1.

2 MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES THROUGH MEMBRANE

Introduction: Study of movement of useful, toxic and waste substances across the cell membrane.
A cell membrane is semi permeable that is allowing certain molecules to move through it and not
allowing others molecules to pass through it. All biological membrane that surround the cell,
nucleus, vacuole, mitochondrion (sing.), chloroplast and other organelles are semi permeable.

IMPORTANCE of transport across membrane

Reasons:
i. maintain a fixed pH value and ionic concentration for optimum activity of cell.
ii. nutrients are readily obtained for the cell as a source of energy or as raw materials for
synthesis of products of the cell.
iii. excrete toxic substances from the cell.
iv. excrete useful substances required by other parts of the body.
v. produce an ionic gradient for the activity of the nerve cells.

TRANSPORT

PASSIVE ACTIVE
DIFFERENCES between active and passive transport
1. Active transport requires energy ATP but passive does not require any energy.
2. Active transport is against concentration gradient but passive transport is down a
concentration gradient.

1.2.1 PASSIVE TRANSPORT

There are three types of active transport:
Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Osmosis and water potential
1.2.1.1 Diffusion
Dfn: Net movement of molecules or ions from a region of their high concentration to a region of low
concentration.
Rate of diffusion in a given direction depends on
i. the surface area
ii. the concentration gradient
iii. inversely proportional to the distance
iv. size of the molecule
v. temperature

But in a living cell, the diffusion across the membrane will depend on the type of molecules and the
nature of the membrane. Simple diffusion can be across the phospholipid bilayer or across protein
pore.

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 Types of Example of Permeability
molecule substance

Hydrophobic O2, N2, hydrocarbon Permeable

molecules chains, steroid
hormones

Small polar Water, CO2 , Permeable

molecules glycerol, urea, fatty
acids

Big polar Glucose, fructose, Not

molecules galactose, permeable
disaccharides

Charged Amino acids, Not

molecules hydrogen ions, permeable
and ions hydrogen
carbonate,HCO3-
Natrium, kalium,
calcium, chloride,
magnesium
Diagram 1.2.1 Diffusion through the phospholipid bilayer
Table 1.2. 1 Permeability of certain substances

Diffusion in cell
Cell membrane is semi permeable. Diffusion through a cell membrane can be affected by activity of
the cell. As oxygen diffuses through a cell, it is readily used up by the cell. There is a continual steep
concentration gradient, thus there is continual influx of oxygen. Likewise, carbon dioxide the
product of cell respiration, continuously leaves the cell.
Within the cell itself, diffusion takes place. Substances synthesised at one part of the cell is use in
another part of the cell. Therefore a concentration gradient is formed which results in diffusion of
substances from its site of synthesis to the site where it is needed.

Note: Water molecules can go through the biphospholipid layer of cell membrane
easily as it can squeeze through the slight imperfection spaces between the fatty acid
tails of phospholipid molecules. However, during osmosis water moves in plentiful
through special protein channel/pore called aquaporin. It is a hydrophilic channel for
small polar molecules and allows flow in either direction. Any ions less than the
diameter of water can also diffuse through the channel.

Diagram 1.2.2: Aquaporin for water

1.2.1.2 Facilitated Diffusion

Dfn: Movement of molecules down a concentration gradient which requires special carrier/transport
proteins.

These channel proteins called permease is specific to the substance it transports. It has an active site
which is specific. (But it is not an enzyme as its name implies)
Molecules transported by facilitated diffusion are

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small polar molecules and ions such as glucose, amino acids, fatty acids and glycerol which move
through the membrane but more slowly than water molecules. Movement is down a concentration
gradient and does not require energy.
Rate of facilitated diffusion becomes saturated when all the protein channels are used.
Rate of diffusion
Facilitated diffusion

Simple diffusion

External concentration

Graph 1.2.1 shows the rate of diffusion of substances which can move through the membrane by both types of diffusion

e.g Transport of glucose

Glucose binds to the hydrophilic part of the protein, the protein changes its shape and moves the
solute across the membrane. When the solute reaches the other side of the membrane, it is
released and the protein returns to its original shape. No energy is required .

Diagram 1.2.3 Mechanism of facilitated diffusion

1.2.1.3 Osmosis
Dfn: Osmosis is net movement of freely moving water molecules from a region of higher
concentration to a region of lower concentration through a partially permeable membrane.
OR
Osmosis is the diffusion of water from a region of higher water potential to that of a low water
potential through a semi permeable membrane.

The cytoplasm of a cell consists of dissolved molecules such as sugars, amino acids and bicarbonate
ions and with water as a solvent to form a solution. If two regions in a cell are separated by a semi-
permeable membrane, diffusion of cell solutes will depend on whether the solute can move freely
across the membrane or not. However water molecules can move freely through the membrane
along the concentration gradient.

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Water potential
Dfn. The pressure exerted by the freely moving water molecules.

The effect of solutes on water potential.

Solutes attract water molecules around it, so fewer water molecules are free to move.
Solutes will decrease the water potential of a solution. The more hypertonic the solution, the
smaller is the value of water potential.
water In pure water, the molecules are free to
molecules move, thus we say
water potential of pure water = 0 Pascal,
at atmospheric pressure and normal temp.
solute ( 1 Pa =1 Nm-2 )
less water
molecules that are free to move

Diagram 1.2.4 Attraction of water particles to the solutes

Solute potential
The contribution of the solute in a solution to lower the water potential of the solution is called
solute potential. Solute potential will be a negative value.

Osmotic pressure, osmotic potential and water potential.

 Osmotic pressure is the pressure exerted to stop the water molecules from moving across the
membrane into a hypertonic solution.
 The more hypertonic the solution is, the greater is the osmotic pressure.
 Osmotic pressure (OP)of pure water is 0 pascals/ Pa.
 The term osmotic potential (OP0 ) now replaces the term OP because the pressure is actually a
potential pressure and becomes a real value only under laboratory conditions. (as in using a
osmometer)
OP is + ve but OP0 has a negative value, same absolute value but different relative values.
 The higher the OP of a solution, the harder it is for it to lose its water molecules to its
surroundings and the more negative the value of its OP0 is.
 OP0 is an indirect measurement of the water potential of the solution

At atmospheric pressure, the water potential of the solution ( φ sol ) is determined by its OP.
The greater the OP, the more negative the water potential will be.

Water potential of a plant cell (φcell )

Water potential of a plant cell (φcell) is affected by the pressure
ϕp of the cell wall against the cellular contents and the solute potential
(φsol) of the cell.
The contribution by the cell wall is called pressure potential (φp).
φcell = φsol + φp

φsol

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1. When a cell is flaccid, φp = 0 kP,
that is the water potential of cell is directly dependant on the solute potential.
2. When the cell is turgid, φcell = 0 kP,
3. When a plant cell is immersed in a solution,
φcell = (φsap vacuole - φext sol ) + φp
where φsol = (φsap vacuole - φext sol )

W P of cell increases
Volume of water increases
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water
potential Wall pressure Yp
(mPa)
0
Ycell

Y sol becomes less -ve

-5
Yp = 0 Ycell = 0
Y cell = Y sol Yp = Ysol

Absolute Incipient full

Plasmolysis plasmolysis turgidity

Graph1.2.2 shows the water potential of plant cell in different conditions

Note: Water potential of an animal cell is determined by only the solute potential because it has no
cell wall.

1.2.2 ACTIVE TRANSPORT

Dfn: Active transport is the movement of a solute across a membrane against a concentration
gradient and using protein carriers that requires energy ATP.

It only occurs in living cells. Cyanide prevents the synthesis of ATP also prevents active transport.
Molecules carried across are polar molecules which is bigger than 1 nm.

There are few types of active transport

i. allow a single substance direction,
ii. allow two substances flowing in same direction,
iii. allow two substances in opposite direction.

Mechanism of active transport.

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Step 1: one protein carrier binds one ATP, a channel through its interior opens up.
Step 2: the particular solute will then bind to molecular groups along the channel of the protein
carrier.
Step 3: binding causes the protein carrier to accept a phosphate group from the ATP reducing it to
ADP.
Step 4: the phosphate group accepted changes the shape of the protein carrier.
Step 5: The solute passes through and is transported to the other side of the membrane.
Step 6: The protein carrier returns to its original shape.

e.g 1. The calcium pump

Allows a single substance direction
The calcium pump keeps the concentration of calcium in the cell a thousand times lower than that
outside the cell. (Refer steps above)

2. The sodium-potassium pump

Allows a two way flow of two different substances using the same protein carrier.
The pump actively pumps Na + ions out of the neuron cell and K + ions into the cell to maintain a
high concentration of Na + ions outside the cell.
For every three Na+ ions pumped out of the cell, two K+ ions are pumped in. Thus maintaining a
negative potential inside cell membrane compared to the outside of the cell membrane. Resting
electrical potential is -70mV.
The transport of these ions is carried out by a highly specific transmembrane protein carrier called
sodium-potassium pump.

Step 1: three molecules of Na+ bind to the interior ends of the two subunits producing a structural
change in the protein complex.

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Step 2: the new shape of the complex binds a molecule of ATP. ATP splits into ADP and P. The
terminal phosphate group remains bounded to the complex.
Step 3: the binding of the phosphate group causes another structural change on the protein
molecule. This change allows 3 of Na+ to move across it, now Na+ is positioned facing the exterior.
In this new conformation, the complex has a low affinity for Na+ ions. The Na+ then dissociates and
leaves the membrane to the outside environment.
Step 4: However, it has a high affinity for K + ions, thus binding of K+ ions cause another structural
change. This dislodges the phosphate group from the protein. The K+ ions are then released to the
inside of cell. The release causes this structure now to have a high affinity for Na+ ions and the
process repeats itself.

Intro: The above transport systems move only small molecules into and out of cells.
When it comes to transporting large molecules like enzymes, microbes and viruses across cell
membranes, cytosis takes place. Cytosis is an active transport which involved in folding or out
folding of sections of the surface membrane.

1.2.3 ENDOCYTOSIS
Dfn: A small surface membrane near the substance to be engulfed balloons inwards and pinches
off. The result is an endocytosis vesicle with substances in it.

Diagram 1.2.7 Shows endocytosis

Two types of endocytosis

i.pinocytosis – if the substance taken in is of liquid form.

Diagram1.2.8 Pinocytosis
ii. phagocytosis- if the substance taken in is of solid form like microb, particles and cellular debris.
Amoeba, white blood cell and macrophages carries out phagocytosis.

Diagram 1.2.9 Amoeba carry out phagocytosis.

1.2.4 EXOCYTOSIS
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Dfn: Vesicle moves to the cell surface and the bilipid layered membrane fuses with the surface
membrane. The contents of the vesicle are released to its surroundings.
e.g terminal dendrites of neuron releasing neurotransmitter into the synapse.

Endocytosis reduces the total surface membrane but exocytosis replaces the surface of the
membrane. Thus the total surface of the membrane is maintained.

NAME ………………………………………………………………
Question
1. Plant cell A and B lies next to each other. Plant cell A has a solute potential of -300kPa and a
pressure potential of 200 kPa. Plant cell B has a solute potential of -400 kPa and a pressure
potential of 100 kPa. Predict the direction of net movement of water in each cell.

2. A plant cell has a solute potential of -400kPa and a pressure potential of 150 kPa. It is
immersed in a solution with water potential of -100kPa. Calculate and predict the direction
of net movement of water.

3. The diagram below shows a plant cell immersed in a sucrose solution. The pressure
potential (Yp) of the cell and of the solute potential (Ysol) of the cell and of the sucrose
solution is shown in the diagram.
Yp = 350kPa
Ysel = -800kPa

Ysucrose solution = -1500kPa

a. Calculate the water potential of the cell. Show your working.

b. State water will move in or out of the cell. Explain your answer.
……………………………………………………………………………………..……………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
c. State the water potential of the cell at the point of incipient plasmolysis. Assume changes in
a Y sol is negligible.

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4. The water potential of three adjacent cells is shown in below? In which direction does water
move?

X Y
0kPa -1000kPa
Z
-4000kPa

A. From cell X to cells Y and Z B. From cell Y to cells X and Z

C. From cell Z to cell X D. From cell Z to cell Y

5. Which process does glucose moves into red blood cells

A. Osmosis B. Facilitated diffusion C. Active transport D. Endocytosis

6. The diagram below shows movement of three substances Q, R and S across cell membrane.
What are Q, R and S?

Q R S
A. CO2 Na+ Urea
B. Na+ Ethanol Water
C. Water Acetone Na+
D. Ethanol HCO3- Glucose

7. The diagram below shows sequence of movement of a molecule across membrane.

The movement of molecules is called

A. Diffusion B. Pinocytosis C. Facilitated diffusion D. Phagocytosis
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