CME340 CAD/CAM

UNIT – I BASICS OF DESIGNS 9

Understanding of Projections, Scales, units, GD & T; its 14 symbols, Special
characteristics & Title Block readings. Revision / ECN status of drawings –
Customer Specific requirements – Drawing Grid reading

UNIT – II 2D DRAFTING 9
Projection views – Orthographic view, Axillary view, Full & Half Section
views, Broken Section view, Offset Section view – Title Block creation – BOM
Creation – Notes creation – Ballooning of 2D drawing and its features for
Inspection reporting

UNIT – III 3D MODELING 9

Conversion of Views – 2D to 3D & 3D to 2D – Parametric and Non-
Parametric Modeling – Tree features of 3D Modeling and its advantages –
Surface Modeling – BIW (Body In White) – Solid Modeling, Boolean operations
like Unites, Subtraction, Intersect, etc.

UNIT – IV ASSEMBLY MODELING 9

Basics of Assembly modeling, Purpose of Assembly modeling & amp; its
advantages – Top to Down & BottomUp modeling approaches – Analysis
of Clearances – Undercuts – Interferences – Stack up analysis –Cumulative
effect of Tolerances in after assembly conditions.- motion analysis

UNIT – V CAM 9
Basics of CNC Machining – 3, 4 & 5 Axis machines - CNC and Part
Programing, CAM programing 2D & 3D. Elements of CAM Orientation,
Boundary Creation, Cutter Path Selection, Cutter Compensation –Machining
Stocks, Roughing, Re-roughing, Semi Finishing & Finishing - Tool Path
Generation, Isl and Milling Programing. Machining program simulation,
integration of program with machine; Estimation of CNC Cycle time. – Post
Process NC Code conversion and Setup Sheet Preparation.

TOTAL : 45 PERIODS
UNIT – I BASICS OF DESIGNS 9

Projections and Views

A three-dimensional object can be represented in a single plane, such
as on a sheet of paper, using projecting lines and planes. All projection
theory is based on two variables: line of sight (projecting lines) and plane of
projection.

A line of sight (LOS) is an imaginary line between an observer’s eye and

an object. A plane of projection (i.e., an image or picture plane) is an
imaginary flat plane upon which the image is projected. The projection is
produced by connecting the points where the lines of sight pierce the
projection plane. As a result, the 3D object is transformed into a 2D view.

If the distance from the observer to the object is infinite, then the projection
lines are assumed to be parallel, and the projection is called a parallel
projection. Parallel projection is orthographic if the plane of projection is
placed between the observer and the object, and the plane is perpendicular
to the parallel lines of sight.

You can use parallel projection technique to create both multiview and
pictorial (isometric and oblique) views.
 1. In multiview orthographic projection (see details below), the object
surface and the projection plane are parallel, and you can see only two
dimensions.
2. In isometric view (orthographic) the surface is no longer parallel to
the projection plane, but the latter is perpendicular to the lines of sight,
with three dimensions being seen.
3. In oblique projection (non-orthographic) the object surface and the
projection plane are also parallel, but the lines of sights are not
perpendicular to the projection plane, and you can see again three
dimensions.
If the distance from the observer to the object is finite, then the projection
lines are not parallel (since all lines of sight start at a single point), and the
drawing is classified as a perspective projection. In perspective view the
object surface and projection plane can be also parallel.

Multiview projection
By changing position of the object relative to the line of sight you can create
different views of the same object. Drawing more than one face of an object
by rotating the object relative to your line of sight helps in understanding
the 3D form. Having several views on one drawing you use the concept
of multi-view projection, which is based on the orthographic (parallel)
projection technique where

 the plane of projection is positioned between the observer and the

object,
 the plane of projection is perpendicular to the parallel lines of sight,
and
 the object is oriented such that only two of its dimensions are shown.
Main principles of creating multiview projections
The plane of projection can be oriented to produce an infinite number of
views of an object. However, the most common views are the six mutually
perpendicular views that are produced by six mutually perpendicular
planes of projection:

 Front view – the one that shows most features or characteristics.

 Left side view – shows what becomes the left side of the object after
establishing the front view position.
  Right side view – shows what becomes the right side of the object
after establishing the front view position.
 Top view – shows what becomes the top of the object once the
position of the front view is established.
 Bottom view – shows what becomes the bottom of the object once the
position of the front view is established.
 Rear view – shows what becomes the rear of the object once the
position of the front view is established.
The most informative (descriptive) view of the object to be represented is
normally chosen as the principal view (front view). This is view A related
to the corresponding direction of viewing A and it usually shows the object
in the functioning, manufacturing, or mounting position.

Positions of the other views relative to the principal view in the drawing
depend on the projection method.

The number of views and sections must be limited to the minimum

necessary to fully represent the object without ambiguity.

Unnecessary repetition of details must be avoided.

SCALES
Scale in architecture refers to the ratio between a model of a building or
structure and the real-life version.

We use different architectural scales for various purposes, such as 1:50,

1:100, 1:200, and so on. So, what does the number on the left mean, and what is
the number on the right?

 The number on the left (1) represents the model size

 The number on the right (50, 100, 200, etc.) represents the size of the
real-life version.
Let’s take the 1:100 scale as an example.

The 1:100 scale means that 1 unit on the model represents 100 units in real
life.

For example, a room that is 1 inch on a 1:100 scale model would be 100
inches, or 8.3 feet, in real life. But I’m no fan of inches; show me something in
metric.

Using the metric system, 1 meter on a 1:100 scale is equivalent to 100 meters
in real life.

The 1:100 scale may not seem like a big difference, but in the real world, it
is.

When designing and planning large buildings or structures, it is essential to

have precise, detailed models and architectural drawings that allow us to
visualize the design. It is impossible to do so with real-world dimensions,
which is why scaling is crucial.

Advantages of Using a 1:100 Scale

 Better communication with clients: This level of detail is especially

vital when working with clients, as it helps facilitate better
communication and understanding of the project.
 Accuracy and detail: Scale makes it easy to imagine the building or
structure. Architects can use scaled models to see how the finished
building will look in real life, which can be especially helpful when
making design decisions.
 Save time and Money: Scale saves a great deal of time and money in
the long run, as architects can make changes to the model before
construction begins and anticipate and solve potential design
problems before they become actual problems.

GEOMETRIC DIMENSIONING AND TOLERANCING

(GD&T)
 Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing (GD&T) is a system of
symbols used on engineering drawings to communicate information
from the designer to the manufacturer through engineering
drawings.

 GD&T tells the manufacturer the degree of accuracy and precision

needed for each controlled feature of the part. GD&T is used to
define the nominal geometry of parts and assemblies and to define
the allowable variation of features.

 In GD&T (Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing), a feature

control frame is required to describe the conditions and tolerances of
a geometric control on a part's feature.
GD&T Symbols

GD&T is feature-based, with each feature specified by different controls.

GD&T symbols fall into five groups:

 Form controls specify the shape of features, including:

o Straightness is divided into line element straightness and axis
straightness.
o Flatness means straightness in multiple dimensions, measured
between the highest and lowest points on a surface.
o Circularity or roundness can be described as straightness bent
into a circle.
o Cylindricity is basically flatness bent into a barrel. It includes
straightness, roundness, and taper, which makes it expensive to
inspect.
 Profile controls describe the three-dimensional tolerance zone
around a surface:
o Line Profile compares a two-dimensional cross-section to an
ideal shape. The tolerance zone is defined by two offset curves
unless otherwise specified.
o Surface Profile creates through two offset surfaces between
which the feature surface must fall. This is a complex control
typically measured with a CMM.
 Orientation controls concern dimensions that vary at angles,
including:
o Angularity is flatness at an angle to a datum and is also
determined through two reference planes spaced the tolerance
value apart.
o Perpendicularity means flatness at 90 degrees to a datum. It
specifies two perfect planes the feature plane must lie in
between.
o Parallelism means straightness at a distance. Parallelism for axes
can be defined by defining a cylindrical tolerance zone by
placing a diameter symbol in front of the tolerance value.
 Location controls define feature locations using linear dimensions:
o Position is the location of features relative to one another or to
datums and is the most used control.
o Concentricity compares the location of a feature axis to the
datum axis.
 o Symmetry ensures that non-cylindrical parts are similar across a
datum plane. This is a complex control typically measured with
a CMM.
 Runout controls define the amount by which a particular feature can
vary with respect to the datums:
o Circular Runout is used when there is a need to account for
many different errors, such as ball-bearing mounted parts.
During inspection, the part is rotated on a spindle to measure
the variation or ‘wobble’ around the rotational axis.
o Total Runout is measured on multiple points of a surface, not
just describing the runout of a circular feature but of an entire
surface. This controls straightness, profile, angularity, and other
variations.

Feature Control Frames

The feature control frame includes four parts:

GD&T symbol/control symbol
 Tolerance zone type and dimensions
 Tolerance zone modifiers - such as features of size
 Datum references (if required by the GD&T Symbol)

Combined, the feature control frame provides all the information you need
to measure the geometric tolerance of the features of the part and
determine if the part is in spec.
LeaderArrow
This points to the feature that the geometric control is placed on. If the
arrow points to a diametric dimension, then the axis is controlled by
GD&T. If the arrow points to a surface, then the surface is controlled by
GD&T. The arrow is optional and may not be present on some drawings.

GeometricCharacteristicSymbol
This is where geometric control is specified. Download our free GD&T
Symbol Reference Guide and Font for more information.

Diameter Control / Cylindrical Tolerance Zone (if required)

If the geometric control is a diametrical tolerance then the diameter symbol
will be in front of the tolerance.

Tolerance
The numerical value defines the tolerance zone. The unit of measure is the
same for the whole drawing and will be defined in the title block.

ModifierfortheTolerance
This is max material condition or a projected tolerance in the feature
control frame. See the Modifiers section of the GD&T Symbols Guide for
more information on these features.

PrimaryDatum(ifrequired)
If a datum is required, this is the main datum used for GD&T. The letter
corresponds to a feature somewhere on the part which will be marked with
the same letter. This is the datum that must be constrained first when
measuring the part. The order of the datum is important for measurement
of the part. The primary datum is usually in 3 places to fix 3 degrees of
freedom.

SecondaryDatum (ifrequired)
When a secondary datum is required it will be to the right of the primary
datum in the feature control frame. Like the primary datum the letter
corresponds to a feature somewhere on the part which will be marked with
the same letter. During measurement this datum is fixated after the
primary datum.

TertiaryDatum(ifrequired)
When a tertiary datum is required it is to the right of the secondary datum
in the feature control frame. During measurement, this datum is fixated
last.

Limitations of Tolerancing before GD&T

 Before GD&T, manufacturing features were specified by X-Y areas.

For example, when drilling a mounting hole, the hole had to be
within a specified X-Y area.
 An accurate tolerancing specification, however, would define the
position of the hole in relation to the intended position, the accepted
area being a circle. X-Y tolerancing leaves a zone in which inspection
would have produced a false negative because while the hole is not
within the X-Y square, it would fall within the circumscribed circle.
 Stanley Parker, an engineer who was developing naval weapons
during World War II, noticed this failure in 1940. Driven by the need
for cost-effective manufacturing and meeting deadlines, he worked
out a new system through several publications. Once proven as a
better operational method, the new system became a military
standard in the 1950s.
 Currently, the GD&T standard is defined by the American Society of
Mechanical Engineers (ASME Y14.5-2018) for the USA and ISO 1101-
2017 for the rest of the world. It concerns mostly the overall geometry
of the product, while other standards describe specific features such
as surface roughness, texture, and screw threads.

SPECIAL CHARACTERISTICS (SC)

Special Characteristics (SC) are product features and/or process features

that may have an impact on functional safety (operational and use safety),
compliance with official regulations, function, performance, fit, appearance
or further processing of the product.
Through combined use in development, Special Characteristics helps to
ensure robust designs and controlled processes. Dealing with this is
particularly important in the automotive sector.

TITLE BLOCK

The title block found at the bottom right-hand corner of the drawing. There
are other information blocks like it, but the title block serves as the context
in which the drawing should be perceived.

The title block contains information such as:

 Name and address of the company or agency who prepared or owns

the drawing
 Part number and description
 Material
 Mass
 Finish
 General tolerances
 Projection details
 Scale used in the drawing
 Revision numbers
 Status of the drawing (Preliminary, Approved, etc.)
  Units used in the drawing

Note that any information in the notes outside the title block that conflicts
with the information in the title block should be considered as the right
information and supersede the title block information

Revision block

The revision block, located in the upper right hand corner, shows details
about the changes that were made to roll the revision. The Revision Block
includes the revision, the description of what changes were made, the date
of the revision, and approval of the revision.

Bill of Materials (BOM) Block

Located usually either just above the title block or in the upper left-hand
corner, the Bill of Materials block (also known as a BOM, Schedule or Parts
List) contains a list of all the items and quantities that are required for the
project or assembly. This is used for parts that either require assembly or
when hardware should be added to the part.
REVISION / ECN STATUS OF DRAWINGS

 An engineering change order (ECO) or an engineering change notice

(ECN) is a document that begins the process for making adaptations
or corrections during a product’s lifecycle. It plays a critical role in
engineering and product development.
 They say the only thing constant is change – and the manufacturing
process is no exception. Although equipment, standards, and
procedures take a good deal of planning to establish, they are not set
in stone. Machines and electrical components evolve as they move
towards newer models, while standards and procedures are
improving all the time.
 Rather than resist, organizations can benefit more from adapting to
change. In most cases, changes will need to undergo a thorough
review. This ensures that new parts or modifications are fit for
purpose, as well as compatible with existing components and
processes. These suitability assessments are executed through an
Engineering Change Notice (ECN) or Engineering Change Order
(ECO).
 An ECN or ECO documents the details about a process or system
change. They indicate the component or process that is being
modified, the cause of change, and a full description of the issue. It
lists components and processes that would be impacted, as well as
technical drawings and documents for reference. An ECN or ECO
also clearly shows the approvals obtained to carry out any further
action.

What are the steps of an engineering change process?

Organizations may have varying engineering change management
processes to suit their specific needs. However, the general steps will look
similar for the most part. Whatever the industry or the company is, change
processes generally require three types of documents – a request, an order,
and a notification. See the following steps showing how these documents
relate to each other:

1. Identify the problem and the scope

The process starts off by recognizing an issue that needs to undergo
change. Part of this stage also defines the extent of the change. A high-level
assessment of the number of affected parts and the corresponding amount
of work begins at this stage.
2. Create an Engineering Change Request (ECR)
An ECR is then raised to go into more detail about the proposal. This stage
prepares the information that would later equip stakeholders to make a
decision on whether to proceed or not.
This process explains the technical feasibility of replacement components
or process revisions. For example, when changing out a discontinued
model, differences in specifications are compared and any impacted
auxiliary parts are specified.
This stage also determines the costs and benefits of going through the
change. The resources required to implement new processes are listed,
while any associated risks are likewise identified

3. Review and approve the ECR

The ECR then proceeds to a review and approval process. It is sent out to a
committee that makes the “go” or “no-go” decision. As with most review
and approval processes, this stage is potentially iterative, with the final
request being modified as needed.

4. Create an Engineering Change Order (ECO)

Now that the ECR has been reviewed and approved, the ECO is then
created. If an ECR sums up the information required to guide approvals,
think of the ECO as the handbook to implement the changes.
The ECO provides all the information required to execute changes
effectively. Generally, this includes updated technical drawings, task lists,
and BOMs. The ECO would list out all equipment assemblies that are
impacted, as well as the relevant procedure manuals that are required to
execute any change tasks. By creating a methodical ECO, risks of miss-outs
can be avoided.

5. Review and approve the ECO

After completing the ECO, it then goes through another round of review
and approval. Given the possibly wide scope of work, approvals could
come from a number of different individuals with their own respective
areas of expertise. After the stakeholders have provided their endorsement,
senior management can finally sign off the overall approval.

6. Communicate the Engineering Change Notice (ECN) to relevant

groups
With the ECO reviewed and approved, a notification will then be sent out
to all relevant groups. The ECN provides details of the change approval
and steps that would shortly need to take place. It is important to ensure
that the ECN is communicated across all individuals who are affected by
the change.

7. Implement the required change

Now that the engineering change proposal has gone through the steps and
all relevant reviews and approvals, implementation can commence. Each
team is given their specific roles and responsibilities to implement the
required changes. At this point, the ECO and ECN become essential
documents to guide the execution of tasks.

Who creates Engineering Change Orders?

Anyone who identifies required changes to catalogued materials and has
access to the system is able to raise an ECO. The review and approval
process, however, is usually performed by a different individual.
Additional oversight allows for a more impartial check and balance system.

What are some types of changes that require ECOs?

First, you should identify the type of change. This information will equip
you to determine the level of review and approval that will go in the
process.
You can also associate the depth of assessment with the different types of
changes. Here are a few common examples:

1. Typographical changes
These types of changes are all about spelling corrections and typographical
errors. There are no physical changes that occur to any of the components,
and therefore no effect on the system’s form, fit, or function.

2. Alternative manufacturers
Sourcing from another manufacturer or supplier should not affect the
operation of existing equipment. These changes usually seek to improve
the procurement process by reducing lead times or costs. For this type, it is
important to ensure that only the source of supply changes, and not the
specifications of the part itself.

3. Obsolete component
As much as possible, replacing a manufacturer-discontinued part does not
intend to change the characteristics of existing components. However, since
an entirely new component is being introduced, more thorough
compatibility reviews are necessary.

4. Design changes and new models

These types of changes are usually identified as opportunities to improve
the current process. As a result of modifications to the form, fit, and
function of an existing system, these usually undergo more comprehensive
reviews.

What does a typical engineering change process diagram look like?

While we have previously mentioned the steps that a change
proposal goes through, we only focused on how a request reaches the
implementation stage. The reality is that a lot more activity happens in the
background after generating an ECN.
Implementation tasks, for example, can be allocated to a number of
groups and individuals. This becomes complicated to track given that each
task needs to be reviewed for completion and updated accordingly. Assets
will need to be updated in a CMMS, along with any other maintenance
work associated with the change management.

A typical ECO process for existing equipment within the plant may
resemble the following diagram:
What are the signs of an ECN/ECO bottleneck?
A process “bottleneck” is regarded as an activity that contributes most to
the lead time of a particular operation. In other words, bottlenecks are
constraints within a process that cause delays. Change management
processes can take a lot of time and effort to complete. For that reason,
organizations need to be aware if their queues are getting out of hand.
When overlooked, delayed ECN/ECO implementation can cause
devastating blows to production and safety objectives.
Here are some signs that your ECN/ECO queue is causing constraints to
the rest of your operations:

1. Redundant information flows

The request and implementation of any change are only as good as the
information available. If you are receiving multiple requests, and seeing a
lot of double-ups, then you might be wasting a lot of your resources. Have
a clear way of receiving information that you can align with your
departments.

2. Disorganized ECO information

Continuing from our first point, it doesn’t help to carry out ECOs if your
supporting documents are unavailable. Use your CMMS as a repository of
technical documents, drawings, and manuals.

3. Poor accountability of Engineering Change Order tasks

A well-written document can only be useful to the organization if executed
well. One of the pitfalls of ECO implementation is when roles and
accountabilities are not clearly stated. For change management success,
each group must know their contribution to the collective effort.

4. Delayed resolution due to unnecessary and/or manual coordination

Change processes typically affect a number of teams and departments.
Without clear communication lines across the organization comes a higher
likelihood of unnecessary coordination between working groups. A more
efficient practice is to communicate through a system by which teams can
read and update each other’s progress in real-time. Harnessing tools
like CMMS software helps facilitate group collaboration.

5. Inefficient handling of paper documents

As we all have experienced, going digital cuts manual processing by a
considerable amount. In a time when even maintenance software is
available on mobile devices, choosing to work with a literal paper trail
becomes harder to justify.

What are the Four Principles of ECO Management?

Engineering change order presents a real opportunity to improve existing
processes and procedures. The downside is that there are certain costs to
implement changes properly. The idea is to minimize the negative effects
of an ECO and highlight its benefits.

1. Avoid unnecessary changes

New products can easily look very promising at first. Who wouldn’t want
a fresh set of components with promises of higher production efficiencies?
The harsh reality is that needlessly moving to new products can actually
cause more harm than good. Cost savings from new developments might
not outweigh the costs of retooling investment and compatibility
adjustments.
Some key points to consider when evaluating the need for change are the
return on investment and the urgency of the requirement. For a new
product development that pays back within a year, for example, then
financial risks might actually be low enough to consider pursuing. As for
urgency, assess whether the change merely fine-tunes your current
processes or significantly impacts your key operating procedures.

2. Reduce the impact of change

The second principle leans more towards accepting that change is
inevitable. The next best thing is then to reduce the impact of change.
Imagine a system of components that are interdependent with each other.
If one of the components becomes obsolete and is replaced with a new part,
will the system still be operational? How many other components will you
need to change out because of that one part that changed? This example
illustrates that the impact of change can be addressed at the design level of
the whole system. If the sub-assemblies of your overall system are more
modular in design, then you are setting yourself up to reduce the impact of
change. You want your overall system to comprise of self-contained groups
that are to some extent independent of adjacent subsystems.

3. Detect Engineering Change Orders early

The longer ECOs are pushed back and delayed, the harder they are to
accomplish. By continuing to run a suboptimal process, you are less likely
to reverse the negative effects on your equipment and operations. It helps
to detect ECOs early and to implement the necessary changes before any
further damage is done.
A variation of this principle is done using simulation technology to
replicate the effects of long-term operations. By combining simulations of
usage patterns and the analysis of potential failure modes, the right smarts
can be applied to get ahead of change requirements.

4. Speed up the Engineering Change Order process

The previous principles were focusing on the design and engineering
aspects of ECOs. The last principle is a bit different, as it focuses more on
the importance of enforcing the process.
ECOs are vulnerable to administrative delays, as are most processes. The
actual time it takes to complete a change order will unsurprisingly be
longer than the actual working hours that have been spent to execute
related tasks. Sources of delay should be identified and minimized,
particularly nonessentials such as waiting time, idle time, and time spent
on redundant activities.

How can automation help the ECN/ECO process?

A sizable portion of issues when implementing an ECN/ECO process is
related to the way requests flow from one stakeholder to another. To name
a few - communication between stakeholders, visibility of progress,
availability of information, and accuracy of the data. All of these points,
and more, can effectively be addressed by automating the
process wherever applicable.
For example, any process that requires the input of a person is subject to
the risk of human error. Anything from typographical errors to miss-outs
can easily be attributed to manual updating. By automating parts of the
process, such as work flow generation, tasks can be programmed to go
through all the required steps as designed. Also, since all the information is
available on the system, transparency on the progress of tasks can be easily
achieved.

Drawing Grid Reading:

Drawing with a grid is a great way to learn how to capture objects, scenes,
and all sorts of subject matter in an accurate way. Sometimes our
observational skills can play tricks on us and we can easily distort what we
see by what we think we see. Grid-method art teaches you how to refine
your observational skills, giving you insight into having an accurate
perspective on describing the subject matter within your artwork. Using a
grid for drawing also provides you with a lot of possibilities, as you have
to worry less about drawing a whole object perfectly and can focus easily
on smaller details incrementally. Drawing with a grid is a great way to
accurately depict subject matter and can be applied to all sorts of subject
matter.