CENTRO EDUCATIVO

ALPHA LEARNING CARACAS, S.C.

GRAMMAR WORKSHOP II
CONTENTS

I. REVIEW (Verb Tenses) 2

II. PERFECT TENSES 2
The Present Perfect Simple 2
The Present Perfect Continuous 3
The Past Perfect Simple. The Past Perfect Continuous 4
The Future Perfect Simple, The Future Perfect Continuous 6
III. PREPOSITIONS 7
Means of Transportation: By, On, In 7
The Position of the Preposition 8
IV. REPORTED SPEECH 9
A. Reported Statements 9
B. Reported Commands 11
C. Reported Questions 11
V. PASSIVE VOICE 13
VI. CONDITIONALS 16
First Conditional 16
Second Conditional 17
Third Conditional. The Zero Conditional 18
VII. PAST MODAL VERBS 19
VIII. LINKING WORDS 20

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 I. REVIEW: VERB TENSES
The Simple Tenses: Present Simple, Past Simple, Future Simple.
The Continuous Tenses: Present Continuous, Past Continuous, Future Continuous.
Simple Continuous Perfect Perfect Continuous
I speak I am speaking I have spoken I have been speaking
You speak You are speaking You have spoken You have been speaking
Present She speaks She is speaking She has spoken She has been speaking
We speak We are speaking We have spoken We have been speaking
They speak They are speaking They have spoken They have been speaking
I spoke I was speaking I had spoken I had been speaking
You spoke You were speaking You had spoken You had been speaking
Past She spoke She was speaking She had spoken She had been speaking
We spoke We were speaking We had spoken We had been speaking
They spoke They were speaking They had spoken They had been speaking
I will speak I will be speaking I will have spoken I will have been speaking
You will spoke You will be speaking You will have spoken You will have been speaking
Future She will speak She will be speaking She will have spoken She will have been speaking
We will speak We will be speaking We will have spoken We will have been speaking
They will speak They will be speaking They will have spoken They will have been speaking

II. PERFECT TENSES

a) THE PRESENT PERFECT SIMPLE
*Form: I’ve seen the Queen. / He’s seen the Queen.
*Use
The Present Perfect relates past to present. This tense is used:
1. Unfinished past: The Present Perfect Simple is used to express an action or state,
which began in the past and still continues:
I’ve lived in London for six years. (I still do, and will continue to in the future)
2. Experience: The Present Perfect Simple is used to express an action, which happened
in the past and is finished, but we are not interested in when. We are interested in the
experience as part of someone’s life:
Have you ever been to Africa? (Up to now in my life)
3. Present result: The Present Perfect Simple refers to a past action and shows the result
of that action in the present:
The taxi has arrived. (It’s outside the house now).
*Notes
1. We cannot say Yes, I’ve or Yes, she’s in the positive short answer. This is WRONG.
( ’ve = have / ’s = has )
2. The Present Perfect Simple is often used in connection with certain words:
a. The time prepositions since and for:
She’s lived here for three years. (For + a period of time.)
He’s worked here since 1985. (Since + a point in time.)

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 b. The adverbs just and already: I’ve just finished it. / I’ve already done it.
c. The adverb yet. This adverb is not used in positive sentences with the Present
Perfect Simple: Have you done it yet? I haven’t done it yet.
3. Gone and been
Compare: Mrs. Jones isn’t here at the moment. She has gone to the hairdresser’s
(= She has not returned, she’s still there.)
Mrs. Jones is back home. She has been to the hairdresser’s.
(= She has returned home.)

b) THE PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS

*Form: I’ve been working. / He’s been working.
*Use
1. This tense is used to describe an action which began in the past and is either still going
on, or has recently stopped: I’ve been writing letters all morning.
2. It is often used with for and since: I’ve been living here for a few months / I’ve been
living here since September. (I am still living here).

*Present Perfect Simple or Present Perfect Continuous?

!. Compare: I’ve worked for the same company for twelve years.
(Present Perfect Simple)
I’ve been working for the same company for twelve years.
(Present Perfect Continuous).
There is often little or no difference between such sentences in the Simple or the
Continuous. However, if the Continuous is possible, English has a preference for using it.

2. As with all continuous tenses, the Present Perfect Continuous expresses duration and
activity over a period of time. Certain verbs by definition do not suggest duration. The
action is quickly finished. Examples are: die, start, begin, finish, stop, find, lose, break.
These verbs are usually found in the Present Perfect Simple.
Compare these two sentences: I’ve cut my finger.
I’ve been cutting wood.
Cutting wood can be repeated and can take a long time. When you cut your finger, it is
done very quickly. But ‘I’ve been cutting my finger’ is a horrible idea, because it suggests
that the cutting happened again and again.

3. The Present Perfect Simple is interested in the completed action. This is why, if the
object of the verb has a quantity or number, only the Simple is possible:
I’ve eaten five pieces of toast this morning.
NOT I’ve been eating five pieces of toast this morning.
The five pieces of toast are eaten, the action is completed.
Here are some more examples:
I’ve been cutting down trees this morning. I’ve cut down ten.
She’s been smoking ever since she arrived. She’s had six already.

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EXERCISES
*Put the verbs into the correct form Present Perfect Simple or Continuous.
1. Look! Somebody ______________________________ (break) that window.
2. I ____________________________________________(read) the book you gave me,
but I__________________________________ (not/finish) it yet.
3. “Sorry I’m late.” “That’s all right. I __________________________(not/wait) long.”
4. Hello! I _______________________________________ (clean) the windows. So far
I ____________________________(clean) five of them and there are two more to do.
5. There’s a strange smell in here._________________________(you/cook) something?
6. My brother is an actor. He _________________________(appear) in several movies.
7. What ______________ you ______________________________? (do)
8. She ___________________________________(learn) Italian for the past three years.
9. He ________________________________________(listen) to the radio all morning.
10. They _______________________________(wait) for two hours, but nobody arrived.
11. I’m exhausted. I _______________________________________ (work) all day, and
I ____________________________________ (not/finish yet)
12. He_______________________________ (visit) many countries in the last five years.
13. She _______________________________________________ (shop) all afternoon,
but she _____________________________ (not/buy) anything yet.
14. I _______________________________________ (look) for my books for ages, but I
can’t find them anywhere.

*Complete the sentences with gone or been.

1. I’m sorry I’m late, everyone. I’ve _______________ to the dentist’s.
2. There’s nobody at home. I think they’ve _______________ away for the weekend.
3. You look very brown. Have you _______________ on holiday?
4. Simon isn’t here at the moment. He’s _______________ to a football match.
5. ‘Have you ever _________ to Scotland? Yes, I’ve _________ there quite a few times.’

c). THE PAST PERFECT SIMPLE

*Form: I had bought a new car. / You hadn’t bought a new car.
*Use
This tense is used to refer to something that happened before another action or state in the past:
They were excited because Judy’s father had managed to get them tickets for the match.

d) THE PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS

*Form: He had been waiting. / We hadn’t been waiting.
*Use
This tense is concerned with expressing the duration of an event or activity of the past
which was interrupted or concluded by another past activity or event.
Examples:
The students had been waiting for almost ten minutes when Prof. Baker showed up.
Bill had been working for two hours when Jack called.

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*Note
Two time expressions are required. The first one expresses the duration of the activity.
The second one states the time or the event which interrupted or concluded the activity.

*Past Perfect Simple or Past Perfect Continuous?

1. Compare: George had lived with an American family for six months when Tom arrived.
(Past Perfect Simple)
George had been living with an American family for six months when Tom arrived.
(Past Perfect Continuous)
Both sentences can be used to express the same situation. Most statements in the Past
Perfect Continuous can be stated in the Past Perfect Simple with little or no difference in
meaning.

2. However, past perfect statements which refer to completed punctual acts cannot be
expressed in the continuous. Example:
Professor Baker had already dismissed the class when he announced the exam.
The Past Perfect Simple expresses a one-time completed act. It cannot be expressed in
the continuous tense.

EXERCISES
* Join the sentences using the word because and the Past Perfect Simple.
1. He didn’t work hard enough during the year. He failed his exam.
________________________________________________________________________
2. They didn’t pay their telephone bill. The Telephone Company cut them off.
________________________________________________________________________
3. They left their passport at home. They couldn’t cross the frontier.
________________________________________________________________________
4. She lost her glasses. She couldn’t read the sign.
________________________________________________________________________
5. They forgot the tickets at home. They missed the concert.
________________________________________________________________________
6. I left my keys at the office. I couldn’t open the door when I got home.
________________________________________________________________________
*Complete the sentences with Past Perfect Continuous and Past Simple.
1. Mrs. Allen _______________________________________________________(cook)
for three hours when__________________________________________(arrive/children)
2. Miss Liu ______________________________________________(study) in her room
all night long when___________________________________________(ring/telephone)
3. Betty ________________________________________________(work) in the garden
all morning when_________________________________________________(rain/start)
4. Jack______________________________________________(play) with the dog in the
afternoon when_____________________________________________ (call/grandfather)
5. George ____________________________________________(live) in London for two
months when his cousins___________________________________(arrive) to visit him.
6. Betty ______________________________________________ (watch) television in
the evening when __________________________________________(happen/accident)

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e) THE FUTURE PERFECT SIMPLE
*Form: The taxi will have arrived by the time you finish dressing.
*Use
The Future Perfect refers to an action that will be completed before a definite time in the
future. It is not a very common verb form. This tense must include a future time
expression usually introduced by the construction ‘by the time (that)’.
Examples: It is now 6:30 p.m.; I will have finished my work by 8 o’clock.
By the time they get back they will have seen many interesting sights.

f) THE FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS

*Form: On December 22nd 2016, we will have been living in this house exactly 20 years.
*Use
This tense emphasizes the duration of a future event or a present situation which reaches
into the future. Two time expressions are essential with this tense: (1) a specific future
time or event, and (2) the duration.
Examples:
In September George will have been studying in this University for two years.
(1) (2)
In another month’s time, Henry will have been working in this company for 25 years.
(1) (2)

*Future Perfect Simple or Future Perfect Continuous?

1. Compare: By September 2nd Dr. Baker will have retired.
(Future Perfect Simple)
By September 2nd Dr. Baker will have been working for 25 years.
(Future Perfect Continuous)
2. The Future Perfect Simple is used to emphasize completion. The Continuous form is
used to emphasize duration.
3. The Future Perfect tenses are used less often than other tenses, probably because what
they express can be stated in other less complex ways.

EXERCISES
*The Bakers are going to do many things before they start on their trip around the world.
Tell what they will have done by the time they leave. Use the Future Perfect Simple.
Example:
a. arranged everything The Bakers will have arranged everything by the time they leave.
b. sell their house ________________________________________________
c. buy a smaller house ________________________________________________
d. give the piano to their daughter ____________________________________
e. put their Mercedes in storage __________________________________________
f. purchase an expensive movie camera ____________________________________
III. PREPOSITIONS

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The following sentences illustrate the most commonly used prepositions.
About I want you to tell me about your work. / There is about $20 difference between
this car and that one. / This ship is about to leave. / I’ll see you at about six
o’clock. / That’s all right for you but what about me?
In They live in London. / He is the best student in my class. / San Diego is a city in
Southern California. / She came at 8 o’clock in the evening. / I began to work here
in January in the year 1999. / I usually go to the beach in summer.
At I’ll be at home tonight at any time you like to call. / I’ll see you at school
tomorrow at two o’clock. / Lunch is served at noon and dinner at night. / I’ll see
you again at Christmas. / Shakespeare died at the age of fifty-two. / At first sight I
thought you were your brother. / He’s very good at football.
Into Turn this from English into Spanish. / He is always getting into trouble. / Come
into the house.
On He put the book on the desk and sat on the chair. / He had a new hat on his head
and a new ring on his finger. / San Diego is on the West coast of the USA. / We
have classes on Thursday but not on Good Friday. / I came on May the 15th. / The
blackboard is on the left of the map, the door is on the right.
From What country do you come from? / You can just see my house from here. / He
read that book from beginning to end in an hour. / He works from morning to
night without resting. / When I advise you to do this I am speaking from
experience.
For This fresh air is very good for you. / I bought a car for $ 200. / He was sent to
prison for stealing. / He won’t be here for an hour.
Of This box is made of wood. / The writing of that book took him ten years. / He is a
friend of mine. / I sat at the back of the room.
To I am going to America on Friday. / It is now five minutes to six. / He read the
book from beginning to end.
With Can you come and stay with me for a time, and bring your wife with you? / Sleep
with your windows open but with your mouth shut!

Means of Transportation: By, On, In

1. We use by to say how we travel: I always come to school by bus.
But we say on foot (= walking): Does he usually go to school on foot?
2. When we use a possessive adjective or an article before a means of transportation we
cannot use by. In this case we use in with cars and on with bicycles, motorbikes and
public transport (buses, trains, etc.) Examples: I usually go to work in my car. / They
went for a ride on a motorbike. / Did you go to London on the Train?
*Other prepositions (and adverbial particles are): above, across, after, against, ago,
along, before, below, behind, beside, between, beyond, by, down, during, inside, near,

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next to, off, opposite, outside, over, round, through, towards, under, underneath, until,
up, while.

The Position of the Preposition

1. The preposition usually goes before the noun which it governs.
Examples: He spoke to me. / The football team is playing at Wembley.

2. But when the word governed by the preposition is an interrogative, which goes at the
beginning of a sentence, the preposition is usually (in conversational English always) at
the end of the sentence. Examples: Who do you live with?
Who did you write to?
What are you laughing at?
Which class are you in?

3. In a more formal written style, prepositions come before the pronoun:

The privatization of railways, to which the present government is committed,
is not universally popular.

4. Prepositions usually come at the end of the relative clauses:

It is a thing that I have dreamed of and worked for.
There is the book that I asked about.
Come and meet the people I work with.
He talked about theories of market forces, which I’d never even heard of.
She’s a friend I can rely on.
* Note : If a verb is used after a preposition, it must be in the –ing form:
He prevented me from speaking.
Thanks for coming!

EXERCISES
*Complete these sentences with a preposition.
1. Ann’s brother lives___________ a small town_____________ the coast of Maine.
2. I get up early _________the morning and go to bed late _________night.
3. Neruda’s poems have been translated _______________ English.
4. How did you go to school _______ foot or ______ the train?
5. I love going for walks ________ summer. It’s still light _________nine o’clock.
6. I take my annual holiday _______ June, but I have a few days off ______ Christmas.
7. I usually go to school __________ bus, but sometimes I go ________ my father’s car
8. He usually starts work________9.30, but _________Fridays he starts_______8.30.
9. I was born________1982, _________January 18th, 1982.
10. People exchange presents _____________Christmas Day.
11. We’re flying __________ Paris __________ Amsterdam tomorrow.
12. Turn this __________ English __________ Spanish.
13. What are you talking __________? I don’t understand!
14. My shoes are made __________ leather.

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IV. REPORTED SPEECH
Direct and Indirect Speech
In direct speech we have the exact words of the speaker. Example:
He said, “I am learning English”.
In indirect or Reported Speech we give the same meaning but with a different form, so
that the words spoken are incorporated into the structure of the main sentence.
Examples: Direct: “I am learning English.”
Indirect: He said that he was learning English..
There are three areas of reported speech: Reported Statements,
Reported Commands and
Reported Questions.

A. Reported Statements
*Form
Reporting verb Reported clause.
He said (that) he wanted to see you.

Changes in Verbs
1. If the reporting verb is in the past tense, it is usual for the verb in the reported clause to
move ‘one tense back’, that is, the reported verb goes one step into the past.
Direct Speech Reporting verb Reported clause
He said that:
PRESENT SIMPLE PAST SIMPLE
I write home every week. he wrote home every week.
PRESENT CONTINUOUS PAST CONTINUOUS
I am learning English. he was learning English.
PRESENT PERFECT PAST PERFECT
I have learned English. he had learned English.
PAST SIMPLE PAST PERFECT
I wrote a letter to my brother. he had written a letter to his brother.
FUTURE TENSE WOULD
I will see her in London he would see her in London.
CONDITIONAL PERFECT CONDITIONAL
If I had my pen, I could write the answers. If he had had his pen, he could have
written the answers.
2. If the reporting verb is in the present tense, there is no change of tense in the reported
clause. Examples: ‘The train will be late.’ He says the train will be late.
‘I come from Spain.’ She says she comes from Spain.
3. The “one tense back rule” is not absolute. Example:
Direct: ‘I hate football.’
Indirect: I told him I hate football. (No change to the verb ‘hate’ – I still hate football.)
4. The word that is always optional after verbs of speaking.

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5. The “one tense back rule” also applies to reported thoughts and feelings.
I thought she was married, but she isn’t.
I didn’t know he was a teacher. I thought he worked in a bank.
6. Some modal verbs change:
Can – could: ‘Can you type?’ he asked me if I could type.
Will – would: ‘They’ll be here tomorrow’. She said they’d be here tomorrow.
7. Others do not change: Would / should / might / could / must or had to.
Examples: ‘You should go to bed.’ He told me I should go to bed.
‘It might rain.’ She said she thought it might rain.
8. Sometimes the idea is reported rather than the actual words:
‘I’ll lend you some money.’ She offered to lend me some money.
‘I won’t help you.’ He refused to help me.

Changes in Pronouns
The pronouns and possessive adjectives generally change as follow:
Direct: I bring my book every day; the book on the desk is mine.
Indirect: He said that he brought his book every day; the book on the desk was his.
Direct: We bring our books every day; the books on the desk are ours.
Indirect: They said that they brought their books every day; the books on the desk were theirs.

Other Changes
Words denoting ‘nearness’ become the corresponding words denoting ‘remoteness:’
This - that Now - then
These - those Yesterday - the previous day; the day before
Today - that day Ago - before
Here - there Tomorrow - the next day
Examples:
Direct: I saw the boy here in this room today.
Indirect: He said that he had seen the boy there, in that room that day.
Direct: I will see these boys now. I spoke to them yesterday.
Indirect: He said he would see those boys then. He had spoken to them the day before.

Reporting Verbs
Reported Speech is often introduced by say and tell. Say is rarely used with an indirect
object (that is, the person spoken to): ‘Hello everybody,’ he said.
She says she’s having a lovely time.
Tell is always used with an indirect object in reported speech:
me
She told us the news.
her husband

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*Note
Apart from say and tell, there are many other verbs more descriptive. Examples: to
explain, to interrupt, to admit, to complain, to warn.

B. Reported Commands
*Form
Subject reporting verb indirect object infinitive
He ordered him to run quickly
She begged me to play the piano
They urged the miners to go back to work
*Notes
1. Negative command: He told me not to tell anyone.
The police warned people not to go out.
2. Tell is used both for reported statements and reported commands, but the form is
different: a) Reported statements: He told me that he was going.
They told us that he was going abroad.
She told them what had been happening.
b) Reported commands: He told me to keep still.
The policeman told people to move along.

C. Reported Questions
*Form
1. The ‘one tense back rule’ is the same with reported questions as with reported
statements: ‘Why have you come here?’ I asked him why he had come here.
‘What time is it?’ He wants to know what time it is.
2. As it is no longer a direct question, the word order is not the word order of a question,
and the auxiliary DO and DID is not necessary.
Examples:
Direct: ‘How long have you been here?’
Indirect: He asked me how long I had been here. (NOT He asked me how long had I…).
Direct: ‘Where do you live?’
Indirect: She asked me where I lived. (NOT She asked me where did I live.)
3. If the direct questions is a Yes/No Question, if or whether is used:
‘Are you a student?’ She asked me if I was a student.
4. In indirect questions there is not much difference in meaning between whether and if:
Whether usually expresses a doubt and an alternative possibility or a choice between two
alternatives, and so is often followed by the correlative or:
I don’t know whether I should go away or stay here.
I don’t know whether is raining or not.
*Notes
Notice that ‘ask’ is used for both reported commands and reported questions, but the
form is different:

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a) Reported commands: I was asked to attend an interview.
He asked me to open my bag.
She asked me not to smoke.
b) Reported questions: He asked me what I did for a living.
I asked him how much the rent was.
I asked him the price.

EXERCISES
*Sally went to see a landlady called Mrs. Smith about an apartment. Now she is telling
her friend, Paul, about it. Report the sentences.
Example: ‘The rent is $50 a week.’
The lady said the rent was $50 a week.

a. ‘The rent includes gas and electricity.’

She told me that __________________________________________________________
b. ‘I need $100 deposit’
Then she said ____________________________________________________________
c. ‘Other people have been to see the apartment.’
She said ________________________________________________________________
d. ‘You’ll have to make up your mind soon.’
She told me _____________________________________________________________
e. ‘I’ve replaced all the carpets.’
She told me that __________________________________________________________
* Report questions with question words.
Mrs. Smith and Sally both asked a lot of questions. Sally also told Paul about them.
Report the questions.
Example: ‘Where do you live?’ Mrs. Smith asked.
She asked me where I lived.
a. ‘How many bedrooms are there?’ Sally asked.
I asked her ______________________________________________________________
b. ‘When do you want to move in?’ Mrs. Smith asked.
She asked me ____________________________________________________________
c. ‘What sort of heating is there?’ Sally asked.
I asked her ______________________________________________________________
d. ‘How far is it to the shops?’ Sally asked.
I asked her ______________________________________________________________
e. ‘What do you think of the apartment?’ Mrs. Smith asked.
She asked me ____________________________________________________________

*Reporting yes/no questions.

Example: “Are you a student?’ She asked me if I was a student.
a. ‘Is there a phone?’
I asked her ______________________________________________________________
b. ‘Do you have a car?’

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She asked me ____________________________________________________________
c. ‘Can I move the furniture around?’
I asked her ______________________________________________________________
d. ‘Is there a fridge in the kitchen?’
I asked her ______________________________________________________________

*For the following verbs that introduce reported commands, write an appropriate
sentence in direct speech, then report it. Example: (Warn)
Direct: ‘Be careful of strangers and don’t go out at night.’ (a father to a son)
Indirect: He warned me to be careful of strangers and not to go out at night. (the son to a friend)
a. (Ask) Direct: ______________________________________________________
Indirect ______________________________________________________
b. (Advise) Direct: ______________________________________________________
Indirect: ______________________________________________________

V. PASSIVE VOICE
*Form: Champagne is made in France.
Passive sentences move the focus from the subject to the object of active sentences. All
passive tenses are formed in the same way: by combining the verb to be (in the tense
required) with the past participle of the main verb.
Examples:
TENSES TO BE
PAST PARTICIPLE
Present simple: is
Present continuous: is being
Present perfect: has been
Past simple: was
Past continuous: Champagne was being made…
Past perfect: had been
Future: will be
Future going to: is going to be
Modal verbs: might be
*Use
1. The rules of use are exactly the same as for the active.
Letters are delivered twice a day. (Present Simple for habit)
The telephone was invented in 1876. (Past Simple for a completed action)
2. The Passive is used to give factual information:
A lot of foreign cars are imported into Europe.
The musical Cats is based on the poems of T.S. Eliot.
3. When what is done is more important than who did the action:
Wine from California is exported to France.

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4. To introduce general opinions:
Cats is now recognized as one of the most successful musicals of all time.
5. To express rules: Smoking is not allowed here.
It is forbidden to walk on the grass.
6. To describe processes: Bread is made from flour.
Paper is made from wood.
*Notes
1. Very often by and the agent are omitted in passive sentences. This might be because:
a. The agent is unknown: My flat was burgled yesterday.
b. The agent is unimportant: The bridge was built in 1876.
c. It is understood who the agent is: He was fined $100 for speeding.
2. The Passive is associated with an impersonal style: It has been noted that reference
books have been removed from the library.
3. The Passive can be avoided in informal language. In daily, informal language we tend
to use the Active Voice. The Passive Voice is used more often in formal written English.

Verbs with Two Objects in the Passive

Some verbs can have two objects. Example:
‘They didn’t offer Ann the job.’ (The two objects are Ann and the job).
So it is possible to make two different passive sentences:
Ann wasn’t offered the job. The job wasn’t offered to Ann.
It is more usual for the passive sentence to begin with the person. Other verbs that can
have two objects are: ask, tell, give, send, show, teach, pay.
Here are some examples of passive sentences with these verbs:
I was given two hours to make my decision. (=They gave me two hours)
The men were paid $1500 to do the job. (=Someone paid the men $1500)
Have you been shown the new machine? (=Has anyone shown you the new machine?)

Be born
Remember that be born is a passive verb and is usually past:
Where were you born? (Not ‘Where are you born?) Past Simple.
I was born in Chicago. (Not I am born in Chicago) Past Simple.
How many babies are born in this hospital every day? Present Simple.

Get + Passive
1. Sometimes you can use Get instead of Be in the Passive:
There was a fight at the party, but nobody got hurt. (= Nobody was hurt).
Did Ann get fired from her new job? (= Was Ann fired from her new job?).
2. You can use Get in the passive to say that something happens to someone or
something. Often the action is not planned; it happens by chance:
The dog got run over by a car. (= the dog was run over).
In other types of situation get is not usually possible:

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 George is liked by everyone. (Not George gets liked by everyone).
3. Get is used mainly in informal spoken English. You can use to be in all situations.
The Passive with By and With
1. By + agent.
Compare: Active: Marconi invented the radio.
Passive: The radio was invented by Marconi.
We sometimes use the subject of an active sentence (Marconi) as ‘the agent’ in passive
sentences. When this happens, we use by to introduce the agent in the passive. We only
use by + agent when it is important to say who or what is responsible for something.

2. With + instrument
We use with to talk about an instrument which is used by the agent to do something..
Compare: I was hit with an umbrella.
I was hit by an old lady

3. With + material
We also use with to talk about materials or ingredients:
The room was filled with smoke.
Irish coffee is made with whiskey.

EXERCISES
*Put these sentences into the passive.
1. The postman delivers the letters at 8.00.
________________________________________________________________________
2. Someone built this hotel two years ago.
________________________________________________________________________
3. Has anyone answered your question?
________________________________________________________________________
4. Somebody found your keys on top of the photocopier.
________________________________________________________________________
5. People should not take reference books out of the library.
________________________________________________________________________
6. People speak English all over the world.
________________________________________________________________________
7. The students must do the exercises carefully.
________________________________________________________________________
8. Someone told me the news.
________________________________________________________________________

*Rewrite the sentences in active voice.

1. This room is cleaned every day.
________________________________________________________________________
2. Many accidents are caused by dangerous driving.
________________________________________________________________________
3. We were being followed.
________________________________________________________________________

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4. Have you ever been bitten by a dog?
________________________________________________________________________
5. I’m not often invited to parties.
________________________________________________________________________
6. Hamlet was written by Shakespeare.
________________________________________________________________________
7. Have you ever been stopped by the police?
________________________________________________________________________
8. An office block is being built near our school.
________________________________________________________________________

*When were these famous people born? Choose the right year: 1889, 1770, 1452, 1564.
1. Shakespeare ______________________________________________________
2. Leonardo Da Vinci ______________________________________________________
3. Charlie Chaplin ______________________________________________________
4. Beethoven ______________________________________________________
5. And you? ______________________________________________________

*Complete the sentences with get and one of these verbs: break, sting, use, damage, steal
1. Ted _______________________________ by a bee while he was sitting in the garden.
2. How did that window __________________________________________________ ?
3. Did any of these houses _______________________________ in the storm last night?
4. These tennis courts don’t ___________________ often. Not many people want to play.
5. I used to have a bicycle, but it _____________________________________________

*Complete the sentences using by or with.

1. My desk was covered _______________________ papers.
2. These photos were taken ______________________ a very cheap camera.
3. The cake was made ____________________ my aunt.
4. The safe was blown open ___________________ dynamite.
5. The garage was painted ____________________ a friend of mine.

VI. CONDITIONALS
A. First Conditional
*Form: Condition Result
If it rains, I’ll stay at home.
*Use
1. The First Conditional is used to express or describe a possible future event and its
probable result or consequences: If it starts to rain, we’ll play inside.
2. To give advice: I f you bend your knees, you’ll keep your balance better.
3. To warn or threaten: Careful! If you touch that, you’ll burn yourself. (a warning)
If you do that again, I’ll kill you! (a threat)

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4. In offers: I’ll post the letter if you like.
*Notes
1. Notice that a future tense is not used in the condition clause:
If you will leave now, you’ll catch the train. This is WRONG.
2. Alternative forms:
a. If can be replaced by in case: I’ll take my umbrella in case it rains.
b. If … not can be replaced by unless to add emphasis:
Unless you go now, you’ll miss the bus.
c. Will can be replaced by certain modals in the result clause.
I can buy you an ice-cream.
If you find my money, you should give it back to me.
you must tell me immediately.
d. Will can be replaced by an imperative:
If you like good food, eat at Brown’s restaurant.
e. In certain cases, will can be replaced by going to:
If it doesn’t rain, I’m going to play tennis.
f. The Present Simple can be replaced by the Present Perfect in the conditional
clause: If you’ve finished this exercise, you can do the next one.
If you’ve never been to Wales, you should try to go there.

B. The Second Conditional

*Form: Condition Result
If I won some money, I’d travel around the world.
*Use
This structure is used:
1. To talk about hypothetical but possible situations:
If I had an apartment in London, I’d have to pay an enormous rent.
2. To talk about totally imaginary situations. The condition is imaginary because the
speaker knows that what he or she is saying is improbable or impossible or contrary to
known facts: If I were a bird, I’d fly to you. (Impossible – I’m not a bird.)
If we could travel in time, I’d go back to the Roman era. (Impossible)
3. The condition can be possible in theory, but improbable in practice:
If I were the President of my country, I’d abolish taxation.
4. The Second Conditional can express advice:
If I were you, I’d get a full-time job.

*Notes
1. After if, were is often used instead of was, especially in written English. Was often
occurs in informal spoken English. Examples: If I were you, I’d take that job.
If he were cleverer, he’d accept it.
2. The verb in the if clause is always in the past tense even though it refers to future or
present time. Would never occurs in the if clause.

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3. Alternative forms:
a. If … not can be replaced by unless: I wouldn’t do it unless I loved you.
b. Would can be replaced by another modal verb in the result clause:
If I stopped smoking, I could run faster.
I might have more money.

C. The Third Conditional

*Form: Condition Result
If John had worked hard, he would have passed the examination
*Use
This structure is used to express hypothetical conditions in the past time, that is to say, to
imagine consequences of things that did not happen in the past:
If you had parked on a meter, you wouldn’t have gotten a ticket.
(You didn’t park on a meter so you got a ticket.)
*Notes
1. Would have never occurs in the if clause.
2. Might have or could have are used instead of would have if the consequence is less
definite: If you’d asked me earlier, I might have been able to help.
I could have helped you.

D. The Zero Conditional

*Form: Condition Result
If you heat ice, it melts.
*Use
The Zero Conditional expresses conditions that are always true, with automatic or
habitual results.
Examples: Flowers die if you don’t water them.

EXERCISES
*Put the verb in parenthesis into the correct tense for a clause of condition or result.
There are examples of the First, Second, and Zero Conditional.
1. If you ______________ (go) away, please write to me.
2. If my wife _______________ (be) as violent as yours, I ______________ (leave) her.
3. If I ______________ (see) Peter this afternoon, I _____________ (tell) him the news.
4. Please start your meal. If you _______________________ (not have) your soup now,
it ______________ (get) cold.
5. If he _______________ (be) taller, he _____________ (can) be a policeman, but he’s
too short.
6. If it ______________ (rain) this weekend, we _______________________ (not able)
to play tennis.
7. I ____________________ (not like) meat if it ________________ (be) undercooked.
I prefer it well done.

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8. I have to work about 80 hours a week. If I ____________________ (have) more time,
I _______________________________________ (take up) a sport like tennis.
*Join each pair of sentences to make one sentence in the Third Conditional.
1. I didn’t catch the bus. I was late for work.
________________________________________________________________________
2. I didn’t work hard at school. I didn’t go to university.
________________________________________________________________________
3. She went out with wet hair. She caught a cold.
________________________________________________________________________
4. We couldn’t find a baby-sitter. We didn’t go out.
________________________________________________________________________
5. I borrowed the money. I was able to buy the bike.
________________________________________________________________________

VII. PAST MODAL VERBS

A. SHOULD HAVE and OUGHT TO HAVE
These structures are used to criticize actions in the past, that is, to say that something was
wrong or done incorrectly:
We ought to have left earlier.
You shouldn’t have talked so long on the phone.

*Notes
1. Ought to is more emphatic than should.
2. These structures also have a continuous form:
You should have been wearing a seatbelt.

B. MAY HAVE, MIGHT HAVE, COULD HAVE

These structures are all similar in meaning. They are used when the speaker is
speculating about the past:
She may have
She might have had a late meeting at the office.
She could have

C. MUST HAVE, CAN’T HAVE

These structures are used when the speaker is drawing a conclusion about something that
happened in the past:
She must have forgotten about this evening.
She can’t have forgotten.

*Note
These structures also have a continuous form:
She might
She must have been waiting all morning.
She can’t

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EXERCISES
*Write a sentence for the following situations. Use should have or ought to have.
Example: I’ve been waiting for hours for you to phone!
You should have phoned earlier.
1. I told you not to invite Jack. He’s always so boring at parties.
________________________________________________________________________
2. No wonder they’re getting divorced. They were only eighteen when they got married.
________________________________________________________________________
3. Oh no! I thought she said everyone was going to wear jeans!
________________________________________________________________________
4. I’m not surprised Mark is ill. All the ice cream is finished.
________________________________________________________________________
5. Look at the time! It’s hours past your bedtime.
________________________________________________________________________

*Complete the sentences using must have or can’t have and the verb in parenthesis.
Example: She _________ (be) asleep. She must have been asleep.
1. I ___________________________________ (run out of) gas. I only filled up the tank
this morning.
2. I’m so sorry I’m late. You ___________________________________ (wonder) what
had happened.
3. Cathy’s got a new BMW! She ___________________________________ (win) a
lottery.
4. I ___________________________________ (lose) my glasses. They were here a
minute ago.
5. The flowers are beautiful! They ___________________________________ (cost) you
a fortune.

VIII. LINKING WORDS

a) Reason, Result and Purpose
Because / as / since / thus / therefore / consequently / as a result / so … that /
such … that / for / so / in order to / the reason why … is that… / because of /
the reason that … is that

b) Contrast
Although / even though / but … anyway / however / in spite of*
*In spite of is followed by a noun, an ing-form, or a clause introduced by the construction
the fact that:
a) In spite of + noun:
In spite of Miss Liu’s present problems, she will probably do quite well.
b) In spite of + –ing form:

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 Mrs. Allen arranges social evenings in spite of being quite busy.
c) In spite of + the fact that … :
George’s father is proud of his son in spite of the fact that he doesn’t understand what
George is studying.

*More useful Linking Words that help to join phrases, sentences and paragraphs are:
A case in point / according to / after / an example / an illustration / as for / as shown by /
as soon as / during / for example / for instance / nevertheless / nonetheless / on the one
hand … on the other hand / particularly / then / until / when / while
*Note
Besides (It means ‘in addition to’). It should not be confused with beside, which means
‘by the side of’.

EXERCISES
*Put one of the following Linking Words into each gap. There are eleven gaps. Two of
the words or phrases aren’t used!
as a result / above all / which / before / and / especially / if
although / however / this is why / such as / on the contrary / to
Doing vigorous exercise can be dangerous, _____________________ if you are over 40.
_______________ it is a very good idea to see your doctor ____________ starting if you
think you are not very fit. Some people try to exercise too vigorously too soon, and
___________ they cause themselves injuries ____________ can take a long time to heal.
___________, it is not only older people who should take care. Doctors report many
injuries ____________ backaches, sprained ankles and pulled muscles, which can all be
avoided ____________ a little care is taken. If you do injure yourself, rest for a while
____________ allow your body to recover naturally. ____________, don’t push yourself
because you think it is doing you good. ____________, you could do yourself permanent
damage.
*Choose a topic and write two or three paragraphs using linking words.

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