Module 2

CET 206
TRANSPORTATION
ENGINEERING
Module-2

Reuben Jacob Chacko

Assistant Professor
Department of Civil
Engineering STCET

reuben@stthomascollege.ac.in

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SYLLABUS
Module Contents Hours

Introduction to Transportation Engineering, Classification of roads, Typical

cross sections of roads in urban and rural area, Requirements and factors
controlling alignment of roads.
Introduction to geometric design of highways, Design controls and criteria,
1 10
Design of highway cross section elements, Design of horizontal alignment -
Stopping sight distance, Overtaking sight distance, super elevation, transition
curve, length and shift of transition curve, extra widening.
Vertical alignment (introduction only)
Introduction to highway materials, Desirable properties and testing of road
aggregates, bituminous materials and sub grade soil.
2 Introduction of flexible and rigid pavements, Factors influencing the design of 10
flexible pavements, Design of flexible pavements by CBR method and IRC 37:
2018. Construction of bituminous pavements
Introduction to traffic engineering, Traffic characteristics, Capacity and Level
of Service, Design Speed, Traffic surveys, Types of road intersections, Traffic
3 7
Control devices (introduction only), Design of isolated signals by Webster’s
method.
Railway Engineering - Component parts of a railway track - functions, concept
of Gauges, coning of wheels, cant deficiency, compensation of gradients
Tunnel Engineering: Tunnel – sections, tunnel surveying - alignment,
9
4 transferring centre grade into tunnel.
Harbours – classification, features, requirements. Break waters - necessity and
functions, classification.
Docks – Functions and types - dry docks, wet docks ( Introduction only)
Introduction to Airport Engineering, Components of airport, selection of site
for airport.
5 9
Runway orientation, basic runway length and corrections required, Taxiways
and aprons.

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MODULE – 2
HIGHWAY MATERIALS
There are three important materials used for road construction
1. Subgrade Soil
2. Aggregate
3. Bituminous Material (Bitumen and Tar)
2.1. SUBGRADE SOIL
 Subgrade soil receives load directly from pavement.
 It gives adequate support to pavement
2.1.1 Desirable Properties of soil as highway material
1. Stability
2. Incompressibility
3. Strength
4. Good drainage
5. Ease of compaction
2.1.2 Strength of soil subgrade
 Strength of soil depends on soil types, moisture content and density of soil
 Strength of soil is evaluated by
1. Bearing test (Plate bearing test)
2. Penetration test (CBR test)
3. Shear test
1. Plate Bearing Test
 To evaluate the strength
 To determine the modulus of subgrade reaction
Instrument required:
 Steel Plate (30 cm, 45 cm or 75 cm diameter plate)
 Hydraulic jack – To apply load
 Dial guage – To measure deflection
Procedure
1. Steel Plate is placed on the soil where strength is to be determined
2. Apply load by using hydraulic jack

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3. Deformation corresponding to each load is measured using dial gauges

4. Pressure - deformation curve is plotted and modulus of subgrade reaction is
Determined.

Modulus of subgrade reaction (k)

It is defined as the pressure for unit deformation of subgrade

Unit – kg/cm3

𝑝 𝐸
𝑘= =
𝛿 1.18𝑟

Where

k – modulus of subgrade reaction in kg/cm3

p – pressure in kg/cm2

δ – Deformation in cm

E – young‟s modulus in kg/cm2

r- radus of plate in cm

Example 1: If the modulus of subgrade reaction for a 30 cm plate is 200 N/cm3. Determine the
modulus of subgrade reaction for a 75 cm plate?

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2. CBR Test

 To evaluate the strength based on CBR value

Instrument required

 CBR Mould with base plate and collar

 Surcharge weight
 Loading machine
 Plunger

Procedure

1. Soil sample is filled in the mould at required OMC using 4.7 kg rammer giving 56 compaction
for each layer

2. Place the mould on the testing machine

3. Place the surcharge over the soil and the plunger is made in contact with the soil

4. Apply the load and record the load for different penetration

5. Plot a graph between load and penetration

6. Compute the CBR value as follows

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑕𝑜𝑠𝑒𝑛 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

𝑪𝑩𝑹 𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 = × 100
𝑆𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑙𝑜𝑎𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡𝑕𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑒 𝑝𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛

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Figure 4.2: CBR test

3. Shear Test

Shear test on soil include

1. Direct shear test

2. Triaxial shear test

2.2. AGGREGATE
It is the main constituent of pavement
Strength of pavement depends on aggregate
2.2.1 Desirable Properties of road aggregate
1. Strength
To with stand stress due to wheel load
Evaluated by Crushing test
2. Hardness
Resistant to rubbing, abrasion or wear
Evaluated by Abrasion test

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3. Toughness
Resistance to impact due to moving load
Evaluated by impact test
4. Durability
Resistance to the adverse action of weather
Evaluated by Soundness test
5. Shape
Shape of aggregate may be cubical, angular or rounded
Evaluated by Shape test
6. Adhesion with bitumen
Aggregate should have less affinity to water and more affinity to bitumen
Evaluated by stripping test

2.2.2 Tests for Road Aggregate

1. Aggregate Crushing Test

To assess the strength of aggregate
To asses resistance to crushing
Apparatus: Steel cylinder with base plate, plunger, Compression testing machine, cylindrical
measure, tamping rod and Sieves
Procedure
1. Dry aggregate passing 12.5 mm and retained on 10 mm sieve is filled in the cylindrical
measure in three equal layers each having 25 tamping
2. Test sample is weighed as W1
3. Test sample is placed in the steel cylinder in 3 layers having 25 tamping for each layer
4. Plunger is placed on the top of specimen
5. Compressive load is applied at the rate of 4 tonnes per minute by the compression
machine
6. Crushed aggregate is removed and sieved through 2.36 mm sieve
7. The aggregate passing 2.36 mm sieve is weighed as W2

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𝑊2
𝑨𝒈𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑪𝒓𝒖𝒔𝒊𝒏𝒈 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 = × 100
𝑊1

 Aggregate for base course should be less than 45%

 Aggregate for Surface course should be less than 30%

2. Abrasion Test
To test Hardness property of aggregate
There are three abrasion tests
Los Angeles abrasion test
Deval abrasion test
Dorry abrasion test
Los Angeles abrasion test
Apparatus: Los Angeles Machine, Abrasive charges(steel ball), IS sieves
Procedure

1. Specified weight of aggregate (W1) is placed in the Los Angeles Machine along with
abrasive charges (steel balls)

2. The machine is rotated at a speed of 30 – 33 rpm for a specified number of revolution

3. The abraded aggregate is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve

4. The aggregate passing 1.7 mm is weighed as W2

𝑊2
A𝒈𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑨𝒃𝒓𝒂𝒔𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 = 𝑊1 × 100

 Aggregate for high quality pavement should be less than 30%

3. Impact Test
To evaluate toughness of aggregate
To evaluate resistance to impact
Apparatus: Impact testing machine consist of cylindrical steel cup with metal base and metal
hammer
Procedure
1. Aggregate passing 12.5 mm and retained on 10 mm is filled in the cylindrical measure
in 3 layers by 25 tamping on each layer.

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2. The specimen is weighed as W1 and transferred to the testing cup and having 25
tamping
3. Hammer is raised to 38 cm height and allowed to fall freely on to the specimen
4. After 15 hammer blow, the aggregate is passed through 2.36 mm sieve
5. The aggregate passing 2.36 mm sieve is weighed as W2

𝑊2
A𝒈𝒈𝒓𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝑰𝒎𝒑𝒂𝒄𝒕 𝑽𝒂𝒍𝒖𝒆 = 𝑊1 × 100

Aggregate for high quality pavement should be less than 30%

4. Soundness Test
To assess resistance to weathering
Apparatus: Cylinder, Solution of sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate, oven
Procedure
1. Dry aggregate is weighed
2. Aggregate is immersed in Saturated solution of sodium sulphate or magnesium
sulphate for 16 to 18 hours
3. Then specimen is dried in an oven at 105o to 110o C thus making one cycle of
immersion and drying
4. Based on the requirement, several such cycles were completed
5. After final cycle, the loss in weight is determined
Aggregate for high quality pavement, the loss in weight should be less than 12% in sodium
sulphate and 18% in magnesium sulphate
5. Shape Test
To evaluate shape of aggregate

 It is made in terms of flakiness index, elongation index and angularity number

Flakiness index
Apparatus: Thickness gauge, set of sieves
Procedure

1. The weight of total aggregate used for test be W1

2. The aggregate are sieved through set of sieves and separated into specified size ranges

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3. Each piece of aggregate is made to pass through the slot of corresponding size of
thickness gauge
4. The aggregate passing the appropriate slot are added up and weighed as W2

𝑊2
𝑭𝒍𝒂𝒌𝒊𝒏𝒆𝒔𝒔 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 = × 100
𝑊1

 For Road construction, Flakiness index should be less than 15%

Elongation index

 Apparatus: Length gauge, set of sieves

Procedure

1. The weight of total aggregate used for test be W1

2. The aggregate are sieved through set of sieves and separated into specified size ranges

3. Each piece of aggregate is made to pass through the slot of corresponding size of
length gauge

4. The aggregate whose length greater than the specified slot is added and weighed as W2

𝑊2
𝑬𝒍𝒐𝒏𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏 𝑰𝒏𝒅𝒆𝒙 = × 100
𝑊1

 For Road construction, Elongation index should be less than 15%

Angularity Number

To evaluate the angularity of aggregate

Apparatus: Metal cylinder, tamping rod

Procedure

1. The sample is filled in the cylinder by 3 layers; each layer is tamped 100 times by
the tamping rod and weighed as W

2. The weight of cylinder as C

3. Specific gravity of aggregate is G

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100𝑊
𝑨𝒏𝒈𝒖𝒍𝒂𝒓𝒊𝒕𝒚 𝑵𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 = 67 −
𝐶𝐺

 Angularity number for aggregate used in construction is in between 0 and 11

Shape test

6. Specific gravity and water absorption tests

Apparatus: Wire basket
Procedure
1. 2 kg of aggregate sample is placed in wire basket and immersed in water for 24 hour
2. The sample is weighed in water
3. The aggregate are then taken out and dried in an oven for 24 hour at 110o C
4. Then the weight of dry aggregate is taken

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𝐷𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒

𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟

𝑊𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑎𝑔𝑔𝑟𝑒𝑔𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑤𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 − 𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡

𝑊𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑟 𝐴𝑏𝑠𝑜𝑟𝑝𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 =
𝑑𝑟𝑦 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔𝑕𝑡

 Specific gravity range: 2.6 to 2.9

 Water absorption should be less than 0.6%

7. Bitumen Adhesion Test (Stripping value test)

Procedure

1. Obtain the material that passes through 25mm sieve and is retained on 12.5mm sieve.

2. Dry aggregates to 120o C and mix with 5% bitumen

3. After complete coating, allow the mixture to cool at room temperature

4. Add distilled water to immerse the coated aggregates.

5. Keep the mixture undisturbed in a thermostatic water bath at a temperature of 40o C for
a period of 24 hours.

6. Estimate the extent of stripping by visual examination while the specimen is still under
water and express the average percent area of aggregates surface.

 IRC has specified the maximum stripping value of 25% for aggregates to be used in road
constructions.

2.3. BITUMINOUS MATERIAL

 Bituminous materials are used as a binder

 Bituminous material include

1. Bitumen
2. Tar

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2.3.1 Bitumen
It is the product of distillation of petroleum products

Desirable properties of bitumen

1. Viscosity
Viscosity should be adequate for mixing, compacting and placing
Evaluated by Viscosity test
2. Temperature susceptibility
Should not be highly temperature susceptible
Evaluated by Softening point test and flash and fire point test
3. Stripping of aggregate
Bitumen should not strip from aggregate
Evaluated by Stripping value test
Test on Bitumen
The various tests on Bitumen are
1. Penetration test
2. Ductility test
3. Viscosity test
4. Specific gravity test
5. Softening point tests
6. Flash and fire point test
1. Penetration Test
Instrument required: Penetration cup, needle, Penetration apparatus
Procedure
1. Soften the bitumen and pour into the penetration cup
2. Clean the penetration needle and make contact with the bitumen surface
3. Release the needle for exactly 5 second
4. Measure the penetration distance from the dial

 Penetration value of bitumen used in pavement varies from 20 to 225

 30/40 and 80/100 grade are more commonly used

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Penetration test

2. Ductility test
Instrument used: Briquette mould, water bath and testing machine
Procedure
1. Melt the bitumen and pour into the briquette mould
2. Keep the briquette mould with bitumen in the water bath maintained at 27oC
3. Hook the briquette mould with bitumen to the ductility test apparatus
4. Start the machine and pull the bitumen horizontally
5. Note the distance at which the bitumen thread of specimen breaks and record it as
ductility value
Ductility value of bitumen vary from 5 to over 100

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3. Viscosity test
Instrument required: Viscometer
Procedure:
1. The bitumen specimen is heated over specified temperature
2. Pour the heated bitumen into the viscometer cup
3. Open the orifice of the viscometer to allow bitumen to flow
4. Start the stopwatch and record the time to flow 50 ml of bitumen from the viscometer
5. Report the viscosity as the time taken in seconds for 50 ml of bitumen to flow

4. Specific gravity test

Instrument required: Specific gravity bottle
Procedure:
1. Clean the specifc gravity bottle and take the weight (W1)
2. Fill the specifc gravity bottle with water and take the weight (W2)
3. Pour the heated bitumen into the specifc gravity bottle and take the weight (W3)
4. The remaining space of bottle is filled with ater and again take the weight (W4)

𝑊3 − 𝑊1
𝑆𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑊2 − 𝑊1 − (𝑊3 − 𝑊4)

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 Generally the specific gravity of pure bitumen is in the range of 0.97 to 1.02
5. Softening point test
Instrument required: Ring and ball apparatus
Procedure:
1. Heat the bitumen material until it is completely fluid
2. Assemble the apparatus with ring and ball and pour water into the apparatus
3. Pour the bitumen into the ring and allow to set and place the two balls on the bitumen
4. Apply heat to the apparatus and stir the liquid for uniform heating
5. As the temperature increases, the bitumen softens and the ball sinks through the ring
6. Note down the temperature when any one of the ball touches the bottom
7. Record the temperature when the second ball touches the bottom. The average of the
two temperatures is recorded as the softening point
The softening point of various bitumen used for pavement varies between 35o to 70o

Softening Point Test

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6. Flash and fire point test

Instrument required: Pensky Martens apparatus
Procedure:
1. The bitumen material is filled in the cup of Pensky Martens apparatus
2. Bitumen sample is then heated at a rate of 5oC to 6oC per minute
3. The first test flame is applied at least 17oC below the actual flash point and then at
every 1oC to 3oC
4. The flash point is taken as the temperature at which a bright flash is produced while
applying flame.
5. The heating is continued until the material get ignited and continue to burn for 5
seconds. This temperature is recorded as fire point.
The minimum specified flash point of bitumen used in pavement is 175oC

2.3.2 Cut back Bitumen

It is the bitumen in which the viscosity is reduced by a volatile diluent
It is mainly used for surface dressing
Cut Back bitumen is available in three types based on rate of curing after application

1) Rapid Curing (RC)

2) Medium Curing (MC)

3) Slow Curing (SC)

1) Rapid Curing (RC)

Bitumen cutback with naptha or gasoline.
Naptha and gasoline has low boiling point
Naptha and gasoline rapidly evaporate after use

2) Medium Curing (MC)

Bitumen cutback with Kerosene or light diesel
Kerosene or light diesel has intermediate boiling point
MC Cutback evaporate slowly than RC

3) Slow Curing (SC)

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Bitumen cutback with Gas oil

Gas oil has high boiling point
It evaporate very slowly
Various tests carried out on Cut back Bitumen are:
1. Viscosity test
2. Penetration test
3. Flash point test
2.3.3 Bitumen Emulsion
It is a liquid product in which bitumen is suspended in finely divided condition in an aqueous
medium stabilized by emulsifiers
Emulsifier act as a protective coating around the bitumen
Usually soap or colloidal powder is used as emulsifier
Emulsion is used for maintenance and patch repair works
In an bitumen emulsion
1. Bitumen – 40% to 60 %
2. Emulsifier – 0.5% to 1%
3. Remaining - water
Three types of bitumen emulsion is available
Rapid Setting – used for surface dressing
Medium setting – used for mixing with coarse aggregate
Slow setting – used for mixing with fine aggregate
2.3.4. TAR
It is the product obtained by the distillation of organic materials like wood or coal
Two types based on materials
1. Wood tar
2. Coal tar
Five grades of road tar
RT -1
RT -2
RT -3

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RT -4
RT -5
Various tests on Tar:
1. Specific gravity test
2. Viscosity test
3. Softening point test

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN BITUMEN AND TAR

Property Bitumen Tar

Colour Black to dark brown Black to dark brown
Source From Petrolium products From wood or coal
Solubility Soluble in Cs2 and CCl4 Soluble in Toluene
Resistance to weather More weather resistant Less weather resistant
Temperature susceptibility Less More
Carbon content Less More

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION OF PAVEMENTS

2.4 INTRODUCTION
Type of pavements:
Flexible pavement
Rigid pavement
2.4.1 Flexible Pavement
Pavement with low flexural strength
Pavement is flexible
Example: Bituminous road
Flexible pavement consist of 4 components – Soil subgrade, sub –base, base and
surface layer
Load transfer is from grain to grain in flexible pavement

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Top layer is the strongest so as to resist high pressure, wear and tear
Design of flexible pavement is based on empirical equations and design charts
2.4.2 Rigid pavement
High flexural rigidity
Example: Concrete road
Load transfer is by slab action
Consist of Soil subgrade, base and surface layer
Design of rigid pavement is based on elastic theory

2.5 FUNCTIONS OF PAVEMENT COMPONENTS

2.5.1 Soil subgrade
Lowest layer
Consist of properly prepared, well compacted soil
It receives the load from the pavement and distribute uniformly to below earth
2.5.2 Sub-base and base course
Improve load supporting capacity by distributing loads
It consist of broken stones
2.5.3 Wearing course or surface course
Give smooth riding surface
Resist pressure exerted by tyre and resists wear and tears
It should be water tight

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Consist of small aggregate and binder

2.6 DESIGN FACTORS OF PAVEMENT
The design factors are:

1) Design wheel load

2) Subgrade soil

3) Climatic factors

4) Pavement component material

5) Environmental factors

1) Design wheel load

The thickness of pavement increases with increase in wheel load.
It includes wheel load, multiple wheel load, contact pressure, load repetition and speed

2) Subgrade soil
Soil with low stability requires thick pavement
Stress strain behavior of soil is also influence the design

3) Climatic factors
Rainfall and moisture content affects the pavement design
Changes in temperature also affect the design

4) Pavement component material

Stress distribution of layer depends on material used
Durability of pavement is affected by material properties

5) Environmental factors
The height of embankment, depth of cutting and depth of water table also influence
design of pavement
2.7 DESIGN OF FLEXIBLE PAVEMENT

 Design of flexible pavement includes: Mix design and thickness of each layer.

 The thickness of flexible pavement can be found out using CBR method

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Design procedure:
1. Determine the design number of vehicles as follows
No. of vehicles per day, 𝑨 = 𝑷(𝟏 + 𝒓)𝒏+𝟏𝟎
Where,
A – Design number of vehicles/day
P – No. of vehicles during last count
r- rate of increase of vehicles. (Use 7.5% if not known)
n- No. of year from last count
2. Using the design number of vehicles, select design curve from CBR design chart given
below

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CBR Design Chart

3. From the design curve, determine the thickness of pavement above each layer based on
their CBR value
4. Provide minimum thickness of surface layer as 5 cm
5. Draw the pavement showing thickness of each layer

Example 1: Design a flexible pavement for the following data :- Subgrade CBR = 5 %. The
material available nearing construction site are as follows: Gravery soil with CBR = 15 % Soil
kankar mix with CBR = 30 %, WBM with CBR = 98 %, Provide at least 50 mm. thick BC as
surface course, Present commercial vehicles = 300 Growth rate of traffic = 6.5 %. The pavement
construction is to be completed in three years after last traffic count.
Solution:
No. of vehicles per day, 𝑨 = 𝑷(𝟏 + 𝒓)𝒏+𝟏𝟎
6.5
= 300(1 + 100 )3+10

= 680 veh/day
Based on the number of vehicle, select curve E for CBR design
CBR of Soil subgrade = 5%.
From CBR Chart, the total thickness of pavement above subgrade = 430 mm
Gravery soil with CBR = 15 %, Total thickness above this layer = 220 mm
Soil kankar mix with CBR = 30 %, Total thickness above this layer = 150 mm
WBM with CBR = 98, Total thickness above this layer = 70 mm
Thickness of surface course = 70 mm

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IRC GUIDELINES FOR CBR METHOD OF PAVEMENT DESIGN

1. CBR test should be performed on remoulded soil in lab. In-situ tests are not
recommended. Specimen should be prepared by static compaction
2. Sub grade soil should be compacted at OMC
3. CBR test should be done after soaking the sample for four days
4. At least three samples should be tested at same density and moisture content
5. Top 50 cm of sub grade soil should be compacted up to 95% – 100% of Procter density
6. Design number of vehicles is calculated as per the equation
𝑨 = 𝑷(𝟏 + 𝒓)𝒏+𝟏𝟎
A – Design number of vehicles/day
P – No. of vehicles during last count
r- rate of increase of vehicles.
n- No. of year from last count
7. Traffic for design is divided into 7 categories. Based on this the design curve is selected
8. If aggregate size is greater than 20 mm, its CBR value is not valid for design of upper layers.

2.8 CONSTRUCTION OF BITUMINOUS PAVEMENTS

Bituminous material is used in base and surface course layer. The procedure for bituminous
construction is as follows
Surface is constructed as surface dressing or as bituminous concrete

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Base layer is constructed as penetration macadam or as bituminous macadam

2.8.1 Construction of surface layer
As surface dressing
Materials required
Bitumen of grade 80/100 to 180/200
Tar and cutback may be used
Aggregate-should be clean, strong and durable

Table 5.1: Aggregate properties

Property Value
Los angeles value % 35%
Impact value % 30%
Water absorption % 1%
Stripping value % 25%
Size, mm 9 mm to 12 mm
Quantity 0.09 to 0.15
m3/10m2

Construction procedure
1. Preparation of existing surface – Clean and level existing layer and prime coat bitumen
is applied
2. Application of binder – Bitumen binder is applied using mechanical sprayer or by
manual pouring
3. Application of stone chipping – stone chipping is spread over the surface uniformly as
per the quantity required
4. Rolling – Surface is rolled with tandem roller from edge to center with overlapping
5. Finishing and opening to traffic – Surface is checked for cross profile and opened to
traffic after 24 hour
As bituminous concrete
Materials required

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Bitumen of grade 30/40, 60/70 or 80/100

Aggeregate properties:

Property Value
Los angeles value % 35%
Impact value % 30%
Water absorption % 1%
Stripping value % 25%
Size, mm 9 mm to 12 mm
Quantity 0.09 to 0.15 m3/10m2

Construction procedure
1. Preparation of existing surface – Clean and level existing layer and prime coat bitumen
is applied
2. Application of binder – Bitumen binder is applied using mechanical sprayer or by
manual pouring
3. Application of premix – stone chipping is premixed with bitumen as hot mix and
placed over the surface using mechanical paver. Care should be taken to maintain proper
camber
4. Rolling – Surface is rolled with tandem roller from edge to center with overlapping
5. Finishing and opening to traffic – Surface is checked for cross profile and opened to
traffic after 24 hour
2.8.2 Construction of base layer
As Penetration macadam
Materials required
Bitumen of high viscosity or
Tar of grade RT4 or RT5
Aggregate properties
Property Value
Los angeles value % 40%

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Impact value % 30%

Water absorption % 1%
Stripping value % 25%
Size, mm 20 mm to 80 mm

Construction procedure
1. Preparation of existing surface – Clean and level existing layer and prime coat bitumen
is applied
2. Spreading coarse aggregate – Coarse aggregate is spread over the surface using
mechanical method or by hand uniformly. Give proper edge protection to avoid spilling
of aggregate away from profile. Use template cut to provide required camber
3. Rolling – Surface is rolled with until compacted and interlocked from edge to center
with overlapping
4. Application of binder – Bitumen binder is applied using mechanical sprayer or by
manual pouring
5. Spreading of key aggregate – Key aggregate are spread over the bitumen uniformly
6. Seal coat is applied over the key aggregate layer
7. Finishing and opening to traffic – Surface is checked for cross profile and unevenness
index and opened to traffic after 24 hour

As Bituminous macadam
Materials required
Bitumen of grade 30/40, 60/70 or 80/100
Tar of grade RT4
Cutback or emulsion
Aggregate
Property Value
Los angeles value % 50%
Impact value % 35%
Water absorption % 1%

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Stripping value % 25%

Size, mm 20 mm to 80 mm

Construction procedure
1. Preparation of existing surface – Clean and level existing layer and prime coat bitumen
is applied
2. Premix preparation – Aggregate is premixed with bitumen as hot mix
3. Placing premix – Premix is placed and spread using rakes. Camber profile is
maintained properly
4. Rolling – Surface is rolled with until compacted and interlocked from edge to center
with overlapping
5. Finishing and opening to traffic – Surface is checked for cross profile and unevenness
index and opened to traffic after 24 hour

2.9 FAILURE OF PAVEMENT

Causes of failure

 Defects in material quality

 Defects in construction methods and quality control

 Inadequate drainage

 Increase in wheel load

 Settlement of soil

 Environmental factors like temperature, rainfall, frost action, etc.

2.9.1 Failure in flexible pavement

 The type of failure in flexible pavements are:

1. Alligator cracking

2. Consolidation of pavement layer

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3. Shear failure and cracking

4. Longitudinal crack

5. Frost heaving

6. Lack of binding with lower layer

7. Reflection cracking

1) Alligator cracking (Map cracking)

 It is due to relative movement of materials caused by repeated application of

heavy load

 It also due to moisture variation in pavement

Alligator cracking

2) Consolidation of pavement layer

 It is the formation of ruts

 It is due to repeated application of heavy loads

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Rut formation due to consolidation

3) Shear failure and cracking

Shear failure causes upheaval by forming a fracture
It is due to the weakening of pavement mixture

Shear failure

4) Longitudinal crack
It is due to frost action and volume change in layers
It is also due to settlement and sliding of fill soil

5) Frost heaving
It is the localized heaving up of layers
It is due to frost action

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6) Lack of binding with lower layer

It is the slipping of bitumen and forming pot holes
It is due to lack of binding of bitumen with lower layer
It causes opening up of pavement and the materials is lost

7) Reflection cracking
It is the reflection of crack in lower layer on the top layer
It results in water seepage and mud pumping

2.9.2 Failure in Rigid pavement

 Failure in rigid pavements is:

1. Scaling of cement concrete
2. Shrinkage crack
3. Spalling of joint
4. Warping crack
5. Mud pumping

1) Scaling of cement concrete

It is the deterioration of concrete
It is due to deficiency in mix, presence of chemical, excessive vibration of cement concrete
The surface becomes rough

2) Shrinkage crack
It is the formation of crack in transverse and longitudinal direction
It occurs during curing

3) Spalling of joint
It is due to faulty alignment of filler materials

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It shows cracks in joints

4) Warping crack
Due to temperature stress developed due to the improper design of joints
It causes warping at the edges and results in cracking

5) Mud pumping
Due to the excessive repeated load
Soil slurry from the subgrade ejects out through the joints and cracks caused during the
downward movement of slab under heavy load
Subgrade soil losses and weakens which results in excess stress at the joints and cracks will
form

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