BIOLOGY FOR ENGINEERS (21BE45)

Module 3

HUMAN ORGAN SYSTEMS AND BIO DESIGNS – II

Syllabus:
Lungs as purification system (architecture, gas exchange mechanisms, spirometry, abnormal lung physiology -
COPD, Ventilators, Heart-lung machine).Kidney as a filtration system (architecture, mechanism of filtration,
CKD, dialysis systems).Muscular and Skeletal Systems as scaffolds (architecture, mechanisms, bioengineering
solutions for muscular dystrophy and osteoporosis).

LUNGS AS PURIFICATION SYSTEM

Architecture of Lungs

The lungs are essential organs in the respiratory system, responsible for the exchange of oxygen and carbon
dioxide between the air we breathe and our bloodstream. They have a complex structure designed to facilitate
efficient gas exchange. The lungs are divided into two main sections, the right lung, and the left lung. Each lung
is further divided into lobes (three lobes in the right lung and two lobes in the left lung).

The architecture of the lungs,

(i) Bronchial Tree:

The bronchial tree refers to the branching network of airways that deliver air into the lungs. It starts with
the trachea (windpipe), which bifurcates into two main bronchi (right and left) at the carina (a cartilaginous
ridge at the base of the trachea). The main bronchi further divide into smaller bronchi, and these branch into
even smaller tubes known as bronchioles.
(ii) Alveoli:
At the end of the bronchioles are tiny, grape-like structures called alveoli, which are the primary sites for
gas exchange in the lungs. The walls of the alveoli are very thin, allowing for the diffusion of gases between the
air in the alveoli and the blood capillaries that surround them.
(iii) Capillaries:
Capillaries are where oxygen from the inhaled air diffuses into the bloodstream, and carbon dioxide
from the bloodstream diffuses into the alveoli to be exhaled.
(iv) Surfactant:
The alveoli are lined with a substance called surfactant, which helps reduce surface tension and prevents the
alveoli from collapsing during exhalation.
(v) Pleura:
The lungs are enclosed by a double-layered membrane called the pleura. The pleura provide lubrication between
the lung surfaces and chest wall, allowing smooth movement during breathing.

Overall, the complex architecture of the lungs ensures efficient and continuous gas exchange, providing
the body with the oxygen it needs for cellular respiration and removing carbon dioxide waste.

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Gas exchange mechanisms

Gas exchange in the lungs is a vital process that involves the exchange of oxygen (O2) and
carbon dioxide (CO2) between the air in the alveoli (tiny air sacs in the lungs) and the blood in
the capillaries surrounding them. This process is essential for maintaining the body's oxygen
supply and removing carbon dioxide, a waste product of cellular respiration. The main
mechanisms involved in gas exchange in the lungs,

Oxygen Diffusion: When you breathe in, fresh air containing a higher concentration of oxygen
enters the alveoli. Oxygen molecules diffuse across the thin walls of the alveoli and into the
adjacent capillaries, where they bind to hemoglobin in red blood cells. Hemoglobin is a protein
that carries oxygen in the blood.

Carbon Dioxide Diffusion: Carbon dioxide diffuses from the tissues into the systemic capillaries,
where it binds to hemoglobin or dissolves in the plasma to be transported back to the lungs. At
the same time, carbon dioxide, which is produced as a waste product of cellular metabolism,
diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli. From there, it is expelled from the body during
exhalation.

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Spirometry
Spirometry is a common pulmonary function test used to measure lung function. It involves a device called a
spirometer, which consists of several essential parts. Here are the main components of a spirometer

(i) Flow Sensor: The flow sensor is a crucial part of the spirometer that measures the volume of air
passing through it.
(ii) Volume Transducer: The volume transducer measures the volume of air inhaled and exhaled by the
patient during the spirometry test.
(iii) Mouthpiece: The mouthpiece is a disposable component through which the patient breathes during
the spirometry test. It ensures a proper seal to prevent air leakage and ensures that all the inhaled and
exhaled air goes through the flow sensor.
(iv) Display and Control Panel: The display panel shows real-time data, such as flow rates, volumes,
and test progress. It also houses the necessary controls for the technician to start, stop, or repeat the
test as needed.
(v) Measurement: FEV stands for "Forced Expiratory Volume." It is a measure used in pulmonary
function testing to assess the amount of air a person can forcefully exhale from their lungs during a
specific time interval. The FEV1 stands for Forced Expiratory Volume in one second hence
FEV1/FVC Ratio (FEV1%) parameter is calculated by dividing the measured FEV1 value by the
measured FVC value.Percentages lower than 70% are considered abnormal. This is an important
measurement because obstructive diseases such as COPD, chronic bronchitis etc.

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Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)

COPD is a chronic inflammatory lung disease that causes obstructed airflow from the lungs.

• Symptoms include breathing difficulty, cough, mucus (sputum) production, and wheezing. It's typically
caused by long-term exposure to irritating gases or particulate matter, most often from cigarette smoke.
People with COPD are at increased risk of developing heart disease, lung cancer, and a variety of other
conditions.

Emphysema and chronic bronchitis are the two most common conditions that contribute to COPD. These two
conditions usually occur together and can vary in severity among individuals with COPD.

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Signs and symptoms of COPD may include:

• Shortness of breath, especially during physical activities

• Wheezing

• Chest tightness

• A chronic cough that may produce mucus (sputum) that

may be clear, white, yellow, or greenish

• Frequent respiratory infections

• Lack of energy

• Unintended weight loss (in later stages)

• Swelling in ankles, feet, or legs

Ventilator
Ventilator is a device used to deliver a controlled amount of air and oxygen to the patient's lungs, and remove
carbon dioxide from the body. Ventilators can be used in two main modes: Invasive ventilation and Non-
invasive ventilation.

(i) Invasive Ventilation: In this mode, a tube called an endotracheal tube is inserted into the patient's
windpipe through their mouth or nose, and it is connected to the ventilator. The machine delivers
pressurized air and oxygen directly to the lungs. This method is commonly used for patients who
cannot breathe adequately on their own or require more aggressive respiratory support.

(ii) Non-invasive Ventilation: In non-invasive ventilation, the patient does not require an endotracheal
tube. Instead, a mask or a nasal device is used to deliver the air and oxygen. Non-invasive ventilation

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is often used for patients with less severe respiratory issues or those who can still maintain some
level of breathing function on their own.

Heart Lung Machine

A heart-lung machine is an apparatus that does the work both of the heart (i.e., pumps blood) and the lungs (i.e.,
oxygenates the blood) during, for example, open-heart surgery The basic function of the machine is to
oxygenate the body's venous supply of blood and then to pump it back into the arterial system.

Diagram of a cardiopulmonary bypass circuit.

A- Centrifugal pump, B- Reservoir and oxygenator, C- Solution, D- Intravenous bags, E- Heart–lung machine,
F- Cardioplegia heat exchanger, G- Manometer for the cardioplegia system, H- Cardioplegia solution

 Blood drains by gravity or with the use of gentle suction into the oxygenator venous reservoir labeled
(B).

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 (A) represents the arterial pump that pumps the blood from the venous reservoir (B) and delivers blood
to the membrane oxygenator which is attached to the lower part of the venous reservoir.
 Once oxygen, carbon dioxide, and heat exchange have occurred the blood is directed thru an arterial
blood filter (C).
 The oxygenated blood is introduced back into the patient’s circulatory system through cannulae (a large
tube connected to the circuit) placed in the ascending aorta. The line attached to intravenous bags
labeled (D) provides a method for priming the CPB circuit with electrolyte fluid or a port for adding
blood during bypass.
 Four roller pumps labeled (E) in the diagram are auxiliary.
 The one on the far left is used to pump a cardioplegia solution with a mixture of blood and additives,
labeled (H), and used to arrest the heart.
 This solution is cooled with a separate heat exchanger labeled (F).

KIDNEY AS FILTRATION SYSTEM

Kidneys remove wastes and extra fluid from the body. Kidneys also remove acid that is produced by the cells of
the body and maintain a healthy balance of water, salts, and minerals such as sodium, calcium, phosphorus, and
potassium in the blood.

Architecture:
• The kidneys are two bean-shaped organs, each about the size of a fist.
• They are located just below the rib cage, one on each side of the spine.
• Healthy kidneys filter about a half cup of blood every minute, removing wastes and extra water to make
urine.
• The urine flows from the kidneys to the bladder through two thin tubes of muscle called ureters, one on
each side of the bladder.
• The bladder stores urine.

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Mechanism of Filtration
Each kidney is made up of about a million filtering units called nephrons. Each nephron includes a filter,
called the glomerulus, and a tubule. The nephrons work through a two-step process: the glomerulus filters
blood, and the tubule returns needed substances to your blood and removes wastes. Each nephron has a
glomerulus to filter your blood and a tubule that returns needed substances to your blood and pulls out
additional wastes. Wastes and extra water become urine.

Blood flow through kidneys

Blood circulates through your kidneys many times a day. In a single day, kidneys filter about 150 quarts of
blood (150 quarts * 0.946353 liters/quart ≈ 142.45 liters). Most of the water and other substances that filter
through your glomeruli are returned to the blood by the tubules. Only 1 to 2 quarts become urine (1 quart of
blood is approximately equal to 0.946 liters).
When the kidney doesn't function properly, chronic kidney disease (CKD) occurs when a disease or condition
impairs kidney function, causing kidney damage to worsen over several months or years.

Chronic Kidney Disease (CKD)

Chronic kidney disease includes conditions that damage your kidneys and decrease their ability to keep you
healthy by filtering wastes from your blood. If kidney disease worsens, wastes can build to high levels in the
blood and make person to feel sick. The person may develop complications like

• high blood pressure

• anemia (low blood count)
• weak bones
• poor nutritional health
• nerve damage
Symptoms of CKD:
People with CKD may not feel ill or notice any symptoms. The only way to find out for sure if you have CKD
is through specific blood and urine tests. These tests include the measurement of both the creatinine level in the
blood and the protein in the urine.

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Treatment of CKD

Depending on the cause, some types of kidney disease can be treated. Often, though, chronic kidney disease has
no cure. Treatment usually consists of measures to help control signs and symptoms, reduce complications, and
slow the progression of the disease. If your kidneys become severely damaged, you might need treatment for
end-stage kidney disease.
Dialysis
Dialysis is a procedure to remove waste products and excess fluid from the blood when the kidneys stop
working properly. It often involves diverting blood to a machine to be cleaned.
There are 2 main types of dialysis:
(i) Haemodialysis involves diverting blood into an external machine, where it's filtered before being
returned to the body.

(ii) Peritoneal dialysis involves pumping dialysis fluid into the space inside your abdomen (tummy) to
draw out waste products from the blood passing through vessels lining the inside of the abdomen.

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MUSCULAR AND SKELETAL SYSTEM AS SCAFFOLDS

Architecture
The musculoskeletal system (locomotor system) is a human body system that provides our body with
movement, stability, shape, and support. It is subdivided into two broad systems,
Muscular system:
This includes all types of muscles in the body. Skeletal muscles, in particular, are the ones that act on the
body joints to produce movements. Besides muscles, the muscular system contains the tendons which attach the
muscles to the bones.
Skeletal system:
Bones are the main components of the skeletal system. They are rigid, hard connective tissues that form
the framework of the body. Bones come in various shapes and sizes and have a complex internal structure. They
provide mechanical support and protect internal organs from injury. The bones are connected to each other by
the means of articular cartilage, ligaments, and bursa.

Mechanism
The nervous system (brain and nerves) sends a message to activate the skeletal (voluntary) muscles. The
muscle fibers contract (tense up) in response to the message. When the muscle activates or bunches up, it pulls

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on the tendon. Tendons attach muscles to bones. The tendon pulls the bone, making it move. To relax the
muscle, your nervous system sends another message. It triggers the muscles to relax or deactivate. The relaxed
muscle releases tension, moving the bone to a resting position.

Bio-Engineering Solutions for Muscular Dystrophy and Osteoporosis

Bio-engineering has the potential to revolutionize medical treatments for various conditions, including muscular
dystrophy and osteoporosis.
Muscular Dystrophy:
Muscular dystrophy refers to a group of genetic disorders that cause progressive weakness and degeneration of
muscle fibers. Bio-engineering solutions for muscular dystrophy could focus on several approaches:
a. Gene Therapy: Gene therapy involves introducing healthy genes into the body to replace or supplement the
faulty genes causing the disease. In the case of muscular dystrophy, scientists could use viral vectors to deliver
the correct version of the gene responsible for muscle function to affected cells, potentially slowing down or
halting the progression of the disease.
b. Stem Cell Therapy: Stem cell therapy involves using stem cells, which have the ability to differentiate into
various cell types, to repair and regenerate damaged muscle tissue. Scientists could use techniques to
differentiate stem cells into muscle cells and then transplant them into affected muscles, promoting muscle
repair and strength.
c. Exoskeletons and Assistive Devices: Bio-engineering solutions may also involve the development of
advanced exoskeletons or wearable assistive devices. These devices can support weakened muscles, improve
mobility, and enhance the quality of life for individuals with muscular dystrophy.

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Osteoporosis:
Osteoporosis is a condition characterized by decreased bone density and increased risk of fractures. Bio-
engineering solutions for the osteoporosis,
a. 3D-Printed Bone Scaffolds: Bio-engineers can use 3D printing technology to create custom bone scaffolds
that mimic the natural structure of bones. These scaffolds can be infused with growth factors or stem cells to
promote bone growth and repair in individuals with osteoporosis.
b. Drug Delivery Systems: Bio-engineering approaches can be employed to design targeted drug delivery
systems that deliver osteoporosis medications directly to the affected bones, increasing the effectiveness of
treatment while minimizing side effects.
c. Bone-Targeted Therapies: Scientists can develop therapies that specifically target the cells responsible for
bone remodeling. By regulating the activity of these cells, it may be possible to maintain bone density and
reduce the risk of fractures.
d. Biomechanical Engineering: Bio-engineers can work on improving assistive devices and tools that help
individuals with osteoporosis maintain bone health. This could include innovative exercise equipment, mobility
aids, and ergonomically designed tools to reduce the risk of falls and fractures.

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