“‭ you‬‭don’t‬‭get‬‭what‬‭you‬‭wish‬‭for.
‬‭you‬‭get‬‭what‬‭you‬ ‭✷‬‭Good‬‭will‬‭is‬‭unique‬‭as‬‭it‬‭is‬‭always‬‭good‬
‭work for.” – daniel milstein‬
‭𓍯‬ ‭ETHICS‬ ‭!‬ ‭｡♡‬
‭MODULE‬ ‭3‬ ‭:‬ ‭FREEDOM‬
‭FOUNDATION FOR MORAL ACTS‬
‭KANT’S PHILOSOPHY ON FREEDOM‬
‭ ‬‭｡ ‬‭♡‬ ‭Freedom‬ ‭is‬ ‭the‬ ‭right‬ ‭to‬ ‭control‬
✧ ‭you‬‭do‬‭good‬‭but‬‭it‬‭is‬‭not‬‭an‬‭obligation‬‭to‬
‭one's‬ ‭actions‬ ‭based‬ ‭on‬ ‭reason‬‭,‬ ‭not‬
‭desire.‬
‭✧‬‭｡ ‬‭♡‬ ‭Rather‬ ‭to‬ ‭live‬ ‭by‬ ‭the‬‭laws‬‭that‬‭you‬
‭enforce on yourself.‬
I‭ MMANUEL‬‭KANT‬‭ACCENTUATES‬‭THE‬
‭FOLLOWING‬ ‭PHILOSOPHY‬ ‭ON‬
‭FREEDOM:‬
‭1.‬ I‭ndividuals‬ ‭have‬ ‭the‬ ‭right‬ t‭ o‬
‭choose‬ ‭one's‬ ‭conduct‬ ‭based‬ ‭on‬
‭reason‬‭,‬‭not desire.‬
‭2.‬ I‭ndividuals‬ ‭have‬ ‭to‬ ‭abide‬ ‭by‬ ‭the‬
‭rules that they follow.‬
‭3.‬ I‭ndividuals‬ ‭are‬ ‭independent‬ ‭from‬
‭being‬ ‭limited‬ ‭by‬ ‭the‬ ‭option‬ ‭of‬
‭others‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭extent‬ ‭that‬ ‭they‬‭may‬
‭coexist‬ ‭with‬ ‭each‬ ‭other's‬ ‭freedom‬
‭under universal rule.‬
‭4.‬ E
‭ quality‬ ‭is‬ ‭the‬ ‭most‬ ‭among‬ ‭the‬
‭various‬ ‭freedoms‬ ‭and‬ ‭freedom‬ ‭is‬
‭the only inherent power.‬
‭THE THREE CONCEPTS OF FREEDOM:‬
‭-‬ ‭The‬ ‭freedom‬ ‭of‬ ‭a‬ ‭human‬ ‭being‬ ‭as‬
‭a member of a state‬
‭-‬ ‭The‬ ‭dignity‬ ‭of‬ ‭each‬ ‭person‬ ‭as‬ ‭a‬
‭subject.‬
‭-‬ ‭The‬‭freedom‬‭of‬‭any‬‭member‬‭of‬‭the‬
‭commonwealth as a resident.‬
‭5.‬ I‭ndividuals‬ ‭have‬ ‭an‬ ‭autonomous‬
‭right‬ ‭to‬ ‭be‬ ‭happy‬ ‭in‬‭their‬‭own‬‭way‬‭,‬
‭and‬ ‭the‬ ‭intervention‬ ‭of‬ ‭another’s‬
‭freedom‬ ‭means‬ ‭forcing‬ ‭others‬ ‭to‬
‭be happy.‬
‭GOOD WILL AND DUTY‬
‭✷‬ ‭Kant‬ ‭started‬ ‭his‬ ‭ethical‬‭philosophy‬‭by‬
‭ rguing‬ ‭that‬ ‭the‬ ‭only‬ ‭virtue‬ ‭that‬ ‭can‬ ‭be‬
a
‭uncontroversially good is good will.‬
‭ nd‬‭retains‬‭its‬‭moral‬‭values‬‭even‬‭though‬
a
‭it fails to achieve its moral intentions.‬
‭PERFECT AND IMPERFECT DUTIES‬
‭AS‬
‭✷‬ ‭In‬ ‭contrast,‬ ‭for‬ ‭Kant‬ ‭flexibility‬ ‭is‬
i‭ndispensable‬ ‭in‬ ‭imperfect‬ ‭duty.‬
‭Therefore,‬ ‭in‬ ‭perfect‬ ‭duty,‬‭it‬‭is‬‭a‬‭must‬‭to‬
‭do‬ ‭what‬ ‭is‬ ‭good‬ ‭while‬ ‭imperfect‬ ‭duty‬
‭do so.‬
‭✷‬ ‭BENEFICENCE‬ ‭is‬ ‭an‬ ‭imperfect‬ ‭duty‬
‭because‬ ‭we‬ ‭are‬ ‭not‬ ‭obligated‬ ‭to‬ ‭be‬
‭absolutely‬ ‭helpful‬ ‭at‬ ‭all‬ ‭times,‬ ‭but‬
‭should‬ ‭choose‬ ‭the‬ ‭times‬ ‭and‬ ‭places‬ ‭in‬
‭which we are.‬
‭✷‬ ‭Perfect‬ ‭duty‬ ‭for‬ ‭Kant‬ ‭is‬ ‭always‬ ‭true‬
‭and‬ ‭it‬ ‭is‬ ‭more‬ ‭important‬ ‭than‬ ‭imperfect‬
‭duties.‬
‭CATEGORICAL IMPERATIVE‬
✷
‭ ‬ ‭A‬ ‭categorical‬‭imperative‬‭binds‬‭us‬‭as‬
‭everyone‬ ‭has‬ ‭a‬ ‭responsibility‬ ‭not‬ ‭to‬ ‭lie,‬
‭regardless‬ ‭of‬ ‭conditions‬ ‭and‬ ‭even‬
‭though it is in our interest to do so.‬
✷
‭ ‬ ‭Rule‬ ‭of‬ ‭behavior‬ ‭that‬ ‭is‬
‭unconditional/absolute‬ ‭for‬ ‭all‬ ‭agents‬ ‭or‬
‭persons‬ ‭whose‬ ‭truth/argument‬ ‭does‬ ‭not‬
‭depend on any purpose/end.‬
✷
‭ ‬ ‭HYPOTHETICAL‬ ‭IMPERATIVE‬ ‭is‬ ‭one‬
‭that‬‭we‬‭must‬‭fulfill‬‭if‬‭we‬‭are‬‭to‬‭satisfy‬‭our‬
‭desires‬ ‭or‬ ‭command‬ ‭conditionally‬ ‭on‬
‭your having a relevant desire.‬
✷
‭ ‬ ‭Rule‬ ‭of‬ ‭behavior‬ ‭relating‬ ‭to‬ ‭a‬ ‭person‬
‭the‬ ‭idea‬ ‭that‬ ‭only‬ ‭if‬ ‭he‬ ‭or‬ ‭she‬ ‭desires‬ ‭a‬
‭certain‬ ‭end‬ ‭and‬ ‭has‬ ‭decided‬ ‭to‬ ‭act‬ ‭on‬
‭that desire.‬
‭Universalizability‬
✷
‭ ‬ ‭An‬‭act‬‭is‬‭only‬‭permissible‬‭if‬‭one‬‭can‬
‭have‬ ‭the‬ ‭principle‬ ‭that‬ ‭allows‬‭an‬‭action‬
‭to‬ ‭be‬ ‭the‬ ‭universal‬ ‭law‬ ‭by‬ ‭which‬
‭everybody acts.‬
‭ ant‬ ‭argued‬ ‭that‬ ‭morality‬ ‭was‬ ‭the‬
K
‭objective‬ ‭law‬ ‭of‬ ‭reason:‬ ‭just‬ ‭as‬‭objective‬
‭physical‬ ‭laws‬ ‭involved‬ ‭physical‬ ‭action.‬
‭Objective‬ ‭rational‬ ‭law‬ ‭requires‬ ‭rational‬
‭action.‬
‭HUMANITY AS AN END IN ITSELF‬
✷
‭ ‬ ‭Kant‬ ‭argued‬ ‭that‬ ‭rational‬ ‭beings‬
‭should‬ ‭never‬ ‭be‬ ‭viewed‬ ‭simply‬ ‭as‬ ‭a‬
‭means‬ ‭to‬ ‭ends;‬ ‭they‬ ‭must‬ ‭also‬ ‭be‬
‭viewed‬ ‭as‬ ‭ends‬ ‭themselves,‬ ‭demanding‬
‭equal‬ ‭regard‬ ‭for‬ ‭their‬ ‭own‬ ‭logical‬
‭motives.‬
‭✷‬ ‭A‬ ‭human‬ ‭intrinsic‬ ‭worth‬ ‭does‬ ‭not‬
‭depend‬ ‭on‬ ‭something‬ ‭else,‬ ‭it‬ ‭does‬ ‭not‬
‭depend‬ ‭on‬ ‭whether‬ ‭a‬ ‭person‬ ‭loves‬
‭his/her‬ ‭life‬‭or‬‭makes‬‭other‬‭people’s‬‭lives‬
‭better.‬
“‭Act‬‭in‬‭such‬‭a‬‭way‬‭that‬‭you‬‭treat‬‭humanity,‬
‭whether‬ ‭in‬ ‭your‬ ‭own‬ ‭person‬ ‭or‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬
‭person‬ ‭of‬ ‭another,‬ ‭always‬ ‭at‬ ‭the‬ ‭same‬
‭time‬ ‭as‬ ‭an‬ ‭end‬ ‭and‬ ‭never‬ ‭simply‬ ‭as‬ ‭a‬
‭means.”‬
‭- Immanuel Kant‬
‭ ANT’S‬ ‭PHILOSOPHY‬ ‭ON‬ ‭JUSTICE‬
K ‭ EAKNESSES‬
‭AND FAIRNESS‬
(‭1)‬ ‭Justice‬‭involves‬‭external‬‭acts‬‭through‬
‭which‬ ‭an‬ ‭individual‬ ‭may‬ ‭directly‬ ‭or‬
‭indirectly influence others.‬
(‭2)‬ ‭Justice‬ ‭does‬ ‭not‬ ‭affect‬ ‭the‬ ‭desires,‬
‭wishes, or needs of others.‬
(‭3)‬ ‭Justice‬ ‭is‬ ‭concerned‬ ‭primarily‬ ‭with‬
‭the‬ ‭nature‬ ‭of‬ ‭interpersonal‬ ‭relationships‬
‭and not with their substance.‬
✷
‭ ‬ ‭Under‬ ‭the‬ ‭1987‬ ‭Philippine‬
‭Constitution‬ ‭mentioned‬ ‭above,‬ ‭“the‬ ‭rules‬
‭of taxation shall be uniform and equal.”‬
✷
‭ ‬ ‭On‬ ‭the‬ ‭other‬ ‭hand,‬ ‭equity‬ ‭is‬ ‭the‬
‭principle‬ ‭that‬ ‭taxes‬ ‭should‬ ‭be‬‭equal‬‭and‬
‭should‬ ‭be‬ ‭based‬ ‭on‬ ‭the‬ ‭willingness‬ ‭of‬
‭different‬ ‭individuals‬ ‭to‬ ‭pay,‬ ‭which‬ ‭is‬
‭generally related to their income.‬
‭MODULE‬‭4:‬‭WHAT‬‭IS‬‭CULTURE?‬‭HOW‬
‭DOES‬ ‭IT‬ ‭DEFINE‬ ‭OUR‬ ‭MORAL‬
‭BEHAVIOR?‬
𐙚
‭ ‬ ‭According‬‭to‬‭Kohak‬‭(1984),‬‭culture‬‭is‬
‭at‬ ‭the‬ ‭root‬‭of‬‭human‬‭alienation‬‭from‬‭the‬
‭environment.‬‭It’s‬‭not‬‭just‬‭a‬‭compilation‬‭of‬
‭artifacts‬ ‭or‬ ‭reflection‬ ‭of‬ ‭people's‬
‭preferences and appreciation of beauty.‬
𐙚
‭ ‬ ‭Culture‬ ‭is‬ ‭derived‬ ‭from‬ ‭the‬ ‭Latin‬
‭word,‬ ‭“cultus”,‬ ‭which‬ ‭means‬ ‭giving‬
‭respect to the sacredness of all.‬
‭ umaraos‬ ‭(2018)‬ ‭expounded‬ ‭some‬ ‭of‬
D
‭the‬ ‭characteristics‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭Filipinos‬ ‭that‬
‭set‬ ‭them‬ ‭apart‬ ‭from‬ ‭any‬ ‭other‬ ‭culture‬
‭and society:‬
1‭ . The Filipino people are very resilient.‬
‭2. Filipinos take pride in their families.‬
‭3. Filipinos are very religious.‬
‭4. Filipinos are very respectful.‬
‭5. Filipinos help one another.‬
‭6.‬ ‭Filipinos‬ ‭values‬ ‭traditions‬ ‭and‬ ‭culture.‬
‭7.‬ ‭Filipinos‬ ‭have‬ ‭the‬ ‭longest‬ ‭Christmas‬
‭celebration.‬
‭8. Filipinos love art and architecture.‬
‭9. The Filipinos are hospitable people.‬
W ‭OF‬ ‭FILIPINO‬
‭CHARACTER‬
1‭ . Extreme Personalism‬
‭2. Extreme Family Centeredness.‬
‭3. Lack of Discipline.‬
‭4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative.‬
‭5. Colonial Mentality.‬
‭6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome.‬
‭7. Lack of Self Analysis and Reflection.‬
‭ EVERAL‬ ‭CHARACTERISTICS‬ ‭WERE‬
S
‭DRAWN:‬
‭1.‬ ‭Culture‬ ‭is‬ ‭an‬ ‭analects‬ ‭of‬ ‭items‬ ‭with‬
‭cultural or historical interest.‬
‭2.‬‭Culture‬‭is‬‭a‬‭remark‬‭of‬‭peoples’‬‭choices‬
‭and admiration of beauty.‬
‭3.‬ ‭Culture‬ ‭is‬ ‭in‬ ‭harmony‬ ‭with‬ ‭the‬
‭environment‬ ‭and‬ ‭an‬‭individual‬‭has‬‭a‬‭role‬
‭to play on it.‬
‭4.‬ ‭Culture‬‭is‬‭wider‬‭in‬‭scope‬‭as‬‭it‬‭includes‬
‭beliefs,‬ ‭ideals,‬ ‭communication,‬ ‭language‬
‭systems,‬ ‭behaviors,‬ ‭and‬ ‭commonality‬ ‭of‬
‭people within a group.‬
‭5.‬‭Culture‬‭embraces‬‭material‬‭objects‬‭that‬
‭are‬ ‭significant‬ ‭to‬ ‭a‬ ‭particular‬ ‭group‬ ‭or‬
‭society.‬
‭6.‬ ‭Culture‬ ‭is‬ ‭related‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭social‬
‭structure‬ ‭and‬ ‭economic‬ ‭aspects‬ ‭of‬
‭society.‬
‭7.‬ ‭Culture‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭combination‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭skills,‬
‭talents,‬ ‭capacities,‬ ‭and‬ ‭artifices‬ ‭brought‬
‭about‬ ‭by‬ ‭a‬ ‭group‬ ‭of‬ ‭people‬ ‭to‬ ‭look‬ ‭at,‬
r‭ elay‬ ‭messages,‬ ‭and‬ ‭respond‬ ‭to‬ ‭the‬ ‭ ur‬ ‭culture‬ ‭and‬ ‭that‬ ‭not‬
o
‭realities of social life.‬ ‭uncommon to other cultures.‬
‭8.‬ ‭Culture‬ ‭is‬ ‭the‬ ‭attributes‬ ‭and‬ ‭ .‬ ‭Cultural‬ ‭relativism‬ ‭is‬ ‭a‬ ‭moral‬
4
‭observation‬ ‭of‬ ‭a‬ ‭particular‬ ‭group‬ ‭of‬ ‭theory‬‭that‬‭claims‬‭the‬‭idea‬‭of‬
‭people‬ ‭which‬ ‭includes‬ ‭language,‬ ‭no‬ ‭objective‬ ‭universal‬ ‭moral‬
‭religion,‬ ‭social‬ ‭behavior,‬ ‭etiquette,‬ ‭rules‬ ‭that‬ ‭would‬ ‭apply‬ ‭to‬
‭fashion, music, and arts.‬ ‭every‬ ‭culture‬ ‭and‬ ‭it‬ ‭varies‬
‭depending‬ ‭on‬ ‭the‬ ‭culture‬ ‭of‬
‭ HE‬ ‭INFLUENCES‬ ‭OF‬ ‭CULTURE‬ ‭IN‬
T
‭the‬ ‭society‬ ‭do‬ ‭exist‬ ‭are‬
‭MORAL DEVELOPMENT‬
‭culturally bound.‬
‭ eano‬ ‭&‬ ‭Gubia-on‬ ‭(2018),‬ ‭Baring‬‭shared‬
L
‭five‬‭points‬‭in‬‭how‬‭culture‬‭influences‬‭the‬ ‭ ROS‬
P ‭OR‬ ‭ADVANTAGES‬ ‭OF‬
‭moral‬ ‭development‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭people‬ ‭and‬ ‭CULTURAL RELATIVISM‬
‭these are the following:‬ ‭1.‬ I‭t‬ ‭creates‬ ‭learning‬ ‭opportunities‬
‭that could make humanity stronger.‬
‭1.‬ C ‭ ulture‬ ‭is‬ ‭always‬ ‭social‬ ‭and‬ ‭2.‬ ‭It‬ ‭eliminates‬ ‭the‬ ‭concept‬ ‭of‬
‭communal‬ ‭by‬ ‭which‬ ‭the‬ ‭separate, but equal.‬
‭relationship‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭people‬ ‭towards‬ ‭3.‬ ‭It‬ ‭creates‬ ‭a‬ ‭system‬ ‭of‬ ‭niche‬
‭one‬ ‭another‬ ‭and‬ ‭their‬ ‭experience‬ ‭expertise.‬
‭as‬ ‭people‬ ‭are‬ ‭the‬ ‭culture’s‬ ‭4.‬ ‭It encourages respect.‬
‭meadow.‬
‭2.‬ ‭The‬ ‭culture‬ ‭defines‬ ‭the‬ ‭normative‬ ‭ HE‬ ‭CONS‬ ‭OR‬ ‭DISADVANTAGES‬ ‭OF‬
T
‭principles and behaviors of society.‬ ‭CULTURAL RELATIVISM‬
‭3.‬ ‭A‬ ‭culture,‬ ‭as‬ ‭best‬ ‭exemplified‬ ‭in‬
‭1.‬ ‭T‬‭here‬ ‭will‬ ‭be‬ ‭actions‬ ‭taken‬ ‭that‬
‭the‬ ‭experience‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬ ‭people,‬
‭ ould‬ ‭be‬ ‭defined‬ ‭by‬ ‭some‬ ‭as‬
w
‭develops‬ ‭restrictions‬ ‭and‬ ‭sets‬
‭“violent,” “unsafe,” or “wrong.”‬
‭boundaries‬ ‭and‬ ‭limitations‬ ‭as‬ ‭they‬
‭ .‬ ‭It‬ ‭is‬ ‭based‬ ‭on‬ ‭a‬ ‭concept‬ ‭that‬
2
‭live and relate with one another.‬
‭people are perfect.‬
‭4.‬ ‭As‬ ‭culture‬ ‭helps‬ ‭in‬ ‭generating‬ ‭the‬
‭3.‬ ‭It creates a personal bias.‬
‭character‬‭and‬‭identity‬‭of‬‭its‬‭people,‬
‭4.‬ ‭It‬‭eliminates‬‭the‬‭idea‬‭that‬‭reform‬‭or‬
‭it‬ ‭also‬ ‭includes‬ ‭their‬ ‭moral‬
‭change can be a good thing.‬
‭character.‬
‭5.‬ ‭The‬ ‭culture‬ ‭identifies‬ ‭the‬
‭●‬ T
‭ he‬ ‭benefit‬ ‭of‬ ‭cultural‬‭relativism‬‭is‬
‭authorities‬ ‭or‬ ‭the‬ ‭governing‬
‭that‬ ‭it‬ ‭teaches‬ ‭acceptance‬ ‭to‬
‭individuals or groups.‬
‭individuals.‬‭The‬‭drawbacks‬‭are‬‭that‬
‭this‬‭is‬‭a‬‭philosophy‬‭that‬‭is‬‭based‬‭on‬
‭MODULE 5: CULTURAL RELATIVISM‬ ‭the‬ ‭belief‬ ‭that‬ ‭humans‬ ‭eventually‬
‭●‬ T
‭ he‬ ‭definitions‬ ‭of‬ ‭cultural‬ ‭do the best thing to do.‬
‭relativism‬ ‭stated‬ ‭above‬ ‭are‬
‭summarized to the following:‬
‭1.‬ ‭In‬ ‭cultural‬ ‭relativism,‬ ‭no‬ ‭one‬
‭can‬ ‭judge‬ ‭a‬ ‭society‬ ‭by‬ ‭their‬
‭standards‬ ‭in‬ ‭the‬ ‭principle‬ ‭of‬
‭right‬ ‭or‬ ‭wrong,‬ ‭eccentric‬ ‭or‬
‭natural.‬
‭2.‬ ‭People‬ ‭must‬ ‭understand‬
‭other societies’ cultures.‬
‭3.‬ ‭In‬ ‭cultural‬ ‭relativism,‬‭the‬‭aim‬
‭is‬ ‭to‬ ‭strengthen‬ ‭our‬
‭knowledge‬ ‭and‬
‭interpretation‬ ‭of‬ ‭the‬
‭practices‬ ‭and‬ ‭cultural‬
‭traditions‬ ‭that‬ ‭are‬ ‭not‬‭part‬‭of‬