COORDINATION

AND CONTROL
Sub-topics of Coordination and Control

2
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

◉ (a) State that the nervous system coordinates

and regulates the body functions
◉ (b) Describe the mammalian nervous system
◉ (c) Identify sensory, relay and motor neurons

3
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

◉ (g) Describe a synapse

◉ (h) Describe the structure of a synapse
◉ (i) Describe the events at a synapse
◉ (j) State that synapse can only move in one
direction

4
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

◉ (a) Describe sense organs

◉ (b) Identify the structures of the eye
◉ (c) Describe the functions of structures of the
eye
◉ (d) Explain pupil reflex
◉ (e) Explain accomodation
5
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

◉ (a) Describe hormones

◉ (b) Identify endocrine glands
◉ (c) Understand the role of hormone adrenaline
◉ (d) Compare nervous and hormonal control

6
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

◉ (a) Describe homeostasis

◉ (b) Explain the concept of control by negative
feedback

7
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

◉ (a) Identify the structure of skin

◉ (b) Describe the role of insulation
◉ (c) Describe the role of hypothalamus and
temperature receptors
◉ (d) Explain the processes to maintain constant
body temperature in mammals
8
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

◉ (a) Explain the importance of blood glucose

concentration
◉ (b) Describe the control of blood glucose
concentration
◉ (c) Describe the signs of type 1 diabetes
◉ (d) Describe the treatment of type 1 diabetes

9
 Mammalian
14.1 nervous system
Brain, spinal cord and nerves

10
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

◉ (a) State that the nervous system coordinates

and regulates the body functions
◉ (b) Describe the mammalian nervous system
◉ (c) Identify sensory, relay and motor neurons

11
 NERVOUS SYSTEM

◉ Made up of 2 systems:

◉ Central Nervous System (CNS)

◉ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

12
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

◉ Made up of:

◉ Brain
◉ Spinal Cord

13
 BRAIN

Pituitary gland

14
BRAIN

15
 CEREBRUM

◉ Consists of 2 halves – CEREBRAL

HEMISPHERE

◉ Functions:
1. Coordination of organs of the body
2. Control of voluntary action
3. Reception of sensation

16
17
 CEREBELLUM

◉ Function:

◉ Region of balance and instinct

18
 MEDULLA

◉ Joins the brain and the spinal cord

◉ Function:
○ Control unconscious activities such as
heartbeat, peristalsis and breathing

19
 HYPOTHALAMUS

◉ Function:
○ Monitor changes particularly
in the blood
○ Especially in body
temperature regulation
○ “Homeostat of the body”

20
 PITUITARY GLAND

◉ Found beneath the hypothalamus

◉ Function:
○ Manufacture hormones and release them into
the blood
◉ The hormones control activity of many glands
and organs throughout the body
◉ “Master gland”
◉ Usually instructed by hypothalamus
21
 SPINAL CORD

◉ Function:
◉ Can receive and transmit
impulses to bring about rapid,
often protective response called
REFLEX ACTION

22
 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

◉ Made up of:

◉ Neurones all throughout the body

23
 NERVES

◉ Contains large number of neurons

24
 NERVOUS SYSTEM

◉ Made up of 2 systems:

◉ Central Nervous System (CNS)

◉ Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

25
 CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

◉ Made up of:

◉ Brain
◉ Spinal Cord

26
 PERIPHERAL NERVOUS SYSTEM

◉ Made up of:

◉ Cranial nerves (from the brain)

◉ Spinal nerves (from the spinal cord)
◉ Sense organs

27
 NERVES

◉ Contains large number of neurons

28
TYPES OF NEURONES

◉ There are three types of

neurons:

1. Sensory neurone
2. Relay neurone
3. Motor neurone

29
30
TYPES OF NEURONES

◉ SENSORY NEURONE

◉ Transmit nerve impulses

from the sense organs or
receptor
◉ To the central nervous
system
31
TYPES OF NEURONES

◉ RELAY NEURONE

◉ Transmit nerve impulses

from the sensory neurone to
the motor neurone

◉ Found in the CNS

32
TYPES OF NEURONES

◉ MOTOR NEURONE

◉ Transmit nerve impulses

from CNS to the effectors

33
34
STRUCTURE OF NEURONES:
sensory neurones

Direction of travel of nerve impulses

35
STRUCTURE OF NEURONES:
motor neurone

Direction of travel of nerve impulses 36

 STRUCTURE OF NEURONES:
motor neurone

◉ CELL BODY

◉ Contains nucleus, cytoplasm,

cell surface membrane and
organelles

Direction of travel of nerve impulses

37
 STRUCTURE OF NEURONES:
motor neurones

◉ Dendron / dendrites

◉ Transmit nerve impulses

towards the cell body
◉ Receives nerve impulses from
other neurones

Direction of travel of nerve impulses

38
 STRUCTURE OF NEURONES:
motor neurones

AXON

◉ Transmit nerve impulses

away from cell body

Direction of travel of nerve impulses

39
 STRUCTURE OF NEURONES:
motor neurones

MYELIN SHEATH

◉ The layer of fatty substances

enclosing the nerve fibres

◉ Function: insulates the axon, just

like a rubber sheath would insulate
an electric conducting wire
Direction of travel of nerve impulses
40
41
 STRUCTURE OF NEURONES:
motor neurones
NODE OF RANVIER

◉ The region where there is no myelin

sheath

◉ Nerve impulses cannot travel

through myelin sheath, therefore
they would “jump” from one node
of ranvier to the next. – SPEEDS UP
Direction of travel of nerve impulses
TRANSMISSION OF NERVE
IMPULSES 42
43
 STRUCTURE OF NEURONES:
motor neurones AXON TERMINAL

◉ Transmit nerve impulse to the next

neurons

◉ In the case of motor neuron,

transmit nerve impulses to an
effector.

Direction of travel of nerve impulses

44
DORSAL

VENTRAL

45
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

◉ (d) State that electrical impulses travels along

neurons
◉ (e) Describe simple reflex arc
◉ (f) Describe a reflect action

46
3 REFLEX ACTION
Neurones, stimulus and response

47
 ACTIVITY 1: READING
◉ Grouping!!

◉ In your group, read the material given to

your grouping A and discuss

◉ You are expected to learn the materials

and share it with your original group

◉ You will be given a task after you finished

Time to read: 5 minutes
sharing your information, so please read
and share well. Time to share: 5 minutes
48
REFLEX ACTION
Reading time

5 MINUTES

49
 ACTIVITY 2: ROLE PLAYING

◉ In your group, decide on a reflex action

◉ You will have to do role-playing as the followings:

○ Stimulus + sensory receptor
○ Sensory neurons
Time to discuss: 5 minutes
○ Relay neurone
○ Motor neurone Time to role-play: 2 minutes per group
○ Effector
50
REFLEX ACTION
Sharing time

10 MINUTES

51
REFLEX ACTION
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
◉ To be able to describe the reflex action
STEPS TO SUCCESS

◉ Outline the three types of neurons

◉ Outline the functions of the three neurons
◉ Outline the functions of receptors and
effectors

52
TUNING IN

53
 TUNING IN
◉ What are the common theme you can
think of from the video?

◉ What are the dads doing?

◉ Is the behavior voluntary?

◉ Did the father think before exhibiting

such behavior?

◉ Is the brain involved in exhibiting such a

behavior? 54
 LESSON: REFLEX ACTION
Definition:
A coordinated response to a specific stimulus

Two types of reflex action:

1. Cranial reflex 2. Spinal reflex

Involves the brain. Example: Involves the spinal cord. Example:

55
56
 Sequence of events in a SPINAL REFLEX

1. Stimulus is received by the sensory

receptor
2. An impulse is generated and carried
by sensory neurons towards spinal
cord
3. The sensory neurone become part
of a spinal nerve

57
 Sequence of events in a SPINAL REFLEX

4. The impulse travels towards the

spinal cord along the dorsal root.
Dorsal root is part of the linking
pathway between outside stimuli
and the spinal nerve

5. Impulses arrive at the nerve endings

of the sensory neuron in the grey
matter of the spinal cord
58
 Sequence of events in a SPINAL REFLEX

6. The nerve endings releases a

chemical which diffuses across a
gap, the synapse.
The synapse is located between sensory
neurone and the nerve endings of a relay
neurone – chemical stimulates the relay
neurone to produce an impulse

7. Another synapse links relay neurone

with a motor neurone
59
 Sequence of events in a SPINAL REFLEX

8. The impulse travels along motor

neurons away from the spinal cord,
along the ventral root.

The ventral root is part of the linking

pathway between the spinal nerve and
the effector

60
 Sequence of events in a SPINAL REFLEX

9. The nerve endings of a motor

neurone are applied to the effector

10. A response is produced – biceps

muscle contracts to lift hand away
from the sharp / hot object

61
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

◉ (g) Describe a synapse

◉ (h) Describe the structure of a synapse
◉ (i) Describe the events at a synapse
◉ (j) State that synapse can only move in one
direction

62
 STEPS TO SUCCESS

◉ (g) Describe a synapse as

a junction between two
neurones
◉ (h) Describe the structure
of a synapse

63
 STEPS TO SUCESS

◉ (i) Describe the events at a synapse

◉ Nerve impulse arrive at the synapse
◉ Neurotransmitter is released into synaptic gap
◉ Neurotransmitter diffuse across synaptic gap
◉ Neurotransmitter bind with receptor protein on post-
synaptic neurone
◉ A new nerve impulse will be stimulated in the post-
synaptic neurone 64
 STEPS TO SUCCESS

◉ (j) State that synapse can only move in one

direction

65
 SYNAPSE

◉ Synapse is a junction
between two neurons

66
 Sequence of Events in a Synaptic Transmission

◉ When an impulse arrive at the

synapse,
◉ Vesicle in cytoplasm will be
stimulated to release a tiny
amount of neurotransmitter
molecules

67
 Sequence of Events in a Synaptic Transmission

◉ Neurotransmitter molecules will

diffuse across the synaptic gap.

◉ It will bind with

neurotransmitter receptor
proteins in the membrane of the
neurone on the other side of the
synapse
68
 Sequence of Events in a Synaptic Transmission

◉ The neurotransmitter
receptor protein will then
stimulate a new impulse
in the next neurone.

69
 Sequence of Events in a Synaptic Transmission

◉ Sometimes, several impulses need

to arrive at the synapse

◉ Sometimes, a certain amount of

transmitter is needed to cause the
next nerve impulse to be fired off in
the next neurone.
70
71
 Synapses can control the direction of impulses

◉ Note that: Impulses only travel in one direction

◉ How do we know this?

◉ Synthesis of neurotransmitter molecules is only
synthesized on one side of the synapse
◉ The neurotransmitter receptor protein is only
present on the other side.
72
 STEPS TO SUCCESS

◉ (g) Describe a synapse as

a junction between two
neurones
◉ (h) Describe the structure
of a synapse

73
 STEPS TO SUCESS

◉ (i) Describe the events at a synapse

◉ Nerve impulse arrive at the synapse
◉ Neurotransmitter is released into synaptic gap
◉ Neurotransmitter diffuse across synaptic gap
◉ Neurotransmitter bind with receptor protein on post-
synaptic neurone
◉ A new nerve impulse will be stimulated in the post-
synaptic neurone 74
 STEPS TO SUCCESS

◉ (j) State that synapse can only move in one

direction

75
 Mammalian sense
14.2 organ
Receptor cells, eyes, pupil reflex and accomodation

76
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

◉ (a) Describe sense organs

◉ (b) Identify the structures of the eye
◉ (c) Describe the functions of structures of the
eye
◉ (d) Explain pupil reflex
◉ (e) Explain accomodation
77
 STEPS TO SUCCESS

◉ (a) Describe sense organs: groups of receptor

cells responding to specific stimuli

◉ (b) Identify the structures of the eye: cornea,

iris, pupil, lens, ciliary muscles, suspensory
ligaments, retina, fovea, optic nerve and blind
spot
78
 STEPS TO SUCCESS

◉ (c) Describe the functions of structures of the eye.

• Cornea: refract light
• Iris: Controls how much light enters the pupil
• Lens: Focuses light onto retina
• Ciliary muscles and suspensory ligament: conteol the shape of
the lens
• Retina: Contains light receptors: rods and cons
• Fovea: contains the greatest density of light receptors
• Optic nerve: Carries impulses to the brain.

79
 STEPS TO SUCCESS

◉ (d) Explain pupil reflex:

○ In bright light: circular muscle contracts, radial muscles relax –
pupil constrict
○ In dim light: circular muscle relax, radial muscle contract –
pupil dilates
◉ (e) Explain accommodation
○ Near: ciliary muscles contract, suspensory ligament slacken,
lens becomes thick
○ Far: ciliary muscles relax, suspensory ligament taut and lens
becomes thin
80
 SENSE ORGAN

◉ Sense organ: Groups of receptor cells

responding to specific stimuli. E.g. light, sound,
touch, temperature and chemicals

◉ E.g. The eye, The ear, The nose.

81
2 EYES
Structure, function, pupil reflex,

82
 83

STRUCTURE OF THE EYES

FRONT VIEW “ HORIZONTAL

SECTION
EYE STRUCTURE: FRONT VIEW

1
7
2

5 3

4
84
EYE STRUCTURE:
HORIZONTAL SECTION

85
 EYE STRUCTURE:
HORIZONTAL SECTION
Conjunctiva Vitreous humour

Iris
Sclera
Cornea Fovea
Aqueous humour Blind spot

Pupil Optic nerve

Lens

Suspensary ligament
Retina
Ciliary muscle
86
STRUCTURAL FUNCTION OF
THE EYES

◉ CONJUNCTIVA

◉ A transparent piece of membrane

◉ Function: Gives protection to
cornea

◉ Kept moist by a fluid made in tear

glands
◉ Fluid contains lysozyme to kill
bacteria 87
STRUCTURAL FUNCTION OF
THE EYES

◉ SCLERA

◉ Outer most layer of the eye ball

◉ Thick and tough

◉ Function: To protect the eyeball

88
STRUCTURAL FUNCTION OF
THE EYES

◉ PUPIL

◉ Rounded opening through which

light enters the eye

◉ Function: allow light to enter the

eye

89
HOW THE EYES WORK

90
STRUCTURAL FUNCTION OF
THE EYES

◉ IRIS

◉ Contains pigments: give eyes its

colour

◉ Function: adjust the amount of light

entering the eye
◉ Does so by changing the size of
pupil – through antagonistic action
of muscles (radial and circular)
91
STRUCTURAL FUNCTION OF
THE EYES

◉ LENS

◉ Function: refracts light onto the

retina

◉ Changes the focal length to aid

focusing on near and distant objects

92
STRUCTURAL FUNCTION OF
THE EYES
◉ AQUEOUS HUMOUR

◉ Contains clear watery liquid

◉ Function: maintain the internal

pressure of the eyes
◉ Function: provides nutrients for the
lens and cornea which do not have
blood vessels
◉ Function: refract light rays onto lens
93
STRUCTURAL FUNCTION OF
THE EYES
◉ VITREOUS HUMOUR

◉ A jelly like substance

◉ Function: prevent eyeball from

collapsing
◉ Function: maintains the shape of the
eye
◉ Function: refracts light ray on the
retina
94
STRUCTURAL FUNCTION OF
THE EYES
◉ RETINA

◉ Contains receptor cells:

○ Rods
○ Cones
◉ Rods Function: enables us to see in
dim light – object will appear black
and white
◉ Cones Function: enables us to see
coloured vision in bright light

95
STRUCTURAL FUNCTION OF
THE EYES
◉ FOVEA / YELLOW SPOT

◉ Where there is the most amount of

rod and cones cells

◉ Function: Part of the retina where

light is focused when you look
straight at an object – area of
clearest vision

96
STRUCTURAL FUNCTION OF
THE EYES
◉ BLIND SPOT

◉ Where the optic nerve leaves the

retina

◉ Contains no cells

◉ If light falls here, no message will be

sent to the brain

97
STRUCTURAL FUNCTION OF
THE EYES
◉ OPTIC NERVES

◉ Function: transmit nerve impulses

from retina to the brain

98
STRUCTURAL FUNCTION OF
THE EYES
◉ CHOROID

◉ Found between sclera and retina

◉ Pigmented black – to prevent
internal reflection of light.

◉ Function: contains a network of

blood capillaries that nourishes eye
with oxygen and food.
◉ Function: removes waste products
99
STRUCTURAL FUNCTION OF
THE EYES
◉ CILIARY MUSCLE

◉ Contains ciliary muscles – these can

relax and contracts

◉ Function: aid in controlling the

shape of lens during
“accommodation”

100
STRUCTURAL FUNCTION OF
THE EYES
◉ SUSPENSARY LIGAMENT

◉ Attaches the lens to the ciliary body

◉ Function: control the shape of the

lens during accomodation

101
 102

COW’S EYE DISSECTION CLASS

“
LEARNING OBJECTIVE:

◉ describe the gross structure of the eye as seen

in front view and in vertical section.

103
APPARATUS LIST

NOTE:
1. Apron
2. Gloves
Please only take what
3. Scalpel you need.
4. Scissor
5. White tile Thank you.
6. Paper towel
7. Forceps
104
HEALTH AND SAFETY PRECAUTION
◉ There may be splashes of cow’s eye liquid – be careful of
these as they may carry diseases

◉ You are wearing nice baju, please make sure not to go near if
you are not wearing apron (limited)

◉ The scalpel and scissors are very sharp, please be careful and
aware of the sharp items when cutting.

◉ Please make sure to wash your hands thoroughly afterwards –

THERE MAY BE UNWANTED INFECTIOUS DISEASES! 105
VIDEO 1:
PREPARATION

106
VIDEO 2:
FRONT EYE
PART

107
VIDEO 2:
IRIS AND
RETINA

108
VIDEO 2: BACK
OF THE EYES

109
 110

HOW THE EYES WORKS: focusing

“IMAGE FORMATION”
“ACCOMODATION”

“
Image formation

111
Image formation: before the lens

◉ Light from an object will first

enter the transparent cornea
◉ At the cornea, light rays will
be refracted towards one
another
◉ Light rays then pass through
the aqueous humour and
the lens

112
Image formation: lens
◉ The lens can alter its shape

◉ “ACCOMODATION”
◉ Fatter to decrease focal
length
◉ Thinner to increase focal
length

◉ Some refraction took place

at the lens – to be focused
at the retina 113
Image formation: retina

◉ Retina contains photosensitive

receptors:
○ Rods
○ Cones

◉ Receptors converts light energy to

electrical energy.

◉ Electrical energy will be sent to the

brain via the optic nerve in the
form of an electrical “impulse”
114
115
Image formation: retina

◉ The brain will decode the impulse

to produce a vision

◉ The image that falls onto the retina

is usually inverted and smaller than
the actual size,

◉ The brain will correct this image

causing you to see the image as it
is.

116
 Image formation: retina

◉ Fovea (yellow spot)

◉ Most sensitive part of retina

◉ Have more cones than rods

◉ Cone: can provide greater

details and in better colour
vision
117
 Image formation: retina
◉ “Blind spot”

◉ Found at the retina next to the

optic nerves
◉ No rods and cones found here

◉ Present in both eyes, BUT

since we have 2 eyes – they
records different parts of field
of view and cover the blind
spot of the other. 118
 ACCOMODATION

◉ The ability of the lens to change shape

and focus on objects at different distance:

1. Thickness of the lens

2. Ciliary muscles in ciliary body
3. Suspensary ligaments that connects the
lens to the ciliary muscle.

119
ACCOMODATION: far objects

◉ DISTANT OBJECTS:

◉ Ciliary muscles – relax

◉ Suspensary ligaments – taut
◉ Lens – thinner (less convex)

◉ Focal length - increase

120
◉ NEAR OBJECTS:

◉ Ciliary muscles – contract

◉ Suspensary ligaments – slackens
◉ Lens – thicker (more convex)

◉ Focal length - decrceases

121
122
 123

PUPIL (or IRIS) REFLEX

“
TUNING IN

◉ What do you see?

◉ What is the relevance?

◉ What would happen in your

eyes?

124
MUSCLES AT THE IRIS

◉ Two types of muscles:

○ Circular muscle
○ Radial muscle

◉ Muscles’ action
○ Relaxes - LONGER
○ Contracts - SHORTER

125
◉ What happens to
the muscles when
pupil dilate or
contract?

126
What happens in bright light?
In bright light

◉ Light sensitive cells in retina

detect the light intensity

◉ Impulses sent along the

optic nerve to the brain

◉ Brain returns impulses

along motor nerve to the
circular muscles of iris
127
What happens in bright light?
In bright light

◉ Circular muscle contract

◉ Radial muscle relax

◉ Pupil constrict

◉ Less light gets into the eyes

128
What happens in DIM light?
In dim light

◉ Light sensitive cells in retina

detect the light intensity

◉ Impulses sent along the

optic nerve to the brain

◉ Brain returns impulses

along motor nerve to the
circular muscles of iris
129
What happens in DIM light?
In dim light

◉ Circular muscle relax

◉ Radial muscle contract

◉ Pupil dilates

◉ More light gets into the

eyes
130
131
 Mammalian
14.3 hormones
Hormones, endocrine glands, hormones, adrenaline

132
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

◉ (a) Describe hormones

◉ (b) Identify endocrine glands
◉ (c) Understand the role of hormone adrenaline
◉ (d) Compare nervous and hormonal control

133
 STEPS TO SUCCESS

◉ (a) Describe hormones as a chemical

substance, produced by a gland and carried by
the blood, which alters the activity of one or
more specific target organs.

134
 STEPS TO SUCCESS

◉ (b) Identify endocrine glands:

○ The adrenal glands: produces adrenaline
○ The pancreas: produces insulin and glucagon
○ The pituitary gland: produces follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
○ The testes: produces testosterone
○ The ovaries: produces oestrogen and progesterone

135
 STEPS TO SUCCESS

◉ (c) Understand the role of hormone adrenaline

○ Produced by the adrenal glands, in increasing the blood
glucose concentration and heart rate and give examples of
situations in which these may occur.

◉ (d) Compare nervous and hormonal control

○ Speed of action: nervous is faster and hormone is slow
○ Duration of effect: nervous short time and hormone is longer
time.
136
4 HORMONES
Adrenaline, insulin, glucagon and diabetes

137
 HORMONES - Definition

◉ A chemical substance
◉ Produced by a gland
◉ Carried by the blood
◉ Alters the activity of one or
more specific target organs
◉ Destroyed by the Liver

138
TRAITS OF HORMONES

◉ Relatively small
◉ Soluble
◉ Can diffuse easily

139
 GLANDS

Endocrine glands
◉ Secretes hormones directly into
the blood
◉ “Ductless”
Exocrine glands
◉ Secretes substances onto
epithelial surfaces through a duct
◉ E.G. tear glands, salivary glands,
sweat glands
140
 GLANDS

◉ Adrenal glands

◉ Islets of Langerhans
in Pancreas

141
 GLANDS: Adrenal glands

◉ Found above the kidneys

◉ Produces adrenaline/ epinephrine

◉ Target organs:

142
ADRENALINE

◉ Initiate conversion of glycogen

into glucose
◉ Increases blood sugar level in
emergencies

◉ Dilates the pupil

◉ Ensure clearer vision
143
ADRENALINE

◉ Heart beats faster

◉ Ensure more oxygen to be
transported to brain and muscles

◉ Arterioles constrict and hair

erector muscle contracts
◉ “Goosebumps”
144
SITUATION INVOLVING ADRENALINE

145
 ENDOCRINE VS NERVOUS:

ENDOCRINE NERVOUS

Transmission of chemicals Transmission of electrical

impulses

Transmission through blood Transmission in nerves

146
 ENDOCRINE VS NERVOUS:

ENDOCRINE NERVOUS

Slow transmission Rapid transmission

Hormones dispersed Impulse send directly to target

throughout body organ

Long term effect Short term effect

147
14.4 Homeostasis
Homeostasis and negative feedback

148
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

◉ (a) Describe homeostasis

◉ (b) Explain the concept of control by negative
feedback

149
 STEPS TO SUCCESS

◉ (a) Describe homeostasis as the maintenance of

a constant internal environment
◉ (b) Explain the concept of control by negative
feedback with reference to a set point

150
TUNING IN:
 “Staying
HOMEOSTASIS
similar”

Definition

The automatic self-regulating ability of an

organism
Through negative feedback system,
To maintain a constant internal environment.
 EXAMPLES OF HOMEOSTASIS
◉ Maintaining a constant….

Body temperature
Carbon dioxide level
control

Water balance Blood glucose level

HOMEOSTASIS – WATER BALANCE

◉ Where does it takes place at?

Kidneys
◉ How does it regulates the water balance?
Kidneys act as an excretory organ

Remove excess water during urine formation

Allows a constant osmotic pressure of the blood

HOMEOSTASIS – WATER BALANCE

◉ Why is it important to regulate the water balance?

Too much
Too little water
water

Water potential increases Water potential decreases

Endosmosis occurs Exosmosis occurs

Blood cells became dehydrated

Blood cells swells up and burst
and shrinks
HOMEOSTASIS – WATER BALANCE
◉ How are water balance regulated in our body?

◉ 1. Changes of the osmotic pressure are detected by:

The hypothalamus
(When blood passes through it)

◉ 2. What happens then?

It stimulates the pituitary gland in the brain to secrete
the hormone Vasopressin or Anti-diuretic hormone
(ADH)
◉ 3. What does the hormone do?
ADH increases water reabsorption from the fluid in the
kidney tubules into the surrounding blood capillaries
 HOMEOSTASIS – WATER BALANCE

◉ When there are changes to osmotic pressure (water

potential) in blood
◉ The hypothalamus detects..
Increase in osmotic Decrease in osmotic
pressure pressure
◉ The pituitary gland will..
Release less ADH Release more ADH

◉ What happens in kidney tubules?

Less water reabsorbed More water reabsorbed
into blood cappilaries into blood cappilaries
◉ Urine volume?
More water in urine Less water in urine
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK – a control system

A response given by the body

When condition change from the ideal or set point
That causes the change to return to this set point

FALL / DECREASE IN
RISE / INCREASE IN LEVEL
LEVEL
Control system will try to reduce it
Back to ideal point Control system will raise it
Back to ideal point
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

◉ Try to make your own

negative feedback
system with what you
know of homeostasis of
water balance!
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
CORRECTIVE
MECHANISM

STIMULUS NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

NORMAL CONDITION NORMAL CONDITION

STIMULUS NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

CORRECTIVE
MECHANISM
 EXAMPLE OF NEGATIVE FEEDBACK:
WATER BALANCE LEVEL
Hypothalamus detects
Pituitary gland release less
increase in water potential
ADH
level
Less water reabsorbed
INCREASE in water into the BLOOD
potential level CAPILLARIES

Normal water potential Normal water potential

level of the blood level of the blood

More water reabsorbed

DECREASE in water
into the BLOOD
potential level
CAPILLARIES
Hypothalamus detects Pituitary gland release
decrease in water potential more ADH
level
POSITIVE FEEDBACK SYSTEM
 POSITIVE FEEDBACK – a control system

A response given by the body

When condition change from a set point
That causes the change to be even more extreme

FALL / DECREASE IN
RISE / INCREASE IN LEVEL LEVEL
Control system will try to increase it Control system will decrease it
further Even further
 Temperature
14.5 control
Skin, insulation, hypothalamus, processes to maintain body
temperature

164
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

◉ (a) Identify the structure of skin

◉ (b) Describe the role of insulation
◉ (c) Describe the role of hypothalamus and
temperature receptors
◉ (d) Explain the processes to maintain constant
body temperature in mammals
165
 STEPS TO SUCCESS

◉ (a) Identify the structure of skin: hairs, hair

erector muscles, sweat glands, receptors,
sensory neurons, blood vessels and fatty tissue.

◉ (b) Describe the role of insulation in maintaining

a constant internal body temperature in
mammals.
166
 STEPS TO SUCCESS

◉ (c) Describe the role of hypothalamus as to

detect any changes in the blood temperature
and temperature receptors as to detect
temperature changes in the skin

◉ (d) Explain the processes to maintain constant

body temperature in mammals
167
 STEPS TO SUCCESS

◉ (d) Explain the processes to maintain constant

body temperature in mammals to include:

○ Sweating
○ Shivering
○ Contraction of hair erector muscles
○ Vasodilation and vasoconstriction of arterioles
supplying skin surface capillaries
168
THE
SKIN
THE SKIN HAIR

TEMPERATURE RECEPTOR

SWEAT GLAND

FATTY TISSUE
BLOOD VESSELS
THE SKIN

HAIR

TEMPERATURE
RECEPTOR

SWEAT GLAND

BLOOD
VESSELS

FATTY TISSUE
EPIDERMIS LAYER

◉ Consists of three layers:

○ 1. Cornified layer

○ 2. Granular layer

○ 3. Malphigian layer
EPIDERMIS LAYER

CORNIFIED LAYER

○ Dead, dry flat due to presence of

KERATIN
○ Water resistant!
○ Prevents germs from gaining entry
into body
EPIDERMIS LAYER

GRANULAR LAYER

○ Living cells
○ Move upwards to
become cornified cells
EPIDERMIS LAYER

MALPHIGIAN LAYER

○ Cells can divide

○ Contains living cells, usually
pigmented (Melanin)
○ Melanin give our skin colour
○ Melanin protects skin from
UV light
DERMIS LAYER
◉ The dermis layer contains:

◉ 1. Blood vessels
◉ 2. Hairs
◉ 3. Sebaceous gland
◉ 4. Sweat gland
◉ 5. Sense receptors

◉ Underneath the dermis layer,

present the Sub-cutaneous fat –
layers of adipose cells where fats
are stored.
THE SKIN

HAIR

TEMPERATURE
RECEPTOR

SWEAT GLAND

BLOOD
VESSELS

FATTY TISSUE
 ◉ BLOOD VESSELS
DERMIS LAYER
• There are capillaries present in
the dermis layer
• The arteriole that bring blood
to the capillaries are able to
constrict and dilate

• When you becomes flushed

• “Vasodilation” When
arterioles dilate (bigger)
• More blood are brought to
near skin
• More heat can be lost
 ◉ BLOOD VESSELS
DERMIS LAYER
• There are capillaries present in
the dermis layer
• The arteriole that bring blood
to the capillaries are able to
constrict and dilate

• When you becomes pale

• “Vasoconstriction” When
arterioles constricts
(smaller)
• Less blood brought to near
skin
• Less heat can be lost
 ◉ HAIRS
DERMIS LAYER
• Made up of dead cells and
keratin

• Function:
• Traps air when animal feels
cold

• Air is a good insulator of heat

and helps prevent heat loss
 ERECTOR MUSCLE
DERMIS LAYER

• Can be found attached to

hair follicle

• Function:
• It contracts to make hair
stand upright to trap a
layer of air next to skin to
insulate it
• It relaxes to make hair lie
flat on skin to trap less air
 SEBACEOUS GLANDS
DERMIS LAYER

• Opens into the hair

follicle

• Function:
• Secretes sebum (an oily
liquid) for waterproofing
skin and keeping hair soft
 SWEAT GLANDS
DERMIS LAYER

• Surrounded by blood capillaries

• Connected to sweat pores by sweat
ducts

• Sweat: water with small amount of

salt and urea dissolved in it

• Sweat travels up the sweat ducts

and out of sweat pores onto skin
surface
 SWEAT GLANDS

DERMIS LAYER
• Functions:

• Secretes sweat when activated

• Sweat is sent to skin during

vasodilation (warm)

• When sweat evaporates from

skin surface, it takes latent heat
away from the body and cools
skin and body down.
 SENSE RECEPTOR
DERMIS LAYER

• Function:

• Detects sensation of
touch, pain, pressure,
temperature changes
• keep a person aware of
changes in the
environment
 SUBCUTANEOUS FAT / FAT LAYER
DERMIS LAYER
Made up of adipose cells, which
contain large droplets of oil

Found a the base of the demis

• Function:

• Helps to insulate the body

• Stores fats and acts as a food
reserve
QUIZ

https://www.abpischools.org.uk/full-screen-animation/175/173
WHAT DETECTS THE CHANGES
OF THE TEMPERATURE?
Brain will then generate NERVE IMPULSES to respective organs
ON
A
HOT
DAY Lie still
Wear light thin loose clothes
Swim
Move to a cooler area
Go to a shady area
Stay in a cool room
 STIMULUS: HOT DAY

SWEAT GLAND + SWEAT PORE

Sweat glands are activated

and produces sweat
Sweat released to skin via
sweat pores.
When sweat evaporates
from skin, it takes latent
heat away from body –
cools the skin and body
STIMULUS: HOT DAY
BLOOD VESSELS

Muscles in the walls of

“superficial arterioles” relaxes
Lumen of blood vessels dilate

“Vasodilation”

Allow warm blood to flow though

capillaries near skin surface
Allows heat loss by conduction
and convection
 STIMULUS: HOT DAY
HAIR + HAIR ERECTOR MUSCLES

Hair erector muscles relaxes

Hair lies flat on the skin

No layer of air trapped

Heat is easily lost

Allows heat loss by convection

and radiation
STIMULUS: HOT DAY
METABOLIC RATE

Metabolic rate decreases

Less heat produced

Prevents body from overheating

 ON A
COLD
DAY
Go to a warmer place
Wear thicker clothings
More active!
 STIMULUS: COLD DAY

SWEAT GLAND + SWEAT PORE

Sweat glands are

deactivated

Stops sweat production

Latent heat not lost from

body

Heat loss by evaporation of

sweat is reduced
STIMULUS: COLD DAY
BLOOD VESSELS

Muscles in the walls of

“superficial arterioles” contracts
Lumen of blood vessels
constricts (smaller)
“Vasoconstriction”

Allow less warm blood to flow though

capillaries near skin surface

Reduces heat loss by conduction,

convection and radiation
 STIMULUS: COLD DAY
HAIR + HAIR ERECTOR MUSCLES

Hair erector muscles

CONTRACTS
Hair will stand straight on the
skin
Thin layer of air trapped
(Air is a good insulator of heat)
Thin layer of air insulates the
body
Reduces heat loss by
convection and radiation
STIMULUS: COLD DAY
METABOLIC RATE

Metabolic rate INCREASES

More respiration took place

MORE heat energy produced

Heat is distributed to whole

body via blood stream
NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

◉ Try to make your own

negative feedback
system with what you
know of homeostasis of
body temperature!
 NEGATIVE FEEDBACK
CORRECTIVE
MECHANISM

STIMULUS NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

NORMAL CONDITION NORMAL CONDITION

STIMULUS NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

CORRECTIVE
MECHANISM
 Blood glucose
14.6 control
Importance, insulin, glucagon, diabetes

203
 LEARNING OBJECTIVES

◉ (a) Explain the importance of blood glucose

concentration
◉ (b) Describe the control of blood glucose
concentration
◉ (c) Describe the signs of type 1 diabetes
◉ (d) Describe the treatment of type 1 diabetes

204
 STEPS TO SUCCESS

◉ (a) Explain the need to control blood glucose

concentration

◉ (b) Describe the control of blood glucose concentration

○ Liver: take up glucose and convert to glycogen
○ Pancreas: alpha cells: releases glucagon
○ Pancreas: beta cells: releases insulin
○ Insulin: Converts glucose into glycogen
○ Glucagon: Converts glycogen into glucose
205
 STEPS TO SUCCESS

◉ (c) Describe the signs of type 1 diabetes

○ Increased blood glucose concentration
○ Glucose in urine

◉ (d) Describe the treatment of type 1 diabetes:

○ Administration of insulin

206
RECAP ON INSULIN

◉ Function: decrease glucose concentration to

normal level when the blood glucose
concentration is high

◉ Target organs: Liver and muscles

207
RECAP ON INSULIN

◉ Promotes the uptake of glucose by cells when

blood sugar level is high

◉ Promotes the conversion of glucose to

glycogen for storage when blood sugar level is
high

208
 NORMAL BLOOD GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION

◉ Have not eaten for 8 hours: 90 – 100 mg/100cm3

◉ After meal: up to 140mg/100cm3

◉ 2 hours after meal: about 95mg/100cm3

209
 NORMAL BLOOD GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION

◉ Below 80mg/100cm3: glucagon will be released

◉ Higher than 100mg/100cm3: insulin will be released

◉ Higher than 160mg/100cm3: Glucose will be excreted

by kidneys

210
IMPORTANCE OF BLOOD
GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION

◉ If blood glucose concentration is too low:

◉ (Less than 40mg/100cm3)

◉ Affect the brain cells badly

◉ Leading to convulsions and coma

211
IMPORTANCE OF BLOOD
GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION

◉ If blood glucose concentration is too high for a

long period: “Hyperglycemia”

◉ Damage to vessels that supply blood to vital

organs
◉ Increase the risk of heart disease and stroke
◉ Kidney disease, blurred vision and nerve
problems 212
 DIABETES

◉ Non-infectious

◉ A condition in which the body

does not produce insulin OR
◉ The body inability to use the
insulin properly

213
 DIABETES

◉ Three types:

◉ Type 1
◉ Type 2
◉ Gestational diabetes

214
 TYPE 1 DIABETES

◉ An autoimmune disease

◉ The immune system attacks and destroy

the insulin producing beta cells in the
pancreas

◉ Pancreas produces little or not insulin

◉ Person will have to take in insulin daily to

live
215
216
 TYPE 2 DIABETES

◉ Most common form of

diabetes

◉ Often associated with: ◉ Pancreas usually

○ Older age produces insulin
○ Obesity ○ But body cannot
○ Family history / history of use insulin
gestational diabetes ○ “Insulin resistance”
○ Physical inactivity
217
SYMPTOMS
◉ Develop gradually

◉ Not as sudden as
type 1

218
219
220
221
GESTATIONAL DIABETES

◉ Pregnant women
◉ Late in pregnancy
◉ Usually disappears after the birth of the baby

◉ If you get gestational diabetes – 20-50%

chance of developing type 2 diabetes

222