Eos, Vol. 82, No.
6, February 6, 2001
EOS, TRANSACTIONS, AMERICAN GEOPHYSICAL UNION
Evidence Suggests Slab Melting
in Arc Magmas
PAGES 6 5 , 6 8 - 6 9
Most recent geology textbooks state that
subduction-related volcanism is due to the
melting of the down-going lithosphere. How­
ever, for the last 30 years, few in the field have
seriously believed that the subducting slab is
the source of arc basalts.The accepted hypothe­
sis involves melting of the mantle wedge above
the slab via hydrous fluids produced during
the transition of the subducting basalt from
amphibolite to eclogite.The parental basalts dif­
ferentiate primarily through crystal fractiona­
tion, magma mixing, and differentiation at the
Mohorovicic discontinuity into andesites and
dacites as they ascend; the basalts are too
dense to rise through the lower continental
crust. This explains the relative abundance of
differentiated rocks in arcs.
Geochemically distinct andesitic lavas
o c c u r at Adak Island, Aleutian arc, and Kay
[1978] proposed that they were derived from
the melting of the subducted slab. Martin
[1999; and references therein] subsequently
noted that Archean tonalites were similar in
composition to Chilean adakitic volcanics,
suggesting that the siliceous Archean crust
was derived from the melting of subducted
o c e a n i c lithosphere.
At the beginning of the last decade, Defant
and Drummond [1990] and Drummond and
Defant [1990] proposed that the subducting
slab can melt when the crust is relatively young
and therefore elevated in temperature.They
surmised, based on experimental and g e o -
thermal models (see Peacock et ai, 1994, and
references therein; Rapp et ai [1999]), that
the products would b e andesitic and dacitic
in composition with rather unusual geochemi-
cal imprints.They called these rocks adakites,
noting that Kay [1978] had b e e n the first to
attribute a slab melt scenario to similar rocks
at Adak Island.They identified approximately
ten locations around the world where the
subduction of young crust is associated with
adakites.They also predicted several other
localities that had not been studied where they
thought adakites would be found; for example,
in southwestern Japan based on the subduc­
tion of young crust. Here we review the progress
of adakite research over the past decade,
emphasizing the significance of slab melts
as metasomatizing agents in active arcs, and
support the contention that the Archean
continental crust was derived from the melt­
ing of the subducted crust.
Defining Adakites
By the mid-1980s, Kay [1978] and others
had worked out the major and trace element
compositions of slab melts based on geochemi-
cal modeling, and their work was eventually
verified experimentally [Rapp et al, 1999, and
references therein] .The combined work clearly
showed that garnet was stable in the source at
the pressure and temperature of melting; a
garnet eclogite is the restite. Garnet preferen­
tially incorporates the heavy rare earth elements
(HREE) and Y Furthermore, as amphibolite is
transformed into garnet eclogite during sub­
duction, plagioclase breaks down. Elements
2.6
2.4
Backening xenoMhs, Kamchatka, Russia
0.4
0.2 K Depleted Mantle
o.o
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06
Fig. 1. MgO versus Si0 in adakites compared
2 with the fields for experimental melts and
trondhjemites, tonalites, and dacites (TTD) and glass inclusions in sub-arc mantle
VOLUME 82 NUMBER 6
FEBRUARY 6, 2001
PAGES 65-80
enriched in plagioclase—for example, Sr and
Eu—typically do not find "homes" in garnet
eclogite and go into the melt.This causes an
unusual-looking product from a g e o c h e m i c a l
perspective. Slab melts are enriched in Sr,
Na,and Eu but depleted i n Y and the HREE,
which is exactly what adakites show: geo­
chemical features atypical of volcanic arcs.
The fact that adakites are associated with
the subduction of young crust bolstered the
slab-melt hypothesis.
Adakites typically have S i 0 > 56 wt. %, A 1 0
2 2 3
> 15 wt. %, and N a 0 > 3.5 wt. % and are char­
2
acterized petrographically by the presence
of abundant plagioclase and amphibole
phenocrysts.Trace elements worth noting
are Sr ( > 400 ppm),Y ( 1 8 ppm), HREE (for
example,Yb 1.9 ppm),positive Eu anomalies
and positive Sr anomalies, and Sr/Y and
La/Yb ratios of 40 and 20, respectively [Defant
and Drummond, 1990]. Adakites also contain
the typical arc signature—depletion of Nb
and Ta—and, in most cases, MORB-like Sr
and Nd isotope signatures.
One of the best examples of the juxtaposition
of adakites with normal arc basalts, andesites,
dacites, and rhyolites (BADR) o c c u r s along
the coast of Kamchatka, Russia. In southern
Kamchatka, subduction of extremely old
0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14
Ta
Archean
xenoliths.

Experimental data field ^ 7
(Rappetal., 1999)
and Archean TTD field
Arc xenolith glass inclusion field
50
Si0 (wt. % )
2 which can be divided into an old group (6-13
Fig. 2. Variations in Ta and La in mantle wedge xenoliths from the Kamchatka
carried by hydrous fluids while Ta is not. The fact that they correlate suggests
metasomatism is not the only process at work in the arc mantle.
o c e a n i c lithosphere is associated with typical
arc volcanism believed to b e derived from
hydrous metasomatism of the overlying mantle
wedge. But in Kamchatka north of the Aleutian
islands, the crust off the coast is young and
the volcanism changes to adakites.
Bebout et al. [1999; see references therein]
found evidence for the involvement of partial
melts of the subducted slab and sediments
associated with the hydrous c o m p o n e n t in
the Catalina schist that represents an exposed
subduction zone. Pegmatites with the chemi­
cal composition of adakites were probably
derived from the partial melting of the slab.
The slab exists in the Catalina schist as garnet
eclogitic restites. Based on their work, there is
little doubt that adakitic melts can be products
of slab melting within volcanic arcs.
A number of new adakite localities associated
with the subduction of young crust have
b e e n reported over the last d e c a d e , includ­
ing Cerro Pampa in the Andes; Talamancas,
Costa Rica; the Mexican Trans-Volcanic Belt;
and southwest Japan.
The Cascade arc is associated with o n e of
the hottest subducting slabs in the world.
We suggest that the Cascade arc shows abun­
dant evidence of slab melting. One example,
Mount St. Helens, erupts predominantly adakites
and sits in front of the Cascade arc [Defant
and Drummond, 1993]. In contrast, Mount Adams
erupts regular arc basalts, andesites, and dacites,
but is located along the strike of the arc 50
km behind Mount St. Helens. Experimental
work has shown that slab-melting processes
should o c c u r at shallower depths than the
normal dehydration melting of the mantle
during regular arc volcanism.The frontal
position of Mount St. Helens may be related to
shallow melting of the subducting lithosphere
Eos,Vol. 82, No. 6, February 6, 2001
Adakites
60
arc. La is typically
that hydrous
as opposed to the deeper melting that is
producing magmatism at Mount Adams.
Two types of high-Mg andesites o c c u r in the
western Aleutian Komandorsky Island region
of Alaska and Russia: an Adak and a Piip type
[e.g., Yogodzinski et al, 1995,and references
therein].The high-Mg found in s o m e adakites
results from limited interaction of adakites with
peridotite in the mantle wedge before they
are extruded; this is the Adak type.The fact
that adakites have higher MgO and Cr and Ni
concentrations compared to experimental
melt compositions and adakitic inclusions
in sub-arc mantle xenoliths supports this
contention (Figure l).In contrast,the Piip-type
magnesium andesites are in equilibrium
with olivine, which suggests that they formed
from direct melting of the mantle wedge after
metasomatism by slab melts. The Setouchi
belt of southwest Japan is also believed to
be a Piip-type high-Mg andesite.
Several studies have suggested that both an
adakite and hydrous slab fluid are involved in
the formation of boninites—extremely high
Mg andesites that are largely partial melts of
hot and shallow mantle wedge—which attests
to the involvement of the subduction of young
crust.The chemical variations in pristine adakites,
Piip and Adak-type high-Mg andesites, and
boninites suggest that pristine adakites only
reach the surface if they follow pathways
through the mantle that have already b e e n
extensively reacted with by previous adakite
interaction.This way no further reactions c a n
affect the adakite that reaches the surface.
Otherwise, the magmas primarily pick up Mg
when they react with the mantle forming
Adak-type magmas (Figure 1).
If the reaction is so intense that the mantle
is actually melted, the melt b e c o m e s intensely
enriched in Mg and Piip-type adakites are
generated (that is, HMA). Boninites, the ultra­
high Mg andesites, appear to have the least
adakite c o m p o n e n t involved and probably
reflect more hydrous conditions than during
the generation of Piip-type magmas.
Sigmarsson et al. [1998] found that young
adakites from the southern Austral Andean
Volcanic Zone fall to the left of the Th-U dis­
equilibrium equiline on a graph of 23077^2327^ _
v e r
238 232
sus U/ Th, which suggests a partial melting
origin from the subducted slab and not a dif­
ferentiation process from basalts derived from
a hydrous metasomatized arc mantle.They
found that the data were compatible with 2 0 %
partial melting of the subducted slab and noted
that garnet in the residual eclogitic source
during partial melting preferentially partitions U
relative to Th. Mount St. Helens adakites fall to
the left of the equiline, which also supports the
contention that they are derived from the slab.
Similar results have b e e n recorded using
Li isotopes from volcanism in western Panama,
Ma) typical of normal arc volcanism and a
young group ( < 5 Ma) representing adakites.
The subduction parameters changed in the
region about 5 Ma from an old slab to a
young and hot slab.The older group has rela­
7
tively high B/Be and (5 Li isotopic ratios
between +4.7 to +5.6 % o while the young
7
group—the adakites—has low B/Be and <5 Li
isotopic ratios between +1.4 and +4.2 % .01d
0
group arc volcanism is associated with the
hydrous metasomatism of the mantle wedge
7
(high B/Be and (5 Li) while young and hot
slabs tend to devolatilize their hydrous compo­
nent prior to melting. Although adakites are
hydrous, they are lower in elements typically
carried by hydrous fluids, which explains the
7
low B/Be and (5 Li found in the young group.
Additional Ways to Produce Adakites
Research over the last d e c a d e has shown
decidedly that the subduction of young and
hot slab is not the only way to produce adakites.
Six tectonic processes also appear to b e able
to produce adakites.
• Remnant slabs: Several authors have pos­
tulated that adakites c a n b e generated from a
remnant of previously subducted slab incor­
porated in the mantle that b e c o m e s elevated
in temperature by the surrounding mantle; for
example, Evia, G r e e c e and Isla San Esteban,
Gulf of California.
• Oblique or fast ( 8 - 1 0 cm/yr) subduction:
Within s o m e tectonic environments, older
o c e a n i c lithosphere subducts obliquely or at
elevated rates which leads to adakite produc­
tion. Shear stress related to fast subduction or
oblique subduction c a n increase the tempera­
ture of the upper part of the subducting slab.
The Aleutians and Komondorsky Island and
eastern Mindanao,The Philippines, are proba­
bly the best examples.
• Arc-arc collision: Adakites have b e e n
found in two major arc collisional zones—the
Arid Hills and northern coast of Papua New
Guinea and central Mindanao, The
Philippines. It is important to emphasize that

b e c a u s e the age of the crust can no longer b e
determined in these regions since it has been
subducted, we do not know the thermal
history The adakites may have been generated
directly from young crust or the slab could
still b e below the collisional zone, where it
has heated to produce adakites. Alternatively,
something specific to the process of arc-arc
collision could generate adakites. More work
is needed, particularly in Papua New Guinea,
to better understand the relationship between
tectonics and adakite production.
• Initiation of subduction: Peacock et al.
[1994] showed that when the cold slab first
plunges into the hot mantle, the increase in
the temperature of the subducting slab can
produce partial melting. Adakites are probably
derived by this process in eastern and south­
ern Mindanao, The Philippines.
• Slab tears: A tear along the subducting slab
below Shiveluch volcano, Kamchatka, Russia,
has allowed the edge of the slab to b e heated,
producing adakites. A similar scenario o c c u r s
where the Lesser Antilles volcanic arc termi­
nates below Grenada. We believe that the end
of the Central American arc in Costa Rica may
reflect this process, but further work is needed.
• Flat subduction: Adakites in Ecuador and
Peru and perhaps in other arcs may b e gener­
ated by flat subduction. During subduction,
the slab literally flattens and travels horizon­
tally and c a n heat enough to melt during this
horizontal motion.
Na Metasomatism and the Arc Mantle
Adakites are sometimes associated with Nb-
enriched arc basalts (NEAB).These basalts
might b e derived from a mantle source that
was metasomatized by adakites. Kepzhinskas
et al. [1996] looked carefully at NEAB associ­
ated with adakites from Mount St. Helens,
northern Kamchatka, Panama and Costa Rica,
and the southern Philippines.These basalts
have Nb/La (HFSE/La) ratios higher than typi­
cal island-arc basalts, and even though NEAB
have high absolute HFSE concentrations, they
also have typical arc depletions in HFSE rela­
tive to K and La. NEAB are also alkaline or
transitional alkaline compared with typical
calc-alkaline and tholeiitic arc basalts.
It was within a group of these NEAB in
northern Kamchatka that Kepezhinskas et al.
[1996, and references therein] found rare
arc-mantle xenoliths that they believed repre­
sented the source of NEAB. S o m e ultramafic
xenoliths contain high-Na and Al glasses with
adakitic trace element concentrations. In
addition, the mineral phases in several of the
xenoliths—for example, the garnet-bearing
pyroxenites—are remarkably similar to those
phases obtained during experimental runs
when felsic melts (trondhjemites) are reacted
with ultramafic material representative of
the arc mantle. Kepezhinskas et al. [1996]
c o n c l u d e d that the xenoliths were the prod­
ucts of a newly discovered type of metasoma­
tism which they referred to as Na metasomatism.
They envisioned that this process o c c u r s
when slab melts percolate and interact with
the sub-arc mantle.
Eos, Vol. 82, No. 6, February 6, 2001
Kepezhinskas et al. [1996] found HFSE-rich
phases along the contact between the felsic
veins and the mantle, and presumed that the
reaction preferentially increased the HFSE
in the Na-metasomatized mantle. Nb and Ta
actually correlate with incompatible elements
such as La and Sr (Figure 2), which were
traditionally believed to b e transported by
a hydrous component.
Recent experimental determinations of
partition coefficients between silicious melts
and amphibole for Nb and Ta indicate that
Nb and Ta are enriched in the mantle during
silicic melt interaction via amphibole. Subse­
quent melting of this Na-metasomatized m
antle produces basalts (or high-Mg andesites -
Piip type) with high HFSE concentrations
similar to NEAB.
Our current research focuses on the possi­
bility of the e x i s t e n c e of a genetically related
v o l c a n i c suite of rocks that would incorpo­
rate both Adak and Piip adakites, perhaps
boninites, NEAB, and the associated mantle
xenoliths c o m m o n l y found in these rocks.
We propose the term adakite metasomatic
v o l c a n i c series.
Adakites and NEAB, plus or minus mantle
xenoliths in the NEAB, have b e e n documented
in several distinct localities worldwide, includ­
ing The Philippines, Japan, Kamchatka and
the far western Aleutian Islands in Alaska,
Mount St. Helens, and Panama-Costa Rica.
Several other localities associated with ridge
or oblique subduction or slab tears may also
contain the adakite metasomatic volcanic
series; namely, Adak and Kanaga Islands
(Aleutians), Grenada (Lesser Antilles), Baja
California and the Trans-Mexican Volcanic
Belt (Mexico), and Simberi Island (Papua
New Guinea).
Evidence in recent years has begun to sug­
gest that slab melts may play a minor role in
the metasomatism of all arc mantle. S c h i a n o
et al. [1995] found that melt inclusions in
mantle xenoliths from Batan Island, northern
Luzon arc, are similar in composition to
adakites, which suggests that slab melts must
be a c o m p o n e n t during metasomatism of the
arc mantle below the Luzon arc. The entire
northern Luzon arc may have b e e n metasom­
atized by a small slab-melt component, given
that temporal variations along the strike of the
arc c a n only b e explained through bulk mix­
ing of a sediment and slab component.
Is a slab-melt c o m p o n e n t limited only to the
Luzon arc? We do not think so. We have stud­
ied xenoliths from the southern Kamchatka
arc where the subducting slab is old and
cold. Ion-probe analyses of melt inclusions
with compositions similar to those of adakites
s e e m to permeate the mantle below this arc.
High-precision Nb and Ta data analyzed
from several island-arc volcanic samples indi­
cate that Nb/Ta ratios vary in basalts along
the arcs. To explain these changes, variations
in a slab-melt metasomatizing c o m p o n e n t
were proposed.
Several researchers have noted that arc
volcanics fall along the equiline on a graph
of 2soTh/232Th versus 238^/23270 rather than to the
238 232
right toward higher U/ Th ratios. U is more
mobile in hydrous fluids.They c o n t e n d e d
that a slab melt component—preferential
partitioning of Th c o m p a r e d to U into the
melt—must b e involved in arcs to explain this
phenomenon.
Studies of PGE behavior in the sub-arc
mantle show that Kamchatka xenoliths form
a continuous trend on a graph of Os versus
Re/Os from high-Os harzburgites through lher-
zolites, pyroxenites, and adakites, which indi­
cates potential mantle-slab melt interaction. It
is difficult to envision how PGE and/or HFSE
can vary through hydrous metasomatism.
S o m e authors, noting variations in the HFSE
in arc basalts (NEAB), called upon an OIB
mantle component present in arcs. But titanate
phases stable in the source during melting are
required to control HFSE variations. No such
phases have ever b e e n discovered in arc man­
tle xenoliths, nor has there ever b e e n an OIB
mantle composition found in arc xenoliths. In
addition, experimental work has shown that
titanate phases are not stable during hydrous
metasomatism or partial melting.
OIBs probably c o m e from a deep mantle
that has had subducted lithosphere added
to it. No wonder slab melt metasomatism of
the arc mantle might appear to b e similar to
the source of OIBs. But what s o m e authors
suggest is an OIB mantle c o m p o n e n t in arcs
we believe is really a slab melt c o m p o n e n t
and that OIBs have an arc component; that
is, the deeply subducted slab.
Archean Adakites and Adakites
as a Prospecting Tool
The Archean continental crust consists of
about 80% trondhjemitic rocks with adakitic
characteristics. Martin [1999, and references
therein] showed that these trondhjemites
have g e o c h e m i c a l characteristics much
different from modern arc suites. These
rocks appear to b e derived from the melting
of the subducting slab primarily b e c a u s e the
subducting lithosphere in the Archean was,
on average, much younger than it is today
Why? B e c a u s e the Archean mantle was much
hotter than the mantle is today and probably
generated more mid-ocean ridges, which led
to the subduction of much younger crust.
Drummond and Defant [1990] showed that
adakites increase in the rock record from the
present to the Archean.They pointed out that
today's adakite productivity is probably lower
than at any time in the past b e c a u s e the man­
tle is much c o o l e r than it was in the Archean.
Martin [1999] has also noted that the Mg
concentrations in Archean trondhjemites are
lower than in current-day adakites. He postu­
lated that the Archean adakites probably did
not interact with the mantle as much and
envisioned more adakite production and sub­
sequently more adakite metasomatism of the
Archean mantle preventing adakites that reach
the surface from extensive interaction.The
adakites produced today are much higher in
MgO than not only the Archean adakites, but
also those produced experimentally and
adakitic melt inclusions within mantle xeno­
liths (Figure l ) . I n fact, we would argue that

pristine adakites are rare at the surface in
present arc systems, if they exist at all.
So, is the adakite metasomatic volcanic
series present in the Archean? Until recently
no NEABs had been reported from the Archean.
But in several new papers, authors have
reported NEABs from a number of Archean
terrains noting their similarities to those found
in present-day arcs.
The Archean was a time of immense ore
production. Numerous immense gold deposits
greater than 2 - 2 . 5 billion years old are found
in Archean rocks. There may b e a genetic
relationship between slab melting and precious
and base metal mineralization. In several
cases, adakites have been linked to epithermal
gold and c o p p e r porphyry deposits [e.g.,
Sajona and Maury, 1998].
We have also noticed the extensive gold
and porphyry copper production associated
with NEABs and adakites, particularly along
the northern coast of Papua New Guinea,
Lihir, Bouganvilla, and several localities in
western Panama. We suggest that NEABs and
adakites could b e used for gold and c o p p e r
exploration the way kimberlites are used to
find diamonds.
Acknowledgments
We thank J o h a n Varekamp for editorial han­
dling and insightful comments and Suzanne
Kay for a careful and helpful review. Many
Dead Sea Gives Life to a Unique
Seismic Calibration Experiment
PAGES 6 5 , 7 0
An unusual seismic and hydro-acoustic experi­
ment involving large underwater c h e m i c a l
explosions has b e e n conducted in the Dead
Sea.The purpose of this creative, cost-efficient
venture was to improve monitoring and verifi­
cation of the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty
(CTBT) in the Middle East.
The goals of the experiment were to calibrate
the regional travel times of the seismic waves
from the explosions; to provide data for source
characterization; and to improve detection,
location, and discrimination capabilities of the
International Monitoring System (IMS) stations.
From a seismologist's point of view, the experi­
ment's main 5-ton explosion exceeded expec-
tations.The blast was recorded at 8 IMS stations
(including PDYAR in Russia, more than 5000
km away), with the estimated location only
2.3 km from ground truth, and an event mag­
nitude of mb=3.9 [Center for Monitoring
Research, 1999].These results compare to the
predicted local magnitude of about 4 and the
maximal observable range of about 2600 km
[Gitterman, 1998] .A lack of a detectable signal
on s o m e nearer stations will likely reveal
important path effects.
The three explosions, ranging in size from
0.5 to 5 tons, were conducted by the Seismology
Division of the Geophysical Institute of Israel
Eos,Vol. 82, No. 6, February 6, 2001
people have helped contribute to the adakite
story but could not be referenced in the paper
due to Eos reference limitations: J. Ayer,
M. Carroll, J. de Boer, J. Devaney D. Desonie,
T Dunn, F Hochstaedter, S. Kay, J. Luhr,
Y Marquez, R. Maury, P Morris, R. Nesbitt,
J. Pearce, G. Pe-Piper, J. Piper, V Ramos,
T. Rushmer, J. Ryan, F Rye rson, D. Sajona, C. Sen,
C. Stern, A. Stolz, R.Taylor, A.Thompson,
M.Tiepolo, PTomascak, R.Vannucci, P Vidal,
B.Watson, E.Widom, PWyllie, and D.Wyman.
Authors
Marc J. Defant and Pavel Kepezhinskas
Department of Geology, University of South
Florida, Tampa, USA
References
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Fractionation of trace elements during
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7
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trondhjemite-tonalite-dacite genesis and crustal
(Gil) in collaboration with several organizations.
The experiment, realized in the autumn of
1999, is part of ongoing research on improve­
ments in monitoring the CTBT in the Middle
East by the Israel Seismic Network (ISN). It is
funded by the U.S. Defense Threat Reduction
Agency (DTRA) to provide calibration sources
now lacking in the region.
Apart from the well-known e n h a n c e m e n t
effect of underwater explosions, the "deadness"
of the Dead Sea was o n e of the main reasons
for this site choice. (The seismological com­
munity may remember the failure to conduct
similar calibration shots in the Atlantic O c e a n
near Portugal in 1993, caused mainly by "green"
protesters). Moreover, the unique properties of
hyper-saline Dead Sea water—with a density of
3
1.236 gr/cm and acoustic velocity of 1770.6
m/sec [Anati, 1997]; much higher than in the
o c e a n — c a n further e n h a n c e the seismic
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Sea, it has many natural p h e n o m e n a such as
mineral springs, desert oasis, and wildlife
preserves nearby. The explosion point was
located a few kilometers from local spas,
settlements, and an important engineering
installation, the Dead S e a Works dam. Conse­
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people, property and local natural environment
(fully confirmed after the shots). However, in
order to verify the assumptions upon which
the safety analysis is based, Gil began the
experiment by detonating 0.5-ton and
2-ton explosions prior to the main 5-ton shot.
Based on a series of small-scale underwater
shots in 1993 [Gitterman et al, 1998], it was
estimated that a 5-ton explosion would corre­
spond to an event of local magnitude of about
4.0. Conducting large explosions in this politi­
cally sensitive area, just a few kilometers from
the Israel-Jordan border, required serious,
long-term diplomatic efforts.The agreement of
the Jordanian authorities was obtained after
contacts at the highest government levels. A
number of international observers from the
United States (DTRA), Russia (its embassy in
Israel), Jordan (the Royal Engineering Corps),
the CTBT Organization in Vienna (CTBTO),
and the Palestinian Authority (An-Najah Uni­
versity) were invited to participate in the
experiment and inspect the weighing and
preparation of charges before the explosions.
Explosives and measurement equipment
were delivered to the detonation point by an
iron raft (Figure 1-top) also bearing a crane
for downloading the largest charge (Figure 1-
bottom).The experiment was videotaped. A
h o m e camera was placed on the raft at a
distance of several hundred meters from the
shot site.The video and audio tracks provided
observations and approximate time measure­
ments of interesting physical phenomena,
such as a "cavitation hat," arrivals of shock
waves, and bubble pulsations near the raft,