Module 1

CET 206

TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING
MODULE-1

Reuben Jacob Chacko

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil Engineering
STCET

reuben@stthomascollege.ac.in

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SYLLABUS

Module Contents Hours

Introduction to Transportation Engineering, Classification of roads, Typical

cross sections of roads in urban and rural area, Requirements and factors
controlling alignment of roads.
Introduction to geometric design of highways, Design controls and criteria,
1 10
Design of highway cross section elements, Design of horizontal alignment -
Stopping sight distance, Overtaking sight distance, super elevation, transition
curve, length and shift of transition curve, extra widening.
Vertical alignment (introduction only)
Introduction to highway materials, Desirable properties and testing of road
aggregates, bituminous materials and sub grade soil.
2 Introduction of flexible and rigid pavements, Factors influencing the design of 10
flexible pavements, Design of flexible pavements by CBR method and IRC 37:
2018. Construction of bituminous pavements
Introduction to traffic engineering, Traffic characteristics, Capacity and Level
of Service, Design Speed, Traffic surveys, Types of road intersections, Traffic
3 7
Control devices (introduction only), Design of isolated signals by Webster’s
method.
Railway Engineering - Component parts of a railway track - functions, concept
of Gauges, coning of wheels, cant deficiency, compensation of gradients
Tunnel Engineering: Tunnel – sections, tunnel surveying - alignment,
9
4 transferring centre grade into tunnel.
Harbours – classification, features, requirements. Break waters - necessity and
functions, classification.
Docks – Functions and types - dry docks, wet docks ( Introduction only)
Introduction to Airport Engineering, Components of airport, selection of site
for airport.
5 9
Runway orientation, basic runway length and corrections required, Taxiways
and aprons.

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MODULE- 1

1.1 DIFFERENT MODES OF TRANSPORTATION

1. Railways

a. Surface

b. Underground

c. Elevated

2. Road transport

3. Air transport

4. Rope ways

5. Pipe lines

1.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF ROAD TRANSPORT

 Low capital investment

 Flexible service
 More freedom to users while travelling
 Ability to accommodate various types of vehicles at a time
 Quick and assured door to door service
 Faster and cheaper service particularly for short distance travel

1.3 CLASSIFICATION OF ROADS

 Depending on weather
1. All weather roads

2. Fair weather roads

 Depending on the type of carriage way

1. Paved road (WBM)
2. Unpaved road (earth rod or gravel road)

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 Depending on the pavement surface

1. Surfaced road (Bituminous or cement concrete rod)

2. Un surfaced roads
 Based on traffic volume
1. Heavy
2. Medium
3. Light
 Based on Location and Function
1. Expressway
2. National Highway
3. State Highway
4. Major District Road
5. Other District Road
6. Village Road

 Based on Modified System

1. Primary System:- Expressway, National Highway

2. Secondary System:- State highway, Major District Road
3. Tertiary System:- Other District Road, Village Road

1. Expressways
 Highways with superior facilities and design standards
 For high traffic volume and permit fast moving vehicles
 High Speed (120 km/Hr)
 Land Width 90 m
 Expressways are to be provided with divided carriage ways, controlled access, grade
separation at cross roads and fencing.
 No loading, unloading and No parking allowed
 Eg: Mumbai – Pune expressway

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2. National highways (NH)

 Main highways running through the length and breadth of India, connecting major ports,
foreign highways, capitals of states and large industrial and tourist centers.
 Bombay – Agra: NH – 3

 Madurai – Rameshwaram: NH – 9

3. State highways (SH)

 Arterial roads of a state, connecting up with the national highways of adjacent states,
district and important cities within the state and serving as the main arteries for traffic to
and from district roads
 Speed 80 km/Hr
 NH and SH have the same design speed and geometric design specifications

4. Major District roads (MDR)

 Important roads within a district serving areas of production and markets and connecting those
with each other
 MDR has lower speed and geometric design specifications than NH/SH
 Speed 60 – 80 km/hr

5. Other district roads (ODR)

 Roads serving rural areas of production and providing them with outlet to market centers,
headquarters or other main roads
 ODR has lower speed and geometric design specifications than MDR
 Speed 50 – 60 km/hr

6. Village roads (VR)

 Roads connecting villages or groups of villages with each other to the nearest roads of a higher
category
 Speed 30 – 50 km/hr

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1.4 CROSS-SECTION OF ROADS IN URBAN AND RURAL AREAS

Figure 1.1: Cross-section of road

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Figure 1.2: Cross-section of road in rural and urban areas

Indian Roads

Expressway National Highway

State Highway Major District Road

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Other District Road Village Road

HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

The position or the layout of the center line of the highway on the ground is called the
alignment. It includes Horizontal alignment and vertical alignment
 Horizontal alignment: It includes straight path, the horizontal deviations and curves
 Vertical alignment: It includes changes in gradient and vertical curves

Requirements of highway alignment

The basic requirements of an ideal alignment between two terminal stations are that it should be:
1. Short
 It is desirable to have a shortest alignment between two terminal stations.
 A straight alignment would be the shortest, though there may be several practical
considerations which would cause deviation from the shortest path
2. Easy
 The alignment should be easy to construct and maintain with minimum problem.
 It should be easy for the operation of vehicles with easy gradients and curves
3. Safe
 The alignment should be safe enough for construction and maintenance.
 It should be safe for the traffic operation with safe geometric features
4. Economical
 The alignment should be economical.
 The total cost including initial cost, maintenance cost and vehicle operation cost should be low.

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Factors controlling alignment

The various factors which control the highway alignment are:

1. Obligatory points
 The intermediate points between the stations which governs the alignment are
divided into two
a) Points through which the alignment is to pass
Obligatory points through which the alignment has to pass may cause the
alignment to deviate from the shortest path. The various examples of this
category may be mountain pass, bridge site, and intermediate town .etc.

i. Mountain pass: The shortest path may be deviated to avoid tunneling or

heavy cutting
ii. Road Bridge: The road bridge across a river can be located only at place
where the river has straight and permanent path
iii. Intermediate town: while aligning a road between two stations, it may
often be desirable to connect some of the intermediate towns, villages or
other places. This will deviate the shortest path
b) Points through which the alignment should not pass

The obligatory points which should be avoided while aligning a road include
religious places, costly structures, unsuitable land, lake, pond, valley etc.

Figure 1.3: Obligatory points

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2. Traffic
 The alignment should suit traffic requirement and trend of traffic flow
3. Geometric design
 The gradient, radius of curve and sight distance affect the alignment
 Alignment with minimum gradient, large radius and high sight distance is
suitable
4. Economics
 The cost for construction, maintenance and operation should be minimum
 Alignment with minimum cot should be selected
5. Other considerations
 Political factors, topography, hydrological factors also influence the alignment

ENGINEERING SURVEYS FOR HIGHWAY LOCATION

 Four stages
 First three: consider all possible alternate alignment
 Fourth Stage: detailed survey for the selected alignment

1.6.1 Stages of engineering surveys are:

1. Map study
2. Reconnaissance
3. Preliminary survey
4. Final location and detailed survey

1. Map study

 Topographic map shows the main features like river, mountain, hill, valley, etc
 By studying the features, it is possible to have an idea about several possible
routes

2. Reconnaissance

 Site visit and study about the different alternate routes suggested form map study
 Simple instruments like level, clinometer, etc are used
Details collected during reconnaissance survey are:
 Obstruction along the route

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 Approximate value of gradient, radius of curve for all alignment

 Number and type of drainage required
 Soil type and geological features like crack, fault, etc
From the details collected, the alignment proposed may be altered or changed completely. After
reconnaissance survey, a few alternate alignments may be chosen based on practical considerations
observed at site

3. Preliminary survey

 Collect all necessary information about the alignments proposed after reconnaissance
survey
 Compare the different alignments based on the data collected
 Finalize best alignment
The preliminary survey can be conducted either by:

1. Conventional approach: which includes primary traversing, studying topographical features,

Leveling work, Drainage studies and hydrological data collection, Soil survey, Material survey,
Traffic survey, and determination of final center line of the selected alignment?

2. Modern rapid approach: which is done by taking aerial photograph, analyses photograph and
select control points, Spot levels and contour lines, and studying geological features from the
photographs?

4. Final location and detailed survey

 Locate the center line of finalized alignment on the field

Location
 The center line of the finalized alignment is transferred to the ground using a
theodolite
 Control points are established by driving pegs at 50 m interval
Detailed survey
 Level and cross section of the finalized alignment is taken
 All topographical data required are collected
 Detailed soil survey is conducted

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SAMPLE QUESTIONS
1. Explain the various factors controlling the alignment of roads.
2. Draw the typical cross section of urban road in embankment and mark the various
features.
3. List down the engineering surveys needed for highway location
4. Discuss the classification of highways in India
5. What are the requirements of an ideal permanent way?
6. What are the engineering surveys conducted to fix the alignment of a highway?
7. Sketch neatly the cross section with names of components/structures giving appropriate
dimensions of a National Highway with 4 lane traffic
8. Explain how obligatory points control the alignment
9. Classify the roads of India. Also Differentiate between NH and SH
10. Draw the cross-section of the following roads indicating the width of pavement, roadway
and land : MDR in embankment, ODR in cutting, NH in embankment in rural area, NH
in cutting, city road and divided highway in urban area

GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAYS

The geometric design of highway deals with the dimensions and layout of visible features of the
highway such as alignment, sight distance and intersections
Geometric design of highway deals with the following elements:
 Cross section elements
 Sight distance considerations
 Horizontal alignment details
 Vertical alignment details
 Intersection elements

Design controls and criteria

The factors which control the geometric elements are:

1. Design speed: Design speed may be modified depending up on the terrain condition.
Design of every element of road dependent on design speed of vehicle
2. Topography: Design of road elements depends on the nature of topography, whether the

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area is plain, rolling or hilly

Topography is classified based on the general slope of the country
 Plain terrain < 10 %
 Rolling terrain - 10 - 25 %
 Mountainous terrain -25 - 60 %
 Steep terrain > 60 %

3. Traffic factors: Design of road elements depends on the vehicle characteristics like
width, length of vehicle and human characteristics like mental and psychological
characteristics of driver
4. Design hourly volume and capacity: Road elements are designed to incorporate the
increasing volume of vehicles
5. Environmental and other factors: Aesthetics, Landscaping, Air Pollution, Noise
pollution, etc.

HIGHWAY CROSS SECTION ELEMENTS

Cross section elements include:

1. Pavement surface characteristics
2. Cross slope or camber
3. Width of pavement or carriage way
4. Traffic separators or medians or dividers
5. Kerb
6. Road margin
7. Width of road way or formation

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Figure 2.1: Elements of road

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Cross Section Elements of Road

Pavement surface characteristics

i. Friction

 Friction between tyre and pavement surface

 IRC recommends longitudinal frictional coefficient = 0.35 to 0.40
 IRC recommends lateral frictional coefficient at curves = 0.15
 Skidding: Path travelled along the road is more than the circumferential
movement of the wheel due to their rotation
 Slipping: Wheels revolves more than the longitudinal movement along the road
Factors affecting friction between pavement surface and tyre:
1. Type of pavement surface: whether surface is cement concrete, bituminous or
earth surface
2. Texture of road surface: Friction is high on rough surface than smooth surface
3. Condition of pavement: Friction is high on dry pavement than wet pavement
4. Type and condition of tyre: Friction high on new tyre than worn-out tyre
5. Speed: friction decreases as speed increases
6. Load and tyre pressure: friction increases as load increases

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Pavement unevenness

 Undulation or irregular surface of road affect the speed, vehicle operation,

comfort and safety
 Undulation or unevenness in road surface is measured by Bumb integrator or by
Rougho meter
 Unevenness index: it is the measure of vertical undulations of the pavement per
unit horizontal length of road in cm/ km
 It should be as low as possible

Table 2.1: Unevenness index

Unevenness index Pavement type
< 150 cm/km Good pavement
250 cm/km Satisfactory
> 350 cm/km Uncomfortable

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ii. Light reflecting characteristics

 Night visibility depends on light reflecting characteristics of pavement

 Black top roads(bituminous road) – has poor visibility during night
 Light coloured road (concrete road) – good visibility during night. But produce
glare and eye strain during day time

Cross slope or camber

Provided to:
 Drain off rain water from pavement surface
 To prevent entry of water through pavement
 To make the surface dry soon after the rain
Camber represented in 1 in n or in percentage
Camber are generally provided in 3 types

i. Parabolic

 Profile is flat at middle and steeper towards the edges

 Preferred for fast moving vehicles
 Slow vehicles will have tendency to overturn inside
 In an parabolic camber, all vehicles try to occupy the center, so the capacity of road
is reduced

ii. Straight line

 Uniform cross slope on either side

 Preferred for slow moving vehicles
 The crown of straight line camber is sharp, hence it there is more chance to damage

iii. Combination of straight line and parabolic

 Preferred for both slow and fast moving vehicles

 Less damage

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Figure 2.2: Type of Camber

Table 2.2: Range of Camber

Range of camber in areas of rainfall range
Heavy to Light

Type of road surface

Cement concrete and high type bituminous
1 in 50 (2.0 %) to 1 in 60 (1.7 %)
surface
Thin bituminous surface 1 in 40 (2.5 %) to 1 in 50 (2.0 %)
Water bound macadam, and gravel pavement 1 in 33 (30 %) to 1 in 40 (2.5 %)
Earth 1 in 25 (4.0 %) to 1 in 33 (3.0 %)

Width of pavement or carriage way

 Width of a road is decided by the width of vehicles and side clearance between vehicles
 The maximum width of vehicle as per IRC = 2.44 m, minimum clearance of 0.68 m in
single lane and 1.02 m in case of double lane.
Table 2.3: Width of carriage way
Class of road Width of carriage way
Single lane 3.75 m
Two lane, without raised kerbs 7.0 m

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Two lane, with raised kerbs 7.5 m

Intermediate carriage way 5.5 m
Multi - lane pavement 3.5 m per lane

 Width of road on horizontal curve is increases to avoid off tracking and it is called Extra
widening

Figure 2.3: Width of pavement

Traffic separators or medians

Provided to:
 prevent head on collision between vehicles
 To channelize the traffic
 To prevent unnecessary crossing and turning
 To separate slow traffic from fast moving vehicles
Traffic separators are provided as pavement markings, physical dividers or area separators
IRC Recommendation

 Minimum width of separator as 5 m for rural highways which can be reduced to 3 m

where land is restricted
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 Width of separator on long bridges is reduced to 1.2 m

Figure 2.4: Kerb and separator

Traffic Seperator

Kerb

 It is provided to indicate the boundary between pavement and footpath

Kerbs are of four types:

i. Low or mountable type

 Small kerb which allow driver to enter shoulder

 Its height is 10 cm

ii. Semi barrier type

 Prevent entry into shoulder

 But at emergency it is possible to drive over shoulder
 Its height is 15 cm

iii. Barrier type

 Prevent entry into shoulder

 Its height is 20 cm

iv. Submerged

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 Provided in rural area

 It provide lateral conferment for base soil

Figure 2.5: Types of kerb

Road margin

Road margin includes shoulder, parking lane, cycle track, footpath and guard rail

i. Shoulder

 It is used as emergency lane for vehicle

 It act as service lane for breakdown vehicles

 IRC recommends minimum width of shoulder as 2.5 m
 Surface of shoulder should be rougher than the traffic lane to discourage the
vehicles to use it as a regular traffic
 Colour of the shoulder should be different from the traffic lane so as to distinct

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Shoulder

ii. Parking lane

 For parking vehicles

 Only parallel parking should be allowed as it is safer for moving vehicles
 IRC recommends minimum width of parking lane as 3 m

Parking lane

iii. Cycle track

 Provided where cycle traffic is high

 IRC recommends minimum width of cycle lane as 2 m

Cycle Track

iv. Footpath or side walks

 Provided where pedestrian traffic is high

 IRC recommends minimum width of footpath as 1.5 m

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Footpatch

v. Guard rail

 Provided at the edge of shoulder to prevent vehicles running off the embankment
 Provided on curves for better night visibility

Guard Rail
vi. Width of road way or formation

 Width of road way = width of carriage way + width of shoulder

 It is the top width of highway pavement

Table 2.4: width of formation

Roadway width
Road classification On plain and On mountainous
rolling terrain and steep terrain
NH and SH Single
12 6.25
lane

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NH and SH Double
12 8.8
lane
MDR Single lane 9 4.75
MDR Double lane 9 -
ODR Single lane 7.5 4.75
ODR Double lane 9 -
VR Single lane 7.5 4

vii. Right of way

 It is the area of land acquired for the road along its alignment
 It depends on the importance of the road and possible future development
 Its width is known as land width
Factors governing the land width are:
 Width of formation
 Height of embankment
 Slope of embankment
 Sight distance
 Reserve land for future development
Boundary line: boundary of road land

Building line: In order to reserve sufficient space for future development of road, it is desirable
to control the building activities on either side of the road boundary. Building line is the line up
to which building activity is restricted

Control line: Control the future development of building limit and to control the nature of
building up to further set back distance

Table 2.5: Width of formation

Formation width
Road type For plain and For mountainous
rolling terrain and steep terrain
For open area

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NH/SH 45 24
MDR 25 18
ODR 15 15
VR 12 9
For Built up area
NH/SH 30 20
MDR 20 15
ODR 15 12
VR 10 9

SIGHT DISTANCE

It is the length of road visible ahead to the driver at any instant

The sight distance situations considered in the design are:
1. Stopping sight distance (SSD)
2. Overtaking sight distance (OSD)
3. Sight distance for entering into uncontrolled intersection
4. Intermediate sight distance
5. Head light sight distance

2.3.1. Stopping sight distance (SSD)

Stopping sight distance is the minimum sight distance available on a highway at any spot to stop
a vehicle travelling at design speed, safely without any collision
IRC defines SSD as the distance measured along the road surface at which an object of height
0.15 m can be seen by a driver whose eye is at a height of 1.2 m above road

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Figure 2.6: Sight distance at horizontal curve

Figure 2.7: Sight distance at vertical curve

Stopping sight distance depends on:

i. Total reaction time
ii. Speed of vehicle
iii. Efficiency of brake
iv. Frictional resistance between road and tyre
v. Gradient of road

i. Total reaction time

 It is the time taken from the instant the object is visible to the driver to the instant the
brakes are effectively applied
 SSD increases with increase in reaction time
 Reaction time is explained based on PIEV theory
Total reaction time is split into
 Perception: Time required for perceiving an object or situation. Time taken for
perceiving the obstruction along the road

 Intellection: time required for understanding the situation. Time taken to understand
whether the obstruction is an object, people or any vehicle
 Emotion: Time elapsed during emotional situation such as fear, anger, etc.
 Volition: Time taken for final action. Time taken for applying brake

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Figure 2.8: PIEV theory

The average reaction time for simple situation– 0.5 seconds

The average reaction time for complex situation– 3 to 4 seconds

ii. Speed of vehicle

 Stopping distance increases with increase in speed

iii. Efficiency of brake

 Stopping distance decreases with efficiency of brake

iv. Frictional resistance between road and tyre

 Stopping distance decreases with increase in friction

v. Gradient of road

 Stopping distance increase for ascending gradient and decrease for descending gradient

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ANALYSIS OF STOPPING SIGHT DISTANCE

The stopping distance is given by:

Where,

SSD – stopping sight distance in m

V – design speed in km/hr

t- 2.5 seconds as per IRC

f- frictional coefficient (0.35 to 0.40)

n- gradient in %

+n for ascending gradient and –n for descending gradient

Note:

SSD in one way traffic = SSD

SSD in two way traffic with two way lane = SSD

SSD in single lane road with two way traffic = 2 SSD

Table: 2.6 Coefficient of friction for different design speed

Design speed,
20 – 30 40 50 60 65 80 100
km/hr
f 0.40 0.38 0.37 0.36 0.36 0.35 0.35

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Example 1: Calculate the safe stopping sight distance for a design speed of 50 Kmph for:

1) a two way traffic on a two lane road.

2) a two way traffic on a single lane road

Solution:

Coefficient of friction = 0.37 (for design speed of 50 Kmph )

V = 50 kmph

t = 2.5 second

f = 0.37 (for 50 kmph), n = 0

So

SSD = 61.35 m

Answer

1) SSD for a two way traffic on a two lane road = SSD = 61.35 m

2) SSD for a two way traffic on a single lane road = 2 SSD = 122.7 m

Example 2: Calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid a head - on collision of two cars
approaching from opposite directions at 90 and 60 Kmph. Assume a reaction time of 2.5 seconds,
coefficient of friction of 0.7 and a brake efficiency of 50 per cent, in either case.

Solution:

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Stopping Distance =

As the brake efficiency is 50%, the coefficient of friction developed will be equal to 50 % of

actual coefficient of friction

Coefficient of friction = 0.5 x 0.7 = 0.35

V = 90 kmph for first car

V = 60 kmph for second car

t = 2.5 second

f = 0.35 (for 50% brake efficiency)

n=0

902
Stopping Distance for first car = 0.278 × 90 × 2.5 + 254 ×0.35 = 153.6 m

602
Stopping Distance for second car = 0.278 × 60 × 2.5 + 254 ×0.35 = 82.2 m

Sight distance to avoid head on collision = SSD1 + SSD 2

= 153.6 + 82.2 = 235.8 m

Example 3: Calculate the stopping sight distance at a highway at a descending gradient of 2%

for a design speed of 80 kmph
Solution:
Stopping Sight distance

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V = 80 kmph
t= 2.5 second
f= 0.35 for 80 kmph
n= - 2% (descending)
Stopping Sight distance

SSD = 132 m

2.3.2 OVERTAKING SIGHT DISTANCE (OSD)

 OSD is the minimum distance open to the driver of an overtaking vehicle intending to overtake
slow moving vehicle ahead with safety against the traffic of opposite direction

Overtaking sight distance

Factors affecting OSD

1. Speed of (i) overtaking vehicle (ii) overtaken vehicle (iii) opposite vehicle

2. Distance between overtaking and overtaken vehicle

3. Skill and reaction time of driver

4. Rate of acceleration of overtaking vehicle

5. Gradient of road

ANALYSIS OF OSD

Consider a vehicle A at design speed V, overtaking a slow vehicle B at speed Vb on a two way lane road with two
way traffic. Third vehicle C comes from the opposite direction at design speed V

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Overtaking maneuver

Overtaking manoeuvre is explained as follows

When fast moving vehicle A see slow moving vehicle B, it is forced to reduce its speed to the speed vb of the slow
moving vehicle B and moves behind it allowing a space s, till there is an opportunity for safe overtaking. The
distance travelled by vehicle A during this reaction time “t‟ is d1. That is from A1 to A2

The reaction time “t” may be taken as two seconds as an average value.

From the position A2, the vehicle A starts accelerating and shift to the adjoining lane, overtakes the vehicle B and
shift back to its original lane ahead of B in position A3 in time „T‟ seconds. The distance travelled A2 to A3 is
taken as d2. At the same time vehicle B moves from B1 to B2 at a speed vb and the distance B1 to B2 is „b‟.

Now

d2 = b + 2s

𝑏 = 𝑣𝑏 × 𝑡

At the same time the vehicle C from opposite side moves from C1 to C2 at a speed v. The distance C1 to
C2 is d3

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The OSD is given by

OSD = d1 + d2 + d3

In m/s unit,

Where „a‟ is the acceleration of vehicle A in m/sec2.

If vb is not given, take

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In km/hr unit,

Where “A‟ is the acceleration of vehicle A in km/hr/sec.

If Vb is not given, take

Where,

OSD in m

v- Design speed of vehicle A and C in m/s

vb- speed of overtaken vehicle B in m/s

V – Design speed of vehicle A and C in km/hr

Vb – speed of overtaken vehicle B in km/hr

t- reaction time = 2 second as per IRC

T – Overtaking time in sec

a – acceleration in m/sec2

A - acceleration in km/hr/sec

s- spacing of vehicles in m

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Note:

For one way traffic or divided highway, no vehicle is expected from opposite side, so

OVERTAKING ZONE

 It is the Zone or area along the road meant for overtaking

 Length of overtaking zone = 3OSD

 Sign post for over taking zone should be installed at OSD distance as shown in figure

Sp1 – Sign post “Overtaking zone ahead

Sp2 – Sign post “End of overtaking”

Figure 2.11: Overtaking zone

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Example 1: The speeds of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 80 kph and 60 kph respectively on a
two-way traffic road. If the acceleration of the overtaking vehicle is 0.80 m/s2, calculate the safe
overtaking sight distance. Sketch of the overtaking zone with location of sign posts.

Given:

V = 80 km/hr = 22.22 m/s

Vb = 60 km/hr = 16.67 m/s

a= 0.80 m/sec2

OSD

Provide t = 2 sec

𝑠 = 0.7 × 16.67 + 6 = 17.67 m

4 ×17.67
𝑇= = 9.4 sec
0.8

Overtaking zone

Width of overtaking zone = 3 OSD = 3 x 434.246 = 1302.7 m

Sign post installed at OSD distance = 434.246 m

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Sp1 – Sign post “ Overtaking zone ahead

Sp2 – Sign post “ End of overtaking”

2.3.3 SIGHT DISTANCE FOR ENTERING INTO UNCONTROLLED INTERSECTION

It is the visibility distance available for a driver entering an uncontrolled intersection to enable him to take
control of his vehicle and to avoid collision with other vehicles

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Sight distance at intersection

2.3.4 INTERMEDIATE SIGHT DISTANCE (ISD)

When OSD cannot be provided, ISD is provided to give limited overtaking opportunities for fast moving
vehicles. ISD is twice the SSD

2.3.5 HEAD LIGHT SIGHT DISTANCE (HSD)

Distance visible to driver during night under the illumination of head light. It is almost equal to the SSD

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SAMPLE QUESTIONS

1. What is super elevation and what is the purpose of providing the same?

2. Design camber templates for a parabolic camber for a two lane bituminous pavement in a
heavy rainfall area.

3. Explain Traffic Separator and Kerb in Highway?

4. Explain Camber. What are the objects of camber? Discuss the types of camber. Specify the
recommended ranges of camber for different types of pavement

5. Enumerate the factors governing the width of carriage way. State the IRC specification for
width of carriage way for various classes of roads

6. Write a note on Road Margin. Specify the IRC recommendation of each

7. What is meant by 'overtaking zones'? With a neat sketch show how overtaking zones are
provided in highways.

8. List the Factors affecting OSD. Explain Lag distance and Braking distance

9. In a hilly road the speed limit is 50KMPH. A curve with radius of curvature of 75m is to be
provided with super elevation for safe negotiation of the curve. Find the super elevation.

10. Explain total reaction time of driver and the factors on which it depends? Explain PIEV
theory.

11. Define super elevation. What are the objectives of providing super elevations on horizontal
curves?

12. The speed of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 80 Kph and 60 Kph respectively. If the
acceleration of the overtaking vehicle is 2.5 Kph per second, calculate the safe passing sight
distance for: (i) One way traffic. (ii) two way traffic.

13. The speeds of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 80 kph and 60 kph respectively on a
two-way traffic road. If the acceleration of the overtaking vehicle is 0.80 m./s2, calculate the safe
overtaking sight distance. Sketch of the overtaking zone with location of sign posts.

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14. Find the stopping sight distance for a design speed of 100 kph. Take co-efficient of friction
as 0.35.

15. Name the factors on which the stopping sight distance depends.

16. The design speed of a highway having mixed traffic is 90 Kmph. Calculate the super
elevation for a certain portion of highway situated on a horizontal curve of radius 245 m. What is
the maximum permissible speed?

17. Calculate the safe stopping sight distance for a design speed of 60 Kmph for a two way
traffic in single lane road. Assume the coefficient of friction as 0.40

18. Calculate the minimum sight distance required to avoid a head - on collision of two cars
approaching from opposite directions at 90 and 60 Kmph. Assume a reaction time of 2.5
seconds, coefficient of friction of 0.7 and a brake efficiency of 50 per cent, in either case.

19. The speed of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 70 and 40 Kmph, respectively on a two
way traffic road. If the acceleration of the overtaking vehicle is 0.99 m/sec'. Calculate the safe
overtaking sight distance.

20. Explain stopping, passing and overtaking sight distances

21. Calculate the stopping sight distance on a highway at a descending gradient of 2% for a
design speed of80 kmph. Assume other data as per IRC recommendations.

22. The radius of a horizontal circular curve is 100m. The design speed is 50 krnph and the
design coefficient of lateral friction is 0.15. Calculate the super elevation required if full lateral
friction is assumed to develop. Also calculate the coefficient of friction needed if no super
elevation is provided

23. A vehicle is traveling at 80kmph. Calculate the stopping distance on a dry level concrete
pavement for which the co-efficient of friction between the pavement and the tyre is 0.35. Also,
compute the stopping distance if the vehicle is traveling down a 3% grade. Assume any other
data if required.

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24. Speed of overtaking and overtaken vehicles are 70 and 40 km/hr respectively on a two way
traffic road. If the acceleration of overtaking vehicle is 0.99 m/s2. (1) Calculate OSD. (2)
Mention minimum length of OSD Zone. (3) Draw figure of overtaking zone showing sign posts
also

25. Explain SSD. Calculate SSD required avoiding head on collision of two cars approaching
from opposite direction at 90 and 60 km/hr. assume a coefficient of friction as 0.7 and a brake
efficiency of 50% in either case. Also Explain intermediate sight distance and Head light sight
distance

DESIGN OF HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT

3.1 INTRODUCTION

Design of highway alignment includes design of horizontal and vertical alignment

Design of horizontal alignment includes:

1. Design speed

2. Horizontal curve

3. Transition curve

4. Super elevation`

5. Widening at curve

3.1.1. Design Speed

Table 3.1: IRC recommends design speed

Road type Design speed in km/hr

NH 100
SH 80
Arterial road 80
Sub arterial roads 60

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3.1.2. Horizontal curve

 Horizontal curve provided for changing direction

 Centrifugal force act on the vehicle negotiating curve

Centrifugal ratio

𝑃 𝑣2
=
𝑊 𝑔𝑅

Where,

P – centrifugal force, in kg

W – weight of vehicle, in kg

v – speed of vehicle, in m/s

g – acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2

R – radius of horizontal curve

𝑉2
𝑅=
127(𝑒 + 𝑓)

e- super elevation

f- friction

3.1.4. Super elevation or cant or banking

 Super elevation is the raising of outer edge of road in curve with respect to inner edge

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 It is provided to prevent overturning and skidding of vehicles

Figure 3.2: Super elevation

𝑉2
𝑒+ 𝑓=
127𝑅

Where,

e- rate of super elevation ≤ 0.07

f- friction = 0.15

V – design speed in km/hr

R – radius of curve in m

Note:

 If pressure on inner and outer wheel is same, then f = 0

Design of Super elevation

Super elevation for a horizontal curve is designed as per the following procedure

1. Initially determine super elevation e for 75% design speed and friction as zero

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2. If obtained e ≤ 0.07, provide the obtained value. If obtained e > 0.07, provide e = 0.07

3. Check for friction, f

Calculate f from this. If f ≤ 0.15, it is safe

If f > 0.15, then proceed to step 4 to restrict the speed vehicle along the curve

4. Restrict speed to allowable speed (Va)

Determine the restricted or allowable speed from the above equation

Example 1: In a hilly road the speed limit is 50 kmph. A curve with radius of curvature of 75m
is to be provided with super elevation for safe negotiation of the curve. Find the super elevation.

Soln:

Step 1: Determine the super elevation for 75% design speed and friction as 0

0.75𝑉 2 𝑉2
ⅇ= =
127𝑅 225𝑅

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50 2
= = 0.148 > 0.07
225×75

Step 2: If obtained e ≤ 0.07, provide the obtained value. If obtained e > 0.07,

provide e = 0.07

Step 3: Check for friction, f

𝑉2
0.07 + 𝑓 =
127𝑅

𝑉2 50 2
𝑓= − 0.07 = − 0.07 = 0.19 > 0.15
127𝑅 127×75

If f ≤ 0.15, it is safe

If f > 0.15, then proceed to step 4 to restrict the speed vehicle along the curve

So provide f = 0.15

4. Restrict speed to allowable speed (Va)

𝑉2𝑎
0.07 + 0.15 =
127 𝑅

𝑉2𝑎
0.22 =
127 × 75

So 𝑉𝑎 = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟕𝟕 𝐤𝐦𝐩𝐡

Example 2: The design speed of a highway having mixed traffic is 90 Kmph. Calculate the
super elevation for a certain portion of highway situated on a horizontal curve of radius 245 m.

3.1.5. Widening at curve

Road at curves are widened to:
 Avoid off tracking
 To counteract the psychological effect of overtaking

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Widening (We) = Mechanical widening to account off tracking + psychological widening

Where,
We – extra widening in m
n- No. of lane in road
l- length of wheel base of vehicle. Take it as 6 m if not given
R – radius of curve in m
V – design speed in km/hr

Figure 3.3: Widening at curves

Example 1: A two lane road on rolling terrain has a 'horizontal curve of radius 200m. If the
design speed is 100 kmph, design the Super elevation and extra widening required on the
pavement?

Soln: Obtained e = 0.22,

So provide e = 0.07

𝑛 𝑙2 𝑉 2×62 100
Extra widening = 𝑊𝑒 = + = + = 0.924 m
2𝑅 9⋅5 𝑅 2×200 9⋅5 200

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Example 2: Calculate the extra widening required for a pavement of within 7m on a horizontal curve of
radius 250m if the longest wheel base of vehicle expected on the road is 7m. Design speed is 70kmph.

Soln: We = 0.56 m

3.1.3. Transition curve

 Transition curve is a curve connecting straight line and circular curve in highways

 Its radius is infinite at one end and gradually decreases to the radius of circular curve at
other end

 It is provided to for smooth entry of vehicle into the curve

 To minimize the sudden effect of centrifugal force

 To gradually introduce super elevation and extra widening

Type of transition curve

1. Spiral (clothoid) – ideal transition curve
2. Leminscate
3. Cubic parabola

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Length of transition curve (Lt)

Length of transition curve is taken as the highest of below three cases
1. As per rate of centrifugal force
𝑣3
𝐿𝑠 =
𝑐𝑅

Where,
Ls – length of transition curve in m
V – design speed in m/s
C – rate of change of centrifugal acceleration in m/sec3 (0.5 to 0.8)
80
𝐶=
75 + 𝑉
R – radius of curve

2. As per rate of super elevation

𝑒𝑁
𝐿𝑠 = (𝑊 + 𝑊𝑒) - if pavement rotate about its center
2

𝐿𝑠 = 𝑒𝑁(𝑊 + 𝑊𝑒) - if pavement rotate about its inner edge

Where,
e- super elevation
N – rate of change of super elevation. (minimum 150)
w- width of road
we – extra widening

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3. As per IRC recommendation

Minimum length of transition curve should be:
2.7𝑉 2
𝐿𝑠 =
𝑅
Shift of transition curve

Shift in transition curve is given by

𝐿𝑠 2
𝑆=
24𝑅
Example 1: A national highway having design speed 80 Kmph passing through rolling terrain in
heavy rainfall area has a horizontal curve of radius 500 m. Design the length of transition curve
assuming suitable data. Pavement is rotated about the center for super elevation
Solution:
Length of transition curve is taken as the highest of below three cases
1. As per rate of centrifugal force
𝑣3
𝐿𝑠 =
𝑐𝑅
Where,
Ls – length of transition curve in m
V – design speed in m/s = 22.22 m/s
C – rate of change of centrifugal acceleration in m/sec3 (0.5 to 0.8)
80 80
𝐶= = = 0.516
75+𝑉 75+80

R – radius of curve

22.22 3
𝐿𝑠 = 0.516 ×500 = 42.52 m

2. As per rate of super elevation

𝑒𝑁
𝐿𝑠 = (𝑊 + 𝑊𝑒) - if pavement rotate about its center
2
𝑉2 80 2
𝑒 = 225𝑅 = 225×500 = 0.057 < 0.07, Hence OK

N – rate of change of super elevation. (minimum 150)

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w- width of road = 7.0 m (Two lane NH)

we – extra widening =

2 × 62 80
𝑊𝑒 = 2×500 + = 0.45 m
9.5 500
𝑒𝑁 0.057×150
𝐿𝑠 = (𝑊 + 𝑊𝑒) = (7 + 0.45) = 31.85 m
2 2

3. As per IRC recommendation

Minimum length of transition curve should be:
2.7𝑉 2 2.7×80 2
𝐿𝑠 = = = 34.6 m
𝑅 500
Adopt highest value of 42.35 m as length of transition curve

3.2 DESIGN OF VERTICAL ALIGNMENT

Vertical alignment includes:
 Gradient
 Vertical curves
3.2.1 Gradient
 It is the rate of rise or fall along the length with respect to the horizontal
 Gradient is expressed as 1 in n or as n%
 Ascending gradient as +n and descending gradient as –n
 Deviation angle : it is the angle at the intersection of two gradient

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Figure 3.4: Gradient and deviation angle

Deviation angle (N) = n1 – (-n2) = n1 + n2

Gradient are divided into:
1) Ruling gradient
2) Limiting gradient
3) Exceptional gradient
4) Minimum gradient
1) Ruling gradient: It is the design maximum gradient.
Table 3.2: Gradient
Terrain Ruling gradient
Plain and rolling 1 in 30
Mountainous 1 in 20
Steep 1 in 16.7

2) Limiting gradient: Gradient over ruling gradient. At some places, topography compels
to adopt a higher gradient than ruling gradient. In hill roads 1 in 20 is adopted
3) Exceptional gradient: Steep gradient at some unavoidable situations. Some times 1 in
15 is provided at some locations
4) Minimum gradient: Minimum gradient provided to drain off the rain water. 1in 500 is
provided as minimum gradient
3.2.2 Grade compensation
 Gradient in the horizontal curve is sometimes reduced to avoid the extra effort involved
when negotiating a curve.

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30 + 𝑅
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑅
75
 The gradient can be reduced to a maximum of 𝑅

Where R is the radius of curve in m

3.2.3 Vertical Curve
 Vertical curves are provided at the intersection of two different gradient. Vertical curve
are of two types:
1. Summit curve (crest curve) – Convexity upward
2. Valley curve (sag curve) – convexity downward
3.2.4 Summit curve
 Design of summit curve includes
1. Length of summit curve
2. Radius of summit curve

3.2.5 Valley curve

 Design of valley curve includes
1. Length of valley curve
2. Radius of valley curve

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