RITUALIZING PSYCHEDELIC BUDDHISM:

A HERMENEUTIC INQUIRY INTO THE INTERACTION BETWEEN

TANTRIC BUDDHISM AND AYAHUASCA SHAMANISM

by

William Z. Vickery

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A Dissertation Submitted to the Faculty of
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the California Institute of Integral Studies

in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of

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Doctor of Philosophy in East-West Psychology
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California Institute of Integral Studies

San Francisco, CA

2021
 CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

I certify that I have read RITUALIZING PSYCHEDELIC BUDDHISM:

A HERMENEUTIC INQUIRY INTO THE INTERACTION BETWEEN

TANTRIC BUDDHISM AND AYAHUASCA SHAMANISM by William Z.

Vickery, and that in my opinion this work meets the criteria for approving a

dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Doctor of

Philosophy in East-West Psychology at the California Institute of Integral Studies.

_____________________________________

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Craig Chalquist, PhD, Chair
Core Faculty, East-West Psychology
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Susana Bustos, PhD
Adjunct Faculty, East-West Psychology
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_____________________________________
Erik Davis, PhD
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Techgnosis
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© 2021 by William Z. Vickery

William Z. Vickery
California Institute of Integral Studies, 2021
Craig Chalquist, PhD, Committee Chair

RITUALIZING PSYCHEDELIC BUDDHISM:

A HERMENEUTIC INQUIRY INTO THE INTERACTION BETWEEN
TANTRIC BUDDHISM AND AYAHUASCA SHAMANISM

ABSTRACT

Buddhism and psychedelic substances are historically connected in the

United States. The relationship between the practice and study of Buddhism and

the use of psychedelics is mutually beneficial in some cases. Yet, their interaction

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can also create obstacles to optimum Buddhist practice. This dissertation utilizes a
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comparative analysis between two related domains±Tantric Buddhism and

ayahuasca shamanism±to better understand how psychedelics may and may not be
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productively applied in Buddhism, and to ascertain what relevance psychedelics

have for the continual development of Buddhism in U.S. culture. Shamanism is of

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significant value when exploring this phenomenon because of its association with

the spiritual use of psychedelic plants in ritualized settings toward positive results.

Placing Buddhism and psychedelics in their shamanic frameworks leads to

Tantric Buddhism, or what in certain contexts has been conceptualized as

shamanic Buddhism, and forms of shamanism that use psychedelic plants in their

practices, such as ayahuasca shamanism. A hermeneutic dialogue between Tantric

Buddhism (as exemplified by the Nyingma school) and ayahuasca shamanism (as

it arises in cross-cultural vegetalismo)±with particular focus on the ritual practices

as they are accessible in today¶s world by Western practitioners±facilitates insight

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into how Tantric Buddhism and ayahuasca shamanism can be usefully integrated,

which uncovers guidelines regarding steps to take to maximize the benefit and

minimize the harm when using psychedelics to augment Buddhist practice. These

procedures are related to the importance of preparation as well as the shamanic

elements that are similar across tantric and ayahuasca rituals. Engaging this

interplay can impact the development of psychedelic Buddhism in the United

States by beginning to formalize a more cautious and ritualized approach to the

use of psychedelics in a Buddhist context. This research also suggests ways that a

shamanic approach to psychedelic Buddhism can inform the development of

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Buddhism in the West more broadly.
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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Firstly, I express my deepest gratitude to the former chair of my

dissertation committee, Dr. Jorge Ferrer, who provided invaluable feedback and

guidance to the very end. Without his insight and support this dissertation would

not have been completed. I would also like to thank Dr. Craig Chalquist who was

generous enough to take over the chair duties and provide continued support. A

heartfelt thanks is given to my second reader, Dr. Susana Bustos, who¶s

knowledge and feedback on vegetalismo revised and expanded by understanding

of the use of ayahuasca in the mestizo traditions of the Peruvian Amazon greatly.

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I am also indebted to the external committee member, Dr. Erik Davis, who has
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contributed significant work in the areas of research focused on in this project.

I would like to acknowledge those shamans and facilitators in the Peruvian

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Amazon that directly assisted my understanding of ayahuasca and occasioned a

great amount of insight. Their expert support and guidance in the ritual space has
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greatly impacted my understanding of ayahuasca, the world, and my life, in

countless ways.

I offer my deepest gratitude to the Tibetan Buddhist masters who have

been kind and generous enough to transmit the Dharma to me. I feel a close

affinity with all the teachers and lamas I have received teachings, transmissions,

and empowerments from in the Dudjom Tersar and Chokling Tersar lineages. I

also give a special thanks to the recently departed Dr. Steven Goodman. His

courses in the Asian Philosophies and Cultures department at the California

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Institute of Integral Studies and his feedback on my work have assisted my

understanding of the Dharma enormously.

Last but not least, I am extremely grateful for the unconditional love and

support provided by my parents, Angela Zialcita Vickery and William Thomas

Vickery. They have consistently conveyed generosity and patience as I proceeded

with work that they certainly thought was madness. And indeed, such an appraisal

would not be entirely incorrect. Thank you from the deepest parts of my heart.

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 DEDICATION

This project is dedicated to the Buddha, the Dharma, the sangha, and the

benefit of all sentient beings. May wisdom and compassion arise where they have

not yet arisen, and where they have arisen may they flourish and never cease.

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ....................................................................................................................... iv

Acknowledgements ................................................................................................... vi

Dedication .................................................................................................................. vii

Chapter 1: Introduction ............................................................................................... 1

Terms and Definitions .................................................................................... 3

Novel Cross-Cultural Dialogues, Skillful Means, and Changing

Buddhisms....................................................................................................... 7

Why Tantric Buddhism and Ayahuasca Shamanism? ............................... 11

The Central Position of Praxis ..................................................................... 24

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Note on Cultural Appropriation and Authenticity ...................................... 28
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Theoretical Tools .......................................................................................... 31

The Comparative Method ................................................................ 32

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The Participatory Approach............................................................. 34

Dialogical Hermeneutics.................................................................. 38

Chapter 2: Literature Review² Buddhism and Psychedelics in the United States

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.................................................................................................................................... 41

Tantric Buddhism Enters the United States ................................................ 41

Buddhism and Psychedelics ......................................................................... 44

Ayahuasca Shamanism Encounters the West ............................................. 57

Buddhism and Psychedelic Shamanism ...................................................... 61

Summary ....................................................................................................... 65

Chapter 3: Vegetalismo and the Nyingma in Their Contexts................................. 67

Vegetalismo, or Mestizo Shamanism of the Peruvian Amazon ................ 69

Cross-Cultural Vegetalismo and Shamanic Tourism ..................... 72

Aims of Vegetalismo ....................................................................... 75

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 The Primacy of the Shaman............................................................. 79

Ayahuasca Ceremony ...................................................................... 84

The Nyingma School of Tantric Buddhism ................................................ 88

7KHUDYƗGD%XGGKLVP ....................................................................... 89

The Four Noble Truths ........................................................ 90

Dependent Origination ........................................................ 94

Soteriology and Not Ontology ............................................ 95

0DKƗ\ƗQD%XGGKLVP........................................................................ 97

The Perfection of Wisdom and Emptiness ......................... 98

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The Three Bodies of the Buddha ...................................... 101

Skillful Means .................................................................... 103

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9DMUD\ƗQD%XGGKLVP ...................................................................... 105

Preliminaries ...................................................................... 107

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The Four Thoughts. ............................................... 108

Empowerments...................................................... 108

Ngöndro. ................................................................ 109

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The Development and CompOHWLRQ6WDJHVRID6ƗGKDQƗ 114

Preparation for Ritual Practice ................................................................... 117

Chapter 4: Similarities and Differences Based on Ritual Practice ....................... 119

Shamanic System as a Basis for Comparison ........................................... 120

The Disease and Its Causes ........................................................................ 123

The Doctors ................................................................................................. 125

The Remedy, the Ritual .............................................................................. 127

Context and Logistics of Ritual ..................................................... 127

Aims for Practitioners .................................................................... 130

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 Preparation ...................................................................................... 131

The Shaman and the Lama ............................................................ 136

Ritual Objects ................................................................................. 137

Purification ..................................................................................... 139

Icaros and Mantras ......................................................................... 140

Sucking and Blowing, Prostrations and Mudras .......................... 142

Protection Rites .............................................................................. 144

Visions and Entities........................................................................ 145

Impact of Centralizing the Ritual .............................................................. 151

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Chapter 5: Dialogical Hermeneutic I² Fusion of Preliminary Considerations . 154

Hermeneutics .............................................................................................. 155

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Prejudice of the Researcher........................................................................ 159

Centrality of Ritual Praxis .......................................................................... 162

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Including Ayahuasca as Part of Tantric Buddhist Practice ...................... 164

Lojong ............................................................................................. 164

Extending Practice ......................................................................... 168

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Fusion of Aims and Bodhicitta .................................................................. 169

Fusion of Preparation and the Three Trainings ........................................ 173

Ethical Conduct .............................................................................. 173

Meditation ....................................................................................... 177

Buddhist Wisdom Teachings ......................................................... 178

Refuge and Devotion .................................................................................. 187

Masters of the Traditions............................................................................ 190

Chapter 6: Dialogical Hermeneutic II² Tantric Buddhist and Vegetalismo Ritual

Brought Together .................................................................................................... 194

Assistance From the Objects of Refuge and Spirits ................................. 195

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 Prostrations, Offerings, and Ego Dissolution ........................................... 199

Enhancing Purification ............................................................................... 202

Empowering Embodied Spirituality .......................................................... 205

Bodily Movement and Ayahuasca Effects ................................... 206

The Subtle Body and Vital Energy ............................................... 210

Sound .............................................................................................. 214

Vision .............................................................................................. 215

Awakening to Buddha Nature and the Mystical Experience ................... 218

Ontological Status of Subtle Entities ......................................................... 220

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Danger of Inflating Ritual Experience ...................................................... 222

Chapter 7: Shamanic Buddhism, Psychedelic Buddhism, and the Development of

the Dharma............................................................................................................... 228
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The Lessons of Clerical Buddhism and the Importance of Preparation .. 230
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Shamanic Access to Power and the Insufficiency of the State ................ 235

Entering the Forest and Reclaiming the Body of Enlightenment ............ 242

Issue of Secrecy .......................................................................................... 251

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Chapter 8: Conclusion: A Shamanic Approach to Psychedelic Buddhism ......... 257

Addressing the Danger of Enhanced Strength and Speed ........................ 259

Accessing a Master ..................................................................................... 263

Buddhism as Preparation and Integration for Shamanic Ceremony........ 266

Ethical Conduct .............................................................................. 267

Meditation Practice ........................................................................ 267

Contemplation of Buddhist Wisdom Teachings .......................... 268

Tantric Buddhist Preliminaries as Preparation for Psychedelics ............. 269

$7DQWULF6ƗGKDQƗ%HIRUHD3V\FKHGHOLF([SHULHQFH .................. 271

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 Buddhist Antidotes to Problems That Arise Through Psychedelic Sessions
...................................................................................................................... 273

Summary, Future Research, and Limitations ............................................ 281

How Far Does It Go? .................................................................................. 285

References................................................................................................................ 290

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 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

In Buddhism, especially in Tantric Buddhism, there are methods of using

substances . . . The real purpose of usage of substance such as datura, and
I think, why not, peyote, is . . . to create a shift.
²Dzongsar Khyentse Rinpoche, Peyote vs Vipassana vs Habanero vs
Mariachi vs Mojito

While we all have within the chemicals that allow us to experience insight,
clarity and bliss, at a time of global crisis on so many levels, the careful
use of entheogens to accelerate our progress may be a skillful means, and
compatible with the practice of Dharma. (Thurman, 2014, as quoted in
Badiner, 2015a, Introduction section, para. 11)

Buddhism and the use of psychedelics for spiritual purposes are

interacting and apparently benefitting from each other in U.S. culture (Badiner,

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2015a; Osto, 2016). The extent of this interaction and how relevant it is for the
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development of Buddhism in the United States has yet to be determined, for the

understanding of this interplay is still in its infancy. This dissertation is an attempt

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to help nurture this understanding by deepening the dialogue between Buddhism

and psychedelics through an examination of the relationship between two specific

domains: Tantric Buddhism and ayahuasca shamanism. Such an analysis

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highlights a number of factors that have not been addressed sufficiently in the

related literature. Most of these concerns are linked to the central position of

shamanism when considering psychedelics and Tantric Buddhism.

There has been some discussion of Buddhism and psychedelics in the

literature, which is examined in the literature review (Chapter 2). Important prior

discussions include the role of psychedelics in the growth of Buddhist practice in

the US by Western converts during the 1960s and 1970s (Coleman, 2001; Fields,

2015), current usages of psychedelics as an adjunct to Buddhist practice (Osto,

2016), and the use of Buddhism in the beneficial preparation and integration of
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psychedelic experiences (Stolaroff, 1999; Tart, 1991). It is clear that something

like what Osto (2016) called ³psychedelic Buddhism´ (p. 28) is arising in the

United States. Osto defined psychedelic Buddhism as ³the practice of Buddhism

augmented with the use of psychedelics´ (p. 92). As explored in the present

dissertation, this phenomenon may have both negative and positive consequences

for the practice of Buddhism and the use of psychedelics.

Although there has been some discussion of Buddhism and psychedelics

in the literature, there has been no sustained attempt to place both Buddhism and

psychedelics in their respective shamanic contexts side by side. Doing so points to

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both the shamanic aspects of Tantric Buddhism²or what in some contexts has
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been elucidated as ³shamanic Buddhism´ (Samuel, 1993, p. 7)²and forms of

shamanism that utilize a psychedelic plant in their practice, which for the sake of
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convenience is broadly referred to here as psychedelic shamanism (DeKorne,

1994). Placing these areas of inquiry in their shamanic contexts is important

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because the shamanic use of psychedelics highlights their spiritual application and

the importance of set and setting for achieving efficacy, which is of paramount

importance for justifying and understanding their usage in a Buddhist context.

Also, such framing points to an intriguing resonance between the cosmology and

praxis of Tantric Buddhism and ayahuasca shamanism that has not been

adequately examined. A more thorough analysis of their relationship can provide

previously unnoticed clues as to how Buddhism and psychedelics may be

optimally integrated.

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 Terms and Definitions

A more in-depth description of Tantric Buddhism and ayahuasca

shamanism is provided in Chapter 3. But to very briefly define these traditions,

Tantric Buddhism is a form of Buddhism that includes the teachings from a set of

texts called tantras (Powers, 1995). The tantras emphasize ritual practice and the

invocation of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas to more quickly attain enlightenment,

which is the state of a Buddha. This attainment is believed to be necessary to

optimally liberate all beings from suffering. Tantric Buddhism was most heavily

developed and propagated in Tibet since the 7th century, but originated in India,

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probably in the 3rd to 5th century (Samuel, 1993; Thurman, 1995a). This
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dissertation mainly focuses on the Nyingma tradition, which is the oldest school

of Tantric Buddhism found in Tibet and was established in the 8th century by
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Padmasambhava (Powers, 1995). In Tibet, Padmasambhava is considered to be

the second Buddha (Samuel, 2012; Tsogyal, 1993/2004).

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Tantric Buddhism LVRIWHQUHIHUUHGWRDV7LEHWDQ%XGGKLVPRU9DMUD\ƗQD

Buddhism. Although these terms may be effectively utilized synonymously, they

are not equivalent. The term Tibetan Buddhism highlights the fact that the forms

of Tantric Buddhism that are most widespread and most widely practiced

internationally are those that were mainly developed in Tibet. The writings of

Tibetan Buddhist lamas and Western Tibetan Buddhist scholars and practitioners,

as well as English translations of Indian and Tibetan texts, have produced the vast

PDMRULW\RIOLWHUDWXUHLQ(QJOLVKRQ7DQWULF%XGGKLVP7KHWHUP9DMUD\ƗQDUHIHUV

to the third major vehicle of Buddhism. This phrasing places it in its historical

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context alongside the other two vehicles that chronologically precede the

VajUD\ƗQD7KHUDYƗGDDQG0DKƗ\ƗQD7KHWKUHHYHKLFOHVPDNHXSDOOWKH

teachings of Buddhism since its beginning and are all of great importance in

Tantric Buddhism to some degree. Although I occasionally utilize the terms

7LEHWDQ%XGGKLVPDQG9DMUD\ƗQD%XGGKLsm in this dissertation, I have chosen to

use the term Tantric Buddhism the majority of the time. The main reasons for this

decision are to highlight the shamanic aspects of Buddhist tantra, and to humbly

point out that this form of Buddhism is no longer confined to Tibet but is

expanding and shifting as it takes root in alternate cultural contexts.

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The term shamanism has taken on many meanings since its introduction
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into Western usage (Eliade, 1951/1964; Znamensky, 2007). For the purposes of

this dissertation, shamanism can be broadly defined as a set of techniques

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originally found in Indigenous cultures throughout the world to attain altered

states of consciousness in order to enter a communication with the spirit world,

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often for the purposes of healing and gaining information. Some forms of

shamanism utilize a plant or plant admixture often referred to in the Western

literature as a psychedelic or an entheogen. Psychedelic is a term coined by

psychiatrist Humphry Osmond in 1957, and it is the synthesis of two Greek

words: psyche is translated as mind and delos translates as manifesting, so

psychedelic literally means mind-manifesting (Aaronson & Osmond, 1970). This

account indicates that psychedelic plants and compounds reveal aspects of mind

that were previously unknown or unconscious yet existed as potentialities. This

definition is valuable in Buddhist and shamanic contexts because both traditions

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believe that the mind±body unity has a capacity that is not usually realized in

ordinary states of consciousness. Although the term psychedelic is used the

majority of the time, another term that is occasionally used in this study in place

of psychedelic is entheogen. Entheogen was coined in 1979 and it refers to a plant

or chemical substance that awakens the divine within or generates a mystical

experience (Ruck et al., 1979). Entheogen is a valuable term because it highlights

the spiritual and religious applications of these substances. Although an arguably

problematic term in Buddhist and Indigenous shamanic contexts since ³divine´

and ³mystical experience´ are concepts derived from Western theistic religions,

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these are still concepts that are widely used in contemporary Buddhist and

Western neo-shamanic frameworks.

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The use of psychedelics in shamanism can be found in several cultures
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where entheogenic plants have been used for perhaps thousands of years

(Schultes, 1972/1990). Some forms of psychedelic shamanism are being practiced

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to this day. The most notable are (a) the use of psilocybin-containing mushrooms

in the Mazatec tradition located in the state of Oaxaca in Southern Mexico

(Metzner, 2004; Wasson, 1957/2000); (b) the use of mescaline containing peyote

(La Barre, 1989; Stewart, 1987) and san pedro cactus (DeKorne, 1994; Gottlieb,

1977) in various parts North America, Central America, and South America; and

(c) the use of a brew containing DMT (N,N-Dimethyltryptamine) and other

alkaloids called ayahuasca found throughout the Amazon basin (Beyer, 2009;

Dobkin de Rios, 1972).

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 The third type of psychedelic shamanism just mentioned refers to

ayahuasca shamanism, which is a form of Indigenous or mestizo shamanism that

utilizes ayahuasca as a plant medicine (Labate et al., 2014). This dissertation

adopts the approach taken by Labate et al. (2014), in which ayahuasca shamanism

is defined broadly in the context of ayahuasca tourism and the internationalization

of ayahuasca use, and includes a remodeling due to interactions between the use

of ayahuasca in Indigenous cultures of the Amazon and foreigners to those

cultures, particularly Westerners.

Vegetalismo is a type of mestizo shamanism²primarily practiced in the

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Upper Peruvian Amazon²that evolved out of Indigenous ayahuasca shamanism
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through an interaction with foreign elements such as Christianity (Luna, 1986). It

is primarily a shamanic healing system. Vegetalismo, as it is accessible to English

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speakers from the modern West, is mainly active in forest and urban populations

around the Peruvian Amazonian towns of Iquitos, Tarapoto, and Pucallpa (Labate
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et al., 2014). These areas have the highest number of ayahuasca tours, lodges, and

retreat centers accessible to the general public (Fotiou, 2010, 2014; Homan,

2011). Vegetalismo is being modified through an interplay between those

Indigenous to the Western Amazonian region and the mestizo populations of the

area, as well those who are outsiders to the area. This interplay involves a certain

amount of cultural appropriation and commodification of vegetalismo with both

negative and positive consequences, which Tupper (2009) has conceptualized as

cross-cultural vegetalismo. Cross-cultural vegetalismo is defined as ³Indigenous-

style ayahuasca healing ceremonies conducted in an often overtly commodified

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way for non-Indigenous clients´ (p. 119). When I refer to vegetalismo in this

dissertation I am largely referring to cross-cultural vegetalismo as it has evolved

and become accessible to Western participants due to ayahuasca tourism rather

than more traditional forms of vegetalismo as it is accessed by local Peruvians.

Vegetalismo and the Nyingma tradition are very different in fundamental

ways, so this dissertation frames both traditions as shamanic systems to achieve a

richer and more fruitful comparison and to call attention to the vital position of

ritual practice in this analysis (discussed further later in this chapter).This

dissertation argues that a dialogue between Tantric Buddhism (focusing mainly on

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the Nyingma school of Tibetan Buddhism) and psychedelic shamanism (focusing
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on ayahuasca shamanism in cross-cultural vegetalismo)²while conceiving of

both traditions as shamanic systems²can enrich and deepen the understanding of

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(a) how the use of ayahuasca and other entheogens may and may not be applied to

assist Buddhist study and practice, (b) how Tantric Buddhism can be applied to
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assist with the preparation and integration of psychedelic experiences, and (c) the

development of the Dharma in the United States.

Novel Cross-Cultural Dialogues, Skillful Means, and Changing Buddhisms

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Buddha, and soon after spread throughout most of Asia (Rahula, 1974; Strong,

2002; Williams, 1989). More recently Buddhism has expanded into Europe, North

America, and South America. Historically, Buddhism has tended toward

modification as it has migrated from country to country. When Buddhism reaches

a new cultural context it consistently interacts with alternate cultural and religious

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institutions, leading to important shifts and developments in the tradition (Powers,

1995; Williams, 1989). This is one of the reasons why, as Buddhism moved

throughout Asia, considerable alterations can be observed in the meditation

techniques emphasized, Buddhist texts highlighted, pedagogy, iconography,

temple architecture, monastic discipline, and so forth (Strong, 2002; Williams,

1989).

Novel cross-cultural interplays are often willingly engaged by Buddhists

because Buddhism is primarily concerned with carrying out its main

emancipatory functions, and will make any alterations necessary to do so. A

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significant characteristic of the Dharma, and its most primary function, is to
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dissolve the causes of suffering (dukkha) and facilitate awakening or

enlightenment (nirvana). This function is illustrated by the Four Noble Truths

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(discussed further in Chapter 3), the Buddha¶s first sermon conveyed in the

Dhammacakkappavattana Sutta and taken to constitute the first turning of the

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wheel of Dharma, which is still adhered to by virtually every single existing

Buddhist tradition to this day (Harvey, 2013). Yet the interpretations of that

suffering and enlightenment, as well as the most useful methods for attaining

enlightenment, drastically changed in relation to not only scholastic disputes but

also local context (Harvey, 2013; Strong, 2002).

$QRWKHUIXQGDPHQWDO%XGGKLVWWHDFKLQJHPSKDVL]HGLQ0DKƗ\ƗQDDQG

9DMUD\ƗQDWUDGLWLRQVRIZKLFK7DQWULF%XGGKLVPEHOongs, is upaya, or skillful

means. This teaching states that the Buddhas, bodhisattvas, and adepts may use

any means necessary to optimally facilitate Dharma for that time and place (Pye,

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1978). The approach necessary to dissolve suffering and promote enlightenment

shifts in relation to the people receiving the teachings. Through a Buddhist

perspective, these mutations arise in order to adapt to the capacities of the local

population. As a relevant case in point, Tantric Buddhism utilizes deities and

images inherited from Indian tantra, local Tibetan folk religions, and Himalayan

forms of shamanism in its practices to accomplish Buddhist aims (Mueller-

Ebeling & Raetsch, 2015; Samuel, 1993). Japanese forms of Buddhism, for

example, do not visualize these deities and they have their own images of the

Buddha and their own beliefs about what optimum practice entails, which are

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related to their own culture and history (Williams, 1989). Neither the Tibetan nor
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Japanese forms are generally regarded as more or less ³true´ than the other.

Upaya indicates that particular types of Buddhism cannot be entirely considered

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outside of the context from which those particular teachings work; their ³truth´

would apply as truth only within specific conditions.

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As Buddhism continues to lay deeper roots in U.S. culture, its form is

again changing in new ways to accommodate the new audience. Given the fact

that the presentation of Buddhism varies greatly from country to country, one can

understand and accept that as it moves into Western counties it will change again,

perhaps even more dramatically. To better understand this process of adaptation,

and the manner in which the Dharma is evolving in the modern West, it is useful

to look at the innovative interactions between Buddhism and alternate religious

and cultural phenomena that are occurring in the United States. Novel cross-

cultural dialogues are a major part of discerning what will undercut the roots of

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suffering for different people. Some of the most important ones can be seen in the

interactions between Buddhism and psychotherapy (Rubin, 1996; Welwood,

2000), Buddhism and feminism (Gross, 1993; Simmer-Brown, 2001), Buddhism

and ecology (Badiner, 1990; Tucker & Williams, 1997), Buddhism and social

activism (Jones, 1989; King, 2009), Buddhism and politics (McLeod, 2006;

Moore, 2016), and Buddhism and Christianity (Hanh, 1995; Dalai Lama, 1996).

These interactions participate in altering the packaging of Buddhism in order to

optimally transmit the Dharma to a modern Western population. By continuously

exploring and developing such dialogues one may gain a stronger understanding

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of how Buddhism is being altered, and how to optimally commence with these
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alterations as the tradition evolves and is continually incorporated into U.S.

culture.
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Another important interaction that many consider to be the most

controversial and has not been explored sufficiently is the interplay between
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Buddhism and psychedelics. Many commentators do not believe psychedelics

have any value for the Buddhist path and are actually harmful (Osto, 2016;

Redmond, 2004). First, it is contended that they may violate the fifth of the five

precepts. The five precepts are five major moral principles all Buddhists are

encouraged to adhere to, and the fifth precept states that one will not indulge in

intoxicants that lead to heedlessness. Some believe a psychedelic would qualify as

an ³intoxicant´ and therefore is a threat to the ethical core of the tradition.

Second, and perhaps even more problematic, is that they potentially conflict with

the primary function of Buddhism in the sense that psychedelics are seen as

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 perpetuating the causes of suffering, particularly ignorance and attachment.

Although this appraisal may be true in some contexts, the available evidence

strongly suggests that psychedelics have provided assistance toward Buddhist

aims in many cases (explored further in Chapter 2), a number of respected

Buddhist teachers are supportive of their positive application, and psychedelics

are being used in ways today that may be perceived to optimally facilitate Dharma

for certain individuals (Osto, 2016).

Why Tantric Buddhism and Ayahuasca Shamanism?

There are many compelling reasons to claim that a better understanding of

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the interaction between Tantric Buddhism and ayahuasca shamanism can benefit
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the understanding and application of Buddhism and psychedelics in the United

States. Some of the existing literature on Buddhism and psychedelics has

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highlighted Tantric Buddhism and its relevance for psychedelic users specifically

(Davis, 2015; Leary et al., 1964; Tart, 1991). What has not been sufficiently
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examined in this context is the fact that Tantric Buddhism can be interpreted as a

very sophisticated form of shamanism. In this regard, Samuel (1993) stated:

My contention (which is not particularly original) is that certain aspects of

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shamanic, in that they are centered around communication with an

alternative mode of reality (that of the Tantric deities) via the alternative

states of consciousness of Tantric yoga. (p. 8)

This interpretation provoked Samuel to divide Tantric Buddhism into two

categories: clerical Buddhism and shamanic Buddhism. Clerical Buddhism is a

11

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