Chapter Goals + Recognize the energy needs of the human body and identity the different food v 7" groups + Understand the organization and the function of the digestive system. * Study the role of the excretory system in the human body Humans Bogan fo consume ‘wheat 10,000 years ago and Used Itlater to produce flour sr itod ory sy te Ad 26° | Hunan BodySupply and DIT Te eles The variety of food we know today has passed through a wide evolution. Food historians have studied the history of food and have revealed some interesting findings Wheat first appeared 10,000 years ago as crop plants and gained importance to become the mostconsumed cereal across the world. People began to produce and consume dairy products, such as milk and yogurt, 7,000 years ago. People use wheat, four. dairy ’ Olive trees are native to the Mediterranean basin. _preduck. and oll fo make more food Wy People started collecting olives 10,000.years ago. Five _Yslefet-such a hese ferent | thousand years later, they began pressing the olives { mafolnest i ater on, people began to mix foods together to create new va sthey If used flout, milk, olive oil, and other ingredients to make the first cupc | an 5 AFood and Energy Food is an important part of many celebrations and gatherings. Grilled steak and chicken, sausages, vegetables, beans, beverages, and many more foods may be present on your table. Food is essential for humans, as it provides the materials they need to survive. Energy Needs Georing > Playing sports, studying, and even taking a nap make you feel hungry. Have you ever wondered why? This is because everything you do requires 1. Explain why energy. Food provides your body with the energy it needs, as well as with humans need energy | essential substances called nutrients. Nutrients are needed by the body and how they gett. | to survive and grow. There are six classes of essential nutrients: carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water. Carbohydrates, fats, and proteins provide the body with energy The amount of energy nutrients release is measured in units called calories. One calorie is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one gram of water by one degree Celsius at a pressure of one atmosphere. Energy given by one gram of a nutrient Calories o4 : Fats Carbohydrates” Proteins" Water, minerats Figure 1 The arnount and vitamins of eneray given by Nutrients each cless of nutiont es 28 | Hunan BodyScientists use the “Calorie”, with a capital C, to measure the amount of energy in food. "Calorie" is used such as 1 Calorie equals 1,000 calories or 1 Kilocalories. A food Calorie, then, is the amount of energy needed to raise the temperature of one kilogram of water by one degree Celsius at a pressure of one atmosphere. The more calories a food has, the more energy it supplies. When you are physically active, you “burn” calories, and your body needs to restore those calories by eating food. Another less common unit to measure food energy is the joule, In comparison to Calories, 1 Calorie equals 4.184 kilojoules. Cheekpoint What units are used to measure food energy? Several factors determine the body's energy needs. Physical activity, growth rate, age, and gender are among these factors. When you were a child, you needed a great amount of energy because you were growing quickly. Your current need for energy, as a teenager, depends on your physical activity and growth rate. Figure 2 Everything you do requées energy. Which ‘activi “burns® more cares? Table 1: Energy needs in Calories per day, by age, gender, and level of physical activity (The U.S. Department of Agriculture, Dietary Guidelines for Americans) Ey oud an Ey erat) Moderatel hemo le ascii cc ae (ecehaa Creo cand 1,200 1,200 1,000 1,200 aa aad 4-8 1,500 1,800 1,200 | 1,500 1,600 9-13 1,800 2,000 2,300 1,600 1,800, 14-18 2,200 2,600 3,000, 1,800 2,000 | 19-30 2,400 2,700 3,000, 2,000 2,100 - 31-50 | 2,000 2,500 2,900 1,800 2,000 51+ 2,000 2,300 2,600 | 1,600 1,800 Table 1 shows how the energy needs of a human depend on age, gender, and physical activity, A sedentary person has a lifestyle that includes light physical activities associated with everyday life. A moderately active person performs 150 minutes of moderate physical activities, like walking ‘or cycling, per week. An active person performs more vigorous sports, such as hiking, jogging, o playing tennis or basketball, 75 minutes a week. Checkpoint How does physical activity affect a person's energy needs? Choper&Suppy and Discharge | 29Nutrients int Carbohydrates Carbohydrates are the body's main source of energy. They are composed of carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen Simple carbohydrates, also known as simple sugars, are naturally found in fruits, milk, and some vegetables, They include monosaccharides ancl disaccharides. Glucose is a monosaccharide, and is the major source of energy for the body. Complex carbohydrates are_ polysaccharides made up of many monosaccharides or disaccharides linked together in chains. Starch is a complex carbohydrate found in plant foods such as potatoes, rice, corn, and some grains. To use starch as an energy source, the body must break it down into the smaller monosaccharides, glucose, 2. Describe carbohydrates and fats as nutrients, needed by the human body. Checkpoint What are two major types of carbohydrates found in foods? Fiber is a complex carbohydrate also found in plant food, The human body cannot break down fiber into sugar molecules. Fruits, vegetables, and nuts, as well as products made of whole grains, such as whole grain breads, pasta, and cereals, Figure 3 Vegelobles contain fiber. ‘and whole grain posta ore rchin ter. Checkpoint Why is fiber important in daily diet? Fats Fats are high-energy nutrients composed of glycerol and fatty acids. The chemical elements that make up fats are carbon, oxygen, and hydrogen. Fats form part of the structure of cells, protect and support the internal organs, and retain heat inside the body. Fats are classified as either unsaturated or saturated, based on their chemical structure, Unsaturated fats mostly come from ‘vegetables, such as olives, nuts, and avocado. Unsaturated fats are usually liquid at room temperature. Some types of seafood, such as salmon, contain unsaturated fat. Saturated fats are solid at room temperature. They can be found in animal products, such as meat, dairy products, egg yolks, and in some plant products, such as palm Foe 4xiect ond fied gil and coconut oil. Food containing saturated fats are rich in cholesterol. foods are ich a Fors Cholesterol is a waxy, fatty substance found in animal products. It is necessary for most body cells, fluids, and tissues. However, it is not a necessary part of the diet because the liver makes all the cholesterol the body needs. Cheekpoint What are two types of fats found in foods? hydrogen, carbon, and oxygen. 3. Identity the lrogen,. ; aera and the ‘Amino acids are the small basic units that make up proteins. They are importance of linked together in chains to form polypeptides. Several polypeptide prereins vitamins, | chains connect to form larger protein molecules. mminerale, and water. | There are twenty one different types of amino acids out of which proteins are built. Twelve of these amino acids are made by the body and are 30 | Munem Boaycalled nonessential amino acids. The rest are called essential amino acids and are obtained from foods, such as meat, milk, beans, and eggs. Amino acids are essentials for many vital processes such as tissue growth and repair. They also serve as a source of energy. Foods rich in proteins include meat, poultry, fish, dairy products, nuts, beans, and lentils Checkpoint What is the difference between essential and nonessential amino acids? Figure S5e0ns reich in proteins Sz pe Testing Foods for Nutrients Materials goggles, disposable gloves, bread, white grape juice, raw egg, iodine solution, Benedict’s solution, 1% copper sulfate solution, 10% sodium hydroxide solution, Bunsen burner, test tubes with stoppers, droppers, paper plate, stopwatch, 5 mL syringe Procedure 1, Put on your goggles and disposable gloves. 2. Place a slice of bread on a paper plate. 3. Use a dropper to add three drops of iodine to the slice of bread. Record your observations. 4. Put 5 mL of white grape juice in a test tube. 5. Add 5 ml of the Benedicts solution to the grape juice. 6. Heat the tube for three minutes on the Bunsen burner, Wait two more minutes and record your observations 7. Put some of the egg white in a test tube. 8. Add five drops of copper sulfate, then 5 mL. of sodium hydroxide, Close the tube with a stopper and shake well. Record your observations. Draw Conclusions 1. Predict What nutrients do you expect to find in each of the tested foods? 2, Record What happens to each of the tested foods? Answer by completing the table below. Food tested Test Result Bread Iodine solution Grape juice Benedict's solution + heating Egg white | Copper sulfate + sodium hydroxide 3. Analyze What class of nutrient does each of tests indicate? 4, Infer Potatoes are rich in starch. How can you test the presence of starch in potatoes and what do you expect to find out? chapter 2:Supp) and Dechare | 31——_ Vitamins Vitamins are nutrients that are essential for a wo variety of chemical reactions that take place within & the body. They are classified as water-soluble, like vitamins C and B, or fat-soluble, like vitamins A, D, all E, and K. Small amounts of vitamins are needed by a the body. Most vitamins are obtained from food. Checkpoint What is the importance of vitamins in the human body? Minerals Minerals are nutrients that are not made by living things; they are absorbed by plants from the soil. They can be obtained directly by eating plants and their fruits, or indirectly by Ww consuming animal-derived products that have eaten plants. Minerals are essential for many reactions in the human body. For example, calcium helps build bones and Figure 6 Types of vitamins | teeth, iron is needed for red blood cells to function, and magnesium is Contained in itlerent “ foods essential for muscle function. Checkpoint How is calcium important for the human body? Water Water is the most abundant substance in the body. It accounts for about 65% to 75% of an average person’s body weight. It is the most important nutrient because vital body processes, such as the breakdown of nutrients, take place in water. Water makes up most of the body's fluids, including blood, and carries nutrients and other important substances throughout the body. Itis essential to drink enough water, The optimum amount of water to drink a day depends on many factors such as age and weight. On average, a person should drink between 6 and 8 glasses of water a day. Figute 7 Water's essential for your body, Food and Health Goorring Boot In order to keep your body healthy, itis important to balance the amount of food you eat and the energy your body uses. As you read before, the 4. Explain how body gets the energy it needs from food. Therefore, it is important to to bud a heathy. | guild a healthy and balanced diet. A balanced diet must cover the energy at catty some | needs of the body, provide all the essential nutrients, and offer a variety consequences of of nutritious elements. unbalanced diets, 32 | Humen SosyBalanced Diets As shown in figure 8, fifty percent of a healthy diet consists of fruits and vegetables. The other fifty percent is formed by grains and proteins. A healthy diet should include plenty of water and a little amount of juices with added sugar. A person should eat healthy fats and oils but avoid too many saturated fats. Always remember to stay physically active to keep your body healthy; move around for at least an hour a day. Checkpoint According to figure 8, which class of food should make the largest portion of your daily diet? Consume healthy falls, such os olive oil and limit soturatect fal, such as butter. Drink plenty of water and walery chinks, such as tea, ‘with litle added sugars, Limit dairy products to one serving per day. Eat varied Eat whole grains and limit vegetables. Limit __ the consumption of refined potatoes and fries. | grains, such as white rice Gnd white brecd. Eat a lot of natural iruits Choose healthy prote! ‘Avoid manufactured sources, such as fish, lean juices. meals, beans, and nuts, Reduce red meat cheese, and FBR SAY ACIVE bacon Recommendations about the daily nutrients-intake values are given by | figure 8 necithy satng the Dietary Reference Intake (DRI). The DRI shows a recommendation |_ lfes'yle includes good “ nutrition and reauiar of how the Calories needed every day should be distributed hetween all | pryscai cctv nutrients, Table 2: This general Dietary Reference Intake shows recommended daily values of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, and isbased ona daily intake of 2,000 Calories. ry 2,000 Calories Total fat <70g een <20g eer ict] 2708 <90g coy 50g ry >25¢ Chapter 2 Sepp ond Dscharge | 33Food labels can be very helpful in deciding how much of each type of food to eat. They allow you to evaluate a single food, as well as compare the nutritional value of different types of foods. They show the amount of nutrients and calories in each serving of the product, and list how many servings are included in one package. Nutrition Facts Serving Size 5 or. (144 Servings Por Contlnar& ‘Amount Per Serving Calories 310 Calories from Fat_ 100 Total Fat 159 Saturated Fat26g_——~=«AT Trans Fat 1g Cholesterol 118mg 39% Sodium 560mg 28% Total Carbohydrate 129 Be Dietary Fiber 1g ah ‘Sugars 19 Protein 249) Vitamin A1% + Vitamin C 2% Calcium 2% Iron 5% *Porcor Daly Vas ro Dod ona 2.600 coe Figute 9 Look at this feod lobel. How many setvings of ths product would you need ta fat to get your protein needs for one cay? Sie You ty values ay be gr orlower 34 | Human Boay ‘epencing an your cla needs ‘caores "2.600 2,600 ‘emf Lace Tran 859 000 ‘Surted Fat ase Tn 20g 250 rans Uses Than 060g. S009 Saou eer Tran Zang 20mg ‘on Carshysate Seon” 359 ‘Diary oer By) Soy aloes oa 9 Fate Comenarted + Proeina Unbalanced Diets An unbalanced diet can result from either an imbalance between energy need and supply, or an imbalance between the types of nutrients, For example, you gain weight when you take in more Calories from food than your body “burns*. Obesity is a condition in which excess fat is accumulated in the body to the extent of having, harmiul effects on human health, such as causing cardiovascular diseases. Reversibly, when you get less energy than you need, you lose weight; in extreme cases you may risk starvation, Starvation is a severe deficiency in Calories intake from food. It is the most extreme form of malnutrition Obesity can be measured using the Body Mass Index (BMI). The Body Mass Index is the ratio of an individual's weight to height. The BMI of a person can be calculated using the equation BMI = weightheight, where weight is expressed in kilograms and height in meters. Checkpoint How is the BMI of a person calculated?Body Mass Index 130 lm Obese 1m Overweight 1m Normal Underweight 120 110 Weight inkg 50 160 170 180 Height in cm Fgute 10 This chart shows how BM can be sed fo determine ro person és considered Underweight, normal ‘overweight, or obese. Use thé chart to identity how your weight relates fo your height, According to the Word Health Organization, © petson having @ BM 01 30 crabove's generally considered, obese. The low intake of one or more essential nutrients can cause serious health problems. Certain essential elements cannot be produced by the body and should be obtained by nutrition, For example, vitamin C is a water- soluble vitamin needed for many vital processes in the human body such as growth and tissue repair. It is used to heal wounds and repair and maintain cartilage, bones, and teeth, The human body is neither capable of making vitamin C nor storing it; therefore, it should be obtained through a human's daily food intake. A deficiency in vitamin C may lead to many health complications such as anemia, decreased ability to fight infections, and even gingivitis, the inflammation of the gums. Cheekpoint What are two disorders caused by unbalanced diets? Section Review 1. Define What is cholesterol? 2, Compare How much energy does one gram of fat give off? How much energy 7. does ane gram of carbohydrate give off? 3. Identify What are some factors that affect the amount of energy a human body needs every day? 4. Identify Why are nutrients important for the human body? 8. Recall How is starch used by the human body? Infer Why does a little child need a lot 5. of energy even though he does not have a high level of physical activity? Predict A thirteen-year-old boy eats a lot of chips and chocolate. He rarely eats vegetables and grains, and loves to eat burgers with soft drinks. How would the diet of this teenager affect his health? Apply Amy does not eat meat. How ‘can Amy have a more balanced diet and compensate for the nutrients present in meat? hope Spy and Dscoge | 352.2 The Digestive System absorption _ eduodenum —_e pancreatic amylase trypsin pepsin villi 5. Identity the functions of the human digestive system and describe the role of the mouth and esophagus Figure 11 The hurmon gestive tact 36 | Hunon Boop ‘As you leamed, humans get nutrients from food. Humans eat different types of foods that contain these nutrients. Therefore, the humans need to break down the foods into smaller nutrients that can be directly used in the body From the Mouth to the Stomach The human digestive system has three main functions: the breakdown of food, the absorption of nutrients into the blood, and the elimination ‘of waste products from digestion. The digestive system is composed of the digestive tract and its accessory digestive glands. The main organs of the human digestive tract are the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Cheekpoint What are the main organs of the human digestive tract? mouth Esophagus 4 Stomach ‘Small intestine Large intestine | Digestion is the process by which the body breaks down food into smaller nutrient molecules. Digestion occurs in a series of organs that form the digestive tract. There are two stages of digestion: mechanical and chemical. During mechanical digestion, food is broken down into smaller pieces; it begins in the mouth as the teeth cut, grind, and mash food.During chemical digestion, food is broken down into simpler molecules, most of which dissolve in water. Chemical digestion is accomplished with the help of enzymes. An enzyme is a protein that speeds up chemical reactions in the body. Enzymes can work better on small food particles, resulting from mechanical digestion, than on larger particles. The body produces different enzymes that take part in only one kind! of chemical reaction. Forexample, the enzyme that helps break down starch into sugars cannot break down proteins into amino acids. Checkpoint What are the two stages of food digestion in the human body? Digestion begins in the mouth. Food is broken down into smaller pieces as you chew. These pieces of food mix with saliva, the liquid released by salivary glands in the mouth, Saliva contains water, mucus, and the enzyme amylase that works on starch Amylase breaks down starch into maltose, which is a disaccharide made up of two molecules of glucose. The water and mucus in saliva help lubricate and soften the food, making it easier to swallow. The tongue rolls, the food mixed with saliva into a ball, called a bolus, and thrusts it into the back of the mouth to be swallowed. Food is prevented from entering | Salivary glands the windpipe, or trachea, which carries air into your lungs, by a flap of tissue called the epiglottis. Ths tissue flops down over the windpipe and closes it to make sure that food only goes down the esophagus. Figure 12 vee pois of salivary glands secrete salva in the mourn, Nasal cavity Figure 13 The swallowing process Windpipe Epigiottis 1. When the bolus 2. As the bolus 3, Once the food isin the mouth, is swallowed, has moved the epiglottis is the epigiotis further down pointing upward, is pointing the esophagus, ‘and airflow downward the epigiotiisis [blue arrow) is and blocks the pointing upward free to move windpine. Ait ‘again and cir from the nasal flow stays within can flow again cavity to the the nasal cavity, from the nasal windpipe. cavity into the windpipe.. ‘Chopier &: Supply and Discharge | 37| The esophagus is a muscular tube, about 25 cm long, that moves food from the mouth to the stomach. The walls of the esophagus start to contract and relax in a progressive way as soon as food enters it from the mouth. This muscular movement, called peristalsis, is essential to push food into the stomach. Esophagus Esophagus Figute 14 Pevistalic, Stomach mavernents of tho esophagus move the Bolusinio the slomech. Inside the Stomach Food enters the stomach from the esophagus. The stomach is a J-shaped organ in the abdominal cavity. It isa muscular bag with elastic walls that 6. Describe digestion | enable it to stretch in order to hold the food entering it. The stomach in the stomach. stores the food temporarily while it mixes it further and begins the digestion of proteins. It then releases the food in small quantities into the small intestine. Figure 15 The walls of the human stomach ore sutounded! by three layers of smooth Fruscics The slormach ling contains gions that release digestive juices into the stomach cavity. 3B | Huron BodyMechanical Digestion in the Stomach The stomach walls have strong muscles that further mash the food. Three strong layers of smooth muscles that surround the stomach contract to mix the food with fluids in the stomach cavity. As you read in chapter 1, the smooth muscles surrounding the stomach are involuntary and contract on their own to carty out the mechanical digestion of food Checkpoint What allows mechanical digestion to be carried out in the stomach? Chemical Digestion in the Stomach Glands in the lining of the stomach produce gastric juice, which contains the enzyme pepsin. Pepsin is first released inside the stomach in its inactive form, pepsinogen, to prevent the breakdown of the glands that contain it, As food enters the stomach, hydrochloric acid is produced and activates pepsin. The enzyme then starts breaking down the proteins in food into smaller polypeptides. The food becomes liquefied into a soupy mixture, and it is then called chyme. The hydrochloric acid lowers the pH, which becomes highly acidic, in the stomach. it also helps in dissolving and degrading foods. The cells lining the inside of the stomach cavity ate protected by thick mucus that covers and shields them from the acid, which would otherwise damage them, Checkpoint Why is the stomach not self-digested by the hydrochloric acid and the enzymes it secretes? Trends in Science In order to determine the time required by the stomach to digest proteins, some scientists tried to model the digestion process in the human stomach. These scientists boiled an egg and cut the white part of it, which is rich in proteins, into small pieces. They placed these pieces in a test tube and added hydrochloric acid, water, and pepsin, at room temperature. The rate of epg white digestion was measured every 4 hours, for 24 hours. Rate of egg white digestion 8 80 60 = i : a 3 3 si 2 $ 3 Time (hours) = In which four hours was the egg white digestion the fastest? ‘* How did this experiment model digestion in the human stomach? * Is this an accurate model for the real digestion process? What are the differences between this experiment and protein digestion in the human body? Chapter 2 Supp ond Onchare | 397. Describe the roles of the liver and the pancreas in digestion in the small intestine. Figure 16 the lver ond tne pancreos release thet secretions in the ‘duodenum cllew further digestion of fats ond proteins. 40 | Humon Boop | Absorption and Elimination Chyme leaves the stomach and moves into the small intestine, which is 2.5 em wide and 7 m long tube. It passes little by little into the upper part of the small intestine called the duodenum. Digestion continues in the duodenum in the presence of digestive juices produced by the small intestine, liver, and pancreas. The small intestine secretes mucus and water, which cover its inner lining and protect it from the acidic chyme coming from the stomach. Liver and Pancreas ) The liver is located in the upper part of the abdomen. It produces bile, a substance containing salts, which aids in the digestion of fats in the small intestine. Bile breaks down fat drops into much smaller drops, thus increasing the surface area at which the fat enzyme will be able to digest fats. Bile is stored in the gallbladder and delivered into the small intestine through a duct. The pancreas aids digestion by supplying pancreatic juices that help break down carbohydrates, fats, and proteins. Pancreatic juices contain three major enzymes: lipase, trypsin, and pancreatic amylase, Lipase is the enzyme that works on the emulsified fats, breaking them into glycerol and fatty acids. Trypsin breaks down proteins and polypeptides into amino acids, Similarly to salivary amylase, pancreatic amylase works on starch and breaks it down into maltose. Checkpoint What are three enzymes in pancreatic juices? Stomach Pancreas Gall bladder Duedenum| Pancreatic juices also contain sodium bicarbonate, a weak base that helps neutralize the acidic chyme entering the small intestine. This is necessary since the enzymes of the pancreas do not work well in acidic conditions. The sodium bicarbonate also protects the duodenum from the action of hydrochloric acid and pepsin. Checkpoint What are two functions of sodium bicarbonate in pancreatic juices?The lower part of the small intestine is called the ileum. The ileum is lined with a thin layer of cells that digest remaining molecules—the ones that have not been completely digested—and absorb them. Peptic ulcer is a condition in which the mucus covering the linings of the stomach or the duodenum is abraded, leading to the development of painful sores in the underlying layer of cells. This condition can be caused by a bacterium called Helicobacter pylori, or by the use of anti- inflammatory drugs. Among the most common symptom of a peptic ulcer are a burning pain in the center of the abdomen, nausea, and vomiting, Cheekpoint What are two possible causes of peptic ulcer? Healthy slomach Peptic ulcers Figure 17 Pepiic ulcers can damage the cel lining the stomach or the ‘duodenum, Duodenal ulcer Stomach ulcer Classroom / activity Simulating How Fat Is Dissolved in Bile Materials test tube, water, vegetable oil, dishwashing liquid, dropper, test tube stand Procedure 1. Filla test tube with water to a height of about 5 cm. 2, Add about 10 drops of vegetable oil to the tube. 3. Seal the tube and shake it well. 4. Open the tube and add five or six drops of liquid dishwashing detergent. ~~ Draw Conclusions 1. Observe What happened to the oil in the test tube after step 3? 2. Observe What happened to the oil in the test tube after adding the detergent? 3. Analyze What do you think was the effect of the detergent on oil? 4, Explain How is this process similar to the way bile breaks up fats in the small intestine? ‘Cooper & Supply and Dichorge | 418, Describe the absorption of Prutrients and the elimination of wastes. / Micxgvil celts wiring vil 42. | Humon Boy e Table 3: Digestion is a series of chemical and mechanical steps that start with complete food and end with nutrients that can be absorbed into the blood, Cer aia Cees b Cee et uke Chewing and_ | Salivary amylase transfc | ani , y amylase transforms |, grinding | starch into maltose. ae Sioa Machi Pepsin transforms proteins into | 4 4, tomach | Mashing food ee ides. Acidic ‘Trypsin transforms polypeptides into amino acids. Lipase breaks down emulsified |g 4, | Basic Small | peristalsis intestine fats into glycerol and fatty acids. Pancreatic amylase transforms starch into maltose. Absorption Absorption allows nutrients to pass from the digestive tract into the blood. It occurs mainly through the walls of the small intestine, The interior of the small intestine is not smooth, but has ridges. These ridges are fingerlike projections called villi. Cells lining villi have microscopic cellular membrane protrusions, called microvilli, that increase the surface area of these cells. Inside each villus, there is a dense network of vessels. vir Blood ‘vessels Figure 18 Millon: of fry vilion the Figure 19 Wicroscopic view of vil: Notice inside of the small intestine give the how these smal projections increase the intestinal walls the appearance of a contac! surface between the internal plush bath towel Ting and the cavity of he small intestine. Nutrients pass from cells on the surface of a villus into the blood vessels. The presence of villi increases the surface area of the small intestine, This enables digested food to be absorbed faster than if the walls of the small intestine were smooth. Checkpoint What is one advantage of villi in the small intestine? Cells throughout the body take in glucose, fats, amino acids, and other nutrients from the blood. Inside the cell, glucose reacts with oxygen to release energy in a chemical reaction called respiration. Fats can be used to build cell membranes and other cell structures. They can also react with oxygen to release energy. Amino acids are used to synthesize | proteins, which, in turn, could be used to build cell materialElimination The last part of the digestive tract is the large intestine. It is about 1.5 m long and about 6 cm wide. It contains bacteria that feed on the material passing through it. These bacteria break down undigested fibers into shorter fatty acids chains, and produce different vitamins, You can observe how villi make such as vitamin K. Some parts of food, such as the cell walls of lettuce | the internal and apple, cannot be digested. Water and undigested food, including | surface of the fiber, pass from the small intestine to the large intestine where water is | $™all intestine absorbed into the bloodstream and the remaining material is eliminated | larger by using your hands. Draw the outline of your hand, palm side down to the paper, with your fingers brought together. Draw another outline of the same hand, but this time with the fingers apart. Find the from the body. The large intestine ends in a short tube, called the rectum, where waste material is eliminated through the anus, a muscular opening at the end of the rectum. Cheekpoint What is the role of bacteria in the large intestine? A disorder affecting waste elimination in the digestive system is diarshea. Diarrhea is characterized by loose, watery stools that occur more frequently than usual. It is a common condition that occurs in the large intestine that leads to either an increase in secretion of fluid, a reduction in absorption of fluid, or rapid passage of stool. A common cause of diarthea is a viral intestinal infection, which could heal on its own within i oth few days. Also eating food or drinking water infected with certain types. | Perimeter of nee ofbacteria or parasites can ead to diarthea. Its important to drink plenty | pullnes and inte of water during diarrhea to avoid dehydration, as water absorption in the the importance of large intestine would occur at a lower rate. villi in the small intestine. Checkpotrt What is diarrhea a Bree uC 1. Define What does the term peristalsis refer to? 2. Recall How is food prevented from entering the windpipe? 3. Identify What is the role of each digestive enzyme in the different parts of the digestive tract? 4. Compare and Contrast How are mechanical digestion and chemical digestion in the human body similar? How are they different? Give one ‘example of each type of digestion 5. Explain Why is it easier to start mechanical digestion before chemical digestion? 6. Describe How are the roles of pepsin and hydrochloric acid in the stomach complementary? 7. Predict What would likely happen if your stomach did not produce mucus? 8. Apply Watery diarrhea is a condition in which human waste contain too much water and is closer to a liquid than a solid. Which organ is most likely not functioning properly in this condition? How would it be possible to reduce the effects of diartheat 9. Predict Certain medical conditions may lead to gastrectomy, which is a partial or complete removal of the stomach. Yet, people that undergo this operation are able to survive without a stomach for the rest of their lives. How is this possible? Can people also survive without a small intestine? Copter Supply ond Discharge | 43Enzymes are biological catalysts that can only function in specific cont In this lab, you will identify how enzymes work on foods in the stomach, Materials test tube holder, pepsin, water, hard-boiled egg white cut into cubes of 5 mm sides, 10 mL graduated cylinders, test tubes with stoppers, markers, hydrochloric acid solution, aprons, Boggles, disposable gloves, water bath, blue litmus paper Procedure 1, Wear your apron, gloves, and goggles throughout the experiment, 2. Use the marker to label four test tubes A, B, C, and D. Place the tubes in the test tube holder. 3. Put two equally-sized, hard-boiled egg white cubes in each tube. Observe and record the size, shape, and appearance of the egg white cubes. 4. Use the graduated cylinder to add 10 mL. of pepsin to tube A. 5. Use a clean graduated cylinder to add 5 mL of water to tube B. Then add 5 mL of pepsin. 6. Use a clean graduated cylinder to add 10 mL of hydrochloric acid to tube C. 7. Usea clean graduated cylinder to add 5 mL. of pepsin to tube D. Rinse out the graduated cylinder, and add 5 mL of hydrochloric acid. Tube Added solutions | A 10 mL of pepsin B 5 ml of water + 5 ml. of pepsin c 10 mL of hydrochloric acid D 5 ml of pepsin + washing + 5 mL of hydrochloric a 8 Dip a clean blue litmus paper into each tube. Blue litmus paper turns pink in the presence of an acid. 9. Close the tubes with the stoppers and leave the test tube holders in the water bath at 37°C overnight, 10. The next day, note the appearance of the egg white in each tube. 11. Dip a clean blue litmus paper into each tube. 44 | Homan BoayData Record 1. In the data table below, record your observations for day 1 and day 2. { ube Egg white appearance Blue litmus paper color jul i Day1 Day 2 Day 1 Day 2 olole]> Analysis and Conclusion 1. Observe What was responsible for the acidic pH in certain tubes? 2. Observe Which conditions were the most appropriate for the egg white digestion? 3. Control Variables Why do you think itis important that all egg white cubes be about the same size? 4, Communicate What is the role of tubes A and C in this experiment? 5. Identify Which nutrient in the egg white is tested in this experiment? 6. Conclude What does this experiment show about the ability of pepsin to digest food? Further Investigation Design an experiment to test the effect of temperature on enzyme activity, Predict how low and high temperatures would affect enzymes in vitro, which means modeling the digestion process in a test tube. Write your hypothesis and your proposed procedure. Propose your experiment to your teacher and communicate the procedure to your classmates. Chapter 2Suppy ond Dicker | 45ya) The Excretory System Key Terms ——sexcietory system sweat urethra ‘enephron ‘eurea ‘urinary bladder perspiration ureter urine | The elimination of waste is essential for maintaining homeostasis. It is important for the human body to keep the equilibrium between the materials it uses to survive and the waste materials it releases while performing its functions. Excess water and urea are two waste materials that the body must get rid of The Skii LK, Gearning Point As you read earlier, the digestive system provides your body with ——— essential nutrients, After your cells use these nutrients and get the energy 9. Describe the they need, they produce waste. Solid wastes resulting from digestion are function of the removed by the large intestine. The excretory system is the organ system excretory system and identify the skin as part of the excretory system. The kidneys filter the blood to remove liquid waste. The lungs remove carbon dioxide and excess water from the body when you exhale. The skin removes excess water, heat, and other waste. that removes liquid and gas wastes. The kidneys, lungs, and skin are among the organs of the excretory system. Checkpoint What are three ways the excretory system removes materials from the human body? waste il Figure 20 the lungs ore excretory organs. when ‘you exhale on a cold oy or onto window . ‘lass, you can see the 4 water vapor your lungs eliminate. 4 46 | Horan BoyThe skin is the largest organ in the body. In addition to protecting the body, it removes excess water, heat, and waste. Think about when you run: your muscles produce heat, and your skin excretes sweat, a mixture of water, salt, and other waste. The process of excreting sweat is called perspiration. Sweat is produced by sweat glands and released to the skin’s surface through pores. When the water in sweat on your skin evaporates, your body cools down. This way, sweating not only eliminates waste but also helps the body maintain homeostasis by regulating its internal temperature Checkpoint What does sweat released by the skin contain? The Urinary System Organization of the Urinary System Two kidneys, two ureters, a urinary bladder, and a urethra make up the urinary system. The kidneys are the major organs of the urinary system. They are about 10 cm long, shaped like large beans, and located in the lower back, just above the ‘waist. Kidneys are often referred to as the body filters because they filter materials from blood. Waste materials are eliminated and other filtered materials are returned to the blood. The kidneys filter all the blood in your body continuously. Cheekpoint Why are kidneys called the body filters? (e Cover your hand with a transparent plastic bag and tape it loosely around your wrist. Wait for five minutes and then write down the changes that you ean observe in the bag. Analyze the results and relate the changes you observed to the role of the skin in waste elimination as part of excretion Figure 21 Sweal glancsin skin remove excess water ond other waste, sweat fake 008 the bady. Georning Paint 10. Describe the trinary system as part of the excretory system and describe kidney stones. Cooper &:Suppy and Discharge | 47Figure 22 the urinary system fiters your blood ‘ond removes waste, Kidney stones Figure 23 lore Kidney stones moy black inary tubes. AB | Human Boy Renal artery Renal vein Kidneys ureters Urinary bladder Urethra, Every time the cardiac muscle of your heart contracts, around twenty percent of your blood enters your kidneys from the renal arteries, which are shown in figure 22, The kidneys remove urea and water from the blood, among other molecules. Urea is a chemical waste that results from the breakdown of proteins in the human body. These wastes are eliminated in urine, which is a watery fluid containing the urea and other waste materials, Urine travels from the kidneys to the urinary bladder through tubes called ureters, The urinary bladder is a muscle-like sac that collects and stores urine. The urinary bladder can store up to one liter of urine. When it becomes full, the muscular walls of the urinary bladder contract to squeeze the urine out through the urethra, which is a tube leading from the urinary bladder to the outside of the body. Checkpoint What route do waste materials filtered in the kidneys take to go out of the human body? Kidney Stones Sometimes substances filtered in the kidneys agi and form crystals, also called kidney stones. These stones can have sizes, Small stones can pass unnoticed, as they are carried by the filtered urine outside of the body. Stones that are to0 large to pass through the urinary tubes can lodge in the ureter and obstruct it, keeping the urine from leaving the kidneys. Symptoms indicating the presence of a kidney stone may include severe pain and blood in the urine. Kidney stones can be broken down into smaller fragments by ultrasound. These fragments can easily pass through the urinary tubes and get expelled out of the body.Classroom /” Activity Model the Function of Kidneys Materials filter paper, funnel, sugar, sugar test strips, beakers, water, sand, 50 mL. graduated cylinder, plastic spoons Procedure 1. Pour 50 mL of water in a beaker. 2. Add a spoonful of sand and a spoonful of sugar to the water and stir, 3. Test the solution in the beaker for sugar using a sugar test strip. Record your observations. 4. Fold the filter paper and place it in the funnel, as shown in the figure below. Gently pour the solution through the funnel with the filter paper into another beaker, Wait Until all the solution passes through the filter paper and test the obtained solution for sugar. Record your observations. (a) ib) © (d) © CU) 5. Observe any solid material retained by the filter paper and record your observations. Draw Conclusions 1. Observe What substances were present in the solution before filtration? 2. Observe What substance was present in the solution after filtration? What substance was retained by the filter paper? 3. Compare How could you compare the model you made in this experiment to the kidneys in the human body? 4, Apply How might a similar filtering device be helpful in the body? ‘Chapter 2 Supply ond Dicharge | 49Learning Paint 11. Describe the filtration of blood inside the kidneys. Figute 24 Kicneys are made up of smal functional units called nephions 50 | Human cody Filtration of Blood Kidneys contain millions of tiny structures called nephrons. A nephron is the tiny tubular functional unit of the kidney. It filters blood to remove waste and produce urine. Nephrons Blood enters the kidneys through the renal artery. Inside the kidneys, the renal artery branches into smaller arteries, sending blood into tiny capillaries inside the nephron. These capillaries are surrounded by a capsule that collects materials, such as urea, water, and glucose. These materials move out of the blood through the thin membrane of the capillaries. Blood cells do not cross the capillary membrane into the capsule. Checkpoint What is the role of the capsule in a nephron? The filtered material goes through a long and twisted tube inside the nephron. As the liquid moves through this tube, glucose and most of the water are reabsorbed into the blood. Urea, water, and other waste materials pile up and form urine. Filtered blood leaves the kidneys through the renal vein. Urine travels from the nephrons through collecting ducts and into the ureters, The ureters lead to the urinary bladder, where urine is collected before it is released from the body. Cheekpoint What is the role of collecting ducts in the kidneys?2.As the liquid Iquid is fit moves forward 1. Liquid is fiterea outof the inthe nephron, bloodin the water nc nopnron glucose travel ° back to the ‘Capsule Blood. Capilvies Blood in sie awe 25 The suctne ot containing seas atonas fom ho waste materia’ Biood isd repens. travels through the collecting ducts towers the ureters The amount of water reabsorbed from the filtered material into the blood depends on the body’s internal conditions. Ii the body cells and tissues have plenty of water available, water reabsorption will be at its minimal rate, to avoid excessive water retention and prevent cells from swelling. In this case, the urine will be rich in eliminated water. I the body cells and tissues do not get enough water, water reabsorption in the nephrons will increase, to reduce water loss and provide cells with their needs. In this case, the urine will be more concentrated and less water is eliminated, which reduces the volume of urine produced. Checkpoint How does the amount of water available for body cells affect water reabsorption in the kidneys? Be og 1. Define What is a nephron? Predict Ona field trip, Lara does not 2, Recall What is the function of the drink as much water as she normally excretory system in the human does, How would the volume of urine body? produced by Lara on the day of the . Review What substances are filtered in the kidneys and what substances are reabsorbed? . Describe How does the skin function to remove waste from the human body? Apply Why is the presence of glucose in urine a sign of an improper kidney function? Explain. How do different parts of the excretory system help in maintaining homeostasis? field trip compare to the volume . of urine produced on another normal day? . Predict Suppose the membrane of one of the capillaries in the nephron was damaged or broken. In this case, what unusual substances would be found in urine? reper 2 Supp on Oscane |SChapter Review Chapter Summary 2.1 Food and Energy Nutrients provide the raw material and energy the body needs in order to live and grow. + The amount of energy a person _aceds depends on gender,age, and the level of physical activity. © The amount of energy released by food is measured in Calories: © The six classes of nutrients necessary for human health are carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water. '* Water is the most important nutrient because it is necessary for all body processes. + Humans must have a balanced diet in terms of energy intake and nutrient variety 2.2 The Digestive System ‘* The main functions of the digestive system are to break down food, absorb nutrients into the blood, and eliminate waste from the body. * Waves of muscle contractions known as peristalsis keep the food moving in one direction from the mouth towards the large intestine. © Chemical digestion starts in the mouth in the presence of salivary amylase, continues in the stomach, in the presence of pepsin, and in the small intestine, in the presence of digestive juices produced by the liver, the pancreas, and the small intestine itself. 52 | Human Body ‘+ Absorption of nutrients into the bloodstream occurs through the villi of the small intestine. + As material moves through the large intestine, water and other molecules are absorbed into the bloodstream and the remaining waste is eliminated from the body. 2.3 The Excretory System # The excretory system removes waste from the human body and maintains homeostasis * Sweat glands in the skin produce sweat and release it to the surface of the body through pores. © The urinary system is made up of two kidneys, two ureters, a urinary bladder, and a urethra. * Blood filtration takes place inside the kidneys, in tiny structures called nephrons. © Urine is led to the urinary bladder through the ureters, and then out of the body through the urethra.Ras Part I Reviewing Key Terms A. Fill in each blank with the most appropriate key term. 1. Carbohydrates, proteins, and fats are three important n food. 2. Tiny fingerlike projections or line the walls of the small intestine. 3. Most chemical digestion of proteins takes place in the 4. Waste that results from breaking down proteins is called —__ B. If the statement is true, write true next to it. IF itis false, change the underlined wordis) to make the statement true. 1. Most nutrients are absorbed into the bloodstream in the large intestine. ory 2. The breakdown of food into nutrients is called mechanical digestion. Jy 3. The energy in food is measured in Calories, CAR 4, Saturated fats are usually liquid at room temperature. Z 14 A", C. Circle the letter of the term or phrase that best completes each sentence. Si 3 1. Mechanical digestion in the mouth is 3. The process during which nutrients possible due to pass from the small intestine to the a. saliva. blood is called b. swallowing, a. digestion c. grinding b. absorption. d. drinking, . excretion, d. elimination, 2. The kidneys control the amount of a. carbon dioxide released 4. Urine is eliminated outside the human b. nutrients in the blood. ody through the c. energy needed by the body. a. lange intestine. d. water that leaves the body. b. urethra. ©. ureter , 4, collecting duct D. Answer each question. 1. What is the function of the lungs in the excretory system? 2, What muscular movement of the digestive system allows mechanical digestion of food? 3. What are three factors that determine the energy needed by a person? Chopter 2 Supp end Dichoze | 53Part Il Developing Skills A Circle the letter of the term or phrase that best answers each question. 1. Which of the following menus is the 3. Which of the following could be an healthiest? indication of kidney malfunction? a. cookies, cheese, fruit, potato chips, a. the presence of water in urine and water b. the presence of urea in urine b, salad, green beans, grilled fish, . the presence of glucose in urine cheese, fruits, and water d. the presence of water in blood c. hamburger, fries, ice cream, chocolate, and soda 4, Which organ in the human body filters d. corn salad, pasta, bread, banana, chemical waste? and fruit juice a. the stomach b, the small intestine 2. Which of the following is not a . the kidneys function of the digestive system? d. the pancreas a. providing the body with nutrients b, eliminating waste . absorbing water from food d, filtering urea from blood Organize Information Complete the table below to describe how the different organs of the digestive system work in the human body. | Organ of the digestive system Function, Enzyme or enzymes involved _ Mouth | | Esophagus Stomach ‘Small intestine | | Large intestine Critical Thinking 1. The table below represents the rate of digestion of different types of food in three different organs of the human digestive system, Rate of digestion (percent/hour) | Food substances Organ | Organ B Organ C | Starch | 87. 10.0 | 3.0 _____ Proteins 0.01 | 87 3 | L_ Lipids 0.01 199 80 Sucrose sugar | oor 3.0 969 1uss How do the rates of digestion of each food substance change in each organ? b. Identify What does each of organs A, B, and C represent? Justify your answer. 54 | Human Boy. Specify What is the nutrient obtained by the digestion of each of starch, proteins, and lipids in organs A, B, and C respectively? 4d, Identify After complete digestion, which of the above food substances will join the blood-stream first? Which one will join the blood-stream last? €. Sketch Make a drawing showing the digestive tract, and the pathway of food substance absorption into the blood-stream. 2, The graph below represents the concentration of sodium chloride, which is table salt, in the blood and the urine of a person for several days. During days 1 to 5, sodium chloride was omitted from the diet. On day 5, a supplement of 10 grams of sodium chloride was given daily to the person, 4 124 — Sodium chloride in urine — Sodium chloride in blood | Sodium chloride concentration (g/t) Oh 12345678 dion itAs Days : eS a. Observe What variable is tested in this experiment? b. Analyze Data How did the tested variable change throughout the experiment? . Interpret What changes in the human body systems of this person led to the results observed in the graph above? d. Infer How does this experiment reflect the role of kidneys in maintaining homeostasis? Part Ill Thinking Further Kidneys are important organs in the human body because they act as a filter, clean, and help maintain homeostasis. Some people may suffer from renal failure, a clinical condition when one or both kidneys are not able to properly perform their function anymore. Do some research to explain the condition of these patients, and propose a possible solution allowing these patients to survive. Communicate your findings to your classmates. concer 2: Supply and Dxchrge | 55