cell;
(called ciliates) and on certain types chemically complex.
of cells in our bodies Peptidoglycan - main constituent of most
- e.g., the ciliated epithelial cells that bacterial cell walls complex macromolecular
line the respiratory tract. polymer.
- Only found in bacteria.
. - Thickness and composition vary with the
PROKARYOTIC CELL STRUCTURE
species of bacteria.
- are about 10 times smaller than  Gram-positive - thick layer of peptidoglycan
eukaryotic cells with teichoic acid and lipoteichoic acid
- Prokaryotes are very simple cells and molecules
yet they are able to perform the  Gram-negative - thinner layer of
necessary processes of life. peptidoglycan; covered with a complex layer
- Reproduction of prokaryotic cells is by of lipid macromolecules
binary fission.

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5. GLYCOCALYX (SLIME LAYERS &

CAPSULES) Two types of pili:
- Is a slimy, gelatinous material produced by  Enables bacteria to adhere or attach to
the cell membrane; secreted outside the cell surfaces
wall  Enables transfer of genetic material from one
- Two types of Glycocalyx: bacterial cell to another (sex pillus)
 Slime layer - is not highly organized and is
not firmly attached to cell wall; enable Pilliated bacteria are able to cause diseases
bacteria to glide or slide along solid surfaces. like urethritis and cystitis.
Non- piliated are unable to cause these
 Capsule - is highly organized and firmly diseases.
attached to the cell wall; serve as anti-
phagocytic, protecting bacteria from being
phagocytized by WBC. 8. SPORE (ENDOSPORES)
- means of survival when their moisture or
Encapsulated bacteria: produces colonies nutrient supply is low.
on agar that are smooth, mucoid, and - few genera of bacteria are capable of
glistering (SColonies). forming thickwalled spores (Bacillus and
Nonencapsulated bacteria: grow as dry, Clostridium)
rough colonies (R-Colonies) - Endospore: bacterial spore
Encapsulated bacteria survive longer in - Sporulation: process by which
human body than non-encapsulated endospores are formed Spore are:
bacteria. resistant to heat, cold, drying, and most
chemicals
6. FLAGELLA - survive for many years in soil and dust
- Threadlike, protein appendages that - quite resistant to disinfectants and boiling
enable bacteria to move. - germinates on a moist and nutrient rich
- Flagellated are said to be motile; non- surface.
flagellated are usually non-motile.
RECAP OF STRUCTURAL DIFFERENCES
BETWEEN PROKARYOTIC & EUKARYOTIC
CELLS
EUKARYOTIC PROKARYOTIC
CELLS CELLS
Biologic All All bacteria
distribution animal/protozoa
Nuclear present Absent
membrane
Membranous Present Generally absent
Structure except for
mesosomes and
photosynthetic
7. PILI (FIMBRIAE) membrane
Microtubules Present Absent
 sing., pilus or sing., Fimbria Chromosomes Composed of Composed of
DNA and DNA alone
 hair-like structure, most often protein
observe on gram-negative bacteria Flagella or Cilia When present, When present,
 thinner than flagella, have a rigid Have complex simple structure;
structure, and not associated with structure do not possess
cilia
motility Cell Wall Absent Complex
chemical
Photosynthesis Absent Present w/
Downloaded by Eshe Colleen Alzate (eshecolleen.alzate@gmail.com) cyanobacteria
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.
REPRODUCTION
. OF ORGANISMS EUKARYOTIC CELLS REPRODUCTION
AND THEIR CELLS
 MITOSIS
 REPRODUCTION - refers to nuclear division - the equal
manner in which organisms reproduce. division of one nucleus into two genetically
identical nuclei.
 CELL REPRODUCTION:
process by which individual cells
reproduce.  MEIOSIS
- process by which gametes are produced
- end result is four daughter cells, each of
which contains only half as many
chromosomes as the parent cell.
ASEXUAL VERSUS SEXUAL

REPRODUCTION
 ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 a single organism is the sole
parent. It passes copies of all of its
genes (i.e., its entire genome) to
its offspring.
Prokaryotic organisms -
reproduce asexually by a process
known as binary fission (described
later).
 SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
 two parents give rise to offspring
that have unique combinations of
genes inherited from both parents.

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 Nomenclature - assignment of names to the

PROKARYOTIC CELLS REPRODUCTION various taxa according to international rules.
 Identification - process of determining
whether an isolate belongs to one of
 BINARY FISSION established, name taxa or represents a
- one cell splits in half to become two previously unidentified species.
daughter cells.
MICROBIAL CLASSIFICATION
 GENERATION TIME
- time it takes for binary fission to occur.
- generation time varies from one bacterial CAROLUS LINNAEUS
species to another and also depends on - Binomial system of nomenclature
the growth conditions. developed by Swedish scientist
Binomial system - each organism is given

two names.
- First name: genus
- Second name: specific epithet
- first + second names together
are referred to as species.
Standard method of expressing these

names:
- To express genus, CAPITALIZE the first

letter of the word underline or italicize the
whole word
- Specific epithet is not capitalized.
Example: Escherichia coli
 Frequently, genus is designated by single

letter abbreviation = E.coli
 The abbreviation “sp.‖ is used to
designate a single species, whereas
―spp.‖ used to designate more than one
species: Streptococcus sp.
TAXONOMY  In addition to proper scientific names for
bacteria, acceptables terms are also used:
- the science of classification of living
organisms (Bergey’s Manual of
 Staphylococci (Staphylococcus
Systematic Bacteriology)
spp.)
 Streptococci
3 INTERRELATED AREAS:
 Clostridia = Clostridium
 Pseudomonads
 Classification - arrangement of
organism into taxonomic groups on  Mycoplasmas
the basis of similarities or  Rikettsias
relationships.  Chlamydias

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NICKNAMES AND SLANG TERMS:
 GC and gonococci (Neisseria gonorrhoeae)

 Meningococci (Neisseria meningitidis)
 Pneumococci ( Streptococcus pneumoniae)
 Staph (Staphylococcus or Staphylococcal)
 Streph (Streptococcus or strephtococcal)
Often, bacteria are named for the diseases

that they cause:
 Bacillus anthracis – Anthrax

 Clostridium botulinum – Botulism
 Clostridium tetani – Tetanus
 Corynebacterium diphtheriae - Diphtheria
Mycobacterium leprae – Leprosy
 Mycobacterium tuberculosis – Tuberculosis
 Mycoplasma pneumoniae – Pneumonia
 Neisseria gonorrhoeae – Gonorrhea
 Vibrio Cholerae – Cholera
Bacteria and other microorganism are named

for the person who discovered the organism:
 Yersinia pestis – Alexandre Emile Yersin

 Bordetella – Jules Bordet
 Escherichia – Theodore Escherich
 Neisseria – Albert Lugwig Neisser
 Salmonella – Daniel Elmer Salmor

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WEEK 3: CONTROLLING MICROBIAL GROWTH IN VITRO: CULTURING MICROBES
MRS. IMELDA MARCOS SEVILLA February 23, 2022 (LEC PART 1)
 mixtures of vitamins and amino acids must be

ENCOURAGING THE GROWTH OF
added to the medium to culture these fastidious
MICROBES IN VITRO
organisms.
 Some organisms will not grow at all on artificial
 To gather the information that will enable the
culture media; these include obligate
identification of any pathogens that are present.
intracellular pathogens, such as viruses,
 To learn more about microbes
rickettsias, and chlamydias.
 To harvest antibiotics and other microbial
 they must be inoculated into live animals,
products
embryonated chicken eggs, or cell cultures.
 To test effectiveness of new antimicrobial agents
 OTHER MICROORGANISMS INCLUDE:
 To produce vaccines
- Treponema pallidum (the bacterium that
causes syphilis)
CULTURING BACTERIA IN THE - Mycobacterium leprae (the bacterium that
LABORATORTY BACTERIAL GROWTH causes leprosy).
BACTERIAL GROWTH
CULTURING BACTERIA in the Laboratory
 Increase in the number of organisms rather than Culture Media
an increase in their size.
 CULTURING - the growth of organism obtained
 Generation time - varies from one bacterial in a culture medium after its incubation
species to another.  CULTURE MEDIUM - any material where
 E. coli, V. cholerae, Staphylococcus spp., and microorganisms may thrive for their nourishment
Streptococcus spp. = 20 minutes and reproduction.
 Pseudomonas and Clostridium spp. = 10 minutes - used in microbiology labs to culture bacteria
 Mycobacterium tuberculosis = 18 to 24 hours. - artificial media or synthetic media - prepared in
 RAPID GROWERS: Bacteria with short the lab
generation times.  COLONY - a group of microorganism growing
 SLOW GROWERS: long generation time. together characteristically in a culture medium
IN THE LABORATORY: Encouraging The Growth TYPES OF CULTURE MEDIA

of Microbes in Vitro
BASED ON EXACT CONTENTS
 a pure culture of a single species of bacteria
can usually be maintained if the appropriate
1. CHEMICALLY DEFINED MEDIUM - one in
growth medium
which all the ingredients are known.
 TEMPERATURE, PH, AND PROPER
 prepared by adding a certain number of grams
ATMOSPHERE are quite easily controlled to
of each of the components (e.g.,
provide the optimum conditions for growth.
carbohydrates, amino acids, salts).
 Appropriate nutrients must be provided in the
growth medium, including an appropriate energy
2. COMPLEX MEDIUM - one in which the exact
and carbon source.
contents are not known.
 Some bacteria, described as being FASTIDIOUS,
 Contain digested extracts from animal organs
have complex nutritional requirements.
(e.g., hearts, livers, brains)

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CATEGORIZED AS LIQUID OR SOLID
 LIQUID MEDIA (also known as broths) are

contained in tubes.
- referred to as tubed media.
 SOLID MEDIA: prepared by adding AGAR to
liquid media
 AGAR: is a complex polysaccharide that is
1. BLOOD AGAR: nutrient agar plus 5% sheep
obtained from a red marine alga; it is used as a
red blood cells; bright red.
solidifying agent. 2. CHOCOLATE AGAR: nutrient agar plus
powdered hemoglobin; brown (the color of
chocolate)
- more enriched than blood agar*
- used for FASTIDIOUS, bacterial pathogens:
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
Haemophilus influenza
3. MACCONKEY AGAR: inhibits growth of Gram-

positive bacteria and thus is selective for Gram-
negative bacteria.
- Is frequently used to differentiate among
various gram-negative bacilli that are isolated
from fecal specimens.
MEDIA IN TUBE
4. PHENYLETHYL ALCOHOL AGAR and
COLISTIN - NALADIXIC ACID AGAR: inhibit
1. BROTH – a liquid medium.
growth of gram-negative bacteria and are thus
2. SLANT – tube of solid medium at an angle.
selective for gram-positive bacteria.
3. AGAR DEEP – tube of solid or semi-solid
- Gram-negative bacteria capable of fermenting
medium.
lactose (an ingredient of MacConkey agar)
produce pink colonies, whereas those that
are unable to ferment lactose produce colorless
colonies
TYPES OF CULTURE MEDIA (AGARS)
ENRICHED MEDIUM – is a broth or solid medium

containing a rich supply of special nutrients that
promotes the growth of fastidious organisms.
- With NUTRIENT AGAR: extra nutrients to a
medium

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5. THAYER-MARTIN AGAR and MARTIN- CULTURE MEDIA (BROTH)

LEWIS AGAR (chocolate agars containing
extra nutrients plus several antimicrobial Thioglycolate broth (THIO) - very popular liquid
agents): are selective for N. gonorrhoeae. medium for use in the bacteriology laboratory.
- THIO supports the growth of all categories of

bacteria from obligate aerobes to obligate
anaerobes.
- Within the tube of THIO there is a
concentration gradient of dissolved oxygen.
6. MANNITOL SALT AGAR: Only salt-tolerant

(haloduric) bacteria can grow.
- is used to screen for S. aureus
- S. aureus not only will grow on MSA, but also
turns the originally pink medium to yellow.  The concentration
of oxygen in the
broth at the top of
the tube is about 20%
to 21%.
- At the bottom of the
tube, there is no
oxygen in the broth.
- concentration of
oxygen decreases
with depth.
7. DIFFERENTIAL MEDIUM: permits the  Organisms will grow
differentiation of organisms that grow on the only in that part of
medium. the broth where the
- differentiates between lactose-fermenting (LF) oxygen
and non-lactose-fermenting (NLF) gram- concentration
negative bacteria. meets their needs
INOCULATION OF CULTURE MEDIA
CULTURE MEDIA - are inoculated with

clinical specimens (i.e., specimens
collected from patients with a suspected
infectious disease).
INOCULATION involves adding a portion of
a specimen to the medium.
 accomplished using a sterile inoculating
loop.
IMPORTANCE OF USING “ASEPTIC

TECHNIQUE” IN CULTURING
ASEPTIC TECHNIQUE is practiced to

prevent:

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 microbiology professionals from becoming CULTURING VIRUSES AND

infected OTHER OBLIGATE INTRACELLULAR
 contamination of their work environment PATHOGENS IN THE LABORATORY
 contamination of clinical specimens, cultures,
and subcultures.
Obligate intracellular pathogens include:
CONTAMINANTS – Unwanted organisms
- sterility of the media must be maintained before  Viruses
inoculation.  Gram-negative bacteria:
- Avoid touching the surface of the agar. Rickettsias and Chlamydias.
INCUBATION - will not grow on artificial (synthetic) media

- To grow, they must be INOCULATED into
After media are inoculated, they must be placed embryonated chicken eggs, laboratory
into an incubator. animals, or cell cultures.
INCUBATION – process of maintaining the

appropriate atmosphere, temperature, and
moisture level for bacterial growth.
THREE TYPES OF INCUBATORS
1. CO2 (CARBON DIOXIDE) INCUBATOR - an

incubator to which a cylinder of CO2 is attached.
2. NON - CO2 INCUBATOR - containing room

air; thus, it contains about 20% to 21% oxygen.
3. ANAEROBIC INCUBATOR - containing an

atmosphere devoid of oxygen.
BACTERIAL POPULATION COUNTS
Microbiologist may:
 determine the total number of bacterial cells in

the liquid (the total number would include both
viable and dead cells) - cell cultures are primarily used for the
 determine the number of viable (living) cells. propagation of viruses.
- virus can only attach to and infect cells that
SPECTROPHOTOMETER: a beam of light is bear appropriate cell surface receptors
passed through the liquid.
- Examples of cell lines are kidney cells from
- no bacteria are present in the liquid, the liquid monkeys, rabbits, or humans, human and
is clear, and a large amount of light passes mink lung cells, and various cancer cell
through. lines.
- bacteria increase in number, the liquid
becomes turbid (cloudy), and less light passes
through.

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- cells are incubated for several days, and then

examined microscopically.
- virus will cause CYTOPATHIC EFFECT (CPE)
specific morphologic alterations to the cells.
- Examples: rounding, swelling, and shrinking of
cells, or cells may become granular, glassy,
vacuolated, or fused
- Viruses can then be identified, based on
particular type of CPE.
CULTURING FUNGI IN THE LABORATORY
- will grow on and in various solid and liquid

culture media (including yeasts, molds, and
dimorphic fungi)
- no one medium is best for all medically
important fungi.
Examples of solid culture media:
1. Brain–heart infusion (BHI) agar

2. BHI agar with blood
3. Sabouraud dextrose agar (SDA)
- Antibacterial agents are often added to the

media
- Low pH of SDA (pH 5.6)
CULTURING PROTOZOA IN THE LIBRARY
- Most clinical microbiology laboratories do not

culture protozoa
- techniques are available for culturing protozoa
in reference and research laboratories.
- e.g., Entamoeba histolytica, Giardia lamblia,
Leishmania spp.,Toxoplasma gondii,
Trichomonas vaginalis, and Trypanosoma
cruzi.

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WEEK 3: MICROBIOLOGY WITHIN HEALTHCARE FACILITIES: INFECTION CONTROL
MRS. IMELDA MARCOS SEVILLA February 23, 2022 (LEC PART 2)
INFECTION isolation of infected patients, disinfection, and

CONTROL sterilization.
- pertains to the numerous measures that are  techniques used to achieve asepsis depend on
taken to prevent infections from occurring the site, circumstances, and environment.
within healthcare settings.
WHAT CAN BE DONE TO REDUCE THE
PIONEERS IN INFECTION CONTROL NUMBER OF INFECTIONS
 IGNAZ PHILIPP SEMMELWEISS (1818–

 HAND WASHING - single most important
1865)
measure to reduce the risks of transmitting
- a Hungarian doctor working in Austria was
pathogens from one patient to another or from
trying to prevent young women from dying.
one anatomic site to another on the same
Semmelweiss decided to try washing his
patient.
hands between patients.
- As a result, fewer of his patients died. In two
TWO MAIN TYPES OR CATEGORIES OF
years, he reduced the death rate among his
patients from 12% to 1%. ASEPSIS: MEDICAL ASEPSIS AND SURGICAL
ASEPSIS
 JOSEPH LISTER (1827–1912)
- has been concerned about the high death  MEDICAL ASEPSIS
rates of patients following surgery, 45% of - is a clean technique. Its goal is to exclude
patients would die of infections afterward. pathogens.
- idea of killing germs with chemicals. - all the precautionary measures necessary to
- In 1867, he began using an antiseptic to clean prevent direct transfer of pathogens
surgical instruments. - include frequent and thorough handwashing;
- He also sprayed the air, and required hand personal grooming; clean masks, gloves, and
washing and clean aprons. As a result, the gowns when appropriate, etc.
death rate dropped to 15%.
 SURGICAL ASEPSIS (STERILE TECHNIQUE)
 FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE (1820–1910) - includes practices used to render and keep
- published her ideas on disease in 1860. objects and areas sterile (i.e., free of microbes).
- the idea that cleanliness was important in - practiced in operating rooms, in labor and
preventing disease was not a common one. delivery areas, and during invasive procedures.
- She was one of the first to recognize the value - Other surgical aseptic techniques include
of cleanliness and recommended it as a part surgical scrubbing of hands and fingernails, etc.
of good nursing.
 ASEPSIS: which literally means without

infection
 ASEPTIC TECHNIQUES: actions taken to
prevent infection or break the chain of
infection.
 Such actions include general cleanliness,
frequent and thorough handwashing,

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1. Before touching a patient. STANDARD PRECAUTIONS FOR INFECTION

2. Before clean/aseptic procedure. CONTROL
3. After body fluid exposure risk.
4. After touching a patient. 1. Handwashing – wash after touching body fluids,
5. After touching patient surroundings. after removing gloves, and between patient
contacts.
MODES OF
TRANSMISSION 2. Gloves – wear gloves before touching body
fluids, mucous membranes and nonintact skin.
1. CONTACT TRANSMISSION 3. Mask and Eye Protection or Faceshield –

- There are two types of contact transmission: protect eyes, nose, mouth, during procedures
that cause splashes or sprays of body fluids
 Direct Contact Transmission – pathogens
are transferred from one infected person to 4. Gown – wear gown during procedures that may
another person without a contaminated cause splashes or sprays of body fluids.
intermediate object or person.
 Indirect Contact Transmission – happens 5. Patient-Care Equipment – handled soiled
when pathogens are transferred via a equipment so as to prevent personal
contaminated intermediate object or person. contamination and transfer to other patients.
2. DROPLET TRANSMISSION 6. Environmental Control – follow hospital

- respiratory droplets carrying pathogens procedures for cleaning beds, equipment, and
transmit infection when they travel from the frequently touched surfaces.
respiratory tract of an infectious individual
(e.g., by sneezing or coughing) to susceptible 7. Linen – handle linen soiled with body fluids so as
mucosal surfaces of a recipient. to prevent personal contamination and transfer to
- Droplets traditionally have been defined as other patients.
being larger than 5 μm in size.
8. Occupational Health & Bloodborne
3. AIRBORNE TRANSMISSION Pathogens – prevent injuries from needles and
- occurs with the dissemination of either other sharp devices. Never recap needles using
airborne droplet nuclei or small particles both hands (use scooping technique) Place
containing pathogens. sharps in puncture-proof containers. Use
- airborne droplets are defined as being less resuscitation devices as an alternative mouth-to-
than or equal to 5 μm in size. mouth resuscitation.
9. Patient Placement – use a private room for a

STANDARD
patient who contaminates the environment.
PRECAUTIONS
- Standard precautions are to be applied to the PERSONAL PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT (PPE)

care of ALL patients in ALL healthcare
settings, regardless of the suspected or 1. GLOVES
confirmed presence of an infectious agent. - can protect both patients and healthcare personnel
from exposure to infectious materials that may be
- based on the principle that all blood, body fluids, carried on hands.
secretions, excretions except sweat, non-intact
skin, and mucous membranes may contain 2. ISOLATION GOWNS
Transmissible Infectious Agents. - are worn in conjunction with gloves and with
other PPE when indicated*
- protect the healthcare worker’s arms and
exposed body areas and prevent contamination

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of clothing with blood, body fluids, and 3. NON - CRITICAL ITEMS - those that come
other potentially infectious material. in contact with intact skin, but not mucous
membranes.
3. MASKS
- used for three primary purposesin healthcare INHIBITING THE GROWTH OF MICROBES IN
settings: VITRO
- protect them from contact with infectious
material from patients.engaged in DEFINITION OF TERMS:
procedures requiring sterile technique
- They are placed on coughing patients to limit  STERILIZATION is the complete destruction of
potential dissemination of infectious all microbes, including cells, spores, and
respiratory secretions from the patient to viruses.
others.
 DISINFECTION is the destruction or removal of
4. EYE PROTECTION
pathogens from nonliving objects by physical or
- Types of eye protection include goggles and
chemical methods
disposable or non - disposable face shields.
- Masks may be used in combination with
 Disinfectants are chemical substances that
goggles, or a face shield may be used
eliminate pathogens on inanimate objects.
instead of a mask and goggles.
 Antiseptics are solutions used to disinfect skin
5. RESPIRATORY PROTECTION
and other living tissues.
- requires the use of a respirator with N95 or
higher filtration to prevent inhalation of
infectious particles AUTOCLAVE
- large metal pressure cooker that uses steam
6. PATIENT – CARE EQUIPMENT under pressure to completely destroy all
- Organic material (e.g., blood, body fluids, microbial life.
secretions, excretions) must be removed - Increased pressure raises the temperature
from medical equipment, instruments, and above the temperature of boiling water (above
devices prior to high-level disinfection and 100oC) and forces steam into materials being
sterilization sterilized.
- All such equipment and devices must be - Can use pressure-sensitive tape or spore
handled in a manner that will protect strips or solutions as a quality control measure
healthcare workers and the environment to ensure proper autoclaving.
from potentially infectious material.
INFECTION CONTROL
SPAULDING SYSTEM FOR CLASSIFICATION OF
INSTRUMENTS AND ITEMS FOR PATIENT ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL:
CARE - hospital must have, and employees must
comply with, adequate procedures for the
1. CRITICAL ITEMS - a high risk for infection if routine care, cleaning, and disinfection of
they are contaminated with any microbe. environmental surfaces
such objects must be sterile. - such as bedrails, bedside tables, commodes,
doorknobs, sinks, and any other surfaces and
2. SEMI - CRITICAL ITEMS - contact mucous equipment in close proximity to patients.
membranes or non - intact skin and require
high-level disinfection. include respiratory  LINENS:
therapy and anesthesia equipment, some - Textiles such as bedding, towels, and patient
endoscopes gowns that have become soiled with blood,
body fluids, secretions, or excretions must be

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handled, transported, and laundered in a

safe manner.
- Soiled textiles must not be shaken, must not
come in contact with the healthcare worker’s
body or clothing, and must be contained in a
laundry bag or designated bin.
 DISPOSAL OF SHARPS:
- Needlestick injuries and injuries resulting
from broken glass and other sharps are the
primary manner in which healthcare workers
become infected with pathogens such as HIV,
HBV, and HCV.
- Needles and other sharp devices must be
handled in a manner that prevents injury to
the user and to others who may encounter the
device during or after a procedure
 TRANSMISSION-BASED PRECAUTIONS
- used for patients who are known or suspected
to be infected or colonized with highly
transmissible or epidemiologically important
pathogens for which additional safety
precautions beyond Standard Precautions are
required to interrupt transmission within
hospitals.
DROPLET PRECAUTIONS
- Droplets are produced primarily as a result of
- THREE TYPES OF TRANSMISSION-
coughing, sneezing, and talking, as well as
BASED PRECAUTIONS:
during hospital procedures such as suctioning
- Contact Precautions
and bronchoscopy.
- Droplet Precautions
- Transmission occurs when droplets (larger than
- Airborne Precautions.
5 μm in diameter) containing microbes are
propelled a short distance through the air and
- are to be used in addition to the Standard
become deposited on another person’s
Precautions already being used.
conjunctiva, nasal mucosa, or mouth.
TRANSMISSION-BASED PRECAUTIONS
 CONTACT PRECAUTIONS
- are used for patients known or suspected
to be infected or colonized with
epidemiologically important pathogens that
can be transmitted by direct or indirect
contact.
- Examples: multidrug-resistant bacteria, C.
difficile-associated diseases, respiratory
syncytial virus (RSV) infection in children,
scabies, impetigo, chickenpox or shingles,
and viral hemorrhagic fevers.

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AIRBORNE PRECAUTIONS - patients can be protected by placing them in a

- involves either airborne droplet nuclei or dust Protective Environment (sometimes referred to
particles containing a pathogen. as protective isolation or positive pressure
- nuclei are small-particle residues (5 μm or less in isolation).
diameter) of evaporated droplets containing - a well-sealed single patient room in which vented
microbes; because of their small size, they air entering the room is passed through HEPA
remain suspended in air for long periods. filters
- room is under positive pressure to prevent
corridor air from entering when the door is
opened.
PATIENT PLACEMENT
AIRBORNE INFECTION ISOLATION ROOMS

(AIIRS)
- placement for patients who are infected with
pathogens that are spread via airborne droplet
HANDLING FOMITES
nuclei
- is a single-patient room that is equipped with
special air handling and ventilation systems. Transmission of pathogens by fomites can be
prevented by observing the following rules:
- AIIRs are under negative pressure to prevent
room air from entering the corridor when the door  Use disposable equipment and supplies
wherever possible
is opened, and air that is evacuated from such
 Disinfect or sterilize equipment as soon as
rooms passes through high efficiency particulate possible after use
air (HEPA) filters to remove pathogens.  Use individual equipment for each patient
 Empty bedpans and urinals, wash them in
hot water, and store them in a clean cabinet
between uses
 Place bed linen and soiled clothing in bags to
be sent to the laundry.
 Materials or substances that are harmful to
health are referred to as biohazards (short for
biologic hazards).
These standards include the following:

 Any receptacle used for decomposable solid
or liquid waste or refuse must be constructed
so that it does not leak and must be
maintained in a sanitary condition.
 All sweepings, solid or liquid wastes, refuse,
and garbage shall be removed
PROTECTIVE ENVIRONMENTS  The medical facility’s infection control program
- Certain patients are especially vulnerable to must address the handling and disposal of
infection, particularly to invasive potentially contaminated items.
environmental fungal infections

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WEEK 4: CONTROLLING MICROBIAL GROWTH IN VIVO
MRS. IMELDA MARCOS SEVILLA March 02, 2022 (LEC)
Alexander Fleming
INTRODUCTION
 a Scottish researcher, is credited with the
- using drugs to control the growth of pathogens discovery of penicillin in 1928. At the time,
in vivo. Fleming was experimenting with the influenza
virus in the Laboratory of the Inoculation
Chemotherapy Department at St. Mary’s Hospital in London.
- refers to the use of any chemical (drug) to treat
any disease or condition.  Found out that a mold had developed on an
- Although we most often hear the term accidentally contaminated staphylococcus
chemotherapy used in conjunction with cancer. culture plate. Upon examination of the mold, he
noticed that the culture prevented the growth of
Antiprotozoal Agents - treat protozoal diseases staphylococci.
Antiviral Agents - treat viral diseases.
Antimicrobial Agents CHARACTERISTICS OF AN

- chemotherapeutic agents used to treat infectious IDEAL ANTIMICROBIAL AGENT
diseases.
- by inhibiting or by killing pathogens in vivo. The ideal antimicrobial agent should:
Antibacterial Agents – treat bacterial diseases.  Kill or inhibit the growth of pathogens.
Antifungal Agents – treat fungal diseases.
 Cause no damage to the host.
- Antimicrobial agents are antibiotics.  Cause no allergic reaction in the host.
 Be stable when stored in solid or liquid form.
ANTIBIOTICS  Remain in specific tissues in the body long
enough to be effective.
- a substance produced by a microorganism that  Kill the pathogens before they mutate and
is effective in killing or inhibiting the growth of become.
other microorganisms.
- Mainly used in the treatment of infectious HOW ANTIMICROBIAL
diseases. AGENTS WORK
- all antibiotics are antimicrobial agents, not all
antimicrobial agents are antibiotics.  To be acceptable, an antimicrobial agent must
inhibit or destroy the pathogen without
 Antibiotics (antimicrobials) are produced by damaging the host (i.e., the infected person)
certain moulds and bacteria, usually those that
live in soil.  To accomplish this, the agent must target a
 Fungi (moulds) - Penicillin and cephalosporins. metabolic process or structure possessed by
 Bacteria - bacitracin, erythromycin, and the pathogen but not possessed by the host.
chloramphenicol.
The Five Most Common Mechanisms of
 Semisynthentic Antibiotics - chemically
Action of Antimicrobial Agents
modified to kill a wider variety of pathogens or
reduce side effects
 Inhibition of cell wall synthesis
 Semisynthetic Penicillins, such as ampicillin
and carbenicillin.  Damage to cell membranes
 Inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis (either DNA
or RNA synthesis)
 Inhibition of protein synthesis

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 Inhibition of enzyme activity ANTIBACTERIAL AGENTS
PENICILLINS
 Natural Penicillins – produced and can be

purified directly from cultures of Penicillium
moulds.
Examples: Penicillin G and Penicillin V.
 Extended-spectrum penicillins (e.g.,

aminopenicillins) – are used to treat infections
caused by Gram-negative bacilli.
CEPHALOSPORINS
 also β-lactam antibiotics and, like penicillin,

ANTIBACTERIAL AGENTS
are produced by moulds.
 interfere with cell wall synthesis
BACTERIOSTATIC – drugs inhibit growth of
 are bactericidal
bacteria.
BACTERICIDAL – agents kill bacteria  CEPHALOSPORINS are classified as first-,
Narrow-spectrum antibiotics – kill either Gram- second-, third-, fourth-, and fifth- generation
positive or Gram-negative bacteria. cephalosporins.
BROAD-SPECTRUM ANTIBIOTICS – kill

both Gram positives and Gram negatives.  First-generation agents are active primarily
against Gram-positive bacteria.
 Second-generation cephalosporins have
increased activity against Gram- negative
bacteria
 Third-generation cephalosporins have even
greater activity against Gram negatives
(including Pseudomonas aeruginosa).
 Fourth-generation active against both Gram
positives and Gram negatives, including P.
Aeruginosa. e.g., Cefepime
 Fifth-generation expanded activity against
aerobic Gram-positive cocci, including
methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus
(MRSA) and methicillin resistant
Staphylococcus epidermidis MRSE e.g.,
MAJOR CATEGORIES OF
Ceftaroline.

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- used to treat infections with members of the

family:
 Enterobacteriaceae (e.g., Escherichia coli

and Enterobacter, Klebsiella, Proteus, Serratia,
and Yersinia spp.)
 P. aeruginosa and Vibrio cholera
(E.g.Tobramycin, Gentamicin &. Amikacin)
CARBAPENEMS MACROLIDES
 powerful antibacterial.  inhibit protein synthesis.

 target the cell envelope.  bacteriostatic at lower doses and bactericidal
 have excellent activity against a broad at higher doses.
spectrum of bacteria, including many aerobic  include erythromycin, clarithromycin, and
Gram-positive bacteria, most aerobic Gram- azithromycin
negative bacteria, and most anaerobes.  effective against:
 e.g., imipenem &. meropenem chlamydias, mycoplasmas, T. pallidum, and
Legionella spp. Azithromycin and
GLYCOPEPTIDES Erythromycin
 target the cell envelope. FLUOROQUINOLONES

 have excellent activity against most aerobic
and anaerobic Gram-positive bacteria.  bactericidal drugs
 enterococci are becoming resistant to these  inhibit DNA synthesis
drugs.  The most commonly used fluoroquinolone,
 have a number of toxic side effects. Ciprofloxacin and Levofloxacin
 e.g.,vancomycin  effective against members of the family:
Enterobacteriaceae and P. aeruginosa.
TETRACYCLINES
SULFONAMIDE
 broad-spectrum drugs.
 effect by targeting bacterial ribosomes.  competitive inhibitors
 Bacteriostatic  drugs inhibit production of folic acid (a
 effective against a wide variety of bacteria vitamin) in those bacteria that require
including: chlamydias, mycoplasmas, paminobenzoic acid (PABA) to synthesize
rickettsias, Vibrio cholerae folic acid*
 spirochetes such as Borrelia spp. and  Without folic acid, bacteria cannot produce
Treponema pallidum. certain essential proteins and finally die.
 e.g.,Doxycycline &. Tetracyclines  Bacteriostatic: inhibit growth of bacteria
E.g., Sulfamethoxazole + Trimethoprim
AMINOGLYCOSIDES
 bactericidal broad-spectrum drugs.

 inhibit bacterial protein synthesis .
 major factor that limits their use is their toxicity.
MULTIDRUG THERAPHY
 effective against a wide variety:
Aerobic Gram-negative Bacteria

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 a single antimicrobial agent is not sufficient to  usually quite toxic to the host and work by:
destroy all the pathogens that develop during  interfering with DNA and RNA synthesis
the course of a disease (e.g., chloroquine, pentamidine, and
 two or more drugs may be used simultaneously quinacrine)
to kill all the pathogens  interfering with protozoal metabolism
 to prevent resistant mutant pathogens from (e.g., metronidazole (Flagyl))
emerging
 In tuberculosis: ANTIVIRAL AGENTS
- which multidrug-resistant strains of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis are frequently  the newest weapons in antimicrobial
encountered methodology.
- four drugs (isoniazid, rifampin, pyrazinamide,  there were no drugs for the treatment of viral
and ethambutol) diseases.
 particularly difficult to develop and use
SYNERGISM VERSUS ANTAGONISM because viruses are produced within host
cells .
SYNERGISM  quite a few drugs have been found to be
 2 antimicrobial agents are used together to effective in certain viral infection.
produce a degree of pathogen killing that is
greater than that achieved by either drug  ZIDOVUDINE also known as
alone. azidothymidine (AZT):
 Synergism is a good thing! - first antiviral agent effective against
 2+2=4 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
- was introduced in 1987.
ANTAGONISM - antiviral agents are administered
 2 drugs actually work against each other simultaneously, in combinations
 extent of pathogen killing is less than that referred to as “cocktails.”
achieved by either drug alone - quite expensive, and some strains of
 Antagonism is a bad thing! HIV have become resistant to some
 2+2=1 of the drugs.
- e.g., REMDESIVIR – COVID 19
ANTIFUNGAL AGENTS treatment.
- It is much more difficult to use antimicrobial DRUG RESISTANCE:

drugs against fungal pathogens. SUPERBUGS
- drugs tend to be more toxic to the patient.
- Most antifungal agents work in one of three SUPERBUGS
ways: – refer to an organism that is resistant to
 binding with cell membrane sterols (e.g., antimicrobial agent (multidrug resistant
nystatin and amphotericin B) organisms)
 interfering with sterol synthesis (e.g., – Infections caused by superbugs are much
clotrimazole and miconazole) more difficult to treat.
 blocking mitosis or nucleic acid
synthesis (e.g., griseofulvin and 5-
flucytosine)
ANTIPROTOZOAL AGENTS

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1. High number of bacteria. A few of them are - Sulbactam combined with ampicillin
resistant to antibiotics. (Unasyn)
2. Antibiotics kill bacteria causing the illness, as - Tazobactam combined with piperacillin
well as good bacteria protecting the body from (Zosyn)
infection.
3. The resistant bacteria now have preferred SOME STRATEGIES IN THE WAR AGAINST
conditions to grow and take over. DRUG RESISTANCE
4. Bacteria can even transfer their drug-
resistance to other bacteria, causing more
problems.
B-LACTAMASES
 At the heart of every penicillin and

cephalosporin molecule is a double-ringed
structure, which in penicillins resembles a
“house and garage”
 “garage” is called the β-lactam ring.
 Some bacteria produce enzymes that destroy
the β-lactam ring; these enzymes are known as
Β-LACTAMASES.
 When the β-lactam ring is destroyed, the
antibiotic no longer works.
 Thus, an organism that produces a β-lactamase
is resistant to antibiotics containing the β-lactam
ring (collectively referred to as β-lactam
antibiotics or β-lactams).
Two Types of B-LACTAMASES
1. PENICILLINASES EMPIRIC THERAPHY

– destroy the β฀lactam ring in penicillins; thus,
an organism that produces penicillinase is  a clinician must initiate therapy before
resistant to penicillins. laboratory results are available
 an effort to save the life of a patient
2. CEPHALOSPORINASES  it is sometimes necessary for the clinician to
– destroy the β-lactam ring in cephalosporins; “guess” the most likely pathogen and the drug
thus, an organism that produces most likely to be effective
cephalosporinase is resistant to cephalosporins.  It will be an “educated guess,” based on the
Some bacteria produce both types of β- clinician’s prior experiences with the particular
lactamases. type of infectious disease
 β-lactamase inhibitor irreversibly binds to and

inactivates the β-lactamase, thus enabling the UNDESIRABLE EFFECS OF
companion drug to enter the bacterial cell and ANTIMICROBIAL AGENTS
disrupt cell wall synthesis. (e.g., clavulanic acid,
sulbactam, or tazobactam)  Many antimicrobial agents are toxic to humans,
 Some of these special combination drugs are: and some are so toxic that they are administered
- Lavulanic acid (clavulanate) combined only for serious diseases for which no other
with amoxicillin (brand name, Augmentin) agents are available.
- Clavulanic acid (clavulanate) combined
with ticarcillin (Timentin)

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 CHLORAMPHENICOL, which, if given in high

doses for a long period, may cause a very
severe type of anemia called aplastic anemia.
 STREPTOMYCIN, which can damage the
auditory nerve and cause deafness.
 Other drugs are hepatotoxic or nephrotoxic,
causing liver or kidney damage, respectively.
 With prolonged use, broadspectrum antibiotics

may destroy the indigenous microbiota of the
mouth, intestine, or vagina.
For example:
 Prolonged use of oral antibiotics can result in
a superinfection of CLOSTRIDIUM
DIFFICILE in the colon (which can lead to
such diseases as antibiotic associated
diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis)
 YEAST VAGINITIS often follows
antibacterial therapy (many bacteria of the
vaginal microbiota were destroyed, leading
to a superinfection of the indigenous yeast,
Candida albicans)

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WEEK 4: PATHOGENESIS AND HOST DEFENSE MECHANISM
MRS. IMELDA MARCOS SEVILLA March 02, 2022 (LAB Part 1)
HOST DEFENSE MECHANISMS
 Ways in which the body protects itself from

pathogens.
 referred to as 3 lines of defense.
 First 2 lines of defense are nonspecific.
 The 3rd line of defense, the immune response, is
very specific.
- In the 3rd line of defense, special proteins
called antibodies are produced in response
to foreign substances called antigens.
FIRST LINE OF DEFENSE
SKIN AND MUCOUS MEMBRANES AS

PHYSICAL BARRIERS
- act as nonspecific host defense mechanisms by

serving as physical or mechanical barriers to
pathogens.
- The dryness, acidity, and temperature of the
skin inhibit colonization and growth of
pathogens; perspiration flushes them away.
MICROBIAL ANTAGONISM
NONSPECIFIC HOST DEFENSE MECHANISM - When indigenous microflora prevent

colonization of “new arrivals” as a result of
competition for sites and nutrients and
 general and serve to protect the body against
production of lethal substances.
many harmful substances.
CELLULAR AND CHEMICAL FACTORS
Example: innate or inborn resistance.
- Exact factors that produce innate - In addition to the skin as a physical barrier,
resistance are not well understood. there are other factors (e.g., pH and
temperature of skin, temperature, perspiration,
 Other nonspecific host defense mechanisms cilia, and various enzymes in secretions such
include mechanical and physical barriers to as lysozyme) that are components of the first
invasion, chemical factors, microbial antagonism, line of defense.
fever, the inflammatory response, and
phagocytic white blood cells.

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 Lysozyme – degrades peptidoglycan in certain complement fragments) onto

bacterial cell walls objects (e.g., pathogens)
 Lactoferrin – is a protein that binds irons,
a mineral that is required by all pathogens ACUTE – PHASE PROTEINS
 Lactoperoxidase – is an enzyme that
produces superoxide radicals, highly - Plasma proteins that increase rapidly in
reactive forms of oxygen , which is toxic to response to infection, inflammation, or tissue
bacteria. injury
SECOND LINE OF DEFENSE - one example is C-reactive protein
CYTOKINES
Transferrin
- Chemical mediators released from many
- Levels of this glycoprotein increase in response
to systemic bacterial infections; binds to iron, different types of cells in the body; enable
depriving pathogens of this vital nutrient cells to communicate with each other –
within the immune system and between the
Fever immune system and other systems of the
- Stimulated by pyrogenic (fever producing) body
substances (e.g., pathogens and Interleukin 1 - Some cytokines are chemoattractants; they
[IL-1]) recruit phagocytes to sites where they are
- Augments host’s defenses by stimulating needed.
leukocytes
- reducing available free plasma iron INFLAMMATION
- inducing the production of IL-1 > lymphocytes
- The body responds to any local injury,
INTERFERONS
irritation, microbial invasion, or bacterial toxin
by a complex series of events referred to as
- Small antiviral proteins produced by virus-
inflammation; the 3 major events in acute
infected cells; they prevent viruses from
inflammation are:
multiplying
- There are 3 types (alpha, beta and gamma),
produced by 3 different types of cells  An increase in the diameter of capillaries
- The 3 types are induced by different stimuli (vasodilation) which increases blood flow to
(e.g., viruses, tumors, bacteria, and foreign cells) the site
- Interferons are not virus-specific, but they are  Increased permeability of the capillaries,
species-specific allowing the escape of plasma and plasma
- Interferons can cause nonspecific flu-like proteins
symptoms  Exit of leukocytes from the capillaries and
their accumulation at the site of injury.
THE COMPLEMENT SYSTEM
- enhances (complements) the ability of antibodies - The primary purposes of the inflammatory
and phagocytic cells to clear microbes response are to:
- A group of about 30 different proteins found in  Localize an infection
normal blood plasma – “complementary” to the  Prevent the spread of microbial invaders
immune system  Neutralize any toxins being produced at the
- Complement components interact with each site
other in a stepwise manner known as the  Aid in the repair of damaged tissue
complement cascade
- The complement system assists in the
destruction of many different pathogens The 4 major signs and symptoms of
- Opsonization is a process by which inflammation are:
phagocytosis is facilitated by the  Redness
deposition of opsonins (e.g., antibodies or  Heat

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 Swelling (edema) 6. Phagocytosis

 Pain - Phagocyte attaches to bacterium and
engulfs it by endocytosis.
- Plasma that escapes from the capillaries - Bacteria are degraded by oxygen radicals
into the site causes the area to become and digestive enzymes.
edematous (swollen)
 The accumulation of fluid, cells, and
cellular debris at the inflammation site is
known as an inflammatory exudate.
SEQUENCE OF EVENTS IN - If the exudate is thick and greenish yellow,
INFLAMMATION containing many live and dead leukocytes, it is
known as a purulent exudate or pus.
 In many inflammatory responses (e.g., arthritis

or pancreatitis) there is no exudate and no
invading microorganisms.
 Pyogenic microorganisms (pus-producing

microorganisms) like staphylococci and
streptococci result in additional pus formation.
PHAGOCYTOSIS
1. Tissue Injury
 The 3 major categories of leukocytes (white cells)
- An inflammatory response may be
found in blood are monocytes, lymphocytes,
triggered by physical, chemical, or
and granulocytes.
biological agents.
 The 3 types of granulocytes are: eosinophils,
- This diagram shows the inflammatory
basophils, and neutrophils
response to bacteria introduced when a
splinter penetrates the skin.
2. Vasodilation
- Increased blood flow to injured area.
Provides increased delivery of plasma
proteins, neutrophils, and phagocytes.
3. Increased Permeability
- Protein-rich exudate containing
immunoglobulins and complements move .
into injured areas.  Phagocytic white blood cells are called
PHAGOCYTES, and the process by which they
4. Emigration of Leukocytes surround and engulf (ingest) foreign material is
- Neutrophils and macrophages adhere to called PHAGOCYTOSIS.
endothelial cells of capillaries.  The most important groups of phagocytes in the
- Leukocytes squeeze through gaps human body are macrophages and neutrophils.
created by contraction of endothelial cells.
5. Chemotaxis
- Neutrophils and macrophages move to
cite of injury in response to gradient of
chemotactic mediators released by
injured tissue.

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Mechanisms By Which Pathogens Escape

Destruction By Phagocytes
 Capsules; initially serve to protect the

organism from phagocytosis (they serve an
antiphagocytic function)
 Some bacteria produce an exoenzyme
called leukocidin, which kills phagocytes.
 Some bacteria (e.g., Mycobacterium
tuberculosis) are not destroyed within the
phagolysosome.
 The mechanism by which each pathogen
evades digestion by lysosomal enzymes
differs from pathogen to pathogen, and is
not yet fully understood.
Disorders and Conditions That Adversely Affect

Phagocytic and Inflammatory Processes
 Leukopenia - an abnormally low number of

circulating leukocytes
Disorders and Conditions Affecting Leukocyte

Motility and Chemotaxis:
 Inabililty of leukocytes to migrate in response to
chemotactic agents may be related to a defect in
the production of actin, a structural protein
associated with motility
 Disorders and Conditions Affecting Intracellular
OPSONIZATION Killing By Phagocytes (e.g., chronic
granulomatous disease, CGD)
- coating of microbes with complement
components, such as C3b. Additional Factors That Can Impair Host
Defense Mechanisms
- Opsonized particles are more easily  Nutritional status
phagocytosed due to the presence of  Increased iron levels
complement receptors on the plasma  Stress
membrane of phagocytic cells.  Cancer and cancer chemotherapy
 Various genetic defects
 Age
 AIDS
 Drugs (e.g., steroids)

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WEEK 4: IMMUNOLOGY
MRS. IMELDA MARCOS SEVILLA March 02, 2022 (LAB Part 2)
IMMUNOLOGY 2 MAJOR ARMS OF THE IMMUNE SYSTEM
 Immunology is the scientific study of the  Humoral immunity - where special glycoproteins
immune system and immune responses. called antibodies are produced by B cells to destroy
 The primary functions of the immune system specific microbes
are to:  Cell-mediated immunity - involves a variety of cell
1. Differentiate between “self’ and “non-self” types, with antibodies only playing a minor role, if
2. Destroy that “non-self” any
 Cells involved in immune responses

originate in bone marrow.
 3 lines of lymphocytes are derived from
lymphoid stem cells of bone marrow:
1. B lymphocytes (or B cells)
2. T lymphocytes (or T cells)
3. natural killer cells (NK cells)
IMMUNITY
 There are 2 categories of T cells:
- is the condition of being immune or resistant to a
 Helper T cells and Cytotoxic T cells
particular infectious diseases.
- helper T cells 'help' other cells of the
immune system
 Acquired immunity - immunity that results from
- cytotoxic T cells kill virally infected
the active production or receipt of antibodies
cells and tumours.
during one’s lifetime.
 Active acquired immunity:

‫ ﹻ‬Antibodies are produced within the person
‫ ﹻ‬Usually provides long lasting protection
 Passive acquired immunity:

‫ ﹻ‬Antibodies are received that were produced by
another person or persons or by an animal
‫ ﹻ‬Usually provides only temporary protection

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VACCINES
ACTIVE ACQUIRED
IMMUNITY Types of Available Vaccines:
TWO TYPES OF ACTIVE ACQUIRED 1. Attenuated vaccines – use a weakened (or

IMMUNITY: attenuated) form of the germ that causes a
disease. (Measles, mumps, rubella (MMR) &
 Natural active acquired immunity – occurs Chickenpox)
naturally
2. Inactivated vaccines – use the killed version of
 Artificial active acquired immunity – the germ that causes a disease (Hepatitis A, Flu
artificially induced vacc, Polio &. Rabies)
‫ ﹻ‬Artificial active acquired immunity results
when a person receives a vaccine. 3. Subunit vaccines - is one that uses antigenic
(antibody-stimulating) portions of a pathogen,
- A VACCINE is defined as material that can rather than using the whole pathogen. (HPV
artificially induce immunity to an infectious vaccine, HBV vac.)
disease, usually following injection or ingestion
of the vaccine. 4. Conjugate vaccines - combines a weak antigen
- Most vaccines are made from living or dead with a strong antigen as a carrier so that the
pathogens or the toxins that they produce. immune system has a stronger response to the
weak antigen. (Haemophilus influenzae B vacc.&.
HOW VACCINES WORK Pneumococcal vaccine)
Vaccines stimulate the recipient’s immune 5. Toxoid vaccines - use a toxin (harmful product)
system to produce protective antibodies (i.e., made by the germ that causes a disease. It
antibodies that will protect the person from means the immune response is targeted to the
disease). toxin instead of the whole germ. (Diphtheria
toxoid, Tetanus toxoid)
Types of available vaccines:
PASSIVE ACQUIRED
1. Attenuated vaccines IMMUNITY
2. Inactivated vaccines
3. Subunit vaccines Antibodies produced in one person are transferred
4. Conjugate vaccines to another person to protect the latter from infection
5. Toxoid vaccines – provides temporary protection.
Two types:
 Natural passive acquired immunity – small
antibodies, IgG, present in mother’s blood cross
the placenta to reach the fetus
 Artificial passive acquired immunity –
antibodies from an immune person are
transferred to a susceptible person; example,
hepatitis B immune globulin.

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ANTIBODIES
 Proteins produced by lymphocytes in response
to the presence of an antigen
 Are in a class of proteins called
immunoglobulins – globular glycoproteins in
the blood that participate in immune reactions
 The processing of either T-dependent or
T independent antigens results in B cells
developing into plasma cells, which are capable
of secreting antibodies.
 The initial immune response to an antigen is
called the primary response; it takes 10- 14
days for antibodies to be produced.
 The increased production of antibodies
following the second exposure to a particular
HUMORAL IMMUNITY antigen is called the secondary response.
ANTIGENS Where Do Immune Responses Occur?

- Foreign organic substances that are large
enough to stimulate the production of Immune responses to antigens in the blood are
antibodies usually initiated in the spleen; responses to
- Substances capable of stimulating antibodies microbes and other antigens in tissues are
are said to be antigenic generated in lymph nodes located near the
- A bacterial cell has many molecules (antigenic infected area.
determinants) on its surface that are capable Antibody Structure and Function
of stimulating the production of antibodies
Major histocompatibility complex (MHC) - Antibodies are a class of glycoprotein called
immunoglobulins;
 Dendritic cells (DCs) are antigen-presenting 5 types = IgA, IgD, IgE, IgG, IgM.
cells (also known as accessory cells) of the
mammalian immune system. - All antibodies are immunoglobulins, but not all
- Their main function is to process antigen immunoglobulins are antibodies.
material and present it on the cell surface
to the T cells of the immune system.
 They act as messengers between the
innate and the adaptive immune systems.

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ANTIBODIES CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY
 Immunoglobulin A (IgA): It's found in the CELL-MEDIATED IMMUNITY (CMI)

linings of the respiratory tract and digestive - A complex system of interactions among many
system, as well as in saliva (spit), tears, and types of cells and cellular secretions (cytokines)
breast milk. - An arm of the immune system capable of
 Immunoglobulin G (IgG): This is the most controlling chronic infections by intracellular
common antibody. It's in blood and other body pathogens (e.g., certain bacteria, protozoa, fungi,
fluids, and protects against bacterial and viral and viruses)
infections. IgG can take time to form after an - Examples of cells that participate in CMI:
infection or immunization. macrophages, TH cells, TC cells, NK cells, and
 Immunoglobulin M (IgM): Found mainly in granulocytes.
blood and lymph fluid, this is the first antibody
the body makes when it fights a new infection.
 Immunoglobulin E (IgE): Normally found in
small amounts in the blood. There may be
higher amounts when the body overreacts to
allergens or is fighting an infection from a
parasite.
 Immunoglobulin D (IgD): is a trace antibody
in the serum and is present on the surface of
B cells. It may be involved in stimulating and
suppressing these antibody producing cells in
the manufacture of antibodies.
Antigen-Antibody Complexes
- When an antibody combines with an antigen

an antigen-antibody complex (or immune
complex) is formed.
- Antigen-antibody complexes are capable of
activating the complement cascade; results in
some of the following effects: NK (NATURAL KILLER) CELLS
 Activation of leukocytes - NK cells are in a subpopulation of lymphocytes
 Lysis of bacterial cells called large granular lymphocytes.
 Increased phagocytosis as a result of - They resemble lymphocytes, but lack typical T or
opsonisation. B cell surface markers.
- Do not proliferate in response to antigen and
appear not to be involved in antigen-specific
recognition.
- NK cells kill target cells, including foreign cells,
host cells infected with viruses or bacteria, and
tumor cells.

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HYPERSENSITIVITY IMMUNODIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURES
Hypersensitivity refers to an overly sensitive  Immunodiagnostic procedures (IDPs) help

immune system. diagnose infectious diseases by detecting either
antigens or antibodies in clinical specimens;
Different types of hypersensitivity reactions: test results are usually available on the same
day!
 Immediate-type: occurs from within a few
minutes to 24 hours after contact with a particular  3 possible reasons for the presence of
antigen antibodies to a particular pathogen: present
 Delayed-type: usually takes more than 24 hours infection, past infection, vaccination.
to manifest themselves
 A variety of different laboratory tests have been
AUTOIMMUNE DISEASES designed to observe the presence of an
antibody-antigen reaction.
 result when a person’s immune system no  Examples of these tests include agglutination,
longer recognizes certain body tissues as “self” precipitin tests, immunofluorescence, and
and attempts to destroy those tissues as if enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays
they were “non-self” or foreign. (ELISAs).
 May occur with certain tissues that are not
exposed to the immune system during fetal
development and, thus, are not recognized as
“self.”
 There are more than 80 recognized
autoimmune diseases.
 Can be classified as organ-specific or non-
organ-specific.
Examples: Hashimoto’s thyroiditis, Graves’
disease Systemic Lupus Erythematosus,
Rheumatoid Arthritis, Psoriasis.
IMMUNOSUPPRESSION
 IMMUNOSUPPRESSED - persons whose

immune systems are not functioning properly
are said to be
 ACQUIRED IMMUNODEFICIENCIES -
caused by drugs (e.g., cancer therapeutic
agents), irradiation, or certain infectious
diseases (e.g., HIV infection).
 Inherited immunodeficiency diseases can be
the result of deficiencies in antibody
production, complement activity, phagocytic
function, or NK cell function; examples –
DiGeorge syndrome and Wiskott-Aldrich
syndrome.
 AGAMMAGLOBULINEMIA - People born
lacking the ability to produce antibodies (i.e.,
gamma globulins)
 HYPOGAMMAGLOBULINEMIA - persons
not producing a sufficient amount of
antibodies.

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WEEK 5: BACTERIA AND DISEASES
MRS. IMELDA MARCOS SEVILLA March 09, 2022 (LEC)
BACTERIA & DISEASES  Epidemiologists - scientists who specialize in

TERMINOLOGIES the study of disease and injury patterns
(incidence and distribution patterns) in
 Disease - Is an abnormal state in which part populations and ways to prevent or control
or all of the body is not properly adjusted or is diseases and injuries. Study virtually all types of
unable to carry out usual functions; any diseases, including heart, hereditary,
deviation from one’s current condition of communicable, and zoonotic diseases and
health cancer.
 Infection - Is defined as pathogenic EPIDEMIOLOGIC

microorganisms invading the body. TERMINOLOGY
 Symbiosis - The relation between the  Infectious Disease: is a disease that is caused
indigenous flora and the host by a pathogen.
 Commensalism - Is a type of symbiosis in  Communicable Disease: an infectious disease

which one organism benefits from the other transmissible from one human to another (i.e.,
without harming it. person to person)
 Mutualism - form of symbiosis in w/c both  Contagious Disease: defined as a

organisms benefit from the relationship. communicable disease that is easily transmitted
from one person to another.
 Parasitism - a connection in which one
organism benefits from another while also  Zoonotic Disease: Infectious diseases that
harming it. humans acquire from animal sources are called
zoonotic diseases or zoonoses.
 Pathogen - an organism that invades &
causes damage or injury to the host.  Incidence: incidence of a particular disease is
defined as the number of new cases of that
 Pathogenicity - Refers to an organism’s disease in a defined population during a
ability to cause disease. specific time period.
 Contamination - is defined as the presence  PREVALENCE

of organisms outside of the body, such as 2 TYPES OF PREVALENCE
those found in water, food, and other Period Prevalence: number of cases of the
biological substances. disease existing in a given population during
specific time period.
 Pollution - referred to the presence of Point Prevalence: number of cases existing in
undesired compounds in water, air, or soil a given population at a particular moment in
time.
 Pathology and Epidemiology - study of
disease.  Morbidity: morbidity rate for that disease,
which is usually expressed as the number of
 Pathology: study the structural and functional new cases of a particular disease that occurred
manifestation of disease; involved in during a specified time period per a specifically
diagnosing diseases in individual. defined population.
 Epidemiology: study the factors that  Mortality Rate: ratio of the number of people
determine the frequency, distribution, and who died of a particular disease during a
determinants of diseases in human specified time period per a specified population.
populations.

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 Sporadic Diseases: one that occurs only  Microbial growth refers to an increase in
occasionally within the population of a number of cells rather than an increase in cell
particular geographic area. size; likelihood of disease increases as umber
of pathogens increase
 Endemic Diseases: diseases that are always
present within the population of a particular  Defensive powers of host- immune system –
geographic are.
 The body’s Immune System provides
 Epidemic Diseases: greater than usual resistance to disease.
number of cases of a disease in a particular
region. HOW ORGANISMS PRODUCE DISEASE
 PANDEMIC DISEASES: a disease that is
 MECHANICAL – organisms directly damages
occurring in epidemic proportions in many
tissues or surface.
countries simultaneously – sometimes
worldwide.
 CHEMICAL – bacteria produces chemicals and
toxins.
KOCH’S
POSTULATES  IMMUNOLOGIC – response of the immune
system.
Is a set of rules for establishing a relationship
between a causative microbe and a disease. BACTERIAL TOXINS
1. The same organism must be found in all A toxin is a specific substance, often a metabolic
cases of a given disease & must not be product of an organism that damages the host.
present in healthy individuals.
PROPERTY EXOTOXIN ENDOTOXIN

2. The organism must be isolated & grown in
pure culture from the infected person. Bacterial source Gram + Gram –
3. The organisms from the pure culture must

reproduce the disease when inoculated into Relation to metabolic present in
Microorganism product of LPS of outer
susceptible animal. growing cell membrane of
cell wall.
4. The organism must be isolated in pure culture
from the experimentally infected anima.
effect on the affects cell FEVER,
body functions, nerve, weakness,
FACTORS THAT INFLUENCE GIT (Digestive S.) aches, shock
OCCURRENCE OF INFECTION
fever NO YES
 Portal of Entry - The avenue by which a
producing
pathogen gains access to the body.
 Mucous membrane (inhaled),skin (wounds,

abrasion) parenteral route(Injections) CLASSIFICATION OF INFECTIOUS DISEASES
 Virulence of organism - The degree of 1. According To Ability For Person-To-Person

pathogenicity of a microorganism.
 Communicable Disease - a disease that
 Capsule - enables organism to evade spreads from one host to other, either directly
phagocytosis. Enzymes, Toxins or indirectly
 Non Communicable Disease - not spread
 Number of microbes - microbe, is an from one person to another
organism of microscopic size, which may exist  Contagious Disease - easily spread from one
in its single-celled form or as a colony of cells; person to another

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2. According To Source of Infection 4. According to Severity or Duration of

Infectious
 Exogenous Infection - is an infection that
caused by organisms not normally present in  Acute Disease- develops rapidly but lasts for
the body but which have gained entrance short period of time ( ex. common colds)
from the environment.
 Chronic Disease - develops more slowly &
 Endogenous Infection is an infection
caused by an infectious agent that is present occur for long period ( ex. tuberculosis)
on or in the host prior to the start of the  Latent Disease - causative organism remains
infection. inactive for a time but can become active &
 Fulminating Infection - coming on suddenly produce symptoms of disease (Ex: Shingles-
and with great severity; infection that results disease that is caused by same virus that
in the death of the patient over a short period causes chicken pox.
of time;
 Nosocomial Infections - or healthcare
5. According To Extent of Host Involvement
associated infections occur when a person
develops an infection during their time at a
healthcare facility.  Local Infection - invading microorganisms are
 Incidence - is a measure of the number of limited to a relatively small area of the body.
new cases of a characteristic that develop in
a population in a specified time period  Focal Infection - a local infection enters blood
 Prevalence - is the proportion of a
or lymphatic vessel & spread to specific parts
population who have a specific characteristic
in a given time period, regardless of when where they become confined to the specific
they first developed the characteristic. area of the body (ex. can arise from teeth,
sinuses)
3. According To Occurrence of Infection
 Systemic or Generalized Infection - invading
 Sporadic – refers to a disease that occurs microorganisms or their products are spread
infrequently and irregularly; occurs
throughout the body by blood or lymph.
occasionally.
 Endemic disease - constantly present in a
certain population. (Malaria endemic in STAGES OF
Palawan) INFECTIOUS DISEASES
 Epidemic disease - acquired by many
hosts in a given area in a short time; many
people develop disease in a given locality at
a short period of time
 Pandemic disease - epidemic that occurs
worldwide.
 Zoonosis - disease that occurs primarily in
wild and domestic animals but can be
transmitted to humans
 Epizoonosis - disease that occur epidemic
in lower animals
 Enzoonosis - endemic in lower animals
 Bacteremia - presence of bacteria in the
blood.
 Septicemia - presence of actively
multiplying bacteria in blood.
 Toxemia - presence of toxins in the blood.
 Viremia - presence of viruses in the blood.
1. INCUBATION PERIOD - the time interval
 Pyemia - presence of pus producing
bacteria in the blood. between entry of microorganism & the first
appearance of s/s.
2. PRODROMAL PERIOD - mild symptoms of a

disease w/c are non-specific (fever, cough,
colds, malaise)

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3. PERIOD OF ILLNESS - period of maximal 2. ANIMALS

invasion. The disease is most acute during  As previously stated, infectious diseases that
this period Carrier state - pt. does not show humans acquire from animal sources are
s/s but still continues to shed infecting called zoonotic diseases or zoonoses.
microorganisms  Many pets and other animals are important
reservoirs of zoonoses.
4. PERIOD OF DECLINE – Period of  Zoonoses are acquired by direct contact
defervescence- s/s start to subside. - patient with the animal, by inhalation or ingestion of
Vulnerable to secondary infections the pathogen, or by injection of the pathogen
by an arthropod vector.
5. PERIOD OF CONVALESCENCE - patient
regains strength, body returns to its pre- Example of ZOONOSES:
diseased normal
 Rabies Virus
RESERVOIRS OF INFECTION - usually transmitted to a human through the
saliva that is injected when one of these
- The pathogen can multiply or merely survive rabid animals bites the human.
until it is transferred to a host. - Cat and dog bites often transfer
- living hosts or inanimate objects or materials microorganism from the mouths of these
 Living (animals , humans) animals into tissues, where severe
 Non-living (can be found in soil (clostridium infections may result.
tetani & water vibrio cholera, salmonella)
LIVING RESERVOIRS
1. HUMAN CARRIERS
- most important reservoirs of human infectious
diseases are other humans - people with
infectious diseases as well as carriers.
Carrier is a person who is colonized with a

particular pathogen, but the pathogen is not
currently causing disease in that person.
There are several types of carriers:
 Passive Carriers - carry the pathogen without

ever having had the disease.
 Incubatory Carrier - a person who is capable of

 Toxoplasmosis
transmitting a pathogen during the incubation
- a protozoan disease caused by
period of a particular infectious disease.
Toxoplasma gondii
- contracted by ingesting oocysts from cat
 Convalescent Carriers - harbor and can transmit feces
a particular pathogen while recovering from an - ingesting cysts that are present in infected
infectious disease raw or undercooked meats.
- may cause severe brain damage to, or
 Active Carriers - have completely recovered death of, the fetus when contracted by a
from the disease, but continue to harbor the woman during her first trimester (first 3
pathogen indefinitely months) of pregnancy.

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- diarrheal disease, salmonellosis, is frequently ROUTES OF TRANSMISSION

acquired by ingesting Salmonella bacteria from the
feces of turtles, other reptiles, and poultry. 1. CONTACT TRANSMISSION - refers to
spread of microorganism through direct
contact, indirect contact or droplet
transmission.
 Direct Contact – a.k.a. person to person

transmission & involves direct transmission
by physical contact between the source of
infection & the susceptible host. (kissing,
touching). Ex. Common cold, Respiratory
tract infections, chicken pox, syphilis,
gonorrhoea
 Indirect Contact - refers to transmission of
causative agent from reservoir to
susceptible host through non living
object(fomites) Ex of common fomites:
handkerchiefs, towels, spoons, toys. Ex. of
diseases are common colds, sore eyes,
tuberculosis)
 Droplet - is a form of contact transmission
in w/c the organism is spread in droplet
nuclei that travel only short distances
usually 1 meter from the reservoir to the
the host. These droplets are spread in to
 Arthropods air by coughing, laughing, talking, sneezing.
- are animals, commonly associated with human Ex: pneumonia, influenza)
infections.
- Many different types of arthropods serve as 2. VEHICLE TRANSMISSION - refers to
transmission of organism through media
reservoirs of infection, including insects (e.g.,
such as food, water, air.
mosquitoes, biting flies, lice, fleas) and arachnids
(e.g., mites, ticks).  Food-borne - pathogens are transmitted
- When involved in the transmission of infectious through ingestion of food that are
diseases, these arthropods are referred to as improperly cooked, poorly refrigerated ,
vectors. unsanitary conditions. ex. Food poisoning,
- arthropod vector may first take a blood meal from gastroenteritis
 Air- borne - refers to spread of pathogens
an infected person or animal and then transfer the
by droplet nuclei in dust that travels >1
pathogen to a healthy individual. meter from the reservoir to the host ( ex.
measles, tuberculosis)
 Water borne -pathogen is spread through
contaminated water ( ex , typhoid fever,
chole)
Diseases Frequently Transmitted Through

Foods and Water
1. Amebiasis (caused by the ameba, Entamoeba

histolytica)
2. Botulism (caused by the bacterium,
Clostridium botulinum)
3. Cholera (caused by the bacterium, Vibrio
cholerae),
4. Infectious Hepatitis (caused by hepatitis A
virus)
5. Typhoid Fever (caused by the bacterium,
Salmonella typhi)

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3. VECTORS - are animals that carry organism INTERACTION BETWEEN

from one host to another PATHOGENS, HOSTS, AND
Insects (arthropods) - most important group ENVIRONMENT
of vectors.
 Mechanical Transmission - refers to

passive transport of organism on insect’s
feet or other parts. Ex: cockroaches & flies
 Biological Transmission - active transport
of organism. Organism enters the insect
vector after insect vector bites an infected
person.
COMMON ROUTES OF TRANSMISSION OF

INFECTIOUS DISEASES - Infectious disease occurs depends on
many factors, some of which are listed
here:
1. Factors pertaining to the pathogen:

 virulence of the pathogen
 way for the pathogen to enter the body
 number of organisms that enter the body
2. Factors pertaining to the host

 The person’s health status
 The person’s nutritional status
 Other factors pertaining to the susceptibility of
the host
3. Factors pertaining to the environment:

 Physical factors such as geographic location,
climate, heat, cold, humidity, and season of
the year.
 Availability of appropriate reservoirs,
intermediate hosts, and vectors
 Sanitary and housing conditions; adequate
waste disposal; adequate health care
 Availability of potable (drinkable) water.
CHAIN OF INFECTION
There are six components in the infectious

disease process:
1. There must first be a pathogen. As an

example, cold virus.
2. There must be a source of the pathogen

(i.e., a reservoir). In Figure 113, the infected
person on the right (“Andy”) is the reservoir.
Andy has a cold.
3. There must be a portal of exit (i.e., a way

for the
pathogen to escape from the reservoir).
When Andy blows his nose, cold viruses get
onto his hands.

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4. There must be a mode of transmission (i.e., a Some of the specific methods of breaking the
way for the pathogen to travel from Andy to chain of infection are:
another person) direct contact
 practicing effective hand hygiene procedures
5. There must be a portal of entry (i.e., a way for
the pathogen to gain entry into Bob). When Bob  maintaining good nutrition and adequate rest
rubs his nose. and reduce stress
 obtaining immunizations against common
6. There must be a susceptible host. For example, pathogens
Bob would not be a susceptible host (and would,  practicing insect and rodent control measures.
therefore, not develop a cold)
 practicing proper patient isolation procedures
 ensuring proper decontamination of surfaces
and medical instruments
 disposing sharps and infectious wastes
properly
 using gloves, gowns, masks, respirators, and
other personal protective equipment,
whenever appropriate to do so
 using needle safety devices during blood
collection.
STRATEGIES FOR BREAKING THE

CHAIN OF INFECTION
To prevent infections from occurring, measures must

be taken to break the chain of infection at some point
(link) in the chain. Some of the broad goals are to:
 eliminate or contain the reservoirs of pathogens or

curtail the persistence of a pathogen at the source.
 prevent contact with infectious substances from

exit pathways
 eliminate means of transmission
 block exposure to entry pathways
 reduce or eliminate the susceptibility of potential

host.

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Microbiology & parasitology notes

Nursing (Our Lady of Fatima University)

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MICP 211: MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY

ORGANISMS THAT MAKE UP THE bacteria, such as Acetobacter, convert

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- Koch developed methods of fixing, EUKARYOTES

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cellulose, a type of carbohydrate. Diatoms evolutionary battle of competing gene

BACTERIOPHAGES GENERATION MICROBIOLOGY

DIVISION OF MICROBIOLOGY PHYLOGENY

Branches of microbiology can be SYSTEMS MICROBIOLOGY

Pure Microbiology - Organisms are BIOLOGICAL AGENT

MICROBIAL CYTOLOGY NANO MICROBIOLOGY

MICROBIAL PHYSIOLOGY PREDICTIVE MICROBIOLOGY

MICROBIAL PATHOGENESIS BRANCHES OF MICROBIOLOGY

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MEDICAL MICROBIOLOGY ENVIRONMENTAL MICROBIOLOGY

2. Soil Microbiology PARASITOLOGY

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MICP 211: MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY

INTRODUCTION Collectively, these microbes are

We have, living on and in our bodies ANTIBIOTICS

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Healthcare profession must be aware Syphilis made its first appearance in

INFECTIOUS DISEASE VS. MICROBIAL PIONEERS IN THE SCIENCE OF

INFECTIOUS DISEASE ANTON VAN LEEUWENHOEK (1632–1723)

- Scientists tell us that Earth was formed LOUIS PASTEUR (1822–1895)

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4. PROTOZOOLOGISTS explore the area

5. MYCOLOGIST those who specialize in

6. VIROLOGY encompasses the study of

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MICP 211: MICROBIOLOGY AND PARASITOLOGY

- In ancient Greek, ‘mikro’ means ‘of

1. SIMPLE MICROSCOPE C. OBJECTIVE LENSES

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H. COLLECTOR LENS WITH FIELD DIAPHRAGM - is routinely used to diagnose primary

M. CONDENSER CONTROL KNOB

1. Transmission Electron Microscopes (TEMs)

VARIOUS TYPES OF MICROSCOPE

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2. Scanning Electron Microscopes (SEMs)

PROPER MICROSCOPE POSTURE

ATOMIC FORCE MICROSCOPES

- By placing a substance such as oil

- The distance from the bottom of the

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OTHER LABORATORY INSTRUMENTS

familiarization: important to the students not

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9. APPLICATOR STICKS - Storage of nutrient media that should

10. BEAKER 15. STAINING RACK

16. TEST TUBE RACK