Introduction To Engineering Materials

19. Thermal Properties

19.1. Heat Capacity.
a) Heat capacity.
It represents the amount of energy required to produce a unit temperature rise.
‫هي خاصية مميزة للمادة تقوم بتحديد مقدار التغير في درجة حرارة المادة اعتمادا ً على كمية الطاقة‬
.‫الحرارية التي تستقبلها‬
𝐶 = 𝑑𝑄/𝑑𝑇 (C→ J/oK)
Specific Heat:
It represents the heat capacity per unit mass and has various units (J/kg.oK,
cal/g.oK, Btu/lbm .oF).
Cv → represents specific heat at const. volume.
Cp → represents specific heat at const. pressure.
b) Vibrational Heat capacity.
What is the principal mode of thermal energy assimilation in solids?
‫طريقة امتصاص الحرارة في المواد الصلبة‬
▪ Thermal energy (heat) is converted into vibration (kinetic energy) in
atoms.
▪ This vibration travels between adjacent atoms through atomic bonding
(lattice) in the shape of elastic waves, shown in Fig.19.1.
▪ A single quantum of vibrational energy is called a phonon.

Fig.19.1. The lattice waves in a crystal by means of atomic vibrations.

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c) Heat Capacity and Temperature.

The variation with temperature of heat capacity for many relatively simple
crystalline solids is shown in Figure 19.2.

Fig.19.2. The temperature and the heat capacity relation at

constant volume; θD is the Debye temperature (T/TD).

This curve is divided into two regions:

1. At low temperature T<<TD.
▪ It depends on the contribution of the phonons to the heat capacity of
the crystal (the lattice heat capacity). The quantum mechanics takes
over the role.
▪ The Cv is zero at 0 K, but it rises rapidly with temperature. At low
temperatures, the relationship between Cv and the absolute temperature
T is: Cv = A T3 (A is constant)

CTotal = Cphonon + Celectronic

thermal ‫ على مقدار طاقة حركة الموجة المتولدة من انتقال ال‬Capacity ‫هي المنطقة التي تعتمد فيها ال‬
‫ وبالتالي بزيادة درجة الحرارة تزداد طاقة الحركة وسرعة انتقال الموجة‬lattice atoms‫عبر ال‬energy
capacity ‫ وبالتالي ال‬.TD debye temperature ‫االهتزازية الى أن تصل الحرارة لحد معين وهو‬
.T<<TD ‫تزداد بزيادة درجة الحرارة في حالة أن‬
2. At high temperature T>>TD.
▪ Cv levels off and becomes essentially independent of temperature at a
value of approximately 3R, R being the gas constant.

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▪ This means heat capacity becomes specific and then the relation
becomes as illustrated before, 𝑪 = 𝒅𝑸/𝒅𝑻 (C→ J/oK).
‫ تصبح السعة الحرارية خاصية ثابتة مميزة للمادة وبالتالي يتم توصيف‬TD‫عندما تتخطى درجة الحرارة ال‬
heat ‫العالقة كما تم توصيفها سابقا وهو أن كمية التغير في الحرارة ودرجة الحرارة يعتمدان علي ال‬
.‫ وليس العكس‬capacity
19.2. Thermal Expansion.
I. Coefficient of Thermal Expansion
- Linear Coefficient of thermal expansion is a material property that determines
to what extent there will be a change in length upon heating for a solid
material.
.‫هو خاصية مميزة للمادة والتي تحدد إلى أي مدى يمكن للمادة أن تتمدد تحت تأثير الحرارة‬
𝜟𝒍
= αL.ΔT
𝒍𝒐

At which ΔT = (T2-T1) and ΔL = L2-L1

*Units: T→oC, L→mm, αL→ oC-1
- Volume Coefficient of thermal expansion determines change in volume upon
heating for a solid material.
𝜟𝒗
= αv.ΔT
𝒗𝒐

II. Thermal Expansion (Interatomic Distance) and Heating Energy.

• By heating to successively higher temperatures (T1 , T2 , T3 , etc.),
vibrational energy rises the from E1 to E2 to E3 and so on the interatomic
distance increases from r0 to r1, r2, and r3, as in Fig.19.3.a.
• For a symmetric potential energy, there is no increase in interatomic
separation with rising temperature (r1, r2, r3) as shown in Fig.19.3.b.
‫الطاقة الحرارية التي يتم امدادها للمادة تسير في شكل موجات اهتزازية كما ذُكر سابقا والتي‬:‫الحظ‬
‫ إذا كانت كافية للتغلب على طاقة ربط الذرات مع بعضها والمتمثلة‬expansion ‫تؤدي إلى حدوث‬
potential energy ‫في طاقة وضع‬

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The original Curve

Fig.19.3. (a) Plot of potential energy versus interatomic distance (b)A symmetric
potential energy-versus-interatomic distance curve.

III. Thermal Expansion in different materials.

Material Thermal Expansion
Intermediate range of expansion in magnitude between those for ceramic
Metals
and polymeric materials.
They have low coefficients of thermal expansion due to relatively strong
interatomic bonding forces.
Ceramics - Example: Fused silica (high-purity SiO2 glass) has a small expansion
coefficient, 0.4 x10-6 (oC)-1 . This is explained by a low atomic packing
density such that interatomic expansion produces relatively small.

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- Some polymeric materials experience very large thermal expansions

upon heating.
- The highest values are found in linear and branched polymers because
the secondary intermolecular bonds are weak and there is a minimum
of crosslinking.
Polymers
- With increased crosslinking, the magnitude of the expansion coefficient
decreases.
- The lowest coefficients are found in the thermosetting network
polymers such as phenol-formaldehyde, in which the bonding is almost
entirely covalent.

19.3. Thermal Conductivity.

What is Thermal Conductivity?

The property that characterizes the ability of a material to transfer heat from
high to low temperature.
- Equation of conductivity in case of steady state case (no change in heat flux
𝒅𝑻
with time) and temperature gradient→ q = -k ( ).
𝒅𝒙
In which: q→ heat flux/flow per unit area-perpendicular (W/m2).
k → thermal conductivity (W/m.k).
dT/dx →the temperature gradient through the conducting medium (k/m).

Mechanisms of Heat Conduction in Solids.

Heat is transported in solid materials by both lattice vibration waves
(phonons) and free electrons. k = kl + ke
- Lattice Conduction: The thermal energy associated with phonons or lattice
waves is transported in the direction of their motion from high- to low-
temperature regions.
- Electron Conduction: A gain in kinetic energy is imparted to the free electrons
in a hot region of the specimen. They then migrate to colder areas, where some
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of this kinetic energy is transferred to the atoms (as vibrational energy) as a

consequence of collisions with phonons or other imperfections in the crystal.
Thermal Conductivity in different materials.
a) Metals
- Metals are extremely good conductors of heat because relatively large
numbers of free electrons.
- Alloying metals with impurities results in a reduction in the thermal
and electrical conductivity because impurity atoms act as scattering
centers, lowering the efficiency of electron motion.
- Note: In high-purity metals, the electron mechanism of heat transport
is much more efficient than the phonon contribution because electrons
are not as easily scattered as phonons and have higher velocities.
- Wiedemann–Franz law to relate electrical and thermal conduction for
metals.
𝒌
L=
𝝈.𝑻
L→ Wiedemann–Franz constant = 2.44 x 10-8 (Ω .W/(K)2).
σ→ Electrical conductivity(Ω.m)-1.
T→ Absolute temperature (ok).
b) Ceramics
- Nonmetallic materials are thermal insulators since the lack of large
numbers of free electrons and phonons’ effect is very small and weak.
- The thermal conductivity of most ceramic materials normally decreases
with increasing temperature due to higher scattering of lattice vibrations
with rising temperature.
c) Polymers
- Energy transfer is accomplished by the vibration and rotation of the
chain molecules. The magnitude of the thermal conductivity depends

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on the degree of crystallinity; a polymer with a highly crystalline and

ordered structure has a greater conductivity than amorphous material.
- Polymers are often used as thermal insulators because of their low
thermal conductivities.
- As with ceramics, their insulative properties may be further enhanced
by the introduction of small pores, which are typically introduced by
foaming. Foamed polystyrene is commonly used for drinking cups and
insulating chests.

19.4. Thermal Stresses

What are Thermal Stresses?

Thermal stresses are stresses induced in a body as a result of changes in
temperature, may lead to fracture or undesirable plastic deformation.
19.4.1. Stresses Resulting from Restrained Thermal Expansion and Contraction.
Case: The solid material is homogeneous and isotropic-heated or cooled
uniformly- no temperature gradient.
Example: If a solid homogenous rod is exposured to heat and axial motion of
the rod (expansion) is restrained by rigid end supports (mechanical load),
thermal stresses are introduced.

‫تتولد اجهادات داخل المادة بنفس مقدرا اجهاد التمدد الذي كان من المفترض حدوثه نتيجة التمدد الحراري اذا لم يكن هناك‬
.support / ‫عائق‬

Expansion is constrained
by mechanical load.

- The magnitude of the resulting stress is σ = E.αL.(T0 - Tf ) = E.αL.ΔT

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19.4.2. Stresses Resulting from Temperature Gradients.

Case : When a solid body is heated or cooled, the internal temperature
distribution depends on its size and shape, the thermal conductivity of
the material, and the rate of temperature change.
Explanation: Thermal stresses are established because of temperature
gradients across a body dimension (from side to side or core to shell).
This is because different parts of the material expand or contract at
different rates, creating internal forces that may exceed the material's
strength causing fracture.

‫ أوفي أي بُعد آخر في المادة‬thickness‫في هذه الحالة يكون هناك تدرج في درجة الحرارة على طول ال‬
)‫(على عكس الحالة األولى والتي تهتم بمقاومة محصلة التمدد الكلي للمادة دون وجود تدرج في الحرارة‬
‫وبالتالي نتيجة اختالف درجات الحرارة على طول المادة من الخارج للداخل أو العكس يحدث تمدد بمعدل‬
.‫مختلف للمناطق المختلفة بالمادة فينشأ عنه اجهادات غير متساوية بين أجزاء المادة‬
‫ هناك تغير في درجة الحرارة على طول نصف القطر وبالتالي المناطق األعلى في‬:‫في الرسمة الموضحة‬
.‫درجة الحرارة تحتاج للتمدد بشكل أعلى وتولِد إجهادات ضغط على المناطق المجاورة لها‬

19.4.3. Thermal Shock of Brittle Materials.

Thermal Shock: The fracture of a body resulting from thermal stresses
induced by rapid temperature changes.
Why ceramics are much more influenced by thermal shock than metals
and polymers?
Because ceramics are brittle materials with low ductility and no plastic
deformation and then when exposured to rabid heating or cooling, there
will be high thermal stresses induced and then fracture.

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In ductile materials, higher ductility and plastic deformation exist which

alleviate thermally induced stresses.
grains‫( ويتغير شكل ال‬plastic deformation) ‫ تتشكل المواد داخليا ً بشكل دائم‬ductile‫في حالة المواد ال‬
.‫مطاوعةً كنتيجة لوجود اجهادات داخل المادة وهذا التشكل يخلص المادة من االجهادات‬
‫ فيحدث كسر‬stress-strain curve ‫ في‬plastic deformation ‫ ال يوجد‬brittle materials ‫أما في حالة‬
.yield‫مفاجئ في العينة اذا وصل االجهادات حد ال‬

Thermal Shock Resistance.

- The capacity of a material to withstand this kind of failure due to rapid
change in temperature. TSR = σf.k/EαL
- Thermal shock may be prevented by altering the external conditions to
the degree that cooling or heating rates are reduced and temperature
gradients across a body are minimized or modification of the thermal
and/or mechanical characteristics.
- The coefficient of thermal expansion is probably most easily changed
and controlled. The introduction of some relatively large pores or a
ductile second phase may also improve the thermal shock
characteristics of a material.
‫من خالل تحسين خصائص المادة الميكانيكية أثناء عملية‬thermal shock ‫يمكن التحسين في مقاومة‬
‫التصنيع أو التحكم في العوامل الحرارية الخارجية التي تتعرض لها المادة أو بتخليق فراغات لتقليل التمدد‬
.‫الحراري أو بإضافة مواد داعمة ذات معامل تمدد حراري منخفض‬

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