GEOG114: Lecture and Textbook Notes

Week 1 Lecture 1 Introduction

We’ve known about climate change for years, why have we been debating about it rather
than acting. GEOG 114 brings physical and social sciences together. Offers differing
perspectives: Environmental Processes (Physical Sciences), Human impacts on environment
(Social Sciences) and Brings perspectives together (Human and Environment Interaction).

Week 1 Lecture 2 Environmental Science and Sustainability

What is science? System of inquiry that follows the scientific method. A way of approaching
and gaining knowledge. Observe something, ask how or why, make a hypothesis, then test
and try disproving, conduct experiments, evaluate data, then refine, alter, expand, or reject
the hypothesis. Hypothesis can never be proven only expanded upon. Science is not an end
process but rather an ongoing one. A way of looking at the world based on observation.

Biases, various different ones. Mental shortcuts.

Human Bias - goes with what they want to see.
Experimental Bias – the way we observe, or measure has a fundamental bias we are
unaware of. It matters what data you observe or analyse.
Understanding of biases within science varies widely across fields and even gender.

Countering Misinformation and Sources by looking at peer reviewed literature to vet results.
To have confidence in other people’s writing the best option is to look at peer reviewed
information.

Social science perspective. The science behind climate change and that it is cause by human
activity has been known for ages so why haven’t we done anything about it. That is what
social scientists look at. Many people try to shift the blame and say that it’s not us it’s the
natural environment.

Consensus: Climate change is a result of human activity, and that climate change is real.
Natural variability alone cannot account for the recent temperature rises. Public opinion is
still in denial.

The denial industry, powerful people trying to undermine the scientific consensus.
Pseudoscience is when people try to prove something with science without using a scientific
method to get that conclusion. The denial industry tries to make it seem not legit and create
doubt. They fake information and published work to get the consensus that climate change
is fake. Media is a stitch up and promotes lies and manipulate information so that it doesn’t
hold the whole truth.
Week 2 Lecture 3 Matter and Energy

Basic rules.
Matter is neither created nor destroyed but rather converted to a different form.
Energy is neither created nor destroyed but rather converted to a different form.
Energy usage is never 100% efficient, some energy is always lost when in use.
Matter.
Atoms are composed of a Nucleus, Protons (positive charges), Neutrons (no charge
but have mass), and Electrons (negative charges and they orbit the nucleus). All
atoms of the same element have the same number of protons. Isotopes (different
forms of the same element) of said elements have different numbers of neutrons.
Periodic Table.
All elements on the table are neutral meaning they have the same number of
protons and electrons. If atoms gain or lose electrons, they become charged (ions)
and attract oppositely charged ions.
Molecules.
Molecules are formed when two or more atoms bond together. Their properties
depend on what element they are, how they are bonded or how they are arranged.
The differing chemical bonds are, Ionic bonds (electron exchange), Covalent bonds
(electron sharing), and Metallic bonds (communal electrons).
Water – Hydrogen Bonds.
Hydrogen has a weak positive charge which causes polarity (two distinct and
opposite poles that can either attract or repel each other). It’s also an excellent
solvent which means many things dissolve in water. Water is attracted to water, and
this allows for capillary action (liquids flowing without any assistance of external
forces such as gravity) in things such as when plants draw up water from the ground.
Phases of Matter.
Solids – defined shape
Liquids – defined volume
Gas – neither shape or volume is defined
Chemical Reactions.
Oxidation Reduction (electron transfer)
Polymerization (making chains)
Depolymerization (breaking chains)
Plastics and Rubber.
Most naturally occurring matter can be ‘easily’ broken down, but some human made
matter does not break down easily.
Energy.
Energy is the capacity to do work, for example applying a force over a distance.
Kinetic energy is moving, and potential energy can move or has the potential to
move.
Forms of Energy.
Chemical energy is released from chemical bonds, Mechanical energy comes from
machines doing things, Electrical energy is moving electrons carried along a wire or
other conductive material, Thermal energy is moving molecules where the
temperature depends on how fast they are moving and Radiant energy
(electromagnetic radiation) is things such as solar, gamma rays or an x-ray.
Photosynthesis.
A process used by plants and other organisms where light energy is converted into
chemical energy. It is the production of carbohydrates (sugars) from radiant energy.
It is also the base of the food web.
Geoengineering.
Utilizing biology, chemistry, physics, geology, and more to change or alter the natural
environment. Examples of geoengineering are, adding quicklime to the ocean could
enable it to absorb more CO2, injecting sulfate particles into the sky could block
sunlight from earth’s surface, or iron fertilization would use iron compounds to
boost the growth of photosynthesizing phytoplankton which in turn would consume
more CO2.

Week 2 Lecture 4 Land

Earth’s internal structure can be defined in two ways, either mechanically or chemically.
Chemically it can be broken up into the crust (least dense), the mantle (denser), and the
core (most dense) or mechanically it can be divided into the lithosphere, aesthenosphere,
mesosphere, the outer core, and the inner core.

Plate tectonics is the scientific theory that considers that the earths lithosphere or crust is
comprised of a number of large tectonic plates that are slowly moving. Plate boundaries are
called faults or fault lines and where plates meet their relative motion determines what type
of plate boundary they are. Divergent boundaries are when two plates slide apart from one
another, Convergent boundaries are when two plates slide towards each other to form
either a subduction zone (where one plate moving underneath the other) or a continental
collision, and Transform boundaries are when two places slide along each other or grind
against one another.

The rock cycle features three different types of rocks, Igneous rocks (cooling/crystallization -
formed by cooling molten rock), Sedimentary rocks (weathering/erosion/deposition –
buried sediment is subjected to high pressure and temperature forming sedimentary rocks),
and Metamorphic rocks (heated and squeezed – heat and pressure at even greater depths
transform one type of rock into another). Minerals are naturally occurring crystalline solids
and are sources of nutrients such as Calcium and Magnesium and things such as conductors,
optics, and magnets.

Geomorphology is the study of landforms and landform evolution. Landforms are features
on earth’s surface that are part of the terrain. Hillslopes are upstream areas that are
loosened by weathering processes. Watersheds are areas of land that drain water into a
specific water body. Rivers are the bodies of water that collect run off water and flow.
Glaciers are massive bodies of slowly moving ice, made up of fallen snow that gets
compressed. In NZ there is some positive mass balance years but overall, a loss.

Flood recurrence intervals are the time and number of events. For example, a flood that
happens 10 times over 100 years is a 10-year flood. Hazards are difficult to predict when
flood frequency is changing.
Soil is the foundations of life; rock decomposes and forms bite sized chunks or soil. Soil is an
amalgamation of minerals, organic matter, water, and air. Infiltration is the process where
water on the grounds surface enters the soil. Soil breaks down into different zones or
horizons and can be profiled, O (organic dead matter) and A (still organic and rich but
deeper) horizons are the topsoil, B (leached zone, water flowing through) horizon is the
subsoil, and the C horizon which is unweather rock. Topsoil is crucial for life and agriculture.
Various soil types depend on where you are and what biomes. Known as CLORPT, the
climate, the organisms, the topography, the parent rock or material and the time.

Human impacts on land vary through differing industries, Farming (tilling, pesticides,
herbicides, fertilizers, overirrigation, and overgrazing can damage land), Mining (removal of
land and tailings – the crushed-up rock that is not of interest), Forestry (topsoil loss), and
Urbanization (impermeability – the inability for substances to pass through soil).

Week 3 Lecture 5 Biodiversity Part 1

Biodiversity is the variation of life within an eco-system. Biodiversity reflects two things,
species richness, the number of species within a given eco-system. Also, the evenness how
evenly are those species distributed.

Week 3 Lecture 6 Ethics and Economies

Environmental ethics are the philosophical discipline that studies the moral relationship of
human beings to, and the value and moral status of, the environment and its non-human
contents.

Ways of understanding value. Firstly, Intrinsic value is the value of things as ends in
themselves and disregards usefulness. Intrinsic value (also sometimes called 'inherent
value') is value which is ultimate. It neither can be, nor needs to be, further grounded or
justified. Something with intrinsic value has value in and as itself, for its own sake.

The other one is Instrumental value; the value of things as means to an end and is dictated
by their use to people ($). Instrumental value is valuable for being useful. Something with
instrumental value is valued because it helps one to actualise some other goal or purpose
whose value, relative to the instrumental item, is intrinsic.

When the comparing the two there is a substantial debate especially in conservation, both
have their limitations.

Beyond Humans. Anthropocentrism is the prioritization of humans and their interests. Non-
Anthropocentrism views vary, Sentientism places conscious beings at the center of the
moral concern, Biocentrism prioritizes the interests of all living things, and Ecocentrism
prioritizes ecosystems, both living and non-living.

Process vs Outcome.
 Consequentialism/utilitarianism focuses on the outcome, maximizes good or
minimizes harm. These methods questions and problems are what is ‘good’? and are
the benefits or harm uneven.

Deontological Ethics focus on duties and rights and asks questions such as what
rights? And what or who has them?

Relational Ethics. Focuses on the relationship between humans and nonhumans rather than
humans as distinct and different from nature. Emphasis on doings as opposed to abstract
values. Situated and place specific. Relational ethics fit with many indigenous philosophies,
for example the Māori relationship with water.

Take a step back. Why think about environmental ethics at all? Who are these arguments
aimed at? How do environmental decisions actually get made.

Who is responsible for environmental decision making? Traditionally the state or the
government. Planned or Commanded economies. Setting rules and regulations. Responsible
for both development and protection. 1980s neoliberal reforms and globalization,
weakened the state, individual freedom, marketisation and financialization.

The state. Central and local governments. Markets. Private businesses and individuals.
Community/Civil society. Community groups and non-government organisations.

The logic of the market. Rational economic actors. Private property, incentive to manage
well? Or Incentive to increase efficiency? A rationing system for resources, if supply drops,
prices increase, and demand decrease this applies vice versa too.

Problems with market led approaches. Textbook: Perverse incentives or negative

externalities (emissions). Jevons Paradox, efficiency gains may increase consumption.
Lecturer: Not everything that matters can be valued by money, clean market logic rarely
plays out, support intervention and regulations. Increase inequality.

Civic Society, the opportunities, and challenges. A catch all for anyone who isn’t the state or
financially motivated. Fantastic possibilities for doing things differently, for example, Māori
leadership on environmental issues in NZ. There is a. need to address power imbalances.

Conclusions. Environmental ethics, attempts to articulate why we should care, and what
matters is what we do. Changes in who makes environmental decisions, away from the state
towards markets and civil societies. Proposes both opportunities and challenges.

Week 4 Lecture 7 Mātauranga Māori

Week 4 Lecture 8 Biodiversity Part 2 and Conservation

Textbook Chapter 1