B2.

1 Membrane & Membrane transport

Theme: B Form and function
How does the structure of the membrane help to separate the cell from the external environment and
control the entry & exit of biomolecules?
Level of organisation: Cells

Guiding Questions:
1. How do molecules of lipid and protein assemble into biological membranes?
2. What determines whether a substance can pass through a biological membrane?

B2.1.1 Lipid bilayers as the basis of cell membranes

 The __________________ nature of ________________ enables them to form a phospholipid
bilayer = basis of cell plasma membranes
 The ______________ _______________ is held by weak
________________ ___________ between the ____________
___________ ______________.
 But it is stable enough to _________ as a ___________ that restrict
passage of many substances.
 And _____________ the _____________ components from
______________ ______________ and maintain internal
environment (homeostasis)
 The phospholipids can also ___________ ___________ (within the layer), which makes it
___________ & ________________.
 Fluidity allows the _______________ and ______________ of _________________ (during
endocytosis/exocytosis) & ________________ of __________________

B2.1.2 Lipid bilayers as barriers

• The phospholipid bilayer is
• ____________________ – act as a barrier to certain
molecules between aqueous solutions
• The __________ hydrocarbon chains that form
the core of the of the membrane have ______
_____________ & __________ the movement
of __________ molecules, and
______________molecules – including
____________ ions and ___________
molecules
• __________________ – __________________ ______________
will regulate the passage of substances that cannot freely cross

B2.1.4 Integral and peripheral proteins in membranes

Phospholipid bilayer are also embedded with several proteins
1. __________________ _____________
• __________ _______________ – attach to hydrophobic
region
 • With _____________ portion __________ ______________
• Some are ______________________ (extend
across the membrane)
• Permanent attachment

2. ______________ proteins
• Hydrophilic – not embedded
• Attached to ____________ of _____________
• Attach temporarily through ________________ ________ with hydrophilic phosphate heads
• Some have hydrocarbon chain to “anchor” themselves to the membrane

Function of membrane proteins

1. ______________________:
• As protein _____________ to allow hydrophilic molecules
across via _______________ _______________
• Protein pumps for ____________ _______________ to move
particles across membrane against concentration gradient
2. ___________________
• attachment for _______________ ___________ (fibers
outside cell) & ______________ (skeleton in cell)
3. ________________________:
• Eg: Hormone receptors (bind hormone)
• When the chemical signal binds, the membrane protein
_______________ a ______________ by the cell.
4. __________________ activity
• ______ ________________ of catalysing chemical reactions
(eg: small intestine)
5. ____________________
• tight junction, gap junction, anchoring junction between
group of cells
6. __________________________
• cell recognition (eg: immune system)
• often glycoproteins: proteins with some sugar chains
attached.
B2.1.5 Movement of water molecules across membranes by
osmosis and the role of aquaporins
• _________________ is the diffusion of free moving ______________
molecules randomly
• Water molecules is ______________ molecule that can pass through the
______________ freely because they are _____________ enough
• However, membrane is impermeable to most solutes, and there may be a
difference in solute concentration between internal and external
environment of cells
 • So, there is a net movement of _______________ from __________ _____________ concentration
(dilute) to ________ solute concentration (thick) until equilibrium of solute concentration is reached
• ___________________ – proteins ___________________ that __________ _______________ to
water molecules eg: ______________ ______________, root hair cells
• _______________ of ______________ can be ______________ to ____________ _____________
________________ of cells and amount of ____________________- of water in the body

B2.1.6 Channel proteins for facilitated diffusion

• For _____________, _______________, __________ or
_____________ _____________ that cannot pass
through lipid region of membrane
• Uses _____________ ___________ ______________ to
help them get through
• via ______________, net movement of particles
________ / along _______________ ____________
(from high to low) until equilibrium is reached
• The protein channels/carriers are _____________ and
___________________ (only one type of molecule for
each type of protein)
• * Cells can control how many protein channels to make and thus can control which substance
diffuse in and out and at what rate
• Eg: sodium, potassium, magnesium ions

B2.1.7 Pump proteins for active transport

• Active = ___________ ___________ ______________
• To transport molecules ______________ ____________
______________ (from low to high)
• Use carrier proteins (_______________ ___________)
• Solute molecule ___________ to ___________ __________
• The _______________ of ___________ ( ADP + Pi)
provides ____________ to _____________ the ___________
of the carrier protein
• Which translocate the solute to the other side

*Difference between Channel & Carrier Proteins

• ___________ ___________ form pores that extend across
the lipid bilayer; when these pores are open, they allow
specific solutes (usually inorganic ions of appropriate size and
charge) to pass through them and thereby cross the
membrane
• ____________ ____________ bind the specific solute to be
transported and undergo a series of _________ _________
to transfer the bound solute across the membrane.
• Carrier proteins that uses ATP are known as _____________
________________
B2.1.8 Selectivity in membrane permeability

_____________ _________________ – does not require energy

• Particles move from high concentration to low concentration until equilibrium is reached
• ______________ ______________ & ___________ (water only) – _______ _________________
• Depends only on small size and hydrophilic or hydrophobic properties
• ___________ _______________ – selective – presence of _________ _____________ and
___________ proteins in membrane only allow ______________ molecules to pass through.
Active Transport – needs energy in the form of “ATP”
• Particles move _____________ concentration gradient
• ________________ – protein pump determines type of molecules to transport across membrane.
• There are 2 types, primary & secondary active transport.

B2.1.9 Structure and function of glycoproteins and

glycolipids
• Glycosylation [Glyco = sugar] - adding carbohydrate chains
• on phospholipid = ______________, on membrane proteins
= __________________
• The carbohydrate chains are usually attached on the
extracellular side of the cell membrane
• Main role = ___ _____________ & ______ ____________
• Eg: attachment point of other cells [_______ binding to
____________ is mediated by glycoprotein zona pellucida]
• point of recognition between ______ / _____ ________ cells
[eg: ABO red blood cells ____________],
• act as _____________ that binds to __________
• Attach cells with __________ ___________ (a gel-like
framework between cells) that provide _________ and
______________ ___________ (eg: connective tissues made
of collagen)

B2.1.10 Fluid mosaic model of membrane structure

• Currently accepted model – ________________ _____________ ___________ ___________

Drawing of the Fluid Mosaic Model Should show:

 Phospholipid bilayer - In 2D
diagram, phospholipids are
indicated using symbol of circle &
2 parallel lines
 Integral transmembrane protein
 Peripheral protein
 glycoprotein
 cholesterol
Remember:
• Good use of space
• Clear strong lines
• Label lines are straight
• Labels clearly written
• Lines touch the labelled structure
• No unnecessary shading or
colouring
AHL: B2.1.17 Adhesion of cells to form tissues

• Specialised membrane proteins called

______ __________ ___________
(__________s) helps cells to attach to other
cells or extracellular matrix
• There are many types of CAMs. Different
types of ______ ______ _____________ or
_____ - ____________ interaction exist
according to the type of cell adhesion
molecule involved.
• CAMs can also play important roles in a
variety of cellular processes – including
_________, ____________, __________
_____________, _____________ and
________ ________________
• targeting of _________ _________ ______________ molecules can __________ the spread of
______________ _______________ (by inhibiting metastasis)

AHL B2.1.11 Relationship between fatty acid composition of lipid bilayers & their fluidity
In phospholipid cell membranes

Saturated fats (cis) Unsaturated fats

• _______________ animals (cold-blooded) body

temperature depends on ______________ __________
___________________
• Ectothermic animals that stays in environment that
experience ____________ _____________ __________
(_______________) have to adapt via various strategies
• Which includes _____________ their _____________
________________ of _________ ____________
• based on ________________ ____________ changes
• to __________ ______________ _________
• Eg: common frog, some fish, amphibians and invertebrate animals
AHL B2.1.12 Cholesterol and membrane fluidity in animal cells
• Found in ____________ ______ _____________
but _____________ in plant cells (plant have rigid
cell walls to help support them)
• Cholesterol is also an _______________molecule
• Hydrophobic carbon rings (steroid) and non-
polar chain align to phospholipid tails
• Hydroxyl –OH group is hydrophilic & align to
phosphate head
• Phospholipids can move – very fluid
• However, cholesterol ____________ _________
____________ by
1. _____________ ____________ of ____________ –
prevent it from being too fluid, ____________
________________ at ___________
____________________
2. ___________________ the __________
______________ & prevents it from ____________
into solid under cold conditions – increase _____________ & _________ it from being too _______
3. _____________ __________ to small hydrophilic/water soluble molecules & ions (eg: Na+ & H+)

AHL: B2.1.13 Membrane fluidity and the fusion & formation of vesicles
• ____________ of membrane is important to allow certain
____________ (gas/ water molecules) to ______ _______
____________, forming _____________ & cell movement
• Vesicles = sac of membrane that contain fluid/materials
• __________________ = taking in external materials by
_____________ off a small region of plasma membrane to
form _____________containing external products
• ________________ = release of substance (secretion) by
vesicles _____________ with the plasma membrane and
thus releasing the products.
• The ____________ and _____________of the
membrane is controlled by membrane proteins with
the use of ____________ (active transport)
Examples of endocytosis:
1. ___________________________________________
2. ___________________________________________
3. ___________________________________________
Examples of exocytosis:
1.
_________________________________________________________________________________
2. _________________________________________________________________________________
3. _________________________________________________________________________________
Step by Step process of Endocytosis
1. _____________ _____________ ______/enclose
solid particles/ liquid material/ molecules
2. Membrane pull inwards/______________
3. Membrane _________ ________/ edge fuse
4. Form ___________/vacuole
5. ___________ of _________ __________ become
the __________ of ___________ (and vice versa)
6. Vesicle ________ ___________ from plasma
membrane & move into _______________
7. ___________ of ___________ enables this
8. ____________ process which requires _______
9. Some are receptor mediated and clathrin coat
protein helps the formation of vesicles

Vesicle Movement in Cells

Pathway A:
1. ___________ on rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER) ________________
_______ and accumulates in the RER.
2. ___________ containing the protein
______ ________ the RER and carry
the proteins to the ______ ________
3. The vesicles ______ with the Golgi
apparatus and the proteins are
____________ & ______________ to
its final form.
4. Vesicles then bud off the Golgi apparatus and _________ with _____________, where ___________
is secreted. Eg: digestive enzyme in pancreas

Pathway B: __________ _______________ & ______________ are also synthesize and fuse to ______ a
growing ____________ ____________.

There are three types of active transport pumps

Uniport: ……………………………………………………………………
Symport: ……………………………………………………………………
Antiport: ……………………………………………………………………

AHL: B2.1.15 Sodium-potassium pumps as an

example of exchange transporters (antiport)
 ____________ = long extension of _______ ________
 At rest, the _________________ pumps ___ _______
__________ of cell & ________ ____ _____ into cell
 This helps to generate ______________ ____________
____________ by producing an overall _____ _____________ ____________ cell and overall
____________ charge ______________________ neuron cell
AHL: B2.1.15 Sodium-potassium pumps as an example of exchange transporters (antiport)
A:

………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
B: ………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
C: ………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
D: ………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
E: ………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
F: ………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..

AHL: B2.1.14 Gated ion channels in

neurons – Voltage gated
• ______________ channels in axons
of a neuron are
___________________
• When an electrical signal pass
through the axons, the ______ ____
channel will ______, causing a rush
of ________ ions ________ the cell
 • Causing the __________ of cell to be more _________
• This _________ __________ causes the _________ ________ channels to ________, allowing the
potassium ions to diffuse ___________ of the axon cell
• This will cause a _________ of _________, which will then ___________ the _______________
_____ ____________ again.

AHL: B2.1.14 Gated ion channels in neurons – Ligand Gated

1. When action potential / electrical impulse reaches
the ________ terminal of the presynaptic neuron, it
opens the voltage gated ________ _____________
2. Causes ________ ___________ (Ca2+) to diffuse
_________ neuron cell
3. This triggers the ____________ containing
___________________ to fuse with the cell
membrane
4. Releasing __________________ that diffuse across the _______________ _________ (space
between two neurons)
5. One of the common neurotransmitter is called
____________________ (ACh)
6. The neurotransmitter - Acetylcholine binds to a specific
receptor called ________________ ______________
_________________ on the _______-_________
neuron (dendrites) or muscle cells, which _________
and allow ____________ ____ to flow ____
7. Sodium ions diffuse into post-synaptic neuron and
causes the ______________ of the post synaptic
neuron
8. The _______________ ___________ is _____________
and will ____________ along the post synaptic neuron or causes a cascade of reaction that causes
muscle contraction
9. The neurotransmitters are either _______________ ________ or ____________ ____________

Primary vs Secondary Active Transport

_______________ ____________ _______________  the one that uses ____________ directly
Eg: _____________ __________ pump antiport

______________ ____________ _________  uses the ____________ ____________ produced

by sodium-potassium pump to ____________ the _____________ of ___________ molecules
________________ concentration gradient
Eg: _______________________ symport
 active transport intake of ________________ by ______________ ___________
 glucose reabsorption by cells in the nephron of the kidneys)
AHL: B2.1.16 Sodium dependent glucose cotransporters as an example of indirect active transport
A: ………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
B: ………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
C: ………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
D: ………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
E: ………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………..
……………………………………………………………………………………..
F: ………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………...

B2.1 Membrane & Membrane transport

Theme: B Form and function
How does the structure of the membrane help to separate the cell from the external environment and
control the entry & exit of biomolecules?
Level of organisation: Cells

Guiding Questions:
3. How do molecules of lipid and protein assemble into biological membranes?
4. What determines whether a substance can pass through a biological membrane?

B2.1.1 Lipid bilayers as the basis of cell membranes

 The amphipathic nature of phospholipids enables them to form a phospholipid bilayer = basis of cell
plasma membranes
 The phospholipid bilayer is held by weak hydrophobic interaction between the fatty acid chains.
 But it is stable enough to act as a barrier that restrict passage of
many substances.
 And separate the intracellular components from external
environment and maintain internal environment (homeostasis)
 They can also move laterally (within the layer), which makes it fluid
& flexible.
 Fluidity allows the breaking and reforming or membranes (during
endocytosis/exocytosis) & formation of vesicles.
B2.1.2 Lipid bilayers as barriers
• The phospholipid bilayer is
• Semi-permeable – act as a barrier to certain molecules
between aqueous solutions
• The hydrophobic hydrocarbon chains that form
the core of the of the membrane have low
permeability & restrict the movement of
• large molecules, and hydrophilic molecules –
including charged ions and polar molecules
• Selective – membrane proteins will regulate the
passage of substances that cannot freely cross

B2.1.4 Integral and peripheral proteins in membranes

Phospholipid bilayer are also embedded with several proteins
3. Integral proteins
• Partly hydrophobic – attach to hydrophobic region
• With hydrophilic portion facing outside
• Some are transmembrane
(extend across the membrane)
• Permanent attachment

4. Peripheral proteins
• Hydrophilic – not embedded
• Attached to surface of membrane
• Attach temporarily through hydrogen
bonds with hydrophilic heads
• Some have hydrocarbon chain to
“anchor” themselves to the membrane

Function of membrane proteins

7. Transport:
• As channels to allow hydrophilic molecules across via
facilitated diffusion
• Pumps for active transport to move particles across
membrane against concentration gradient
8. Anchorage
• attachment for extracellular matrix (fibers outside cell) &
cytoskeleton (skeleton in cell)
9. Receptors:
• Eg: Hormone receptors (bind hormone)
• When the chemical signal binds, the membrane protein
triggers a response by the cell.
10. Enzymatic activity
• fix location of catalysing chemical reactions (eg: small
intestine)
 11. Adhesion
• tight junction, gap junction, anchoring junction between
group of cells
12. Recognition
• cell recognition (eg: immune system)
• often glycoproteins: proteins with some sugar chains
attached.

B2.1.5 Movement of water molecules across membranes by

osmosis and the role of aquaporins
• Osmosis is the diffusion of free moving WATER molecules randomly
• Water molecules is polar molecule that can pass through the
membrane freely because they are small enough
• However, membrane is impermeable to most solutes, and there
may be a difference in solute concentration between internal and
external environment of cells
• So, there is a net movement of water from low solute concentration
(dilute) to high solute concentration (thick) until equilibrium of
solute concentration is reached
• Aquaporin – proteins channels that increase permeability to water
molecules eg: kidney tubules, root hair cells
• amount of aquaporins can be regulated to control osmotic pressure
of cells and amount of reabsorption of water in the body

B2.1.6 Channel proteins for facilitated diffusion

• For ions, charged, polar or large molecules that cannot
pass through lipid region of membrane
• Uses transmembrane protein channel to help them get
through
• via passive, net movement of particles down / along
concentration gradient (from high to low) until
equilibrium is reached
• The protein channels/carriers are narrow and specific
(only one type of molecule for each type of protein)
• * Cells can control how many protein channels to make
and thus can control which substance diffuse in and out
and at what rate
• Eg: sodium, potassium, magnesium ions

B2.1.7 Pump proteins for active transport

• Active = uses energy in the form of ATP
• To transport molecules against concentration gradient (from
low to high)
• Use carrier proteins (protein pumps)
• Solute molecule bind to carrier protein
 • The hydrolysis of ATP ( ADP + Pi) provides energy to change the shape of the carrier protein
• Which translocate it to the other side

*Difference between Channel & Carrier Proteins

• Channel proteins form pores that extend across the lipid
bilayer; when these pores are open, they allow specific
solutes (usually inorganic ions of appropriate size and charge)
to pass through them and thereby cross the membrane
• Carrier proteins bind the specific solute to be transported
and undergo a series of shape changes to transfer the bound
solute across the membrane.
• Carrier proteins that uses ATP are known as protein pumps

B2.1.8 Selectivity in membrane permeability

Passive transport – does not require energy

• Particles move from high concentration to low concentration until equilibrium is reached
• Simple diffusion & Osmosis (water only) – not selective
• Depends only on small size and hydrophilic or hydrophobic properties
• Facilitated diffusion – selective – presence of protein channels and carrier proteins in membrane
only allow selective molecules to pass through.
Active Transport – needs energy in the form of “ATP”
• Particles move against concentration gradient
• Selective – protein pump determines type of molecules to transport across membrane.
• There are 2 types, primary & secondary active transport.

B2.1.9 Structure and function of glycoproteins and glycolipids

• Glycosylation [Glyco = sugar] - adding carbohydrate chains
• on phospholipid = glycolipids, on membrane proteins =
glycoproteins
• The carbohydrate chains are usually attached on the
extracellular side of the cell membrane
• Main role = cell adhesion & cell recognition
• Eg: attachment point of other cells [sperm binding to egg
cell is mediated by glycoprotein zona pellucida], point of
recognition between self/non-self cells [ABO red blood
cells antigens], act as receptors that binds to hormones,
• Attach cells with extracellular matrix (a gel-like framework
between cells) that provide structure and biochemical
support (eg: connective tissues made of collagen)

B2.1.10 Fluid mosaic model of membrane structure

• Currently accepted model – Singer-Nicholson FLUID
MOSAIC MODEL
• Phospholipid bilayer – phospholipid are fluid & move
laterally
 • Peripheral proteins bound to either inside/outside surface of membrane
• Integral proteins – permeate through the membrane
• Proteins can also move laterally along membrane

Drawing of the Fluid Mosaic Model

Should show:
 Phospholipid bilayer - In 2D
diagram, phospholipids are
indicated using symbol of circle &
2 parallel lines
 Integral transmembrane protein
 Peripheral protein
 glycoprotein
 cholesterol
Remember:
• Good use of space
• Clear strong lines
• Label lines are straight
• Labels clearly written
• Lines touch the labelled structure
• No unnecessary shading or
colouring

AHL: B2.1.17 Adhesion of cells to form tissues

• Specialised membrane proteins called cell

adhesion molecules (CAMs) helps cells to
attach to other cells or extracellular matrix
• There are many types of CAMs. Different
types of cell-cell junctions or cell – ECM
interaction exist according to the type of cell
adhesion molecule involved.
• CAMs can also play important roles in a
variety of cellular processes – including
growth, apoptosis, signal transduction,
migration and tissue development
• targeting of specific cell adhesion
molecules can limit the spread of
malignant cancers (by inhibiting
metastasis)

AHL B2.1.11 Relationship between fatty acid composition of lipid bilayers & their fluidity
In phospholipid cell membranes

Saturated fats (cis) Unsaturated fats

can be packed more closely
together
Which decreases their
fluidity
And increase their melting
Pack more loosely due to
‘kink’s caused by the
double bond
Which increases fluidity
And decrease melting point
 points
Making membranes Making membranes more
stronger at high flexible at temperatures
temperature experienced by cell

• Ectothermic animals (cold-blooded) body temperature

depends on environmental heat source
• Ectothermic animals that stays in environment that
experience large temperature changes (poikilothermic)
have to adapt via various strategies
• Which includes regulate their membrane composition
of fatty acids
• based on environmental temperature changes
• to regulate membrane fluidity
• Eg: common frog, some fish, amphibians and
invertebrate animals

AHL B2.1.12 Cholesterol and membrane fluidity in animal cells

• Found in animal cell membrane but absent in
plant cells (plant have rigid cell walls to help
support them)
• Cholesterol is also an amphipathic molecule
• Hydrophobic carbon rings (steroid) and non-
polar chain align to phospholipid tails
• Hydroxyl –OH group is hydrophilic & align to
phosphate head
• Phospholipids can move – very fluid
• However, cholesterol regulate membrane fluidity by
4. Restrict movement of phospholipids – prevent it
from being too fluid, stabilising membranes at
higher temperature
5. Separates the hydrocarbon tails & prevents it from
crystalising into solid under cold conditions –
increase flexibility & prevent it from being too rigid
6. Reduces permeability to small hydrophilic/water
soluble molecules & ions (eg: Na+ & H+)

AHL: B2.1.13 Membrane fluidity and the fusion &

formation of vesicles
• Fluidity of membrane is important to allow certain
substances (gas/ water molecules) to move across
membrane, forming vesicles & cell movement
• Vesicles = sac of membrane that contain fluid/materials
 • Endocytosis = taking in external materials by pinching off a small region of plasma membrane to
form vesicles containing external products
• Exocytosis = release of substance (secretion) by vesicles fusing with the plasma membrane and thus
releasing the products.
• The breaking and reformation of the
membrane is controlled by membrane
proteins with the use of ATP (active transport)

Examples of endocytosis:
 WBC (macrophage) taking in pathogen =
bacteria/virus
 Amoeba/paramecium taking in
water/dissolved nutrients
 Viruses entering cells
Examples of exocytosis:
 Secretion of enzymes by exocrine gland cells on the pancreas
 Secretion of neurotransmitters at axon terminals (presynaptic neurons)
 Secretion of antibodies by B plasma cells

Step by Step process of Endocytosis

10. Plasma membrane engulf/enclose solid particles/
liquid material/ molecules
11. Membrane pull inwards/invaginates
12. Membrane pinches off/ edge fuse
13. Form vesicles/vacuole
14. Inside of plasma membrane become the outside
of vesicle (and vice versa)
15. Vesicle break away from plasma membrane &
move into cytoplasm
16. Fluidity of membrane enables this
17. Active process which requires ATP

Vesicle Movement in Cells

Pathway A:
5. Ribosome on rough endoplasmic
reticulum (RER) synthesize
proteins and accumulates in the
RER.
6. Vesicles containing the protein
buds off the RER and carry the
proteins to the Golgi apparatus.
7. The vesicles fuse with the Golgi
apparatus and the proteins are
processed and modified to its
final form.
 8. Vesicles then bud off the Golgi apparatus and fuse with membrane, where protein is secreted. Eg:
digestive enzyme in pancreas

Pathway B: Membrane proteins & phospholipids are also synthesize and fuse to form a growing plasma
membrane.

There are three types of active transport pumps

Uniport:
Symport:
Antiport:

AHL: B2.1.15 Sodium-potassium pumps as an

example of exchange transporters (antiport)
 Axons = nerve cells
 At rest, the sodium-potassium pumps 3 Na+ outside
of cell & import 2K+ into cell
 This helps to generate resting membrane potentials
by producing an overall +ve charge outside cell and
overall -ve charge inside neuron cell

1. The interior of the pump is open

to the inside of the axon; three
sodium ions enter the pump and
attach to their binding sites.
2. ATP transfers a phosphate group
from itself to the pump; this
causes the pump to change
shape and the interior is then
closed.
3. The interior of the pump opens
to the outside of the axon and
the three sodium ions are
released.
4. Two potassium ions from outside
can then enter and attach to
their binding sites.
5. Binding of potassium causes release of the phosphate group; this causes the pump to change shape
again so that it is again only open to the inside of the axon.
6. The interior of the pump opens to the inside of the axon and the two potassium ions are released.
Sodium ions can now enter and bind to the pump again (#1).

AHL: B2.1.14 Gated ion channels in neurons – Voltage gated

• Potassium channels in axons of a neuron are voltage gated
 • When an electrical signal pass
through the axons, the Na+ ion
channel will open, causing a rush of
Na+ ions into the cell
• Causing the inside of cell to be more
+ve
• This voltage change causes the
potassium ions channels to open,
allowing the potassium ions to
diffuse out of the axon cell
• This will cause a change of voltage,
which will then closes the potassium
ion channel again.

AHL: B2.1.14 Gated ion channels in

neurons – Ligand Gated
10. When action potential / electrical
impulse reaches the axon terminal of
the presynaptic neuron, it opens the
voltage gated Ca2+ channels
11. Causes calcium ions (Ca2+) to diffuse
into neuron cell
12. This triggers the vesicles containing
neurotransmitters to fuse with the cell
membrane
13. Releasing neurotransmitters that
diffuse across the synaptic cleft (space
between two neurons)
14. One of the common neurotransmitter
is called acetylcholine (ACh)
15. The neurotransmitter - Acetylcholine binds to a
specific receptor called nicotinic acetylcholine
receptors on the post-synaptic neuron (dendrites) or
muscle cells, which opens and allow sodium ions to
flow in
16. Sodium ions diffuse into post-synaptic neuron and
causes the depolarisation of the post synaptic
neuron
17. The action potential is generated and will propagate
along the post synaptic neuron or causes a cascade of reaction that causes muscle contraction
18. The neurotransmitters are either recycled back or broken down
Primary vs Secondary Active Transport
Primary Active Transport  the one that
uses ATP directly
Eg: sodium-potassium pump antiport
Secondary Active transport  uses the
concentration gradient produced by
sodium-potassium pump to drive the
transport of other molecules against
concentration gradient
Eg: sodium-glucose symport
 active transport intake of glucose
by intestinal cells
 glucose reabsorption by cells in
the nephron of the kidneys)

AHL: B2.1.16 Sodium dependent glucose cotransporters as an example of indirect active

transport

1. Sodium – potassium pump at basal surface is the

primary active transport that requires ATP
2. Sodium is pump out of the epithelial cell and
potassium is pump into the epithelial cell
3. This creates a low concentration of sodium ions
in the epithelial cells
4. Sodium ions from the intestinal lumen diffuse
down concentration gradient into the epithelial
cells and co-transport glucose into the cell
5. Glucose from the cell will then pass through
membrane channel protein into the blood
stream through facilitated diffusion down
concentration gradient
6. Blood flow maintains high concentration
gradient as it continuously bring glucose away