SOIL PHYSICAL PROPERTIES oxides being primarily in the

ferrous state. These can give

SOIL COLOR AND TEXTURE the soil a subtle bluish-gray
nt
Physical Proper es - Affects oxida on state of Fe and Mn
● The physical proper es are o en the most
important proper es for evalua ng the 3. Presence of oxida on states of Fe and Mn
suitability of a soil for a par cular purpose oxides
○ Can the soil support trees?
○ Is the soil too anaerobic? Other minerals that some mes give soils
○ Can the soil withstand vehicle traffic? dis nc ve colors are:
- Manganese oxide - black
● Characteris cs, processes, or reac ons of a - Ferric oxide - yellowish brown to red
soil that are caused by physical forces and that - Glauconite - green
can be described by/expressed in physical - Calcite - whi sh color
terms/equa ons. - Soluble salts - whi sh color

● These include: - Soil color is a property that will give important

○ Color informa on about the soil’s characteris cs
○ Texture
○ Structure - It is determined by comparing the color of the
○ Bulk density soil to the chips in the Munsell color charts,
○ Porosity invented by Albert H. Munsell in 1905
○ Water-holding capacity
○ Consistency Soil color consists of three (3) parts:

SOIL COLOR ● Hue

- Reflects an integra on of chemical, biological, - redness/yellowness
and physical transforma ons and
transloca ons that have occurred within a soil ● Value
- darkness/lightness
Three major factors that influence soil colors: - A value of 0 = black
- expressed as the numerator of the
1. Organic ma er frac on
- Organic coa ngs tend to darken and
mask the brighter colors of the ● Chroma
minerals - intensity/brightness
- Generally, the higher the OM content, - A chroma of 0 = neutral gray
the darker the soil - the denominator of the frac on
- low chromas have dull colors
2. Water content - high chromas have bright
- Soils are generally darker when wet colors
than when dry
- Following rain, water temporarily Example: A color of 10YR 3/2:
darkens the soil’s color by increasing - Hue = 10YR
light absorp on. But moisture can - Value = 3
also have long-term effects on soil - Chroma = 2
color
- e.g. with enhanced anaerobic - The significance of soil color relates to the
condi ons, there is proper es we can infer from certain colors:
waterlogging, resul ng in iron ( refer to HANDOUT )
Mo led ● Coarse fragment
- Mo les may occur either: - > 2 mm
- as splotches of reddish-brown color in - Gravels, cobbles, boulders
a gray matrix; or - Not considered part of fine earth
- as gray spot in a brown matrix frac on (soil texture refers only to the
- Usually the result of alterna ng periods of fine earth frac on or sand, silt, and
reduc on and oxida on caused by seasonally clay)
fluctua ng water tables
● Sand
- < 2 mm to > 0.05 mm
SOIL COLOR AND SOIL ATTRIBUTES
- Visible without microscope
Brown to black Accumula on of OM - Rounded or angular in shape
(surface horizon) - Sand grains usually quartz if sand
looks white or many minerals if sand
Black (subsoil) Accumula on of Mn
looks brown
Parent material (e.g. Basalt)
- Some sands in soil will be brown,
Yellow to reddish Fe3+ (Ferric) yellow, or red because of Fe and/or Al
Well-aerated soils oxide coa ngs
- Feels gri y
Gray, bluish-green Fe2+ (Ferrous) - Considered non-cohesive -- does not
Poorly drained soils
s ck together in a mass unless it is
White to gray Accumula on of salts very wet
- Low specific surface area
White to gray Parent material: marl, quartz - Has less nutrients for plants than
smaller par cles
- Voids between sand par cles promote
SOIL TEXTURE free drainage and entry of air
- The first and most important property to - Holds li le water and prone to
determine when inves ga ng soils on a site drought
- Will provide informa on about:
- Water flow poten al ● Silt
- Water holding capacity - < 0.05 mm to > 0.002 mm
- Fer lity poten al - Not visible without microscope
- Suitability for many urban uses, like - Quartz o en dominant mineral in silt
bearing capacity since other minerals have weathered
- The percent of sand, silt, and clay in a soil away
sample - Does not feel gri y
- Cri cal for understanding soil behavior and - Floury feel
management - Wet silt does not exhibit
- Not subject to change in the field s ckiness/plas city
- Smaller size allows rapid weathering
Par cle Diameter Size of non-quartz minerals
- Soil par cle diameters range over several - Smaller par cles -- retain more water
orders of magnitude: for plants and have slower drainage
- 1 m boulders than sand
- Coarse fragments > 2 mm - Easily washed away by flowing water
- Sand < 2 mm to 0.05 mm -- highly erosive
- Silt < 0.05 mm to 0.002 mm - Holds more plant nutrients than sand
- Clay < 0.002 mm
 ● Clay
Pollutant-leaching High Medium Low
- < 0.002 mm poten al (unless
- Flat plates or ny flakes cracked)
- Small clay par cles are colloids
- If suspended in water, will not se le Ability to store plant Poor M to H High
- Large surface area nutrients
- Wet clay is very s cky and is plas c or
Resistance to pH Low Medium High
it can be molded readily into a change
shape/rod
- Easily formed into long ribbons
Soil Textural Triangle:
- Shrink-swell -- none to considerable
depending on the kind of clay
● Sandy Soils
- Pore spaces are very small and
○ Coarse texture
convoluted
- Sands
- Movement of water and air -- very
- Loamy sands
slow
- High water holding capacity
● Loamy Soils
- High capacity to absorb water
○ Moderately-coarse texture
- Not all available for plants
- Sandy loam
- Soil strength - shrink/swell affects
○ Medium texture
buildings, roads, and walls
- Very fine sandy loam
- Chemical absorp on is large
- Loam
- Silt loam
Generalized influence of soil separates on soe
- Silt
proper es and behavior of soils:
○ Moderately fine texture
- Sandy clay loam
Property/behavior Sand Silt Clay - Silty clay loam
- Clay loam
Water-holding capacity Low M to H High

Aera on Good Medium Poor ● Clayey Soils

○ Fine texture
Drainage rate High S to M V slow - Sandy clay
- Silty clay
Soil OM level Low M to H H to M
- Clay
Decomposi on of OM Rapid Medium Slow
Textural Profile
Compac biliy Low Medium High - “Textural Profiles” aid in looking for the
Suscep bility to water Low High Low transloca on of clay
erosion (unless fs) (aggrega - The graph of the % clay from the surface to
ted), the parent material will show if clay
high if translocates down in the soil profile
not - Subsoils generally have more clay than
topsoils
Shrink-swell poten al Very low Low Mod to
v high
Changing Soil Texture
Sealing of ponds, dams, Poor Poor Good ● Adding sand to a clay soil creates a
and landfills cement-like substance
● Adding peat/compost to a mineral soil is not
Suitability for llage Good Medium Poor considered changing the texture, it only adds
a er rain
OM not sand, silt, or clay
 ● Over long periods (1000s of years), pedologic - O en inherited from the parent
processes alter soil horizon textures materials, especially those laid down
● As soils get older, sand weathers to silt and silt by water or ice
weathers to clay - Most no ceable in the surface layers
● Therefore old soils have more clay of virgin soils but may characterize the
subsoil horizons as well
SOIL STRUCTURE
- The arrangement of primary par cles into ● Block-like
secondary par cles, units, or peds - Fragments range from a frac on of an
- Describes the clustering of soil par cles into inch to 3 or 4 inches in thickness
aggregates of certain size, shape, and stability - Usually confined to the subsoil and
- Par cle arrangement their state of development and other
- Soil par cles are aggregated by binding agents characteris cs have much to do with
such as organic ma er, lime, and other soil drainage, aera on, and root
binding agents like Fe/Al oxides, clays, and penetra on
silica - Could either be:
- Can modify the effect of texture on air-water a. Angular blocky
rela ons in soils - Edges of the blocks
- Types can be classified on the basis of the are sharp and the
shape of the peds rectangular faces
dis nct
Types of Soil Structure: b. Subangular blocky
- The corners are
● Single grain mostly rounded
- Par cles show li le or no tendency to (sub-rounding has
adhere to other par cles occurred)

● Spheroidal ● Prism-like
- Aggregates not over ½ inch in - Characterized by ver cally-oriented
diameter aggregates or pillars which vary in
- Lie loosely and are readily shaken length and may reach a diameter of 6
apart or more inches
- When we ed, the intervening spaces - Commonly occur in subsoil horizons in
generally are not readily closed by arid and semi-arid regions
swelling - When well developed are a very
- Characteris cs of many surface soils, striking feature of the profile
especially those high in OM - Could either be:
- Could either be: a. Prisma c
a. Granular - Tops of the prism are
- Porous, may be rela vely angular and
separated from each flat horizontally
other in a loosely b. Columnar
packed arrangement - Pillars with dis nct
b. Crumb rounded tops
- Very porous
● Massive
● Platy/Plate-like - Show li le or no tendency to break
- Characterized by rela vely thin apart under light pressure into smaller
horizontal peds or plates units
Influences of Soil Texture, Soil Structure and Density:
● Water movement
● Water reten on
● Soil temperature
● Gas exchange
● Erosion poten al
● Fer lity
Forma on of Soil Aggregates:
How do aggregates form?
● Several biological, physical, and chemical
processes interact to form aggregates
Chemical Processes:
A. Floccula on
- The mutual a rac on of clay and
organic molecules
- Floccula on of clay par cles results
into microscopic clumps or floccules
B. Absorp on of ca ons
- Polyvalent ca ons: Ca2+, Fe3+, Al3+
- Can effec vely neutralize the
nega ve surface charges on
clay par cles
- Can form bridges that bring
clay par cles together
- Monovalent ions (especially Na+)
- Can cause clay par cles to
repel each other and create a
dispersed condi on
Physical Processes:
A. Volume changes in clayey materials
● Swelling and shrinking ac ons that
accompany freeze-thaw and wet-dry
cycles in soils create fissures and
pressures breaking apart large soil
masses and compressing soil par cles
into defined structural peds
Biological Processes
A. Ac on by plants
● Plant roots move par cles as they
push their way through the soil
○ This forces soil par cles to
come into close contact with
each other, encouraging
aggrega on and crea ng
pores
● Plant roots and fungal hyphae exude
sugar-like polysaccharides and other
organic compounds forming s cky
networks that bind together individual
soil par cles and micro-aggregates
into macro-aggregates
B. Ac on by animals
● Burrowing and molding ac vi es of
soil animals
● Earthworms and termites move and
mix soil par cles
Some factors influencing aggrega on:
1. Organic Ma er
● Binds soil par cles into water-stable
aggregates
● During the aggrega on process, soil
mineral par cles become coated and
encrusted with bits of decomposed
plant residue and other organic
materials
● OM also provides the energy
substrate that makes possible the
biological ac vi es
2. Tillage
● Both promote and destroy
aggrega on
Promote aggrega on:
● If soil is not too wet/dry, llage can
break large clods into natural
aggregates resul ng to loose, porous
condi on conducive to root growth
and seedling emergence
● Tillage can incorporate organic
amendments into the soil and kill
weeds
Destroy aggrega on:
● Over longer periods, llage hastens
the loss of soil OM, weakening soil
aggregates
● Tillage opera ons tend to
crush/smear soil aggregates resul ng
to loss of macroporosity
 3. Fe/Al oxides Grading Soil Structure:
● Fe and Al sesquioxides coat soil
par cles and cement soil aggregates,
Soil Structure Grade
preven ng their ready breakdown
when the soil is lled Structureless soil No aggregates have
● Cemen ng ac on of Fe oxides and formed and the soil
other inorganic compounds produces consists of either
very stable small aggregates called individual separate
pseudosand grains, as in a sand, or a
densely packed mass of
par cles without many
Aggregate Stability pore spaces
- The ability of soil aggregates to resist
disrup on when outside forces are applied Weakly developed soil Poorly formed
(usually associated with water) structure aggregates that are hard
to dis nguish from the
Importance of aggregate stability: rest of the soil
● Aggrega on affects: Moderately developed Mainly well formed
- Erosion soil structure aggregates that, when
- Movement of water disturbed, will break
- Plant root growth down to whole and
● Desirable aggregates are stable against rainfall broken aggregates and
and water movement only a li le
● Aggregates that break down in water release unaggregated soil
individual soil par cles, hence, can seal the
Strongly developed soil Almost all of the soil
soil surface and clog pores structure par cles are in clearly
● Pore space provides zones of weakness iden fiable aggregates
through which plant roots can grow

SOIL DENSITIES AND POROSITY

Improving soil structure:

Density
● Organic ma er management
- Represents mass (weight) per unit volume of a
- Regular addi ons feed the organisms
substance
that build soil structure
Density = VMolume
ass
- Residues le at the surface protect
aggregates from rain and encourages - Soil density is expressed in two well accepted
the growth of fungi that help stabilize concepts as a par cle density and bulk density
aggregates
Bulk density
● Compac on preven on - Bulk density normally decreases, as mineral
- Compac on pushes aggregates soils become finer in texture
together and eventually breaks them - The bulk density varies indirectly with the
down total pore space present in the soil ***
- Bulk density is of greater importance than
● Crops/cropping systems par cle density in understanding the physical
- The dense roots of grasses, small behavior of the soil
grains, and pastures stabilize soil - Generally, soils with low bulk densi es have
aggregates and improve structure favorable physical condi ons
- Bulk density is not an intrinsic property of a
material; it can change depending on how the
material is handled
 - The bulk density of soil depends greatly on - PDs for most mineral soils = 2.60 - 2.75 Mg/m3
the mineral make up of soil and the degree of - Average PD of typical mineral soils = 2.65
compac on Mg/m3

Factors affec ng bulk density: Bulk vs. Par cle Density:

In the field: If all the solids were
1. Pore space One cubic cen meter of a compressed to the
● Soils with high propor on of pore certain soil will appear as: bo om, the cube would
space to solids have lower bulk look like this:
densi es than those that are more
compact and have less pore space
● Any factor that influences soil pore
space will affect bulk density
To calculate bulk density of To calculate par cle
the soil: density of the soil:
2. Texture
● Fine-textured surface soils such as silt Total vol of soil: 1 cm3 Total vol of soil: 0.5 cm3
loams, clays, and clay loams generally Mass: 1.33 g Mass: 1.33 g
have lower bulk densi es than sandy
1.33g 1.33g
soils ρb = Ms
Vt = 1 cm3 = 1.33g /cm3 ρs = Ms
Vs = 0.5 cm3 = 2.63g /
● Fine-textured soils tend to organize in
porous grains especially because of POROSITY
adequate organic ma er content - Volume of the pores divided by the bulk
● In sandy soils, the solid par cles lie volume
close together, resul ng to higher bulk %E = V ps/V b × 100
density - Or, it can be conveniently calculated from the
data of par cle density and bulk density as:
3. Organic ma er content
● The more OM content in soil results in
%E = 1 − ( ρs
ρv ) × 100
high pore space, thereby shows lower - Soil porosity directly influences soil water
bulk density of soil and vice versa movement
- Size, shape, and interconnec on of pore
4. Depth in soil profie spaces are more important than the combined
● Generally, subsoils have higher bulk volume, in determining drainage, aera on,
densi es than the surface soils and other processes
● Less aggrega on, fewer roots, - The amount of porosity in a soil depends on
compac on caused by overlying layers the minerals that make up the soil and the
amount of sor ng that occurs within the soil
● Generally, bulk density is get higher structure
bulk down the soil depth (??) - e.g. a sandy soil will have larger
● Cul vated soils have higher bulk porosity than silty sand, because the
densi es than the undisturbed soils silt in silty sand soil will fill in the gaps
between the sand par cles
Par cle density
- The par cle density is higher if large amount Factors affec ng Pore Space Rela ons
of heavy minerals such as magne te, limonite, (soil proper es, processes, ac vi es):
and hema te or iron oxides are present in the
soil 1. Hydraulic conduc vity (K) *
- With increase in organic ma er of the soil, the ● Property of soil that describes the
par cle density decreases *** ease with which water can move
- Par cle density is also termed as “true through pore spaces
density” ● Can be measured at any state
 ● Depends on:
- permeability of the material
(pores, compac on)
- degree of satura on
2. Infiltra on
● Process by which water on the ground
surface enters the soil
● Water enters the soil through the
pores by the forces of gravity and
capillary ac on
- the largest cracks and pores
offer a great reservoir for the
ini al flush of water. This
allows a rapid infiltra on
- smaller pores take longer to
fill and rely on capillary forces
as well as gravity
- smaller pores have a slower
infiltra on as the soil
becomes more saturated
3. Cul va on and Soil Management
● Con nuous cul va on and cropping
reduces macropore space
● Conserva on llage -- (e.g. minimum
llage, no- llage, mulch llage, etc.)
- Increased accumula on of
OM
- Development of network of
macropores (biopores)
- Greater macroporosity of the
surface layers, reducing
surface sealing
Pore types:
- Also known as storage pores because
of the ability to store water useful to
plants
- Do not have capillary forces too great
so that the water does not become
limi ng to the plants
- Mesopores are ideally always full or
contain liquid to have successful plant
growth
- Size: 0.2 μm - 10 μm
3. Micropores
- Pores that are filled with water at
permanent wil ng point. Suc on is
required to remove water from
micropores
- Water associated is usually absorbed
onto the surfaces of clay molecules
- Water held in micropores is important
to the ac vity of microbes crea ng
moist anaerobic condi ons
- Water can also cause either the
oxida on or reduc on of molecules in
the crystalline structure of the soil
minerals
- Size: < 0.2 μm
General rela onship among texture, bulk density,
and porosity of soils:
Textural class Pb (Mg/m3) Porosity (%)
Sand 1.55 42
Sandy loam 1.40 48
Fine sandy loam 1.30 51

1. Macropores Loam 1.20 55

- Pores that are too large to have any
significant capillary force Silt loam 1.15 56
- Full of air at field capacity Clay loam 1.10 59
- Can be caused by cracking, division of
peds and aggregates, as well as plant Clay 1.05 60
roots, and zoological explora on
Aggregated clay 1.00 62
- Size: > 10 μm

2. Mesopores
- Pores filled with water at field
capacity
SOIL WATER
Nature, Roles, and Importance of Soil Water
● Water content is one of the most variable
characteris cs of soil
● The soil acts as a reservoir for water, making it
available for plants as it is needed
● Soil water is part of the global hydrological
cycle
● How well the soil stores water is of great
importance to crop produc on and the vitality
of the land
● Water affects soil forma on, structure,
stability, and erosion
● Water causes soil par cles to:
- Swell and shrink
- Adhere to each other
- Form structural aggregate
● Water alters the soil profile by dissolving and
re-deposi ng minerals, o en at lower levels
● It leaves the soil sterile in case of extreme
rainfall and drainage
● Water is essen al to plants for four reasons:
a. It cons tutes 85-95% of the plant’s
protoplasm
b. It is essen al for photosynthesis
c. It is the solvent in which nutrients are
carried to, into and throughout the
plan
d. It provides the turgidity by which the
plant keeps itself in proper posi on
Classifica on of Soil Water
Five categories of water “surrounding” a clay or soil
par cle:
1. Absorbed water (hygroscopic water)
- held on the surface of the par cle by
powerful forces of electrical a rac on
and virtually in a solid state of very
small thickness (~0.005 μm)
- cannot be removed by oven drying at
110⁰C
- maybe considered to be part of the
soid soil grain
2. Water at permanent wil ng point
- water that can be removed by oven
drying but not by air drying
- not so ghtly held
3. Capillary water (water at field capacity)
- held by surface tension, generally
removable by air drying
4. Gravita onal water
- removable by drainage, can move in
the voids between soil grains
- a flooded field will drain the
gravita onal water under the
influence of gravity un l water’s
adhesive and cohesive forces resist
further drainage and it finally reaches
field capacity
- not of much use to the plants
5. Chemically-combined water
- in the form of water of hydra on
within the crystal structure; not
generally removable by oven drying
?????????
- refer to the various stages along a con nuum,
and do not imply that soil water exists in
different “forms”
- widely used in prac cal soil management and
help communicate important facts about
soil-water behavior
1. Maximum reten ve capacity
- When all soil pores are filled with
water, the soil is saturated and it is at
maximum reten ve capacity
- Matric poten al is close to zero and
the volumetric water content is
essen ally the same as total porosity
- The soil will remain at maximum
reten ve capacity as long as water
con nues to infiltrate, because water
held in the largest pores will percolate
downward under the influence of
gravita onal forces
2. Field capacity (FC)
- Moisture content of the soil a er
gravity has removed all the water it
can. Usually occurs 1-3 days a er a
rain
- Smaller pores remain full of water,
many of the intermediate pores are
 par ally filled and most of the large
pores are nearly empty
- Plants must exert a suc on force of ⅓
bar to obtain water at field capacity
3. Permanent wil ng point (PWP)
- Soil moisture percentage at which
plants cannot obtain enough moisture
to con nue growing
- Large and medium pores are
completely empty. Water is held very
ghtly by the mineral and par cles of
the soil
- Plants exert a suc on force of 15 bars
in trying to obtain water at this
moisture condi on
- Although not yet dead, plants below
PWP cannot recover even if water is
provided
4. Available water storage capacity (AWSC)
- Amount of liquid water stored in the
soil and subsequently released for use
by the plants
- Varies directly with the total amount
of medium-sized pore spaces
(diameter in the range of 0.2 - 10
micrometers (0.0002 - 0.01 mm))
- Pore spaces wider than 10
micrometers drain water readily and
pore spaces narrower than 0.2
micrometer release the retained
water too slowly
- AWSC = FC - PWP
Soil water at FC and PWP with different soil texture:
Texture FC PWP Available
water
Sand 10 5 5
Silt 30 6 24
Clay loam 36 22 14
Silty clay loam 38 22 16
Silty clay 41 27 14
Clay 42 30 12
Water Flow in Soils
● Water moves through soil due to the force of
gravity, osmosis and capillarity
● At 0 - ⅓ bar suc on, water moves through soil
due to gravity; this is called saturated flow
● At higher suc on, water movement is called
unsaturated flow
● Water flows through the ground unevenly,
called “gravity fingers”, because of the surface
tension between water par cles
● Water infiltra on rates range from 0.25 cm
(0.098 in) per hour for high clay soils to 2.5 cm
(0.98 in) per hour for sand and well-stabilized
and aggregated soil structures
● Flooding temporarily increases soil
permeability in river beds, helping recharge
aquifers
● Tree roots create paths for rainwater flow
through soil by breaking through soil including
clay layers
● Once soil is completely we ed, any more
water will move downward, or percolate,
carrying with it clay, humus and nutrients,
primarily ca ons, out of the range of plant
roots and result in acid soil condi ons
● Water flow is primarily from coarse-textured
soil into fine-textured soil and is slowest in
fine-textured soils such as clay
Factors controlling water infiltra on in soils:

Loamy sand 12 5 7 1. Soil texture

2. Soil structure
Sandy loam 18 8 10 - Fine-textured soils with granular
structure are most favorable to
Sandy clay loam 27 17 10
infiltra on of water
Loam 28 14 14 3. Amount of organic ma er
- Coarse ma er is best, and if on the
Sandy clay 36 25 11 surface, helps prevent the destruc on
of soil structure and the crea on of
Silt loam 31 11 20
crusts
 4. Depth of soil to impervious layers such as
hardpans or bedrock
5. Amount of water already in the soil
6. Soil temperature
- Warm soils take in water faster while
frozen soils may not be able to absorb
depending on the type of freezing
Three main types of forces which contribute to the
energy state of soil water:
1. Gravita onal Poten al
- Water has a posi ve energy and can
flow out of the soil through the large
pores
- A point when cohesive forces are not
large enough to hold onto the water
- Significant only when soils are
saturated
2. Osmo c Poten al
- Osmosis - the movement of water
from regions of higher poten al
(ac vity) to regions of lower poten al
(ac vity)
- Poten al is due to the a rac on that
salts have for water through the
phenomenon of osmosis
- A ributable to the presence of
solutes in the soil solu on. The
greater the concentra on of solutes,
the lower the osmo c poten al
- This energy is nega ve rela ve to free
water
- Water flows from the solu on with
the lower solute concentra on into
the solu on with higher solute
concentra on
3. Matric Poten al
- The poten al energy of water
a racted to soil solids
- Opera onal in unsaturated soil above
the water table
- In an unsaturated soil, matric
poten al results from the capillarity
and adhesion forces
- Plants must overcome the energy of
matric poten al to extract water from
the soil
Soil Moisture Tension
● Tenacity with which soil holds water
● As soil moisture tension increases, the
amount of energy exerted by a plant to
remove the water from the soil must also
increase
● Soil moisture tension is nega ve pressure and
commonly expressed in units of bars
● At field capacity most soils have a soil
moisture tension between 0.05 and 0.33 bars
Forces on Soil Water
● Two forces that allow water to move through
the soil:
a. Gravita onal forces
b. Capillary forces
● Gravita onal and capillary forces act
simultaneously in soils
● Gravity pulls water downward when the water
is not held by capillary ac on
- Influences water in saturated soils
● Capillary ac on involves two types of
a rac ons:
a. Cohesion - a rac on between water
molecules
b. Adhesion - a rac on between water
the leaves
● Capillary forces are greater in small pores than
in large pores
Capillary Movement of Soil Water
- Enables plant roots to make use of
water from the we er por ons of the
soil profile par cularly from a water
table
- The smaller the pores, the higher the
water will rise above the water table
- The higher the rise, the ghter the
water will be held to soil par cles to
overcome the force of gravity
Soil Water Content Measurement:
1. Hand-feel method
- The faster method but is prone to
error since it requires experience and
can be subjec ve
- An acceptable method if the observer
has experience in the hand-feel
method and is comfortable with the
method
 - Will allow for more loca ons to be - Once placed in soil, water in the
sampled tensiometer moves through the
porous cup into the soil un l water
2. Gravimetric method poten al in the tensiometer is the
- A direct measurement of soil water same as the matric water poten al in
content the soil
- A sample of moist soil is weighed and - As the water is drawn out, a vacuum
then dried in an oven at a develops under the top seal, which
temperature of 105⁰C for about 24 can be measured by a vacuum gauge
hours, and finally weighed again - If rain/irriga on rewets the soil, water
- The weight loss = soil water will enter the transiometer, reducing
the vacuum/tension recorded by the
3. Electrical Resistance Blocks method gauge
- The electrical resistance block uses - Tensiometers are useful between 0 to
small blocks of porous gypsum, nylon, -0.85 bars poten al
or fiberglass, suitably embedded with
electrodes
- When placed in moist soil, it absorbs
water in propor on to the soil
moisture content
- Inexpensive and can be used to
measure approximate changes in soil
moisture during one/more cropping
seasons
- However, the accuracy and range of
soil moisture contents measured by
these devices are limited

4. Neutron Sca ering method

- A neutron sca ering probe contains a
source of fast neutrons and a detector
for slow neutrons
- When fast neutrons collide with H
atoms, the neutrons slow down and
sca er
- The number of slow neutrons counted
by a detector corresponds to the soil
water content
- Once calibrated with the soils in
ques on, they are versa le and give
accurate result in mineral soils
- Less precise in organic soils since
neutrons collide with many H atoms
that are combined in organic
substances rather than in water

5. Tensiometer method
- A tensiometer is a water-filled tube
closed at the bo om with a porous
ceramic cup and at the top with an
air ght seal