I. Murtonen, M., & Lehtinen, E. (2003).

Difficulties experienced by education and

sociology students in quantitative methods courses. Studies in Higher Education,
28(2), 171-185.

Introduction: (key points only)

• Learning research skills at the university is crucial but challenging.
• Quantitative methods and statistics courses are problematic for students in various disciplines (education,
psychology, sociology, social work, and social sciences).
• Student difficulties can lead to lower grades, limit course choices, affect degree completion, and impact career
decisions.
• The issue of research and statistics course difficulties has been recognized for decades.
• Despite its significance, there is a lack of empirical research in this area.
• Interest in empirical studies is growing, with a focus on social work and statistics teaching.
• Existing literature is mainly anecdotal, with recommendations, and lacks empirical findings.
• Recent years have seen an increase in publications on statistics anxiety, primarily in psychological journals.
• The increasing interest in learning statistics and research skills is driven by the development of Western society,
where research is seen as a key driver of knowledge, growth, employment, and social cohesion (Busquin, 2001).
• The growth in information based on research and statistical analysis is transforming society, and technical
advancements require people to handle increasingly complex data (Greer, 2000).
• Research skills are becoming essential not only for researchers but also for professionals in various fields,
including policymaking (Laukkanen, 2001).
• Despite universities investing in teaching research skills, outcomes often fall short, with students acquiring
isolated facts and skills without a deeper understanding (Murtonen et al., 2002).
• Research literature indicates that students' difficulties in research do not decrease over time, and attitudes toward
research may become less positive (Siegel, 1983).
• This study aims to explore difficulties in learning research skills at the university level, with a focus on quantitative
methods and seeks to understand the factors contributing to these challenges.

1.1. Emotional and motivational factors in the learning of quantitative

research methods
o Emotional and motivational factors are always present in learning, but they are particularly pronounced in
quantitative methods and statistics courses at the university.
o Students facing learning difficulties may experience a range of emotions that hinder their learning
process, regardless of how well-prepared the instruction is.
o Historically, research on motivation and learning were separate, with behavior and learning issues
attributed to cognitive limitations. It was only in the 1990s that the inseparability of cognition and
motivation was recognized, along with the importance of considering the learning context (Järvelä, 2001).
• A similar history exists in the realm of research and statistics education, with a focus primarily on improving
cognitive aspects while neglecting non-cognitive factors like students' emotions, attitudes, beliefs, and
motivations. The exception to this is studies on anxiety about statistics (Gal & Ginsburg, 1994).

Anxiety about statistics and research

Anxiety about statistics

• Negative feelings towards statistics are evident in various places, including textbooks like Hinton's "Statistics
Explained," which questions, "Do you hate statistics?" (Hinton, 1995).
• Statistics anxiety is characterized by worry, intrusive thoughts, mental disorganization, tension, and
psychological arousal when exposed to statistics content, problems, instructional situations, or evaluations
(Zeidner, 1991).
• Statistics anxiety is distinct from general test anxiety (Benson, 1989; Benson & Bandalos, 1989) and is not
solely attributed to test situations.
 • Statistics anxiety is prevalent among university students, particularly in social sciences, education,
psychology, and other "human sciences" (Birenbaum & Eylath, 1994; Forte, 1995; Pretorius & Norman, 1992;
Townsend et al., 1998; Zeidner, 1991).
• While mathematics and statistics share similarities, including the use of numbers, students may experience
them differently, with statistics being perceived as uncertain and detailed, while mathematics is seen as strict
and stable (Merenluoto & Murtonen, 2004).
• Gender differences in statistics anxiety are not consistent among university students, with weak effects
observed (Benson, 1989; Zeidner, 1991).
• Negative prior experiences with mathematics, poor mathematics achievement, and low mathematical self-
efficacy are correlated with statistics anxiety (Zeidner, 1991).
• Statistics anxiety often has its roots in mathematics anxiety, with negative early experiences and low
mathematics achievement contributing to both (Newstead, 1998; Zeidner, 1991; Birenbaum & Eylath, 1994).

Anxiety about research

• Research on emotional factors in the learning of research and quantitative methods is limited, with most papers
acknowledging the existence of emotional challenges and focusing on proposing new teaching methods or
discussing what content should be taught (e.g., Epstein, 1987; Filinson & Niklas, 1992; Quinn, Jacobsen &
LaBarber, 1992; Morris, 1992).
• Statistics anxiety has been a primary focus in studies related to emotional factors in research methodology
courses (Onwuegbuzie, 1997).
• Onwuegbuzie's work explored various forms of anxiety, including statistics anxiety, research process anxiety,
composition anxiety in writing, and library anxiety, all of which were related to students' ability to formulate
research proposals (Onwuegbuzie, 1997).
• Students experiencing anxiety about research and statistics may also face other challenges, such as lower course
performance, lower grades, procrastination, and avoidance of research-related activities (Onwuegbuzie, 1997).
• Anxiety can hinder cognitive learning tasks, making it difficult for students to concentrate on their coursework
(Onwuegbuzie, 1997).
• High-anxiety students may be more likely to give up on research tasks and believe they lack the ability to learn
certain concepts, leading to procrastination (Onwuegbuzie, 1997).
• Students with higher research or statistics anxiety may also perceive research as less important for their
academic and career development (Green et al., 2001; Onwuegbuzie, 1997).
• Overall, difficulties in learning quantitative research may be connected to students not considering research skills
as important for their future work (Hypothesis).

Motivation in situation and approaches to learning

• Motivation has been identified as a significant factor contributing to difficulties in learning research. Students often
underestimate the value of research skills for their studies and future careers, leading to a lack of commitment to
their research courses (Murtonen et al., 2002; Murtonen, 2004).
• Anxiety and feelings of difficulty can further hinder motivation to study (Murtonen et al., 2002; Murtonen, 2004).
• Research courses are often mandatory for social science students, which means they have to take these courses
regardless of their motivation (Murtonen et al., 2002; Murtonen, 2004).
• Students can exhibit different situational orientations in learning situations, which involve their focus at a specific
moment. Some students focus on the task at hand, while others may be more concerned with pleasing the
teacher or avoiding the task (Lehtinen et al., 1995).
• Situational orientations can be categorized as task-oriented, ego-defensive, or socially motivated. Task-oriented
students are eager to solve the task, ego-defensive students are concerned about self-coping, and socially
motivated students aim to please the teacher (Olkinuora & Salonen, 1992; Salonen et al., 1988).
• These situational orientations are believed to develop gradually through a student's learning and social reward or
control history in family and school contexts (Vauras et al., 1999).
• University students' situational orientations to learning have been studied in general learning situations, revealing
differences in task orientation, performance orientation, avoidance, and social orientation (Mäkinen & Olkinuora,
2004).
 • Eronen, Nurmi, and Salmela-Aro (1998) identified different achievement strategies in study situations, including
optimistic, defensive-pessimistic, impulsive, and self-handicapping. Some strategies, such as self-handicapping
and ego-defensiveness, may lead students to focus on task-irrelevant behavior.
• Surface and deep approaches to learning, along with strategic approaches, have been identified as ways
students engage with their studies. Deep approaches involve understanding, while surface approaches involve
reproducing, and strategic approaches focus on achievement or time management (Marton & Säljö, 1976;
Entwistle & Ramsden, 1983).
• Learning orientations encompass students' personal goals, intentions, attitudes, worries, and doubts related to
their studies. These orientations influence learning because students choose activities they believe will help them
achieve their goals (Vermunt, 1996).
• Study orientations encompass students' general ways of orienting themselves to studying, including learning
approaches and motivational factors (Entwistle et al., 1991).
• Study orchestration indicates that the way students approach studying is context-specific and depends on their
perceptions of key elements in the learning context (Meyer, 1991).
• Effective learning often involves task-oriented learning, where students focus on the given task and make efforts
to solve it. In the case of learning quantitative methods, some students may struggle to achieve task orientation,
facing obstacles that hinder their concentration (Gal, Ginsburg, & Schau, 1997).
• The goal of the present study is to examine students' orientations, both situational and domain-specific, in the
context of learning quantitative research methods.

1.2. Views, beliefs and conceptions of research

Individuals’ conceptions of research

1. Conceptions of Learning and Research: Students have different conceptions of what learning and studying mean.
These conceptions are influenced by their cumulative educational experiences and tend to be relatively stable. In
the context of research methodology courses, students' previous experiences shape their thinking about learning
tasks and their approaches to learning.

2. Impact on Learning Outcomes: Students' conceptions of learning have been shown to be related to their study
orientations, approaches to learning, and study outcomes. For example, students with deep conceptions of
learning tend to have better learning outcomes compared to those with surface conceptions.

3. Conceptions of Knowledge: Conceptions of learning are related to conceptions of knowledge. How students view
knowledge can influence their study strategies and orientations. For instance, students with a deep understanding
of knowledge tend to engage in more meaningful learning.

4. Images of Research: University students' conceptions of research in general have only recently begun to be
studied. These conceptions can vary among students and may influence their choices regarding research
methods and their approach to research-related tasks.

5. Variation in Conceptions: Different conceptions of science and research can be found among both students and
professional researchers. For example, some students may hold a mythical view of science and scientists, which
can influence their expectations and attitudes toward research.

6. Supervisors' Conceptions: Supervisors may also hold varying conceptions of research. The alignment or
misalignment between students' and supervisors' conceptions of research may affect students' progress and
completion of their degrees.

7. Long-Lasting Effects: Students' conceptions of research can have long-term effects, such as influencing their
career choices and how they approach their future work. Unrealistic views of their future jobs, including
misconceptions about the need for research skills, may impact their career decisions.
 8. Job Competence: Some students may select careers that do not require strong quantitative skills, potentially
because they have statistics anxiety or misconceptions about the importance of these skills in their chosen
professions. This can lead to a non-relationship between statistics anxiety and perceived job competence.

9. Overall, students' conceptions of learning and research play a significant role in shaping their learning
experiences, study strategies, and career choices, highlighting the importance of addressing and aligning these
conceptions in educational settings.

Cultural conceptions: The two research paradigms

1. Sources of Beliefs and Attitudes: Students' beliefs and attitudes can be influenced by their personal experiences,
but they can also be shaped by external factors, including the educational institution, family, friends, and society
as a whole.

2. Division of Values: Society often exhibits a division between "technical" and "human" values, with a tendency to
categorize skills in mathematics and languages as mutually exclusive. This division can affect students'
perceptions of research methods.

3. Two Cultures Theory: C.P. Snow's "The Two Cultures" theory from 1959 suggests that society is divided into
scientific and non-scientific poles. This division is still prevalent today and influences individual and societal
perspectives on research.

4. Quantitative vs. Qualitative Research: In social sciences, research is often categorized into technical quantitative
research and humanistic qualitative methods. This division has led to a fragmentation of the academic discipline,
with advocates for each approach having their own scholarly communities.

5. Epistemological Divide: While some argue that qualitative and quantitative research rely on the same
epistemology, there is a perceived division between the two methodologies due to differences in language,
journals, organizations, and practices.

6. Emphasis on Excellence: Both quantitative and qualitative research methods have been praised and criticized,
with each camp tending to emphasize its own excellence while downplaying the other. However, the quality of
research depends on various factors beyond the chosen method.

7. Student Choices: Students may choose between quantitative and qualitative research approaches, influenced by
cultural and sociocultural factors, as well as their self-identity and the classroom context.

8. Prototype Theory: Students' attitudes toward research methods can be shaped by prototype theory, where they
compare themselves to prototypical persons associated with those methods. Negative stereotypes about certain
research methods may deter students from choosing them.

9. Curricular Structure: The way subjects are taught can affect students' perceptions. If a subject is taught in a
narrow-focused manner, it may be perceived as less engaging.

10. Storytelling and Identity: People often tell stories about their work to build their identity and demonstrate
competence. In the context of research, stories and narratives can shape beliefs and practices, both among
teachers and students.

11. Normalization of Ignorance: In some areas of knowledge, including statistics and mathematics, there is a lack of
embarrassment in admitting ignorance or incompetence. Some individuals even take pride in their lack of
knowledge in these areas.

12. Overall, the passage highlights the complex interplay of personal experiences, societal values, educational
structures, and identity in shaping students' beliefs and attitudes toward research methods, particularly the divide
 between quantitative and qualitative approaches. These factors can significantly influence students' choices and
attitudes throughout their academic and professional careers.

1.3. Cognitive processes in the learning of research

1. Abstractness and Complexity: Research methodology involves abstract and complex concepts. Over time, rules
and conventions in research have become more abstract, making it challenging for learners. The interrelated
nature of research concepts increases the level of abstraction.

2. Abstract Nature of Statistical Concepts: Fundamental statistical concepts like probability can be highly abstract
and unfamiliar to students, which can hinder their understanding.

3. Unfamiliarity and Hidden Complexities: Learning research methodology can be difficult due to its unfamiliarity,
especially for those new to the domain. It involves hidden complexities that must be grasped in an unfamiliar
context.

4. Use of Statistical Formulas: The use of statistical formulas requires skills in formal symbol systems and statistical
language, which can be challenging for students to comprehend.

5. Statistical Language and Terminology: The language and terminology used in statistics may be unfamiliar to
students, further complicating the learning process.

6. Conversion of Conceptual Knowledge to Procedural Knowledge: Understanding research methodology requires

converting abstract conceptual knowledge ("knowing what") into procedural knowledge ("knowing how") for
conducting research.

7. Cognitive Load: Research methodology often presents a heavy cognitive load because elements within the
domain interact extensively, requiring simultaneous learning of multiple concepts.

8. Complexity of the Domain: Research methodology is complex, characterized by abstract subdomains,

interconnectedness, and the need to understand concrete procedures within a broader system.

9. Difficulty in Connecting Theory and Practice: Students may struggle to bridge the gap between theoretical
knowledge and practical application in research.

10. Scientific Thinking: Learning research methodology involves developing scientific thinking, which includes
reasoning and problem-solving skills. Scientific thinking demands both abstract and practical elements.

11. Metacognitive Skills: Students require metacognitive skills to understand research topics fully. These skills enable
awareness and control over research theories and concepts.

12. Expertise and Community of Practice: Becoming skilled in research involves expertise development within a
community of practice, where novices receive guidance and gradually integrate into an expert culture.

13. Networked Expertise: Collaborative efforts to solve problems and build knowledge together, known as networked
expertise, play a crucial role in developing higher-level cognitive competencies.

14. Ongoing Collaborative Construction: Expertise is seen as an ongoing, collaborative, and discursive construction
of tasks, solutions, and innovations within a sociological context.

15. In addressing these challenges, it's important to introduce research methodology holistically, helping students
understand the entire research process rather than isolated concepts. Moreover, considering the psychological
 and sociological aspects of expertise development and the role of collaborative learning can enhance students'
grasp of research methodology.

Developing a conceptual understanding of research

1. Difficulty in Learning Statistical Concepts: Many university students struggle to grasp basic statistical concepts
due to inadequacies in prerequisite mathematics skills and abstract reasoning. Students may also have difficulty
applying statistical procedures even after taking multiple courses.

2. Conceptual Understanding: The passage distinguishes between knowledge of facts, terms, and procedures and
conceptual understanding. Conceptual understanding involves integrating individual concepts into a network of
interrelations.

3. Conceptual Change Theories: The passage refers to conceptual change theories, which focus on how students'
preconceptions or misconceptions about specific scientific concepts affect their learning. These theories
emphasize the role of framework theories, which can either facilitate or hinder conceptual change.

4. Categories in Conceptual Change: Chi's theory of conceptual change categorizes individuals' concepts into
ontological categories (e.g., matter, processes, mental states). Misplacement of a concept into the wrong category
can lead to misconceptions.

5. Application to Learning Research: The passage discusses the challenges of applying conceptual change theories
to learning research. Unlike well-defined science concepts, research concepts, which are often ill-defined and
complex, may not have a shared, fixed definition.

6. Formation of Conceptions: Students may not have prior conceptions about research concepts, but they tend to
form conceptions when introduced to new concepts, often based on context or surface structure. These initial
conceptions can lead to misconceptions.

7. Complexity of Research Learning: Learning research is described as an oscillation between empirical,

conceptual, and theoretical levels, making it a complex and dynamic process.

8. Conceptual Change vs. Conceptional Change: The passage distinguishes between conceptual change (changing
specific entities and knowledge validity) and conceptional change (changing various cognitive entities, including
attitudes and beliefs). Conceptional change may be more complex due to the multifaceted nature of conceptions.

Category of ‘difficult things’- a theory of personal categories

1. Proposed Modification to Chi's Theory: The author proposes a modification to Chi's theory of conceptual change.
While Chi's theory assumes that misplacement of a concept into a wrong category result in a misconception, this
modification suggests that placing a concept into a category that is not useful for the intended purpose creates
difficulties in further learning.

2. Categories and Ontology: Unlike Chi's theory, which suggests that categories are ontologically distinct and
perceived as such by adults, the proposed modification asserts that categories are formed individually based on
an individual's understanding of their environment, cultural background, and emotional experiences. This
perspective aligns with the philosophy of embodied cognition, emphasizing that ontology and epistemology
cannot be separated.

3. Embodied Philosophy: The modification draws on the philosophy of embodied cognition, which posits that
ontology is based on human understanding and that humans can only form concepts through their bodies. The
limitations of human bodies, experiences, and understanding shape how individuals categorize and perceive the
world.
 4. Variability in Categorical Structures: The proposed theory acknowledges that individuals' categorical structures
may vary based on their unique ways of thinking, previous experiences, cultural backgrounds, and shared human
cognitive features. These categories are not necessarily stable or consistent across individuals.

5. Neuropsychological Explanations: The modification also relates to neuropsychological explanations of learning,

which suggest that activation in the brain is influenced by a person's previous experiences. The activation of
certain areas in the brain is associated with framework theories that are concurrently activated during a task.

6. Different Approaches to Tasks: The proposed theory offers an explanation for why different individuals approach
tasks or topics differently. For example, two students given a statistical task may approach it differently based on
their categorization of the task and the associated cognitive processes and emotions.

7. Types of Conceptual Change: Similar to Chi's theory, the proposed theory distinguishes between changes that
occur within branches of categories (e.g., small corrections in concepts) and changes that involve jumping
between branches (e.g., a radical shift in thinking). Radical changes are considered more significant.

8. Slow Process of Conceptual Change: The passage acknowledges that the process of changing conceptions and
understanding, especially in the context of science and research, is typically slow. Students' conceptions may
develop and become more elaborated over time, but significant changes may take a while.

9. Implications for Learning: The proposed theory suggests that personal categories formed during learning can vary
among individuals and may sometimes hinder learning. For effective learning, students may need to change their
conceptions and categorizations to align them with productive approaches to the subject matter.

2. AIMS

• Study I: Examining the Difficulty of Learning Research

• Goal: To investigate whether learning research, particularly quantitative research, is more challenging for
education and social science students compared to other academic subjects.
• Research Questions:
• Is research more difficult for education and social science students to learn than other academic contents?
• What kinds of difficulties do students experience in their learning of research?
• Study II: Assessing Content Knowledge of the Research Process

• Goal: To determine if there are differences in content knowledge of the research process between students who
encounter difficulties and those who do not. Additionally, the study aims to compare students' content knowledge
to that of experts.
• Research Questions:
• Are there differences in content knowledge of the research process between students having problems and
students not having problems?
• How does students' content knowledge compare to that of experts in the field?
• Study III: Exploring the Relationship Between Math Background and Research Difficulty

• Goal: To investigate the potential connection between difficulties in learning research methodology and students'
prior success in mathematics and university research courses.
• Research Questions:
• Are difficulties in learning research methodology connected to previous success in mathematics and success in
university research courses?
• Study IV: Examining Students' Orientations Towards Research Methods
 • Goal: To explore whether some students hold negative orientations towards either quantitative or qualitative
research methods and whether these orientations are related to their willingness to use these methods and the
difficulties they face in learning research.
• Research Questions:
• Do some students have negative orientations towards quantitative or qualitative methods?
• Are these conceptions connected to their readiness to use these methods and to their difficulties experienced in
learning research?
• Study V: Investigating Students' Views on Future Work and Research Skills

• Goal: To assess whether students believe they will need research skills in their future careers and to examine how
these views are associated with the difficulties they encounter in learning research, their motivational orientations,
and their learning approaches.
• Research Questions:
•
• Do students believe they will need research skills in their future work?
• How do these views relate to their difficulties in learning research, their motivation for research, and their learning
approaches?
• Overall, the study seeks to provide a comprehensive understanding of the challenges faced by students in
quantitative research courses, the factors contributing to these challenges, and the potential implications for their
future careers and academic success. It encompasses a range of research questions to explore these aspects
thoroughly.

3. METHODS
3.1 Participants

• Academic Disciplines: The participants came from diverse academic backgrounds, encompassing fields such as
education, psychology, sociology, and social policy. This suggests a broad spectrum of students from the social
sciences.

• Geographic Locations:

• Finnish Students: The Finnish participants were enrolled at a single university, described as one of the largest and
oldest universities in Finland. This suggests a relatively homogenous group of Finnish students from a specific
academic institution.
• US Students: The participants from the USA were affiliated with one of the highest-ranked universities in the
United States. This indicates that they were students at a prestigious American university.
• The inclusion of participants from both Finland and the USA from different disciplines and academic institutions
likely contributes to the diversity of perspectives and experiences in the study. It allows for comparisons and
insights into potential cross-cultural or institutional differences in their experiences with research courses.
* First phase 31, second phase 6, including two experts

3.2 Materials and procedures

Study I:

• Research Booklet: Students were provided with a research booklet to record their experiences and feelings during
the quantitative methods course.
• Three Different Tasks: The booklet contained three tasks, including placing academic subjects on a dimensional
field, noting difficult concepts, and reflecting on the challenges of learning research methodology.

Study II:

• Questionnaires: Two questionnaires were administered to 31 education students at the beginning of a statistics
course.
• The first questionnaire measured students' statistical content knowledge and their confidence in performing
statistical tasks.
• The second questionnaire focused on measuring students' difficulties in learning quantitative methods and their
motivational factors.

Study III:

• Difficulties in Quantitative Methods (DQM) Questionnaire: This questionnaire consisted of 17 statements related
to difficulties experienced in learning quantitative methods.
• Likert Scale: Students used a Likert scale to respond to each statement, ranging from strongly disagree (1) to
strongly agree (5).
• Additional Data: Data on students' high school mathematics grades and university statistics and quantitative
methods course grades were collected.

Study IV:
• Questionnaire: This questionnaire included two sections.
• The first section contained 8 statements about the appreciation of theoretical-philosophical, empirical, qualitative,
and quantitative methods, as well as readiness to use these methods.
• The second section consisted of 18 questions from the DQM instrument used in Study III.
• Likert Scale: Students used a Likert scale to respond to statements in both sections, ranging from strongly
disagree (1) to
strongly agree
(5).
 • Two Measurements: Data was collected at the beginning and end of the courses in two Finnish education student
groups, one Finnish psychology student group, and US psychology students.

Study V:

• Questionnaire: The questionnaire included several sections.

• An instrument with 21 questions measured students' experiences of difficulty in a quantitative methods course.
• Eight questions measured learning approaches.
• Twelve questions measured situational orientations.
• One question assessed students' views on the need for research skills in their future work.
• Likert Scale: Students used a Likert scale to respond to questions in each section, ranging from strongly disagree
(1) to strongly agree (5).
• Data Collection: Questionnaires were distributed at the beginning and end of a research methodology course.
• These detailed descriptions provide a clear overview of the methods and instruments used in each study to
investigate students' experiences and challenges in learning quantitative research methods.

3.3 Statistical procedures

In Study I, the analysis involved several steps:

Calculation of Dimensional Task Values: The values for each academic subject were manually calculated based on
students' markings, and these values ranged from -5 to +5.

Calculation of Means and Standard Deviations: Means and standard deviations were calculated for each academic
subject based on the dimensional task values.

Pearson Correlation Coefficients: Correlations among academic subjects were calculated using Pearson correlation
coefficients.

Cluster Analysis: A k-means cluster analysis procedure was employed to group students based on their difficulties in
academic subjects. Multiple cluster analyses were performed to find the most stable and theoretically meaningful solution.

In Study II, the selection of interviewees involved:

Manual Evaluation of Questionnaire Responses: Researchers manually evaluated the responses from 31 education
students and selected four suitable students for further interviews based on their performance, confidence, difficulties, and
motivation in learning quantitative methods.
In Study III, the analysis steps included:

Principal Component Analysis: A principal component analysis was conducted on the 17 questions related to difficulties in
quantitative methods. A five-component varimax solution was chosen.

Pearson Correlation Coefficients: Correlations between the principal components, high school mathematics achievement,
and university statistics and quantitative methods course grades were calculated.

In Study IV, the analysis consisted of:

K-Means Clustering Analysis: Several k-means cluster analyses were performed to create groups of students based on
their profiles. The final cluster analysis was conducted with careful consideration of the initial configuration to ensure
theoretically meaningful and distinct groups.
ANOVA and Parametric Tests: Parametric methods like ANOVA and t-tests were utilized for between-group comparisons
and repeated measurement tests. Post hoc comparisons were performed using the LSD test.

Nonparametric Methods: Nonparametric methods (e.g., U-test, Wilcoxon test) were used when appropriate, especially in
cases where there were issues with homogeneity of variances.

In Study V, the analysis involved:

Calculation of Descriptive Statistics: Means, standard deviations, and Cronbach's Alphas were calculated for different
scales within the questionnaire.

Parametric Tests: Parametric tests were used for group comparisons, and post hoc tests were conducted using the Tukey
HSD test.

All statistical analyses were performed using software packages such as Statistica and SPSS. Prior to conducting the
analyses, questionnaires were pre-tested to identify and remove any inoperative questions.

4. OVERVIEW OF THE EMPIRICAL STUDIES

These five studies conducted by Murtonen provide valuable insights into the difficulties experienced by university
students, particularly those in education and social science fields, when learning quantitative research methods. Here's a
brief overview of each study:

Study I:

Description: Explores difficulties experienced by education and sociology university students (N = 34) while learning
quantitative methods.
Key Findings:
Students rated statistics and quantitative methods as more difficult compared to other academic subjects.
Identified five main categories of reasons for difficulties, including superficial teaching and negative attitudes.
Difficulties in quantitative methods were not necessarily related to overall study difficulties.

Study II:

Description: Examines differences in content knowledge of statistics and research methodology between novices (N = 2),
advanced students (N = 2), and experts (N = 2).
Key Findings:
Notable differences in concept maps and explanations between novices, advanced students, and experts.
Novice students tended to categorize difficult concepts, hindering their cognitive processes.
Novices called for more practice, indicating a lack of operational understanding.

Study III:

Description: Explores the connections between earlier high school mathematics achievement, success in university
statistics courses, and difficulties experienced in quantitative methods courses.
Key Findings:
Almost no correlation found between difficulties experienced and achievement.
High school mathematics achievement correlated with statistics grades but not quantitative methods course grades.
Difficulties experienced were not necessarily related to achievement.

Study IV:
Description: Investigates university social science and education students' views of research methodology, with a focus on
whether negative attitudes exist toward quantitative methods.
Key Findings:
Finnish students had a more positive orientation toward qualitative than quantitative methods.
Some students exhibited a negative research orientation toward quantitative methods.
Difficulties in learning quantitative methods were associated with qualitative over-appreciation.
Study V:

Description: Explores students' views on the relevance of research skills in their future careers and their learning
approaches, situational orientations, and difficulties experienced in a research methodology course.
Key Findings:
Students who believed research skills would be important in their future work had more task-oriented approaches to
learning and fewer difficulties in the methodology course.
Experiences in learning and orientations were related to future work expectations.
These studies collectively provide insights into the challenges students face in quantitative research methodology
courses, their content knowledge, attitudes, and motivations. They suggest that addressing these difficulties and
improving students' orientations during formal education could better prepare them for their future careers.

5. MAIN FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION

1. Difficulties and Negative Attitudes: The studies discussed in the overview consistently reveal that students face
difficulties and harbor negative attitudes toward quantitative methods and mathematics. Quantitative methods
were often perceived as more challenging compared to other academic subjects.

2. Sources of Difficulties: The reasons behind these difficulties are multifaceted. They can be attributed to students'
interest, abilities, teaching methods, and course arrangements. Some students cited problems with teaching as
the primary cause of their difficulties, while others attributed it to attitudinal issues.

3. Conceptions of Research: The overview suggests that students may develop specific conceptions of research
methods, much like scholars in behavioral and social sciences often categorize themselves into qualitative and
quantitative camps. These conceptions may guide their research orientations and preferences.

4. Research Orientations: Students were found to have different research orientations, which combine their views,
appreciation, and readiness to use certain research methods. Some students displayed a qualitative research
orientation, preferring qualitative methods over quantitative ones. This orientation could be linked to difficulties in
learning quantitative methods or a lower appreciation of empirical methods.

5. Anxiety and Difficulties: The studies emphasize the prevalence of difficulties in learning quantitative methods.
While students may report difficulties, these difficulties do not always manifest in lower course grades. This
suggests that some students may develop coping strategies to excel in their courses despite their anxieties.

6. Impact on Future Work: The overview underscores that students' difficulties and attitudes toward research
methods may have long-term consequences. Students who face difficulties and have negative attitudes may be
less confident about their need for research skills in their future careers. This could affect their ability and
willingness to address problems requiring research skills and statistical understanding in their future work.

7. Interconnected Factors: Learning approaches, situational orientations, difficulties experienced, and perceptions of
future work are interconnected. Students with difficulties tend to be less certain about the importance of research
skills in their future careers, creating a complex web of factors that influence their professional trajectories.

8. Teaching Implications: Given the findings, the overview suggests that it is crucial to address students' difficulties
and negative attitudes during research teaching. By doing so, educators can better prepare students for their
future careers and enhance their abilities to tackle research-related challenges.
 9. In summary, these studies shed light on the challenges students face in learning research methods, particularly
quantitative ones, and highlight the importance of addressing these challenges to better prepare students for their
future roles in research and professional settings.

5.1. Limitations of the study

1. Complex Constructs: The author highlights that terms like "quantitative," "empirical," and "statistics" can be
complex and may have different meanings for different individuals. These terms can be interpreted in various
ways, and if students do not share the same conceptions as the researcher, it can impact the validity and
reliability of measurements.

2. Vagueness of Constructs: The author references research in the field of statistics education, where constructs like
"attitudes toward statistics" or "statistics anxiety" have been considered vague. There has been a lack of clear
theoretical models to explain the relationships between these constructs and other variables, as well as a
perception that the instruments used to measure these constructs are immature and inadequate.

3. Measurement Validity: The author questions whether the measurement instruments used in the study effectively
captured what they aimed to measure. For example, in Study III, there was no correlation found between
difficulties experienced and study success. This raises questions about whether the questionnaire accurately
measured the real difficulties experienced by students or if course tests were failing to assess students' actual
knowledge.

4. Highly Selected Participants: The author acknowledges that the participants in the studies may have influenced
the results. In the case of the US sample, students were selected from one of the highest-ranked universities, and
the study focused on a single course group. This could potentially lead to different responses and experiences
compared to a more diverse sample of students.

5. Small Sample Sizes: In some studies, particularly those conducted in Finnish universities, the sample sizes were
small due to limited course sizes. While the results from these samples can be insightful, generalizations may be
limited.

6. Social Desirability Bias: The author speculates that students in the US sample might produce more socially
desirable answers, which could affect their reporting of experiencing difficulties. Social desirability bias occurs
when respondents provide answers they believe are more socially acceptable or favorable, rather than expressing
their true feelings or experiences.

7. In summary, the challenges and limitations discussed by the author emphasize the complexity of measuring
beliefs, conceptions, and attitudes in the context of learning quantitative research methods. These challenges
highlight the need for careful consideration of the wording and interpretation of survey questions, as well as the
potential influence of participant characteristics on research outcomes. Researchers should be aware of these
limitations when designing and conducting studies in this field.
5.2 General discussion and challenges for future studies

1. Increasing Importance of Research: The text emphasizes that research is becoming increasingly important in
modern society, with growing numbers of doctoral students and the widespread utilization of research results
across various fields.

2. Lack of Research on Learning and Teaching: Despite the growing significance of research, there is a surprising
lack of studies focusing on the learning and teaching of research methods. This gap is concerning given that
many university students encounter difficulties in this area.

3. Impact of Difficulties on Motivation: Students who experience difficulties in learning research methods tend to
have lower motivation for research and do not see research skills as essential for their future careers. This
disconnect between learning and motivation is seen as alarming, as research skills are crucial in various
professions.

4. High Percentage of Students Facing Difficulties: The text highlights that over half of Finnish students reported
difficulties in learning quantitative methods. This underscores the need for national-level considerations to
address these challenges.

5. Impact of Methodological Division: The division of research into qualitative and quantitative paradigms in
behavioral and social sciences may contribute to students' negative views of quantitative methods. The text
suggests further exploration of this impact on students' perceptions.

6. Teaching Approaches: The text discusses the importance of teaching approaches in reducing students' difficulties
in quantitative methods courses. Problem-based and collaborative learning environments are recommended to
improve students' perceptions of research methods.

7. Curriculum Considerations: The text raises questions about the curriculum's content and whether research
courses are too packed with different methods. It suggests focusing on a deeper understanding of selected
methods rather than introducing a wide range of them.

8. Teachers' Anxieties: Teachers' anxieties about teaching research methods are briefly mentioned. It is important for
instructors to address their concerns and create a supportive learning environment.

9. Emphasizing Relevance: To make research methods more approachable, teachers should emphasize the
relevance of research skills to students' future careers and real-world applications.

10. Need for a New Learning Theory: The text introduces the concept of "personal categories" as a theory to explain
how individuals categorize knowledge based on their own experiences and emotions. This theory combines
cognitive and emotional aspects of learning.

11. Threshold Concepts: The theory of "threshold concepts" is briefly mentioned as a potential framework for
understanding the challenges students face in learning research methods.

12. Importance of Troublesome Knowledge: The text acknowledges the concept of "troublesome knowledge," which
refers to knowledge that is problematic for learners. Identifying threshold concepts and troublesome knowledge in
research methods is crucial for effective teaching.

13. Link Between Future Career and Learning: A strong link is established between students' perceptions of the
importance of research skills in their future careers and their difficulties in learning research methods. Addressing
these perceptions can be crucial in improving the learning experience.
 14. In summary, the text highlights the critical need for research and initiatives to improve the learning and teaching of
research methods, particularly quantitative methods. It stresses the importance of addressing students' difficulties,
anxieties, and perceptions to create a more supportive and effective learning environment in this domain.

5.3 Practical implications for instruction

1. Diversity in Student Knowledge: Students in university research courses come with varying levels of prior
knowledge and experience in research. Some students excel, while many others struggle.

2. Motivation as a Solution: According to Nicholls (1983), continuous assessment of every student's understanding is
resource-intensive. Instead, if teachers can motivate students effectively, many educational problems may resolve
themselves. Motivated students are more likely to select appropriate materials and engage with them effectively.

3. Early Exposure to Complexity: Lehtinen (2002) suggests that students should confront the structural complexity of
research tasks from the beginning of their academic careers. This early exposure can help them develop flexible
and complex knowledge structures.

4. Linking Methods to Real Research: Teaching methods should be closely linked to real research problems and
practices. Using real data and connecting research methods courses to other subjects or real-life scenarios can
improve students' understanding and appreciation of research methods.

5. Reconsidering Mathematics and Statistics: The connection between mathematics and statistics should be
reevaluated in terms of effective teaching methods. Emphasizing the historical and cultural aspects of quantitative
methods can enhance students' comprehension.

6. Need for Open-Minded Research Instruction: Research instruction should adopt a wide and open-minded
approach to both qualitative and quantitative methods, acknowledging their importance in different contexts.

7. Principles for Effective Instruction: The passage suggests several principles for effective research instruction,
including setting clear course goals, using real data, ensuring students are familiar with relevant vocabulary,
promoting understanding of analyses and interpretation of results, building students' readiness to use research
methods, adopting a problem-based approach, and encouraging discussions about the difficulties in learning
research methods.

8. Emphasizing Cognitive and Emotional Aspects: Gal, Ginsburg, and Schau (1997) emphasize the importance of
creating an emotionally and cognitively supportive atmosphere in which students feel safe to explore,
hypothesize, and experiment with applying research tools and methods. This approach helps students gain
confidence and motivation in tackling research problems.

9. Computer-Based Learning Environments: Computer-based learning environments can provide tools for
presenting information in various forms and offering assignments on multiple levels. These environments can
facilitate problem-based learning and help students develop complex problem-solving skills.

10. Integration of Qualitative and Quantitative Methods: The division between qualitative and quantitative methods
should be reconsidered. Teaching both paradigms together or within a mixed methodological framework can help
students see the similarities, differences, and potential applications of each approach.

11. Mixed Methods Approach: The mixed methods research approach, which combines qualitative and quantitative
methods, can be introduced to students. This approach can show the utility of both paradigms in the same
research settings.

12. Eliminating Statistics Courses: Some suggest eliminating standalone statistics courses and replacing them with
research methodology courses that teach both techniques within a mixed methodological framework. This
approach can help students see the connections between research and data analysis.
 13. In summary, the passage emphasizes the importance of motivation, real-world applications, and open-
mindedness in research instruction. It also highlights the potential benefits of computer-based learning
environments and integrating qualitative and quantitative methods in research courses. These strategies aim to
make research methods more accessible and engaging for students.

5.4. Epilogue

1. Educational Goal: The ultimate goal of university research education is to equip students with the skills to
understand and conduct research, starting with a research question rather than forcing them to choose between
qualitative or quantitative research paradigms. The aim is to foster an open-minded approach to research without
rigid divisions.

2. Preparing Better Minds: The passage emphasizes the importance of educating a significant portion of students to
appreciate imaginative experiences in both arts and science, understand applied science, recognize and address
the suffering of fellow humans, and accept the responsibilities that come with knowledge.

3. Dealing with Student Challenges: The text offers advice to teachers when dealing with students who may struggle
to grasp research concepts:

4. Documenting success with students can provide encouragement and a sense of achievement.
5. Seeking support and ideas from colleagues can be beneficial in handling challenging situations.
6. Staying involved in research practices can help instructors remain current and effective in teaching.
7. Maintaining a sense of humor can be a valuable coping mechanism when faced with students' misunderstandings
and unconventional ideas.
8. Student Misunderstandings: The passage provides an amusing example of a student's complete
misunderstanding of empirical data in research. It highlights how some students might mystify research and not
comprehend their role in the research process.

9. Making Research More Accessible: The text suggests that research and statistics education can be made more
interesting and accessible by demystifying these subjects and helping students believe that they can learn and
apply research methods effectively. This can be achieved by connecting course content to real research and
emphasizing not only the production of results but also the understanding and application of existing research.

10. Overall, the passage underscores the importance of preparing students for a broad understanding of research,
breaking down divisions between qualitative and quantitative approaches, and providing support and
encouragement to both students and educators in the pursuit of effective research education.