On Campus Sesson Sixteen

Aiyura Aircraft Maintenance Engineering School_ AC66-2.
11 AVIONICS 1_2022
16 Electronic Fundamental
16.1 Semiconductor Diodes
Semiconductor diode. A two-element electrical component that allows current to pass through it in one
direction, but blocks its passage in the opposite direction. A diode acts in an electrical system in the
same way a check valve acts in a hydraulic system.
DIODES AND RECTIFIERS

A rectifier is a device that allows current to flow in one direction but will oppose, or stop, current flow in
the opposite direction. A rectifier can be compared to a check valve in a hydraulic system. A check valve
is a one-way gate for fluids; rectifiers are one-way gates for electrons. There are several types of solid-
state rectifiers currently in use. The term solid-state refers to a device in which a solid material is used
to control electric currents through the manipulation of electrons. Solid-state devices have proved to be
a very reliable and efficient means of electron control for a wide range of applications.
Diodes
To understand the operating principles of a diode, one must first understand semiconductor theory. We
shall, therefore, give a brief description of the structure of semiconductor materials and the electronic
activity within a diode. Semiconductors are also known as solid-state devices because they are solid and
contain no loose or moving parts.
The principal semiconductor materials used for rectifiers are silicon and germanium. It was explained in
Chap. 1 that a semiconductor element has four electrons in the outer orbit, or shell, of each atom.
Silicon has a total of 14 electrons in the atom, 4 of these being in the outer shell.
Germanium atoms have 32 electrons, with 4 in the outer shell. In the pure state, neither of these
materials will conduct an electric current easily. This is because the atoms have a strong valence bond
formed as the electrons in the outer shell of each atom pair with the electrons in adjacent atoms. This is
shown in Fig. 16-1. The illustration is a two-dimensional concept of the crystal lattice for germanium.
Actually, the electrons are in spherical shells rather than rings, and they rotate about the nuclei of the
atoms. However, they still form energy bonds in the outer shells, and they are not easily moved from
one atom to another. The only way this can happen is when a very high voltage is applied across the
material and the valence bonds are broken. It can be stated that pure germanium and silicon do not
have free electrons to serve as current carriers.
Subject Coordinator: Mr. Pascal Bune Page 1

Aiyura Aircraft Maintenance Engineering School_ AC66-2.11 AVIONICS 1_2022
FIGURE 16-1 Germanium valence bonds.
To make germanium or silicon capable of carrying a current, a small amount of another element
(impurity) is added. This is called doping. The element antimony, having the chemical symbol Sb, has five
electrons in the outer shell of each atom. When this material is added to germanium, the germanium
becomes conductive. The reason for this is that the fifth electron from the Sb atom cannot bond with
the germanium electrons and is left free in the material. This is shown in Fig. 16-2.
Remember that the germanium atoms have four electrons in the outer shell of each atom; hence, only
four of the Sb electrons can become paired in the valence bonds.
FIGURE 16-2. Effect of adding antimony to germanium to form n-type material.
The n-type material of a rectifier is known as the cathode; the p-type material is the anode. The cathode
is the electron emitter, or negative connection. The anode is the electron acceptor, or positive
connection. These polarities must be observed if the diode is to conduct electricity.

When a piece of n-type germanium forms a junction with a piece of p-type germanium, an interesting
phenomenon takes place. Since there are holes (positive charges) in the p-type germanium and
electrons (negative charges) in the n-type germanium, there is a drift of holes and electrons toward the
junction. The holes are attracted by the negative charge of the electrons in the n-type material, and the
electrons are attracted by the positive charge of the holes in the p-type material.
Some of the electrons diffuse across the junction lo fill holes on the positive side. This movement of
charges leaves a large number of negative ions in the p-type material farthest from the junction and a
large number of positive ions in the n-type material farthest from the junction. Remember that the
material is electrically neutral, as a whole, before the junction is made, because the number of electrons
is balanced by the number of protons. The material is still electrically neutral as a whole after the
junction is made, but some portions have negative charges, and other portions have positive charges.
The stationary ions on each side of the junction provide charges that stop the movement of electrons
across the junction. These charges result in a potential barrier with a voltage of approximately 0.3 for
germanium and 0.6 for silicon. Figure 16-3 illustrates the condition that exists when a junction of two
different types of germanium is made. Note that holes move toward the junction from the p-type
material, and electrons move toward the junction from the n-type material until the charges are
balanced. The previous discussions focused on germanium semiconductors; this same theory applies to
silicon semiconductors as well. When arsenic is added to silicon, the material has an excess of electrons
and becomes negative. When aluminum is added to silicon the material has too few electrons, and the
material becomes positive.
FIGURE 16-3. Junction of p- and n-type materials to form a potential barrier.
One common use of semiconductors is to create diodes. A diode can be thought of as a one-way gate for
electrons; that is, the electrons can flow through the diode in one direction and not the other.
Therefore, a diode can be used to prevent current flow if the voltage polarity is incorrectly applied to
the diode and to allow current flow when voltage polarity is correct. An example of this situation is
shown in Fig. 16-4. Here, one can see that as the battery is connected with the polarity one way the
diode current will conduct; if the polarity is reversed, the diode will not conduct. Of course, this

simplified circuit contains no electrical load and performs no practical function; the circuit is for
explanation only; diodes are always used in conjunction with other circuit elements.
FIGURE 16-4 Diode theory; (a) forward biased, (b) reverse biased.
In Fig. 16-4(a) the battery is connected such that its negative terminal is joined to the n side of the
diode. In this way the electrons flowing from the negative side of the battery neutralize the effect of the
positive ions, which would otherwise affect the current flow. This makes it possible for the electrons to

flow across the barrier (junction) to occupy the holes and flow on toward the positive battery terminal.
Thus the diode has become a good conductor in one direction, that is, from n to p. The diode in its
conducting mode is said to be forward-biased.
In Fig. 16-4(b) we observe the condition when the battery is connected in the opposite direction, which
is called reverse bias. Here the positive terminal of the battery is connected to the n side of the diode.
The free electrons are drawn toward the positive charge until the potential balances. The holes in the p
side of the diode move toward the negative charge so there can be no movement of electrons across
the junction. Under this condition no current can flow.
Most diodes found in today’s modern equipment are silicon junction diodes. This diode is named for
the physical connection (or junction) between the N and P materials of the diode. The junction is also
referred to as the depletion region due to the absence of electrons or holes in this area of the diode.
The diode’s terminals are attached to each of these regions. The boundary between these two regions,
called a p–n junction, is where the action of the diode takes place.
There are several types of junction diodes, each designed with a different physical shape or size,
different types of electrical connections, or the diode may be one of many specialty diodes (see Fig. 16-
5). Power diodes (those used to control relatively high current flow) are typically individual components
assembled on a circuit card or mounted on a heat sink to help dissipate heat as seen in Fig. 16-6. Diodes
designed to carry very little current flow have become extremely small and are typically formed onto an
integrated circuit along with resistors, transistors, and other miniaturized components. Modern
computer devices employ literally thousands of diodes, each contained in one or more integrated
circuits.
FIGURE 16-5. Typical diodes.

FIGURE 16-6. Power diode mounted to an aluminum heat sink.
Some common diodes found in modern electronic systems include:
1. Light-emitting diodes
An LED is typically formed with a semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide. This material will emit
photons when current flows across the junction. Depending on the material, wavelengths (or colors)
from the infrared to the near ultraviolet may be produced. The forward-biased voltage of these diodes
depends on the wavelength of the emitted photons: 2.1 V corresponds to red, 4.0 V to violet. The first
LEDs were red and yellow, and higher frequency diodes have been developed over time. All LEDs
produce incoherent, narrow-spectrum light; “white” LEDs are combinations of three LEDs of a
different color, or a blue LED with a yellow coating. Due to their low power consumption and long life
cycle, LEDs are becoming common in modern aircraft lighting and flat panel displays used for
instrumentation.
2. Laser diodes
When an LED-like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the parallel end faces,
a laser can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in optical storage devices and for high-speed
optical communication. A laser pointer is an example of a common device which uses a laser diode.
3. Photodiodes
Photodiodes are intended to sense light (photodetect). The semiconductor material used to create the
diode p-n junction of a photodiode must be sensitive to light, and the diodes must be contained in a
material that allows light to pass, such as a clear plastic. When light reaches the semiconductor material

the diode produces a DC voltage. Photodiodes are commonly used in solar cells, light sensors, and
optical communication devices that typically employ fiber-optic cable.
4. Thermal diodes
This term is used both for diodes that are heat sensitive (monitor temperature), and for heat-pump type
diodes that are used for thermoelectric heating and cooling. Heat-pump diodes are made from two
semiconductor materials but do not have any rectifying junctions. Heat-pump diodes are currently in
limited use; however, they have great future potential to become a very efficient way to move heat for
cooling or heating purposes.
5. Schottky diodes
Schottky diodes have a lower forward voltage drop than p-n junction diodes. They also tend to have
much lower junction capacitance than p–n diodes, which causes the semiconductor material to operate
(change from conducting to nonconducting modes) at very high speeds. Due to the highswitching
speeds of a Schottky diode, they are used in high-speed circuitry and RF (radio frequency) devices such
as switched-mode power supply, mixers, and detectors.
6. Zener diodes
These diodes can be made to conduct in the reverse-biased mode. This effect, called Zener breakdown,
occurs at a precisely defined voltage. This allows the diode to be used as a precision voltage reference.
The Zener diode has become the heart of virtually all modern voltage control circuits or solid-state
voltage regulators.
The various diodes listed above are some of the most common types; however, numerous other
specialty diodes are currently available or under development. As the aerospace industry matures, it is
obvious that the use of solid-state components will increase and engineers will continue to find new
uses for diodes.
A principal consideration in the installation of power diodes is to ensure that the diode is firmly attached
to the: mounting, which serves as a heat sink. Diodes that carry substantial current will become
overheated and damaged or destroyed unless the heat developed is conducted away by the mounting
structure. Many power diodes are provided with cooling fins by which heat is dissipated.
Large diodes are constructed with heavy metal bases to be mounted securely to a metal structure heavy
enough to act as a heat sink. Before a diode is mounted, the base of the diode should be inspected for
cleanliness and smoothness, and the mount to which it is to be attached should be similarly inspected.
This is to assure that there will be maximum metal-to-metal contact between the base of the diode and
the mounting. In some cases, a heat-conducting gel is placed between the diode base and the mounting
to fill any gaps caused by irregularities in the surfaces to be joined. This assures maximum heat
conductance from the diode to the mounting.

Heat sinks can also be used for other solid-state devices that generate large amounts of heat. Often
cooling fans are used in conjunction with heat sinks to help dissipate heat from the component. A typical
heat sink and transistor assembly is illustrated in Fig. 16-7.
FIGURE 16-7. A transistor heat sink assembly.
Diode Testing. A diode is a one-way gate for electrons; therefore, it can be tested by applying a voltage
to the diode and measuring the current flow. The voltage polarity is then reversed, and the current is
measured again. An ohmmeter can be used as a source of power for this test.
A common digital multimeter is designed to perform this test using the diode test function of the meter.
As shown in Fig. 16-8, a technician must follow these steps to test a diode:
FIGURE 16-8. Testing a diode: (a) forward biased, (b) reverse biased.

1. Set the meter selection switch to the diode test function.

2. Connect the diode to the meter red and black test probes.
3. Read the indication on the meter display.
4. Reverse the polarity of the meter connections (reverse the red and black meter probes as
connected on the diode).
5. Read the indication on the meter display.
During this test, the multi-meter’s internal battery will apply a voltage to the diode. If the meter
probes are connected to the diode in a forward-biased condition, the diode will conduct. When the
meter probes are reversed, the diode will not conduct. The meter will indicate the proper operation of a
diode by showing the voltage drop on the forward-biased diode; and no voltage drop on the reverse-
biased diode. Therefore, a properly operating silicon diode will indicate approximately 0.6 to 0.7 V drop
when the diode is forward-biased. This same diode must indicate 0.0 V drop in the reverse-biased mode
to be considered as a functioning diode.
Keep in mind, various meters may have slightly different indications. One common difference is that the
display is indicated in millivolts not volts; so a properly functioning forward-biased silicon diode would
show 600 to 700 mV. Also remember that all diodes will not have the same voltage drop. A germanium
diode will have a voltage drop of approximately 0.3 V when forward-biased.
Different specialty diodes may have other voltage values when forward-biased; be sure to refer to the
specifications of the diode being tested.
16.2 Zener diode

Alternator Voltage Regulators
Voltage regulators for DC alternators are similar to those found on DC generators. The general concepts
are the same in that adjusting alternator field current controls alternator output. Regulators for most DC
alternators are either the vibrating-relay type or solid-state regulators, which are found on most modern
aircraft. Vibrating-relay regulators are similar to those discussed in the section on generator regulators.
As the points of the relay open, the field current is lowered and alternator output is lowered and vice
versa.
Zener diode- A special type of solid-state diode designed to have a specific breakdown voltage and to
operate with current flowing through it in its reverse direction.
Solid-State Regulators
Solid-state regulators for modern light aircraft are often referred to as alternator control units (ACUs).
These units contain no moving parts and are generally considered to be more reliable and provide
better system regulation than vibrating-type regulators. Solid-state regulators rely on transistor circuitry
to control alternator field current and alternator output. The regulator monitors alternator output
voltage/current and controls alternator field current accordingly. Solid-state regulators typically provide

additional protection circuitry not found in vibrating-type regulators. Protection may include over- or
under-voltage protection, overcurrent protection, as well as monitoring the alternator for internal
defects, such as a defective diode. In many cases, the ACU also provides a warning indication to the pilot
if a system malfunction occurs.
A key component of any solid-state voltage regulator is known as the zener diode. Figure 16-9 shows
the schematic diagram symbol of a zener diode, as well as one installed in an ACU.
The operation of a zener diode is similar to a common diode in that the zener only permits current
flow in one direction. This is true until the voltage applied to the zener reaches a certain level. At that
predetermined voltage level, the zener then permits current flow with either polarity. This is known as
the breakdown or zener voltage.
Figure 16-9. Zener diode.
As an ACU monitors alternator output, the zener diode is connected to system voltage. When the
alternator output reaches the specific zener voltage, the diode controls a transistor in the circuit, which
in turn controls the alternator field current. This is a simplified explanation of the complete circuitry of
an ACU. [Figure 16-10] However, it is easy to see how the zener diode and transistor circuit are used in
place of an electromechanical relay in a vibrating-type regulator. The use of solid-state components
creates a more accurate regulator that requires very little maintenance. The solid-state ACU is,
therefore, the control unit of choice for modern aircraft with DC alternators.

Figure 16-10. ACU circuitry.
In general, modern GCUs for high-output generators employ solid-state electronic circuits to sense the
operations of the generator or starter-generator. The circuitry then controls a series of relays and/or
solenoids to connect and disconnect the unit to various distribution buses. One unit found in almost all
voltage regulation circuitry is the zener diode. The zener diode is a voltage sensitive device that is used
to monitor system voltage. The zener diode, connected in conjunction to the GCU circuitry, then
controls the field current, which in turn controls the generator output.
16.3 Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) -Thyristor

Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR)-A semiconductor electron control device. An SCR blocks current flow in
both directions until a pulse of positive voltage is applied to its gate. It then conducts in its forward
direction, while continuing to block current in its reverse direction.
A thyristor is a semiconductor that is used for switching purposes. A thyristor contains four layers of
semiconductor material and the n-p junctions as shown in Fig. 16-11. In many cases a thyristor may
replace a solenoid or relay for controlling the load current to motors. Electrical load switching through
thyristors is advantageous because there are no moving parts; thus problems with wear, corrosion, and
arcing are eliminated.
FIGURE 16-11. Thyristor: (a) symbol; (b) four layers and three junctions

There are two common types of thyristors, the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) and the triode ac
semiconductor (triac). The SCR symbol is shown in Fig. 16-12a, and the triac symbol is shown in Fig. 16-
12b. Either the SCR or triac will allow current to flow once a certain level of gate signal is achieved. If the
gate signal is then removed, the current will continue to flow through the anodecathode circuit until
that signal is interrupted. Thyristors are often referred to as a latched device because once the
semiconductor is turned on it will stay on or “latched” until reset. This characteristic of a thyristor
makes it ideal for switching warning circuits on aircraft. For example, if an excessive temperature is
reached in a turbine engine for only a split second and then decreases, an engine warning light will
illuminate. The light will continue to glow until the pilot interrupts the light circuit and turns off the
thyristor, thus turning off the light. The thyristor has made it possible for the pilot in receive a
continuous indication of a warning condition that existed for only a very short time period. Thyristors
are also used for controlling large amounts of current flow to motors, heaters, or lighting circuits.
FIGURE 16-12 Thyristor symbols: (a) an SCR and (b) a triac.
6.4 Photocells
A vibration-measuring system consists of a vibration transducer for converting the vibration into a
measurable electrical signal; a photocell, magnetic pickup, or strobe-light for sensing the angular
position of the propeller; and an electronic instrument for filtering, measurement, and readout of the
amplitude and phase of the vibration signal. The Micro-Vib aircraft vibration analyzer/balancer is shown
in Fig. 16-13.
FIGURE 16-13. Micro-Vib aircraft vibration analyzer/balancer. (Dynamic Solutions Systems, Inc.)

A photocell can be used to sense the phase angle of the propeller. The photocell produces a beam of
light that is modulated at a high frequency. If the beam of light strikes a retroreflector, the return beam
is sensed by the photocell and a signal pulse is generated. By attaching the photocell (phototach) to the
engine or engine cowling (see Fig. 16-14), and placing a patch of retroreflective tape on a propeller
blade, a simple phase detector is installed. The high-frequency modulation of the light beam allows the
photocell to ignore other sources of ambient light. Common photocells can sense a reflector at distances
from 2 to 40 in [5.08 to 101.6 cm], and universal mounting brackets provide easy alignment, making
photocells easy to use.
FIGURE 16-14 Photo-tach installation for balancing. (Dynamic Solutions Systems, Inc.)
16.5 Transistors
A transistor is a semi-conductor device which can be used as a remote controlled switch or a remotely
controlled resistor. A transistor has no moving parts and functions on the principle that when the
correct voltage is applied to its control terminal it will allow a greater current to flow between its two
main circuit terminals. Transistors are shown in symbolic form by the symbols shown in Fig. 16-15.

Fig. 16-15 Transistors that are shown in symbolic form by symbols
The terminal identifications are as follows:
B = base or control terminal

C = collector or terminal which accepts main circuit current
E = emitter or terminal which emits main circuit current
The following types signify what polarities of materials are used in the transistor:
N.P.N. = negative collector-positive base-negative emitter
P.N.P. = positive collector-negative base-positive emitter
In general terms, an N.P.N. transistor requires a positive voltage on its base to cause the collector and
emitter to conduct; ie., a positive voltage on the base lowers the circuit resistance between the collector
and emitter.
The amount of voltage required to start a transistor conducting is very small. A voltage of .3 volts
positive applied to the base of an N.P.N. transistor will start the transistor conducting. If this voltage is
increased to .5 volts positive, the transistors collector emitter junction will go to minimum resistance;
ie., full conduction.
Fig. 16-16 Transistor control circuit

1. Operation
The positive of the battery E is applied to the circuit as follows:
a) through lamp L 1 to the collector C of the transistor Q

b) through R 1 to the base B of the transistor Q
As the switch S 1 is not closed, no current can flow in the circuit back to the battery E. RV i is placed with
its wiper to position A and S 1 is placed to the "on" position. Current flows through R2 and RV 1 back
through the switch S 1 to battery negative. The current flow through R2 and RV creates a voltage drop
across RV1 which is below.3 volts+. This is insufficient to cause the base B of the transistor Q to cause
the collector emitter circuit to conduct.
RV1 wiper is now moved toward point B and the voltage at the base B of the transistor increases to
approximately .3 volts positive. The junction of the collector-emitter reduces its resistance and current
starts to flow from the battery positive through lamp L 1 through the collector-emitter junction through
the switch and back to the battery negative.
As the wiper is moved further toward point B, the voltage on the base increases and causes a further
reduction in the resistance of the junction of the collector and emitter. This allows more current flow
through the lamp and its brilliance increases.
When the wiper RV 1 reaches point B, the voltage applied to the base is approximately .5 V + and the
junction of the collector-emitter is at its minimum resistance. This allows maximum current to flow
through the lamp and it burns at full brilliance.
By providing the correct voltage condition on the base of the transistor, we can vary the collector to
emitter circuit resistance which in turn, will vary the current through the lamp to get the desired light
intensity.
The current drawn by the base circuit, is extremely small compared to the current which flows from the
collector to emitter so one very light small rheostat can control many lights if the lights are connected in
the transistor emitter collector circuit.
Transistor Testing
Transistors can be tested with a multimeter, provided that the transistor is removed from its circuit.
This test should be limited to transistors that are not extremely delicate and to digital multimeters
which have a semiconductor test function.
Prior to testing, be sure the meter is set in the semiconductor test mode as shown earlier in the diode
testing section of this chapter. (Transistor testing is very similar to diode testing.) The first test will be
made between the collector and emitter connection of the transistor. Connect the meter as shown in
Fig. 16-17. As shown here two tests must be made between the emitter and collector; reverse the meter
polarity between test one and test two. The meter must show no connection during both tests.
Although meters may differ, most will indicate either OL, for overload, or 000, indicating there is no
voltage drop across the semiconductor material and no current is flowing between the emitter and the
collector.

FIGURE 16-17 Testing a transistor with a DMM: (a) no connection emitter to base; (b) no connection
base to emitter.
The second test is made across the emitter/base junction of the transistor (see Fig. 16-18). This is done
exactly like testing the junction of a diode. Simply place the meter on the emitter and base connections,
and take the meter reading. Reverse the polarity of the meter probes and once again view the meters
display. A good transistor will show the voltage drop across the junction in one test and no voltage drop
with the polarity reversed. The voltage drop for a silicone transistor should be between 0.6 and 0.7 V
and approximately 0.3 V for a germanium transistor.
FIGURE 16-18. Testing a transistor with a DMM: (a) base/emmitter junction forward biased; (b)
base/emitter junction reverse biased.

The last test is made between the transistor’s base and collector junctions. Perform this test as shown
in Fig. 16-19. The indications on the meter should show the voltage drop across the junction in one test
and show no voltage drop when the polarity is reversed.
FIGURE 16-19 Testing a transistor with a DMM: (a) base/collector junction forward biased; (b)
base/collector junction reverse biased.
There are several transistor testers currently available. These testers will perform a more thorough test
than a typical hand-held meter. However, transistors seldom partially fail, and any complete failure is
detectable with any semiconductor tester. One advantage of most transistor checkers is that they often
have “in-circuit” test capabilities. This is very important when dealing with transistors soldered in
place. Often the removal of such a transistor will damage the component; therefore, in-circuit testing is
the preferred method. Voltmeters and oscilloscopes can also be used to test transistors if the circuit is
complete and normal operating power is available.
16.6 Integrated Circuits
Integrated circuit (IC)- A micro miniature circuit incorporated on a very small chip of semiconductor
material through solid-state technology. A number of circuit elements such as transistors, diodes,
resistors, and capacitors are built into the semiconductor chip by means of photography, etching, and
diffusion.
The evolution of electronic circuit technology is shown in figure 16-20(A) and figure 16-20(B). For many
years, the vacuum tube represented the state of the art in delicate control of electron flow for radios
and early computers. The development of the transistor in the 1960s allowed much smaller and more
efficient electronic components to be made.

Figure16-20
a) In the 1960s, transistors began to replace vacuum tubes as a means to provide precise control
of electrical signals for amplifiers and other electronic devices including computers.
b) An integrated circuit contains the equivalent of many transistors on a small chip of silicon.
Very fine wires connect the chip to the outer pins.
The transistor was made from a semi-conductor material like silicon or germanium. In the 1970s, the
integrated circuit was invented. An integrated circuit is a small chip of semi-conductor material with the
equivalent of many transistors on it. It was no longer necessary to manufacture transistors one at a time
in individual units. Since the invention of the integrated circuit, the technology has advanced rapidly by
crowding more and more transistors onto this small chip of silicon or germanium.
The term microprocessor refers to an integrated circuit that has the equivalent of thousands of
transistors on one tiny chip of silicon. The microprocessor has made possible the widespread use of
computer controls for cars, radios, and in airplanes as well. The logic gates that we have been discussing
are not manufactured one at a time. Logic gates are contained within integrated circuits. Integrated
circuits vary considerably in complexity. Simple integrated circuits that contain 6 or 8 logic gates can be
purchased for about 25 cents. The most complex integrated circuits are those called microprocessors,
which would have the equivalent of thousands of logic gates on one chip. A schematic representation of
the logic gates in a simple integrated circuit is shown in figure 16-21.

Figure 16-21. An example of a relatively simple integrated circuit (IC) showing logic gate functions and
pin connections.
Integrated circuits are manufactured from silicon that has been specially processed. The circuit that will
be placed onto the silicon is drawn with great accuracy. The circuit drawing is then shrunk to a small size
using techniques similar to those for reducing a photograph. The circuit tracings are transferred to the
chip of silicon by etching them into the chip. The small chip of silicon is then sealed in a housing of
plastic or ceramic. The integrated circuit has connector pins along the sides to carry signals to and from
the small chip of silicon within. Figure 16-20(B) shows these features of an integrated circuit with very
fine wires connecting the chip to the outer contact pins along the sides.
One of the goals when designing integrated circuits is to make the chip as small as possible.
On a very high speed microprocessor, the time it takes electrons to move the width of the chip limits the
speed of computation.
Integrated circuits are divided into categories based on their complexity. The four categories normally
referred to are:
1. Small scale integration (SSI)
2. Medium scale integration (MSI)
3. Large scale integration (LSI)
4. Very Large scale integration (VLSI)
If a digital system has many different integrated circuits that are connected to each other, they must be
compatible with each other. Integrated circuits that use the same values of voltage for binary ones and
zeros and operate at similar speeds are said to be in the same family. Two of the more common families
are TTL (transistor-transistor logic) and CMOS (complementary metal oxide semi-conductor). The TTL
family, for instance, uses positive logic with binary 1 +5V and binary 0 = OV.

16.7 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS
Modern electronic equipment uses printed circuit boards (PCBs), which provide a mounting surface and
the electric current paths for the individual components of a system. Printed circuit boards are typically
constructed of a rigid insulator material approximately in. thick. The surface of the board is covered with
a copper foil, and holes are drilled through the materials where component connections are made (see
Fig. 16-22). Printed circuit boards allow for compact: installation of hundreds of individual components
into electronic equipment. On some equipment the PCBs, known as cards, can be easily removed for
repair.
FIGURE 16-22. A printed circuit board.
During the construction of PCBs, the copper foil covers the entire surface of the insulator board.
The foil is then etched with chemical solvents to form the specific current paths needed for the circuits.
The components are installed on the board and soldered to the copper foil. In many cases the complete
assembly (components and PCB) is covered with a protective coating to seal out moisture.
This protective coating must be removed prior to replacement of components on a PCB. Be sure to
follow the manufacturer’s recommendations for component replacement.
Surface mounted components are designed to be mounted to both sides of a printed circuit board. As
seen in Fig. 16-23, the component leads do not extend through the PCB. The leads are bent at a 90°
angle and sit flat on the surface of the PCB. The leads are then soldered to the copper foil conductor and
secured in place. This arrangement allows for installation of components on both sides of the PCB;
hence a more compact unit can be designed. Virtually all types of electrical components, from resistors
to integrated circuits, can be designed for surface mounting. In most cases, components designed for
surface mounting are extremely small and difficult to handle. In many cases, component identification is
virtually impossible since the parts are too small to print identification numbers or resistor color codes
on their surface.

FIGURE 16-23. An example of a surface mounted component.

It is difficult to install and remove surface mounted components owing to their compact design.
Special soldering and desoldering equipment is vital to the success of a component replacement.
Surface mounted components should be removed and installed only by technicians well trained in
PCB and surface mounted repair techniques.
16.8 Servomechanisms
Servos
A device used to automatically move the aircraft’s control surface or engine throttles in response to an
autopilot command is known as a servo. There are three common types of servos; pneumatic, electric,
and hydraulic; although some aircraft contain a hybrid system combining both electrical and hydraulic
components. Pneumatic servos are vacuum-actuated units used on simple autopilots for light aircraft.
These units have limited range of travel and provide a relatively weak actuating force; therefore, these
systems are not used on modern aircraft.
Electric servos employ a simple electric motor and clutch assembly to connect autopilot commands to
the aircraft flight controls. As seen in Fig. 16-24, an electric motor drives a clutch and capstan drive
assembly; the capstan connects to a small ( in.) control cable called the bridal cable.
The bridal cable is used to move a mechanical bellcrank assembly which in turn moves the control
surface through a larger ( in.) control cable. This figure should be used as an electric servo installation
example; the exact arrangement and control cable size will vary between aircraft.

FIGURE 16-24 Electric servo for rudder control.
Due to their simplicity and reliability, electric servos are very common on many types of aircraft.
In all installations a clutch mechanism must be installed for manual override by the pilot in the event of
a system failure. This is typically a simple friction-type clutch designed so the pilot can manually override
a failed servo. An electric clutch will also be installed on all servos of this type; this clutch is used for
autopilot disconnect by command of the pilot or the autoflight computer.
Large aircraft require a powerful autoflight system which uses electrical signals to activate the hydraulic
servo. Most transport-category aircraft contain a central hydraulic system to move flight controls such
as rudders, flaps, and ailerons. The servos use a solenoid-activated valve to regulate hydraulic fluid and
change control surface movement. The autopilot computer sends an electrical signal to the solenoid,
which in turn controls the flow of hydraulic fluid, which in turn moves the appropriate control surface.
The Boeing B-787 and Airbus A-380 are the first commercial aircraft to incorporate electrohydraulic
servos. These systems use large electric motors to power dedicated hydraulic pumps that control one or
more flight controls. The B-787 is currently the only civilian aircraft that employs electrohydraulic
actuators as the primary means to position certain control surfaces.
Servo Feedback Systems

To inform the autopilot computer that the servo has successfully moved a control surface, a feedback
signal is required. An electrical signal that is directly proportional to the movement of the servo, the
actuator or the control surface is called a feedback signal. There are two common types of feedback
systems; ac synchro and differential transducer. Any type of servo can employ an ac synchro feedback
system. Simply put the ac synchro is a variable transformer device that monitors angular displacement
as described earlier in this chapter. Differential transducers are also used to create an autopilot
feedback signal. The two common types are the linear voltage differential transducer (LVDT) and the
rotary voltage differential transducer (RVDT). These systems were discussed earlier in this chapter.
When troubleshooting feedback systems consider that the electrical coils of the transformer are very

reliable; therefore, both the ac synchro and differential transducers seldom fail. However, mechanical
components such as pivot bearings can become worn causing inaccurate readings. Also any mechanical
linkage connecting the sensors to the control surface can become worn or bind; the mechanical systems
might also require adjustment periodically to maintain accuracy of the feedback loop.
Transducer
The two common transducers used to measure position are called the linear variable differential
transducer (LVDT) and the rotary variable differential transducer (RVDT).
The LVDT is typically designed to be completely sealed against the environment and can be placed
almost anywhere on the aircraft. LVDTs are commonly used for position feedback sensors in flight
control servo mechanisms.

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Aiyura Aircraft Maintenance Engineering School_ AC66-2.

DIODES AND RECTIFIERS

Subject Coordinator: Mr. Pascal Bune Page 1

FIGURE 16-1 Germanium valence bonds.

FIGURE 16-2. Effect of adding antimony to germanium to form n-type material.

Subject Coordinator: Mr. Pascal Bune Page 2

FIGURE 16-3. Junction of p- and n-type materials to form a potential barrier.

Subject Coordinator: Mr. Pascal Bune Page 3

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FIGURE 16-5. Typical diodes.

Subject Coordinator: Mr. Pascal Bune Page 5

FIGURE 16-6. Power diode mounted to an aluminum heat sink.

Some common diodes found in modern electronic systems include:

Subject Coordinator: Mr. Pascal Bune Page 6

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FIGURE 16-7. A transistor heat sink assembly.

Subject Coordinator: Mr. Pascal Bune Page 8

1. Set the meter selection switch to the diode test function.

16.2 Zener diode

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Figure 16-9. Zener diode.

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Figure 16-10. ACU circuitry.

16.3 Silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) -Thyristor

Subject Coordinator: Mr. Pascal Bune Page 11

FIGURE 16-12 Thyristor symbols: (a) an SCR and (b) a triac.

Subject Coordinator: Mr. Pascal Bune Page 12

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Fig. 16-15 Transistors that are shown in symbolic form by symbols

The terminal identifications are as follows:

B = base or control terminal

Fig. 16-16 Transistor control circuit

Subject Coordinator: Mr. Pascal Bune Page 14

The positive of the battery E is applied to the circuit as follows:

a) through lamp L 1 to the collector C of the transistor Q

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16.6 Integrated Circuits

Subject Coordinator: Mr. Pascal Bune Page 17

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16.7 PRINTED CIRCUIT BOARDS

FIGURE 16-22. A printed circuit board.

Subject Coordinator: Mr. Pascal Bune Page 20

FIGURE 16-23. An example of a surface mounted component.

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FIGURE 16-24 Electric servo for rudder control.

Servo Feedback Systems

Subject Coordinator: Mr. Pascal Bune Page 22

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