Drying Technology

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Enhancement of heat transfer and product quality

using jet reattachment nozzles in drying of food
products

Milad Farzad , Hicham El Ferouali , Ozan Kahraman & Jamal Yagoobi

To cite this article: Milad Farzad , Hicham El Ferouali , Ozan Kahraman & Jamal Yagoobi (2020):
Enhancement of heat transfer and product quality using jet reattachment nozzles in drying of food
products, Drying Technology, DOI: 10.1080/07373937.2020.1804927

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2020.1804927

Published online: 24 Aug 2020.

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DRYING TECHNOLOGY
https://doi.org/10.1080/07373937.2020.1804927

Enhancement of heat transfer and product quality using jet reattachment

nozzles in drying of food products
Milad Farzada,b , Hicham El Feroualic, Ozan Kahramand, and Jamal Yagoobia,b
a
Center for Advanced Research in Drying (CARD), Worcester, Massachusetts, USA; bDepartment of Mechanical Engineering, Worcester
Polytechnic Institute (WPI), Worcester, Massachusetts, USA; cDepartment of applied physics, FSTG, Cadi Ayyad University, Marrakesh,
Morocco; dDepartment of Food Science and Human Nutrition, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign

ABSTRACT ARTICLE HISTORY

In this paper, the drying characteristics of Radial Jet Reattachment (RJR) and Slot Jet Received 12 May 2020
Reattachment (SJR) nozzles, with an exit angle of þ458 for the RJR nozzle and þ208 and Revised 13 July 2020
þ458 for the SJR nozzle, were experimentally investigated in drying potato chip samples Accepted 13 July 2020
and apple slices, respectively. Dry basis moisture content of the samples using these innova-
KEYWORDS
tive nozzles were compared to those of traditional nozzles, based on three criteria: identical Drying; nozzle; slot jet;
air mass flow rate, identical fluid flow power, and identical exerted peak surface pressure. in-line jet; slot jet
To appraise the performance of each nozzle, the corresponding local heat transfer coeffi- reattachment; radial jet
cients generated by innovative and traditional nozzles for all the tests were measured. reattachment; quality
Subsequently, the average heat transfer coefficients of reattachment nozzles were calculated
and compared against those of traditional nozzles. Moreover, the kinetics of color changes
and structure analysis of apple slices, due to the drying by SJ and SJR þ 208 nozzles were
studied. The experimental results revealed that the RJR þ 458 and SJR þ 208 nozzles yield
significantly higher drying rates, as well as significant improvement in average heat transfer
coefficients, compared to those of ILJ and SJ nozzles, respectively, on a stationary basis.
Besides, impingement drying with SJR þ 208 nozzle produced dried apple slices with less
color deterioration and fewer nutritional losses compared to drying with the SJ nozzle.
Therefore, jet reattachment nozzles can provide faster drying rates and keep the nutritional
values at a desirable level.

1. Introduction temperature, nozzle configuration, hydraulic diameter,

Impinging jet nozzles, which generate high localized
heat transfer rates, are employed in a broad spectrum
of applications of practical interest, such as paper dry-
ing,[1–3] turbine blade cooling,[4,5] electronic chip
cooling,[6,7] and drying food products.[8] Mujumdar[9]
provided a comprehensive review on the innovative
technologies and effect of various parameters in dry-
ing with impinging jet nozzles. Furthermore, Tsotsas
and Mujumdar[10] reviewed the modern and the state
of art technologies in their book and provided valu-
able insight in various drying processes.
The impinging jet systems are generally composed
of in-line jet (ILJ), orifice (i.e., perforated), and slot jet
(SJ) nozzles. Various parameters in impinging jet noz-
zles affect the heat transfer rates on the target product
in cooling, heating, drying, and baking processes. The
most noticeable parameters consist of exit Reynolds
number, nozzle-to-surface spacing, nozzle exit
and surface roughness. Many researchers have investi-
gated the effect of each parameter in non-isothermal
processes.[11–18] There is a large volume of published
studies describing the role of Reynolds number, nozzle
hydraulic diameter, and nozzle-to-surface spacing on
transport characteristics of ILJ and SJ nozzles. To be
specific, Katti et al.[19] performed an experimental
study to investigate the effect of the Re number and
nozzle-to-surface spacing on a circular nozzle. They
found three regions on the impingement surface:
including stagnation region, transition region, and
wall jet region. They reported increase of the Nusselt
number at the stagnation point from nozzle-to-surface
spacing ratios of 1 to 6, due to enlargement of turbu-
lence intensities. Similarly, they reported increases of
the Nu number for nozzle-to-surface spacing ratios of
less than 1, due to flow acceleration at close nozzle-
to-surface spacing. In the same vein, Nirmalkumar
et al.[20] performed an experimental study to consider

CONTACT Milad Farzad mfarzad@wpi.edu Center for Advanced Research in Drying (CARD), Worcester, MA, USA.
ß 2020 Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
2 M. FARZAD ET AL.
the impact of the same parameters on an SJ nozzle.
They observed the same three regions on the impinge-
ment surface and the same trend of the local Nu
number, as Katti et al.[19] reported. Nirmalkumar
et al.[20] reported that the presence of the secondary
local Nu number peak in a very limited range of Re
numbers at close nozzle-to-surface distances.
Additionally, they reported that the maximum local
heat transfer occurs at a nozzle-to-surface spacing
ratio of 8. Gulati et al.[21] studied the influence of
nozzle shape on the local heat transfer coefficient.
They observed the superior local heat transfer coeffi-
cient associated with a rectangular nozzle, compared
to that of a circular nozzle at the stagnation point.
However, the average Nu number on a 60 mm 
60 mm flat plate was calculated to be almost the same
for both ILJ and SJ nozzles. They pointed out that the
pressure loss coefficient is maximal using a rectangu-
lar nozzle and minimal using a circular nozzle.
Recently, experimental results obtained by Singh
et al.[22] confirmed the findings of previous research-
ers.[19–21] Choo et al.[23] investigated the heat transfer
characteristics of an SJ nozzle in micro-scale. Based
on their experimental results, there is no significant
variation between micro-scale and macro-scale config-
uration in transport characteristics.
It is worthwhile to consider the effect of impinge-
ment surface motion on the flow pattern issuing from
a jet nozzle. In particular, Senter et al.[24] experimen-
tally, investigated the flow field topology of a confined
turbulent slot air jet impinging normally on a moving
flat plate. They reported that the flow pattern at a
given surface-to-jet velocity ratio is independent of
the jet Reynolds number in the range of 5,300 < Re <
10,600. Moreover, they presented the slight influence
of a moving plate on the flow behavior at a surface-
to-jet velocity ratio of 0.25 and lesser values, whereas,
at higher ratios, the flow is notably affected. In
another study, Senter[25] computed the local heat
transfer coefficient over the impinging zone. This
study confirmed that the local heat transfer coefficient
decreases when enlarging the surface-to-jet velocity
ratio. Chattopadhyay et al.[26] performed a series of
numerical studies on a single SJ nozzle and concluded
that the overall heat transfer increases up to a surface-
to-jet velocity ratio of up to 1.2, compared to the sta-
tionary surface; however, heat transfer decreases at the
higher ratios. Chattopadhyay and Saha[27–29] studied
the effect of a moving surface on the turbulent flow
field and heat transfer when an array of impinging
horizontal jets are employed. They reported that
increasing surface motion velocity reduces heat trans-
fer coefficient for all types of jet nozzles used.
Studies of inclined impinging jet nozzles are well
documented: it is also well acknowledged that the
location of the maximum local heat transfer coeffi-
cient is primarily attributable to the angle of inclin-
ation. An increasing number of studies have revealed
that by increasing the angle of the impinging jet, the
location of the heat transfer coefficient peak shifts
from the central geometrical point toward the com-
pression side of the plate (toward the location with
the smaller nozzle-to-surface spacing), and the heat
transfer coefficient magnitude decreases.[30–37] In add-
ition, Donovan and Murray[33] showed that the local
Nu number decreases more steadily in the downhill
side of the impingement plate compared to that of the
uphill side. Roy et al.[38,39] studied the heat transfer
coefficient distribution generated by an SJ nozzle on
an inclined impingement surface based on various
operating conditions. They showed that the peak value
of the heat transfer coefficiemt through the shear layer
is achieved close the stagnation zone. Kito et al.[40]
investigated the local Nu number distribution on a
flat plate by an array of SJ nozzles. They demonstrated
that the location of the stagnation zone moves away
toward the compression side the the impingement
surface. Attalla et al.[41] studied the local and average
heat transfer distributions on a flat surface by an array
of inclined ILJ nozzles and developed a correlation for
the various conditions based on Re, Pr, and the inclin-
ation angle (h).
A radial jet reattachment (RJR) nozzle is an altered
version of the ILJ nozzle. The RJR nozzle offers a
more elegant design than the traditional version (ILJ).
This modified version provides a number of advan-
tages such as controlling the exerted force magnitude
on the impinging surface by adjusting the
flow direction.
A slot jet reattachment (SJR) nozzle is an extension
version of an RJR nozzle concept in a slot shape. This
special configuration is well-suited for drying or cool-
ing of products that have rectangular or oval shapes.
In an SJR nozzle configuration, the flow leaves the
nozzle at a specific angle to the impingement surface
and reattaches in an oval band. Similar to the behav-
ior of the RJR nozzle, the reattachment zone gener-
ated by an SJR nozzle is highly turbulent, with high
values of transport characteristics. The flow coming
out of the SJR nozzle moves in two directions: 1) a
rectangular direction toward the minor axis of the
nozzle and 2) a radial direction toward the major axis
of the nozzle.

Page et al.[42] investigated the flow pattern issuing
from an RJR nozzle and showed that the reattachment
zone has a limited span. Yagoobi et al.[43] compared
heat transfer characteristics of an RJR nozzle to an ILJ
nozzle and reported the higher heat transfer rate asso-
ciated with the RJR nozzle. Narayanan et al.[44]
studied the heat transfer characteristics and flow pat-
tern of an SJR nozzle and compared the performance
of the SJR nozzle with that of the traditional SJ nozzle.
Their results indicated the advantageous performance
of the SJR nozzle over the SJ nozzle in heating proc-
esses. Recently, Farzad and Yagoobi[45] in a numerical
study investigated the effect of impingement surface
velocity on SJ and SJR nozzles. They showed that the
flow deviation occurs at surface-to-jet velocity ratios
of 0.5 and higher values, using an SJR nozzle, which
shows the better performance of an SJR nozzle
impinging on a moving plate, compared to that of an
SJ nozzle. Furthermore, Farzad and Yagoobi[46]
advanced the jet reattachment technology to the food
industry and investigated the drying characteristics of
an SJR nozzle in comparison with the common SJ
nozzle in drying cookie samples on a stationary basis.
They reported a significant enhancement of drying
rates of the samples using SJR nozzles.
There has been far too little attention paid to the
RJR and SJR nozzles, specially in drying food prod-
ucts. Furthermore, a systematic understanding of how
jet reattachment nozzles affect the food samples’ qual-
ity in the drying process is still lacking.
Therefore, the objective of this paper is to investi-
gate the drying characteristics of RJR and SJR nozzles,
as well as the product quality of the potato chip sam-
ples and the apple slices. The local and average heat
transfer coefficients of reattachment nozzles were
compared to those of traditional versions over a sta-
tionary surface. All the tests were carried out with an
exit angle of þ458 for an RJR nozzle and two exit
angles of þ208 and þ458 for an SJR nozzle, based on
three criteria: identical air mass flow rate, identical
fluid flow power, and identical exerted peak surface
pressure. Moreover, all the tests were performed with
the Reynolds number in the range of 9,500 < Re <
24,500 (calculated based on the hydraulic diameter).
Furthermore, to determine the quality of the apple sli-
ces dried with SJR nozzles, the kinetics of color
changes and micro structure analysis were performed.
2. Jet reattachment nozzle
Figure 1 shows the schematic of the jet reattachment
nozzle impinging on a flat plate. In spite of the
DRYING TECHNOLOGY 3
conventional ILJ nozzle, that stagnation point exists
on the center line of the jet; for an RJR nozzle the
stagnation point of the flow occurs in a relatively large
turbulent reattachment ring, away from the nozzle
center line. Due to the large turbulent reattachment
area formed by such a nozzle configuration, high heat
and mass transfer coefficients are present over
this area.
2.1. Exerted pressure
Page et al.[42] and Narayanan et al.[44] conducted
experimental tests and confirmed that, unlike the con-
ventional nozzles that only yield positive exerted pres-
sure (higher than atmospheric pressure), the pressure
right under the RJR and SJR nozzles is less than
atmospheric pressure. The peak surface pressure
occurs further away from the nozzle center-line, in a
minor axis direction of the nozzle (in the case of the
SJR nozzle). By proceeding further in a minor axis
direction, the pressure decays and attains atmospheric
pressure. As has been noted earlier, the exerted pres-
sure can be desirably controlled over the impingement
surface. Subsequently, net force can be calculated by
integrating the exerted pressure values over the
impingement area. In addition, the flexible structure
of innovative impinging jet nozzles facilitates control-
ling the force magnitude, by adjustments the nozzle
exit opening (b) and nozzle exit angle (h).
2.2. Heat transfer
Narayanan et al.[44] studied the heat transfer charac-
teristics of an SJR nozzle and compared them with
those of an SJ nozzle. To cover all elements, compari-
sons have been made based on three criteria, which
must be identical: (a) air mass flow rate, (b) fluid flow
power, and c) exerted peak surface pressure. They
reported the enhancement of average heat transfer
coefficients with SJR nozzles in all circumstances,
compared to those of the SJ nozzle. In the low nozzle-
to-surface spacing, turbulent mixing that happens at
the boundaries of the free jet region produces a sec-
ondary stream by mass entrainment and makes an
oval-shaped reattachment in the case of SJR nozzle or
a ring-shaped reattachment in RJR nozzle, on the
impingement surface. The secondary stream flow
directs inward, under the bottom plate, and outward,
far from the nozzle center. Due to the secondary
stream phenomenon, a relative low-pressure distribu-
tion is maintained. The intense turbulent flow is the
dominant reason for the high heat and mass transfer
4 M. FARZAD ET AL.

Figure 1. Reattachment jet nozzles schematics.

Table 1. Geometrical parameters of the nozzles. spacing for RJR and SJR nozzles are calculated based
Parameter ILJ RJR þ 458 SJ SJR þ 208 SJR þ 458 on 1.8 Dh and 0.57Zw, respectively. The hydraulic
(mm) diameters for ILJ and SJ nozzles are calculated as four
Xp 152 14 74 10 8
b – 4 – 4-8 4 times the area, divided by the wetted perimeter. In the
rw ðZw Þ – 18 – 18 14 case of RJR and SJR nozzles, hydraulic diameter is
D ðZws Þ 25.4 31.75 9.25 10 9.25
equivalent to two times the nozzle exit opening (b).
Note that Re is calculated based on the following for-
rates. Thus, forming a wider turbulent reattachment mula:
area improves the transport characteristics in com-
parison with traditional nozzles. Ve Dh
Re ¼ , (1)
l
where, Ve, Dh, and l are the nozzle exit velocity,
2.3. Nozzle geometry
hydraulic diameter, and dynamic viscosity of the air,
The geometrical parameters of all the nozzles used in respectively.
this study are listed in Table 1. The nozzle-to-surface
spacing is chosen based on the optimum value
reported in the literature.[44,47] The corresponding val-
3. Sample preparation
ues for ILJ and SJ nozzles are calculated based on 6 D The samples used in this study were potato chips and
(nozzle inner diameter) and 4 Dh (8 times the nozzle apple slices for RJR and SJR nozzles, respectively. The
outlet width), respectively. Also, the nozzle-to-surface potato chip sample was prepared by mixing potato

Figure 2. Schematic of the experimental apparatus utilized for the drying tests.[48]
powder with water, using a standard kitchen mixer.
The portions of powder and water are adjusted to
produce a sample with a thickness of 1.15 mm and
initial dry basis moisture content (DBMC) of 70%.
Then, samples were cut in a circular shape, with a
diameter of 88.5 mm. One sample was placed right
under the RJR nozzle for each test as shown in Figure
1. The fresh apples were procured from a local mar-
ket, Worcester, MA, USA. The type used are Empire
apples. To prepare monotonous samples, a conven-
tional fruit slicer was used to make the samples with a
thickness of 3 mm. As with potato chip samples, apple
slices were cut in a circular shape, with a diameter of
60 mm. The initial DBMC level of apple slices was
629%. Two apple slices were placed next to each other
under the SJR nozzle bottom plate.
wwater
DBMC ¼  100 (2)
wbonedried
4. Experimental set-up
The schematic diagram of the experimental set-up is
illustrated in Figure 2. The apparatus was constructed
to conduct dried air through a stainless steel pipeline
assembly from a large air supply to an impingement
surface, based on the desired operating conditions. To
achieve this goal, a framework made of aluminum was
built up to hold the assembly. To keep the pressure
constant, a pneumatic tank with two ports is placed
after the upstream air supply inlet. A pressure gauge
was installed at the tank’s inlet to monitor the pres-
sure. The tank was secured by a pressure relief valve
to ensure safety. The incoming air mass flow rate was
measured by passing through a magnetic rotameter
installed after the tank. An 8.5 kW torch electrical
heater, connected to a PID control unit was used to
DRYING TECHNOLOGY 5
heat up the fluid. The PID unit is required to regulate
the power and provide the desired temperature.
Following the electrical heater, a solenoid valve, actu-
ated on a timer, redirects the incoming air flow away
from the impingement surface in order to record the
sample weight without any fluctuations. The threaded
nozzle (ILJ/SJ/RJR/SJR) was connected interchangeably
to the solenoid valve. A scale with resolution of
0.001 g was located under the nozzle and placed on an
adjustable stand, which regulates the nozzle-to-surface
spacing. This arrangement is favorable because the
target sample can be settled on top of the scale to
obtain the weight during the drying process. J-type
thermocouples were used to measure the temperature
at the nozzle and electrical heater outlets. An IR cam-
era (FLIR T540sc) was employed to capture the sam-
ple’s surface temperature during the tests.
Furthermore, the apparatus was well-insulated with
ceramic fiber to minimize heat loss to the surrounding
area.
4.1. Fluid flow power measurement
Fluid flow power (i.e., fan power) is calculated as
follow:
_
mDp
P¼ (3)
q
where m _ is the air mass flow rate, Dp represents the
pressure drop across the nozzle, and q is the air dens-
ity. The pressure drop (across the nozzle) measure-
ment was made by attaching a differential pressure
transducer right above the nozzle inlet. One end of
the pressure transducer was located on top of the noz-
zle inlet to measure the pressure at nozzle entrance,
and the other end was left open to the ambient air,
6 M. FARZAD ET AL.

Table 2. Operating conditions based on identical air mass 5.1. Identical air mass flow rate
flow rate tests.
Parameter ILJ RJR þ 458 SJ SJR þ 208 SJR þ 458
Drying tests were conducted based on two air mass
b (mm) – 4 – 4 4 flow rates for each sample. The corresponding operat-
T (8C) 200 180 ing conditions are listed in Table 2.
Case 1
m_ (kg/s) 0.005 0.005 Figure 3 illustrates the percent DBMC of potato chip
Ve ðm=sÞ 5.5 15 6.2 7.1 8.6 and apple samples as a function of drying time during
Re 4,034 3,465 8,153 1,778 2,154
Case 2
the drying tests. The results show a clear reduction in
m_ (kg/s) 0.01 0.015 drying times using RJR and SJR nozzles, compared to
Ve ðm=sÞ 11 30 18.6 21.3 25.8 those samples dried using ILJ and SJ nozzles. This can
Re 8,068 6,930 24,459 5,334 6,462
Sample Potato Chip Apple be illustrated briefly by considering any specific DBMC
level point in Figure 3. For example, in the case of circu-
lar-shaped nozzles with m _ ¼ 0:005 kg/s (Figure 3a), the
time required to reach 10% DBMC level for ILJ and
which was equivalent to the pressure at the nozzle 
RJRþ45 nozzles are 42.6 and 26.3 min, respectively,
outlet (atmospheric pressure). corresponding to 38% reduction in drying time using

RJRþ45 nozzle. Another example can be observed in
Figure 3d. The time needed for the SJ nozzle to reach
4.2. Surface pressure measurement
10% DBMC level is 18 min; however, those of the
 
Surface pressure measurement was made by using a SJRþ20 and SJRþ45 nozzles are 13.5 and 13 min,
traversing plate with a small hole drilled at its center. respectively, corresponding to a reduction in drying
The plate was positioned under the nozzle, such that time of 25% and 28%, respectively. It is worthwhile to
the hole on the traversing plate was aligned with the mention that based on the identical air mass flow rate
nozzle center line. A differential pressure transducer criterion, the fan power was higher for RJR and SJR noz-
was connected to the plate via the small hole, so that zles than for ILJ and SJ nozzles, respectively. Hence,
one end of the transducer was level with the impinge- using innovative impinging jet nozzles has the potential
ment surface. Another end was left open to the ambi- to outperform traditional types of impinging jet nozzles
ent air. The traversing plate was moved horizontally when the air mass flow rate remains constant. The
perpendicular to the nozzle center line to record the superior performance of innovative nozzles based on
pressure profile on the surface. this criterion is due to several factors. First, the smaller
hydraulic diameter of such nozzles, at constant air mass
flow rates, leads to a higher velocity at the nozzle outlet.
5. Results and discussion Because of that, the flow impinges on the impingement
Experiments were conducted to find the DBMC pro- surface with a higher velocity at a shorter nozzle-to-sur-
face spacing in the innovative nozzles, which causes
files during the drying tests were based on three crite-
higher drying rates. Another factor in support of the
ria: (a) identical air mass flow rate, (b) identical fan
superior performance of innovative nozzles compared
power, and c) identical exerted peak surface pressure.
to conventional nozzles is the different nature of the
All the tests with ILJ and RJR nozzles were performed
flow issuing from each nozzle. The reattachment zone
with the equal outlet air temperature of 200  C.
associated with RJR and SJR nozzles is much larger than
Temperature for the tests using SJ and SJR nozzles
the stagnation zone generated by ILJ and SJ nozzles.
was maintained at 180  C. The ambient temperature Taken together, a significant impact is observed in dry-
was kept constant at 198C. Note that the experiments ing rates utilizing RJR and SJR nozzles.
were carried out in an open environment. The nozzle
exit temperatures were chosen in a way that the sam-
ple surface temperature do not exceed 80  C for apple 5.2. Identical fluid flow power
samples and 908 for the potato chip samples during The next set of experiments were conducted based on
the drying process. The common drying temperature the identical fluid flow power for both potato chip
range is between 50  C and 80  C for the apple slices and apple samples. Since the pressure drop for RJR
and up to 90  C for the potato chip samples.[49,50] and SJR nozzles was higher than for ILJ and SJ noz-
Furthermore, the hot air was impinged on the top zles, the air mass flow rate was lower in the cases of
surface of the samples and the bottom surface was RJR and SJR nozzles, in order to keep the fan power
placed on a disk shaped sample holder. constant (see Equation (3)).
 DRYING TECHNOLOGY 7

Figure 3. DBMC based on identical air mass flow rate.

Table 3. Operating conditions based on the identical fluid the lower air mass rates of RJR þ 458 and SJR þ 208
flow power. nozzles, compared to ILJ and SJ nozzles, the drying
Parameter ILJ RJR þ 458 SJ SJR þ 208 SJR þ 458 times to reach a specific level of DBMC are still
b (mm) – 4 – 4 4
m_ (kg/s) 0.01 0.0065 0.0095 0.006 0.005
shorter. For instance, to reach a 10% DBMC level
Dp (Pa) 98 170.5 191.6 303.4 364.45 with RJR þ 458 and SJR þ 208 nozzles, 19.8 and
Ve (m/s) 11 16.5 11.8 8.5 8.6
Re 8,068 4,504.5 15,516 2,153 2,154
19.5 min are required, respectively, corresponding to
T (8C) 200 180 12.8% and 9.3% reduction in drying time, compared
P (W) 1.3 2.34
Sample Potato Chip Apple
to those from using ILJ and SJ nozzles. These results
offer compelling evidence for the improved perform-
ance of jet reattachment nozzles.
The operating conditions based on the identical
fluid flow power tests are given in Table 3. Note that
5.3. Identical exerted peak surface pressure
the measured air mass flow rates provided in Table 3,
confirm the reduction in air mass flow rates for RJR In industrial applications, specifically, in drying fragile
and SJR nozzles. The corresponding DBMC results materials, it is crucial to protect the samples from
are depicted in Figure 4a and b. As shown, in spite of degradation due to high velocity impingement on the
8 M. FARZAD ET AL.

Figure 4. a and b – DBMC based on the identical fan power; c and d - DBMC based on the identical exerted peak surface pres-
sure; e and f - Pressure distribution based on identical peak surface pressure.

Table 4. Operating conditions based on the identical peak
surface pressure.
Parameter ILJ RJR þ 458 SJ SJR þ 208 SJR þ 458
b (mm) – 4 – 4
m_ (kg/s) 0.01 0.016 0.0095 0.01
Ve (m/s) 11 45 11.8 14.4
Re 8,068 11,088 15,516 3,556
T (8C) 200 180
p  patm (Pa) 191 134.5
(at peak) (at peak)
Sample Potato Chip Apple
samples. Therefore, in such applications, a limited
level of pressure is allowed to be exerted on the sam-
ples. By considering this fact, a set of drying tests
using potato chip and apple slice samples were per-
formed, based on identical exerted peak surface pres-
sure (Figure 4c and d). Due to the flow deflection by
the presence of a bottom plate in RJR and SJR noz-
zles, to achieve the same exerted peak pressure value
with ILJ and SJ nozzles, the air mass flow rate should
be increased. As expected, measurements demonstrate
that the associate air mass flow rates with the match-
ing exerted peak pressure for RJR þ 458 and SJR þ
208 nozzles are higher than those of ILJ and SJ noz-
zles. The pressure distribution based on this criterion
for both circular-shaped and slot-shaped nozzles are
illustrated in Figure 4e and f. The pressure distribu-
tion is plotted as a function of length, which starts
from the nozzle center-line and proceeds along a
radial axis in circular nozzles and a minor axis in the
case of slot-shaped nozzles. As stated previously and
as depicted in Figure 4f, the pressure immediately
below the bottom plate of the SJR þ 208 nozzle is less
than atmospheric pressure. The low local surface pres-
sure surrounded by a reattachment zone confirms the
presence of a circulation region under the bottom
plate. Subsequently, the pressure increases from a low
value to its maximum value and generates a larger
turbulent zone, compared to the stagnation zone
formed by an SJ or an ILJ nozzle. The operating con-
ditions for this set of experiments are listed in
Table 4.
As shown in Figure 4c and d, a tangible improve-
ment in drying performance by the jet reattachment
nozzles is achieved. Similar to the previous criteria,
time required to reach 10% DBMC level can be com-
pared between the jet reattachment and conventional
nozzles. So, the drying times to reach this specific
point for RJR þ 458 and SJR þ 208 nozzles were
measured as 8.8 and 15.5 min, respectively, corre-
sponding to the 61.2% and 28% reduction in drying
time, respectively, when compared to those of ILJ and
SJ nozzles. The remarkable enhancement in drying
DRYING TECHNOLOGY 9
Table 5. Operating conditions based on the identical peak
surface pressure and variation of b value.
Parameter b ¼ 4 mm b ¼ 6 mm b ¼ 8 mm
4 m_ (kg/s) 0.0095 0.011 0.012
0.005 Re 3,378 3,712 3,902
8.6 T (8C) 180
2,154 p  patm (Pa) 125
Sample Apple
time is due to a much higher velocity of air at RJR
and SJR nozzles’ outlets, compared to those of ILJ and
SJ nozzles.
5.3. Effect of nozzle exit opening (b)
It is crucial to note that, in the jet reattachment noz-
zles, the exit opening (b) plays an important role in
the resultant heat transfer coefficient and drying char-
acteristics. In order to investigate the impact of the b
value, the next set of drying tests were conducted by
varying the b value from 4 mm to 8 mm, while the
exerted peak surface pressure was remained constant.
The intention of enlarging the b value was to achieve
higher air mass flow rate under an identical exerted
peak surface pressure level. Regarding the superior
performance of the SJR þ 208 nozzle in previous tests,
only this nozzle was chosen for this set of tests, and
drying performance of this nozzle was investigated by
varying its b value. The corresponding operating con-
ditions are listed in Table 5.
_ ¼ 0:0095 kg/
In this respect, an air mass flow rate of m
s was taken for the SJ nozzle and the air mass flow rates
associated with higher values of b for SJR þ 208 nozzle
were measured accordingly. As a consequence of expan-
sion in b for the SJR þ 208 nozzle, from b ¼ 4 mm to
b ¼ 6 mm and b ¼ 8 mm, higher air mass flow rates of
0.011 kg/s and 0.012 kg/s, respectively, were gained. Given
this orientation, drying tests with apple samples were per-
formed. As shown in Figure 5, to reach a 10% DBMC
level, a 23% and a 26% reduction in drying time was
achieved with the b ¼ 6 mm and b ¼ 8 mm, respectively,
in comparison with the b ¼ 4 mm. Note that the 23% and
a 26% enhancements with the increased values of b corre-
sponded to a 44.6% and a 46.7% reduction in drying time,
when compared to those of SJ nozzle based on the identi-
cal exerted peak surface pressure criterion. Notably, this
shows the flexibility of such nozzles, which can be
adjusted, based on the application need to provide max-
imum efficiency.
5.4. Convective heat transfer analysis
In fact, the key in enhancements achieved by jet
reattachment nozzles is due to the higher average heat
10 M. FARZAD ET AL.
Figure 5. Effect of b value in drying of apple samples with SJR þ 208.
transfer coefficient generated by such nozzles. In order
to confirm this statement, an experimental setup was
designed to quantify the heat transfer performance of
all the nozzles used in this study. In the course of this
experiment, heat flux was measured using a data log-
ger connected to a heat flux sensor called”
Scorpion2”. The heat flux measurement unit was used
to acquire the heat flux from a copper target surface
along the impingement surface. The heat flux meas-
urement was made by using the heat flux measure-
ment unit attached to a traversing plate. The plate
was positioned under the measurement unit, such that
the heat flux gauge could be moved horizontally per-
pendicular to the nozzle center line to record the heat
flux profile on the surface. The corresponding con-
vective local heat transfer coefficients were calculated
as following:
q00conv
hloc ¼
Te  Ts
where q00conv is the convective heat flux, Te is the air
temperature at nozzle exit, and Ts is the impingement
surface temperature. In this measurement, all the
experiments started at the nozzle center line on the
impingement surface. To collect data along the
impingement surface, the heat flux sensor was located
right under the nozzle (along the center line) and was
transversed along the radial and minor axis of RJR
and SJR nozzles, respectively. The detailed tests were
conducted for all three criteria studied in this paper.
The corresponding operating conditions are listed in
Tables 2–4. Figure 6a, b, and c illustrate the variation
of the local heat transfer coefficient for ILJ and

RJRþ45 nozzles along the radial axis. The local heat
transfer coefficient under the identical air mass flow
rate and identical fan power criteria (Figure 6a and b)
is slightly higher for the ILJ nozzle at r ¼ 0, which is
at nozzle center line, compared to that of an RJR noz-
zle. This is expected since the stagnation point for the
ILJ nozzle occurs at r ¼ 0. However, hloc for RJR noz-
zle is substantially higher than that of ILJ nozzle near
the reattachment ring as well as for larger r values.
The reattachment ring used in this context is a
boundary of the physical zone, where the recirculating
flow beneath the RJR nozzle is separated from the
flow that is following the outer wall curvature (flat
(4) plate). For the RJR nozzle as well as the SJR nozzle,
the local heat transfer coefficient is lower in the recir-
culation zone but, augments quickly right before the
reattachment region, with a maximum peak prior to
the reattachment point, followed by an exponential
decay passing the reattachment region. This phenom-
enon is also reported by Yagoobi.[51] In Figure 6c, due
to a higher air mass flow rate of RJR nozzle, the local
heat transfer coefficient is always higher than that of
ILJ nozzle. Furthermore, to investigate the overall
 DRYING TECHNOLOGY 11

Figure 6. Local and average heat transfer coefficient distributions along the radial axis for ILJ and RJR nozzles.
12 M. FARZAD ET AL.
drying performance of traditional and reattachment
nozzles, it is worthwhile to determine the average con-
vective heat transfer coefficient along the radial and
minor axis of the nozzles. Average heat transfer coeffi-
cient for ILJ and RJR nozzles were calculated as fol-
lowing:
ð 51.9 W/m2.K. The values for SJR þ 208 were 45.5,
2 rf
havg ¼ 2 hloc ðrÞrdr (5)
rf 0
Average heat transfer coefficient for SJ and SJR
nozzles were calculated from the following equation:
ð respectively.
1 Zl
havg ¼ hloc ðzÞdz (6)
Zl 0
In Equations (5) and (6), rf and Zl are the limits of
integration, respectively. r and Z are the directions in
the radial axis of the RJR nozzle and the minor axis
of the SJR nozzle, respectively. The presentation of
data by this averaging approach provides for a better
comparison of the effectiveness of one nozzle over the
other for the same operating condition. According to
Figure 6d, e, and f, one can observe the significant
advantage of RJR nozzles over the ILJ nozzles by
examining the average heat transfer coefficients. The
higher average heat transfer rates is partially attributed
to a larger turbulent reattachment ring (reattachment
band in the case of SJR nozzle) region, versus the
small stagnation zones for ILJ nozzle. To investigate
this quantitatively, the average heat transfer coeffi-
cients generated by ILJ and RJR nozzles were calcu-
lated at r ¼ 45 mm, which is the radius of the potato
chip sample. The corresponding values for the ILJ
nozzle, based on identical air mass flow rate, identical
fluid flow power, and identical exerted peak surface
pressure were 26.1, 50.9, and 50.9 W/m2.K, and the
same values for the RJR nozzle were 35.9, 59.6, and
86.4 W/m2.K, respectively. These correspond to 37.5%,
18.4%, and 67% enhancements in average heat trans-
fer coefficient using RJR þ 458. Thus, the data sup-
ports the premise that RJR nozzles are able to provide
higher transport characteristics compared to those of
ILJ nozzles.
Likewise, the same analysis was carried out for SJ
and SJR nozzles. The local and average heat transfer
coefficients were calculated based on Equations (4)
and (6). Figure 7 shows the same results for SJR noz-
zles, based on the operating conditions listed in
Tables 2–4. It can be seen from Figure 7 that the
same patterns exist as those of Figure 6). Generally,
the local heat transfer coefficient distribution for each
nozzle follows the same trend as pressure distribution
along the nozzle’s minor axis. In other words, in the
case of the SJ nozzle, maximum heat transfer occurs
at the stagnation zone, while that of the SJR nozzle
occurs at reattachment zone, which has a band shape.
The average heat transfer coefficients were calculated
up to the border of the apple samples at Z ¼ 30 mm.
These values for SJ nozzles were 40.7, 51.7, and
56.3, and 66.6 W/m2.K. These correspond to 11.9%,
8.9%, and 28.4% enhancement in average heat transfer
coefficient, based on the identical air mass flow rate,
fan power, and exerted peak surface pressure,
Table 6 summarizes all the results from DBMC
level of the samples at the end of the drying processes,
along with the corresponding average heat transfer
coefficients. Note that the data regarding the effect of
b value are not included in the table. These results
indicate the superior drying performance of RJR þ
458 and SJR þ 208 nozzles in drying rates over the ILJ
and SJ nozzles. Moreover, the enhancements in aver-
age heat transfer coefficients are in good agreement
with the reported time reduction in drying time of the
samples used in this study. As noted earlier, the wider
reattachment zone generated by reattachment nozzles
compared to the stagnation zone formed by the con-
ventional nozzles, leads to a wider area with higher
local heat transfer coefficients. Therefore, integrating
the local heat transfer coefficient along the area leads
to a higher average heat transfer coefficient.
5.5. Color analysis
Generally, convectional hot air drying is the fastest
drying method; however, degradation attributed to
this method is undesirable. Using a jet reattachment
nozzle could be a desirable replacement to the con-
ventional impinging nozzles and a solution to reduc-
tion in food degradation. Drying affects the
appearance of fruits due to Maillard reaction, pigment
degradation, enzymatic browning, and ascorbic acid
oxidation.[52] Changes in the color of the fresh and
dried apple slices are monitored with a reflectance
colorimeter (LabScan XE, Hunter Associates
Laboratories, Inc., Reston, VA, USA), expressed as L,
a, and b values. The measurements were made at at
the end of the drying process, where the DBMC was
less than 10%. Note that from this section, always L
represents the lightness index, a represents red-green,
and b represents yellow-blue components. To calibrate
the colorimeter, a white and a black ceramic tile at
the room temperature was used. Measurements were
individually taken for three samples, and the average
 DRYING TECHNOLOGY 13

Figure 7. Local and average heat transfer coefficient distributions along the minor axis for SJ and SJR nozzles.
14 M. FARZAD ET AL.

Table 6. Comparison of enhancement in average heat transfer coefficient and reduction in drying time using RJR þ 458 and SJR
þ 208 nozzles.
Time to Time to Time to Time to
reach (min) reach (min) havg (W/m2K) havg (W/m2K) reach (min) reach (min) havg (W/m2K) havg (W/m2K)
Criterion 5% DBMC 5% DBMC r ¼ 45 mm r ¼ 45 mm 15% DBMC 15% DBMC z ¼ 45 mm z ¼ 30 mm
(ILJ) (RJR þ 458) (ILJ) (RJR þ 458) (SJ) (SJR þ 208) (SJ) (SJR þ 208)
Identical Low
Air Mass 60.6 36.8 26.1 35.9 39.5 34.2 40.7 45.5
Flow Rate
Enhancement þ39.3% þ37.5% þ13.3% þ11.8%
(in drying time) (in havg) (in drying time) (in havg)
Identical High
Air Mass 29.7 17.5 50.9 74.4 15.9 12.6 74.8 92.4
Flow Rate
Enhancement þ41% þ46% þ20.8% þ23.5%
(in drying time) (in havg) (in drying time) (in havg)
Identical
Fluid Flow 29.7 24.8 50.9 59.6 20.5 18.1 51.7 56.3
Power
Enhancement þ16.5% þ17% þ11.7% þ8.9%
(in drying time) (in havg) (in drying time) (in havg)
Identical Exerted
Peak Surface 29.7 9.8 50.9 86.4 20.5 14.3 51.9 66.6
Pressure
Enhancement þ67% þ69.7% þ30.2% þ28.3%
Sample Potato Chip Apple

Table 7. Effect of different nozzles on color properties of calculate BI index, L, a, and b were utilized along
apple slices based on identical peak surface pressure. with the following equations [56]
L a b DE DI Ho C BI
73.41 0.89 16.56 0.05 93.08 16.59 24.03
100ðx  0:31Þ
Fresh 0 BI ¼ (11)
Sample 0:17
Dried 70.1 3.79 19.99 6.71 0.19 79.35 20.34 36.98 a þ 1:75L
x¼ (12)
(SJ) 5:645L þ a  3:012b
Dried 76.79 0.22 16.3 3.88 0.02 90.87 16.3 23.2 In this investigation, the kinetics of color changes
(SJR þ 208)
in apple samples using SJ and SJR nozzles based on
Dried 69.6 5.34 24.81 11.03 0.22 77.86 25.38 48.84 identical peak surface pressure were studied and are
(SJR þ 458)
listed in Table 7. The corresponding operating condi-
tions were given in Table 4. The reason to choose this
was calculated. The total color change (DE) represents criterion is that the air mass flow rate associated with
the color difference from the reference sample. The SJR þ 208 is slightly higher than that of the SJ nozzle
higher DE shows the greater change in color. DE is and serves as the extreme case in terms of sample
calculated as follow:[53] degradation. The air temperature at the nozzle exit
qffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
was fixed at 1808C, which is higher than the typical
DE ¼ ðL  L0 Þ2 þ ða  a0 Þ2 þ ðb  b0 Þ2 (7)
drying temperature in drying of apples.
where L0, a0, and b0 refer to the color reading of a The results of color analysis indicate that the change
fresh apple sample. Additionally, darkness index (DI), in total color in drying with the SJR þ 208 nozzle is less
Hou angle (Ho), and Chroma were calculated, based than that of SJ and SJR þ 458 nozzles. Total color
on following equations:[54,55] change (DE) is extensively used to characterize color
a variation in foods in various processes. Better retention
DI ¼ (8) of color using SJR þ 208 nozzle can be due to shorter
b
  drying time.[57] The apple slices dried by the SJR þ 458
1 b nozzle show the highest DE, which can be because of
H ¼ tan
o
(9)
a close nozzle-to-surface spacing and a high nozzle exit
1=2 angle. The Hou angle values are reduced from 93.08 to
C ¼ ða2 þ b2 Þ (10)
79.35, 90.87, and 77.86, corresponding to SJ, SJR þ 208,
The browning index (BI) indicates the purity and and SJR þ 458 nozzles, respectively. This suggests a
the degree of brown color in the target sample. To reduction from green to an orange-red color. Again, the

Figure 8. Micro-photographs of apple samples dried by SJ and SJR nozzles based on identical peak surface pressure.
SJR þ 208 nozzle is performed better than other nozzles
in this measurement. The Chroma (C) parameter repre-
sents the saturation degree of color and is proportional
to color strength. The C value in the case of SJR þ 208
remained close to that of the fresh sample, which indi-
cates the stability of yellow color in the apple samples.
SJ and SJR þ 458 nozzles show strong deviation from
that of the fresh sample. The next color parameter is
browning index (BI), which is important in determin-
ing enzymatic and non-enzymatic browning. As well as
other color parameters, apple samples dried with the
SJR þ 208 nozzle showed a slight deviation from that of
the reference sample. Using SJR nozzles could well be
the appropriate replacement for conventional nozzles.
5.6. Micro-structure analysis
In order to analyze the structure of apple samples, an
environmental scanning electron microscope (ESEM)
was used to evaluate the changes occurring at the cellular
DRYING TECHNOLOGY 15
level. Figure 8 depicts the micro-photographs of apple
samples at the end of the drying process at one arbitrary
location, based on the identical exerted peak surface
pressure criterion. The operating conditions were the
same as the ones given in Table 4. Image analysis was
performed at three different locations on each sample.
Based on the image analysis, average pore size for a fresh
apple sample was calculated as 0.008 mm2 and those of
dried samples with SJ, SJR þ 208, SJR þ 458 nozzles were
0.004 mm2, 0.007 mm2, and 0.005 mm2, respectively.
Hence, the sample dried with an SJR þ 208 nozzle shows
a smaller level of shrinkage in voids compared to the one
dried by an SJ or an SJR þ 458 nozzle (Figure 8). A more
detailed study will need to be carried out by conducting
a similar analysis at multiple locations.
6. Error analysis
The repeatability of the results was confirmed by
repeating all the experiments three times, and
16 M. FARZAD ET AL.

minimum and maximum standard deviations were Nomenclature

calculated in each case. In particular, in the case of
round nozzles, based on an identical fan power of
P ¼ 1.3 W, minimum and maximum percent stand- Varibles
ard deviation of DBMC values for ILJ nozzle were m_ Mass flow rate, kg/s
respectively 0.01 and 1.7, with an average value of a Red-greenness
0.42. Those of SJR þ 458 were calculated as 0.09, a0 Red-greenness of the fresh sample
2.87 and 1.83, respectively. To illustrate another b Nozzle exit opening, mm
b Yellow-blueness (in the context of color analysis)
example, standard deviations were calculated for SJR b0 Yellow-blueness of the fresh sample
nozzles, based on an identical air mass flow rate of D Nozzle inner diameter (RJR nozzle), mm
_
m¼0.015 kg/s. The percentage of minimum and E Total color
maximum values were determined as 8.1 and 15.5 Ho Hou angle, degree
for SJR þ 208. The percent standard deviation for havg Average heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
hloc Local heat transfer coefficient, W/m2K
all the color measurement tests were calculated with
L Lightness index
the maximum and minimum of 3.8 and 0.86, L0 Lightness index of the fresh sample
respectively. P Power, W
p Pressure, Pa
patm Atmosphere pressure, Pa
7. Conclusions q00 Convective heat flux, W/m2
r Radial direction, mm
An experimental study in drying of potato chip and
r0 RJR bottom plate radius, mm
apple samples was performed to investigate the drying T Temperature, 8C
characteristics of two types of jet reattachment nozzles Te Nozzle exit temperature, 8C
and to compare them to those of conventional noz- Ts Surface temperature, 8C
zles. The quality analysis of color and the micro-struc- Ve Nozzle exit velocity, m/s
ture analysis of apple samples was studied as well. w Weight, g
Xp Nozzle-to-surface spacing, mm
RJR þ 458, SJR þ 208, and SJR þ 458 nozzles demon- Z SJR minor axis direction, mm
strated significant enhancements in drying process Zl Limit of integration, mm
based on all three criteria of identical air mass flow Zw Bottom plate width (SJR nozzle), mm
rate, fluid flow power, and peak surface pressure. The Zws Nozzle inner width (SJR nozzle), mm
results obtained from experimental tests using RJR þ
458 nozzle revealed a reduction in drying time, to Abbreviations
reach 5% DBMC level up to 41%, 16.5%, and 67%
BI Browning index
based on identical air mass flow rate, fluid flow C Chroma
power, and peak surface pressure, respectively, com- DBMC Dry basis moisture content, g/g
pared to those of an ILJ nozzle. In addition, the DI Darkness index
results obtained with the SJR þ 208 nozzle indicated ILJ In-line jet
reduction in drying time of up to 25%, 9%, and 28%, Re Reynolds number
RJR Radial jet reattachment
based on identical air mass flow rate, fluid flow SJ Slot jet
power, and peak surface pressure, respectively, com- SJR Slot jet reattachment
pared to those of an SJ nozzle. Moreover, color and
structure analysis demonstrated that SJR þ 208 could Greek letters
be an alternative approach in impinging nozzle dry-
ing, particularly when operated at high temperatures, D Difference
to retain nutritional and functional properties of heat- q Fluid density, kg/m3
h Nozzle exit angle, degree
sensitive products.
As a final note, the SJR nozzles are especially suit-
able for drying applications where it is crucial to pro-
tect fragile materials from being damaged by direct Acknowledgments
airflow impingement. SJR nozzles provide an The tests regarding the kinetics of color changes and the
increased heat transfer rate and a mechanism to con- micro structure analysis were conducted at the University of
trol the magnitude and direction of the exerted force Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. The second author of the
on the samples. paper was a Full-bright fellow during his internship at WPI.
We would also like to show our gratitude to the Dr. Sheyla

Ramsay for sharing her pearls of wisdom with us during
the course of this research.
Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by
the authors.
Funding
This research was supported by the United State
Department of Agriculture (USDA) and Center for
Advanced Research in Drying (CARD), a US National
Science Foundation Industry University Cooperative
Research Center. CARD is located at Worcester Polytechnic
Institute and the University of Illinois at Urbana-
Champaign (co-site). Professor Hao Feng from the
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign (UIUC) pro-
vided insight and expertise that greatly assisted the research.
ORCID
Milad Farzad http://orcid.org/0000-0003-3154-9015
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