ETEN 3002 10 CNote 9 - Feedback, Stability and Compensation, Rev. 2

11/10/2022, 08:05 ETEN 3002 Note 9: Feedback, Stability and Compensation, Rev.
ETEN 3002 Note 9: Feedback,

Stability and Compensation, Rev. 2
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References
[1] Sedra and Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, Int’l 7th Ed. , Oxford University
Press, 2016, Ch. 10
[2] Sedra and Smith, Microelectronic Circuits, 4th Ed. , Oxford University Press,
1998, ch. 8
[3] J. K. Roberge, Operational Amplifiers: Theory and Practice, Wiley, 1975,
Chapter I. https://ocw.mit.edu/resources/res-6-010-electronic-feedback-
systems-spring-2013/textbook/
[4] Walt Jung, Op Amp Applications Handbook, Newness 2006, Chapter 1,
http://www.analog.com/library/analogDialogue/archives/39-
05/op_amp_applications_handbook.html
[5] J. W. Nilsson, Electric Circuits, Ch. 17; 4th Ed., Addison Wesley, 1993
[6] J. K. Roberge, Operational Amplifiers: Theory and Practice, Wiley, 1975,
Chapter V. https://ocw.mit.edu/resources/res-6-010-electronic-feedback-
systems-spring-2013/textbook/
Revision Notes:
1. 20 Feb. 2018 - Draft started by Adrian Sutinjo [AS] of School of Electrical
Engineering, Computing and Mathematical Sciences (EECMS), Curtin
University
https://paper.dropbox.com/doc/print/sI26DilIJVFPQyx4JqepO?print=true 1/26
11/10/2022, 08:05 ETEN 3002 Note 9: Feedback, Stability and Compensation, Rev. 2
2. 21 Oct. 2018 - Rev. 1 started by AS. Corrected minor typos.

3. 11 Oct. 2022 - Rev. 2 started by AS. Corrected a few typos: in non-inverting
RA
amplifier "feedback voltage is Vf = βVo = RF +RA
V ”; “Example 1: Graphical
o
solution. Consider a single pole op-amp”; in three-pole op-amp “magnitude
and phase of a three-pole op-amp”.
Overview of a Feedback System [1: 10.1,

2:8.1]
Consider the system in Fig. 1. Let Abe an amplification factor and β be a small
feedback factor where (A> 1, 0 < β < 1). Do not confuse the β here with that
of a BJT. The output signal xo is an amplified version of the input signal xi
xo = Axi
where Ais the open loop gain. We take a small sample of the output signal as
feedback signal
xf = βxo
where β is the feedback factor. The input signal is the difference between the
source signal, xs and the feedback signal
xi = xs − xf
Using these expressions we calculate the relationship between the output and
the source signals
xo = A(xs − xf ) = A(xs − βxo )
xo (1 + Aβ) = Axs
xo = 1+Aβ
A
xs = Acl xs
A

where Acl = 1+Aβ is the closed loop gain. Subject to the constraints
A > 1, 0 < β < 1, we observe the following
xf has the same sign as xs such that the amplitude of the input signal is less
than the source signal, i.e. ∣xi ∣ < ∣xs ∣.
Increasing xs leads to increasing xo which leads to increasing xf which
works against the increase in xs because xf subtracts from xs ; this is called
negative feedback.
The loop works to make xi (also called the “error signal”) small, i.e., the loop
strives to make xf close to xs .
A negative feedback system seeks to stabilize itself when perturbed. More
properties of negative feedback:
The closed loop gain is less than the open loop gain, ∣Acl ∣ < ∣A∣.
For large loop gain, the closed loop gain is nearly independent of A:
Acl ∣βA≫1
A
= 1+Aβ A
≈ Aβ = β1
The closed loop gain is desensitized to perturbation in the open loop gain by a
factor of 1 + βA. To see this, we take the derivative of closed loop gain w.r.t.
the open loop gain
1 1
dA
dA
cl
= 1+βA Aβ
− (1+βA)2 = (1+βA)2
= (1+βA)
dAcl dA
2
Dividing each side with Acl , we obtain
1 dA
dA dA
Acl = Acl (1+βA)2 = 1+βA A
cl
Hence, the relative error in Ais scaled down by 1 + βA.
Positive Feedback and Instability

1. −1 < βA < 0
Suppose we move away from A > 1, 0 < β < 1constraints, in particular let
−1 < βA < 0. In this case, the feedback signal adds to the source signal
creating positive feedback. This has a de-stabilizing effect. For example, small
perturbation in open loop gain becomes amplified.
1 dA
dA
Acl
cl
= 1+βA A
if 1/(1 + βA) > 1, then dAcl /Acl > dA/A.
2. Now consider the case where β A = −1. The closed loop gain formula

suggests that Acl = 1+Aβ
A
= ∞indicating something is amiss. In reality, under
this condition the loop experiences sustained oscillation as depicted in Fig. 2
below.
Here the feedback signal is −xi which becomes xi due to the −sign at the
summing junction. This oscillation carries on without the need for a reference
signal.
3. The loop could be unstable for β A < −1. In this case, the feedback signal is
an amplified version of the input signal which gets further amplified with each
trip around the loop. The open loop gain will gradually decrease to a point
where the loop gain is -1, resulting in a sustained oscillation.
The summary here is: If we aim to design a stable feedback amplifier, large
positive loop gain is good, while loop gain of -1 or smaller is to be avoided.
Op-Amp Circuit as a Feedback Amplifier

[3, 4]
Non-inverting Amplifier
Op-amp circuits in electric circuit classes are treated using the “ideal” op-amp
assumption. We probably did not know it at the time, but this is the result of
negative feedback. Consider the non-inverting amplifier in Fig. 3 above. Ideal op-
amp assumption suggests
Vs = V+ ≈ V−
At the output voltage divider Vf ≈ Vs, hence

Vs ≈ RA R+R
A
Vo
F
The gain is
Vo
Vs RFA
=1+ R
Now, let’s look at this circuit as a feedback amplifier represented by matching the
circuit to the block diagram in Fig. 3. We see that the inputs to the op-amp are
Vs = V+ and Vf = V− . The error voltage is Vi = Vs − Vf . The output voltage is
Vo = A(Vs − Vf)
where Ais the open loop voltage gain (which is typically 105 to 107 ) and the
feedback voltage is

Vf = βVo = RF R+R
A
Vo
A
Therefore,
Vo A
Vs
= 1+Aβ

Because Ais very large, Aβ ≫ 1
Vo
Vs ∣βA≫1 ≈ β1 = 1 + R
RFA
which agrees with the gain of the non-inverting amplifier derived with the ideal
op-amp assumption. Therefore, the gain of the non-inverting op-amp circuit really
is the closed loop gain of a negative feedback amplifier given that the feedback
factor is that of the voltage divider as shown in Fig. 3.
Inverting Amplifier
An inverting amplifier as shown in Fig. 4 is also an feedback amplifier. However,

the correspondence with the block diagram in Fig. 1 is not as straightforward as
the non-inverting amplifier because V+ is grounded and V− depends on Voand
Vs. We know that the ideal op-amp assumption leads to
Vo
Vs RFA
= −R
which we expect to recover using the feedback model with large loop gain.
One way to proceed is by applying the principle of superposition: The overall

response of a linear circuit to multiple sources is the sum of the responses to each
source. Let’s start with V− given that Vs = 0

V− ∣Vs=0 = RA R+R
A
Vo = βVo
F
Where β = RA R+R

A

F
is the feedback factor. Now, calculate V− given that Vo = 0
RF
V− ∣Vo=0 = +RF
RA
Vs
Combining the two
RF
V− = RA R+R
A
Vo + RA
F +RF Vs
The output voltage is

Vo = A(V+ − V− ) = A(0 − V− )= −A RA R+R
A
V − A RA R+R
F o
F
V
s
F
We simplify the above expression
Vo(1 + RAR
A
+RF
A
) = − RAR
A

F
V
+RF s
The closed loop gain is
AR
Vo − R +R
F A
Acl = Vs = A
ARA
F
= (β − 1) 1+Aβ
1+ R +R

A F
Fig. 5 shows the block diagram for this expression.
For large loop gain,
RA
−1
∣βA≫1
Acl ≈ β−1
β
= +RF
RA

RA = RFA
−R

+RF
RA
which agrees with the ideal op-amp assumption.
Feedback with Frequency Dependence &

Stability Considerations [1:10.7, 2:8.8]
So far we have not considered frequency dependence. Real components have a

finite bandwidth, for instance, the open loop gain of an op-amp decreases with
increasing frequency from very high values to one. The frequency at which the
op-amp reaches unity is typically in the MHz range. How does this affect the
design of a feedback amplifier? Well, for one, we cannot design a feedback
amplifier which is stable just at low frequencies (where the loop gain is high) but
is unstable at high frequencies because that instability, once it is self-sustaining,
would take over. We would have an oscillator rather than a feedback amplifier.
We need not reach full-blown oscillation to feel the undesirable effect, however.
As the feedback amplifier approaches the point of instability, the closed loop gain
will start to exhibit a “peaking” behavior at the frequency that is susceptible to
instability. This translates to undesirable “ringing” behavior in time domain when
the amplifier is excited with a square wave, for instance.
The message is this: To design a stable feedback amplifier, we need to ensure

stability over frequency. Before we ask how to do this, however, we should
understand which type of system is susceptible to instability. To begin the
discussion, let’s assume that the frequency dependence is primarily due to the
open loop gain A(s)such that the feedback factor may be assumed constant β .
In this case, the closed loop gain is
A(s)
Acl (s) = 1+A(s)β
The loop gain is L(s) = A(s)β . For large loop gain, we come to the same
conclusions as we did previously. The region that requires care, though, is where
A(s)becomes small. Let’s consider a few examples.
Single-Pole Op-Amp [4]
Let the open loop gain of the op-amp in Fig. 7 have a single real pole at ωo
A0
A(jω) = 1+jω/ω0

This situation is typical of many modern-day op-amps. The open loop gain at DC,
A0 , is approximately 105 to 107 . The pole, ω0 , is in the range of 5-50 rad./s (0.8-8
Hz). The magnitude and phase of the open loop gain are
∣A(jω)∣ = A0 2
√1+(ω/ω
0 )
∠A(jω) = − tan−1
(ω/ω0 )
Fig. 8 depicts the magnitude and phase of a single pole op-amp for A0 = 105 .
There are a few trends to note here:
The magnitude is approximately A0 up to ω0 , beyond which it decreases at
the rate of 20 dB/decade.
The phase is approximately 0∘ up to ∼
0.1ω0 . For∼ 0.1ω0 < ω <∼ 10ω0 , the
phase decreases at ∼ 45∘ per decade. At ω0 , the phase is −45∘ . For
ω > 10ω0 , the phase asymptotically approaches −90∘ .
Stability of a feedback amplifier with a single pole op-amp
Now suppose we design a feedback amplifier with frequency independent

feedback and a single pole op-amp. The closed loop gain is
A(jω)
(jω) = 1+L(jω)
Acl
A0 β
where L(jω) = A(jω)β = 1+jω/ω 0
is the loop gain. The magnitude and phase
of the loop gain are
∣L(jω)∣ = A0 β 2
√1+(ω/ω 0 )
∠L(jω) = − tan−1
(ω/ω0 )
As expected, the loop gain follows the same trend as the open loop gain. The
amplitude is monotonically decreasing at -20 dB/dec. beyond ω0 and the phase
decreases from 0∘ to −90∘ with increasing frequency. ∣L(jω)∣will cross unity at
some frequency, and for stability, what matters is that the phase at the unity
crossover is less negative than −180∘ . The accepted rule-of-thumb is the phase at
crossover be less negative than −135∘ ; in other words, we need to have at least
45∘ phase margin.
For a single pole op-amp, the crossover frequency is
∣L(jωx )∣ = 1 = A0 β 2
√1+(ωx/ω0 )
ωx ≈ A0 βω0
The phase at the crossover frequency is
∠L(jωx ) = − tan−1
(A0 β)
Because A0 β> 0, the phase of the loop gain is between 0∘ and −90∘ . In the
worst case, when β = 1and A0 is large, ∠L(jωx ) → −90∘ which means that
we have at least 90∘ phase margin. A feedback amplifier based on a single pole
op-amp with frequency independent feedback is stable.
Example 1: Graphical solution. Consider a single pole op-amp with A0 = 105 and
β = 10−3
. Find the crossover frequency, sketch the closed loop gain and
determine the phase margin.
The first step is to determine the closed loop gain below the crossover frequency.
We know that this is approximately 1/β = 103 = 60dB. We superimpose this
line on the open loop gain magnitude curve in Fig. Ex. 1. The crossover frequency
is the intersection between the ∣1/β∣line and ∣A(ω)∣, which is ωx = 100ωo . This
is in agreement with the formula above ωx ≈ A0 βω0 = 105 10−3
ω0 = 100ω0 .
Above the crossover frequency, the closed loop gain follows the open loop gain
curve and it decreases at 20 dB/dec. as shown in the dashed red line. To find the
phase of the loop gain at the crossover frequency, we draw a vertical line down to
the phase plot and find the intersection with the phase plot. We find that the
phase at the crossover frequency is slightly less negative than −90∘ consistent
with our expectation.
Two-Pole Op-Amp
Now consider an op-amp with an open loop gain with two real poles
0
A(jω) = (1+jω/ω1A)(1+jω/ω2 )

The amplitude and phase are
∣A(jω)∣ = A0
√1+(ω/ω
1 )2 √1+(ω/ω
2 )2
∠A(jω) = − [tan−1
(ω/ω1 ) + tan−1
(ω/ω2 )]
Fig. 9 shows an example plots of the magnitude and phase of a two-pole op-amp
with A0 = 105 and ω2 = 10ω1 . The trends to note are:
The magnitude is approximately A0 up to ω1 . Between ω1 and ω2 , the
magnitude decreases at the rate of 20 dB/decade. Beyond ω2 , the magnitude
decreases at 40 dB/dec.
The phase is approximately 0∘ up to ∼ 0.1ω1 . At ω1 , the phase is ∼ −45∘ and
at ω2 , the phase is ∼ −135∘ . For ω > 10ω2 , the phase asymptotically
approaches −180∘ .
= 105 and ω2 = 10ω1 for a two-pole open loop op-amp.

Example 2: Let A0
Determine the maximum feedback factor that results in at least 45∘ phase
margin. Find the crossover frequency, sketch the closed loop gain for this
condition.
With the aid of Fig. Ex. 2, we can find the solution graphically as we did with the
single pole op-amp. We begin by identifying 45∘ phase margin line which is
∠L = −135∘ as shown in the bottom of that figure. The frequency of
intersection is the approximate crossover frequency, ωx ≈ 10ω1 . We draw a
vertical line upward to find the intersection with the magnitude plot. The
magnitude at which the intersection occurs is approximately the closed loop gain,
which is the reciprocal of β
. Therefore, the maximum feedback factor for at least
45∘ phase margin is -80 dB or β = 10−4
. The takeaway message is this: To
ensure at least 45∘ phase margin, the crossover frequency must be no greater
than the frequency of the second pole.
Let’s check that with calculation. For the transfer function in question, the two
poles are far apart in frequency, therefore we can use an approximation
βA0
∣L(jωx )∣ ≈ ω2 /[ω1 ω2 ]
= 1
x
For A0 = 105 and β = 10−4

, the crossover frequency is

ωx ≈ √β A0 ω1 ω2 = ω1 √10−4
105 × 10= 10ω1
and the phase is
∠L(jωx ) = − [tan−1
(10) + tan−1
(1)] = −129∘
both of which are consistent with the graphical method.
Three-Pole Op-Amp
The open loop transfer function of a three-pole op-amp is
A0
A(jω) = (1+jω/ω1 )(1+jω/ω2 )(1+jω/ω3 )

The amplitude and phase are
∣A(jω)∣ = A0
√1+(ω/ω
1 )2 √1+(ω/ω 2 )2 √1+(ω/ω
3 )2
∠A(jω) = − [tan−1
(ω/ω1 ) + tan−1
(ω/ω2 ) + tan−1
(ω/ω3 )]
Fig. 10 shows an example plots of the magnitude and phase of a two-pole op-
amp with A0 = 105 and ω2 = 10ω1 and ω3 = 100ω1 . We see that
The magnitude is approximately A0 up to ω1 . Between ω1 and ω2 , the
magnitude decreases at the rate of 20 dB/decade. Between ω2 and ω3 , the
magnitude decreases at the rate of 40 dB/decade. Beyond ω3 , the magnitude
decreases at 60 dB/dec.
The phase is approximately 0∘ up to ∼ 0.1ω1 . At ω1 , the phase is ∼ −45∘ ; at
ω2 , the phase is ∼ −135∘ ; at ω3 , the phase is ∼ −225∘ . For ω > 10ω3 , the
phase asymptotically approaches −270∘ .
If we use this op-amp as a feedback amplifier

The maximum feedback factor for at least 45∘ phase margin is -80 dB.
For feedback factor equal to or greater than -60 dB, the feedback amplifier is
unstable.
Question 1: If we use the three-pole open loop gain op-amp in Fig. 10 as a unity
gain voltage follower, what is the phase margin? Is the resulting voltage follower
stable or unstable?
Question 2: Repeat Question 1 for a two-pole open loop gain op-amp in Fig. 9 as
a unity gain voltage follower.
Why 45∘ Phase Margin?

Poles of a Two-Pole Op-Amp [1: 10.8, 2:8.9]
Let’s examine the poles of a two-pole op-amp with open loop gain
A0
A(s) = (1+s/ωP 1 )(1+s/ωP 2 )

In this case, we are not specializing sas j ω , but rather it could be a complex
number with real & imaginary parts s = σ + jω . The poles of the open loop gain
are negative and real, −ωP
1 and −ωP 2 . These poles are associated with
exponential decays e−ω
P 1 t and e−ω
P 2 t Assuming constant β , the closed loop gain
is
0 1
= A β+(1+s/ωA0 )(1+s/ω )
A(s)
Acl (s) = 1+A(s)β =(1+s/ωP 1A)(1+s/ω 2)
A0 β
P 1+ (1+s/ω 0 P1 P2
P 1 )(1+s/ωP 2 )
The poles of the closed-loop gain is the solution to the quadratic equation
A0 β + 1 + s(1/ωP 1 + 1/ωP 2 ) + s2 /(ωP 1 ωP 2 ) = 0
ωP 1 ωP 2 (A0 β + 1) + s(ωP 1 + ωP 2 ) + s2 = 0
The solutions are

s = − ωP 1 +ω
2
P2
± 1

2
√(ωP 1 + ωP 2 )2 − 4ωP 1 ωP 2 (A0 β + 1)
Fig. 11 shows location of the poles with increasing A0 β (root locus diagram). We
see that the poles are initially purely negative real until they merge at
(ω +ω )2
A0 β = 4ω
P1
1 ωP 2 − 1
P
P2
With increasing A0 β beyond this point, the roots become complex conjugate
poles with negative real component and increasing imaginary component.
Strictly speaking, because the poles remain on the left-half plane, the closed-loop
response remains stable. However, large imaginary component relative to real
component suggests that the response due to the complex poles becomes
increasingly oscillatory. For a desirable closed-loop response, we need to limit the
oscillation relative to the decay due to the complex conjugate pole.
Damping Factor Perspective [5]

To gain further insight into this behavior, we recast
ωP 1 ωP 2 (A0 β + 1) + s(ωP 1 + ωP 2 ) + s2 = 0
as
ωn2 + 2ζωn s + s2 = 0
where
ωn = √ωP 1 ωP 2 (A0 β + 1)
is the “natural frequency” of the oscillation and

ζ = ωP 1 +ωP 2
2√ωP 1 ωP 2 (A
0 β+1)
is the damping factor. This is an instructive name as we expect less oscillation for
higher damping. The solution is

s = −ζωn ± 12 √4ωn2 ζ 2 − 4ωn2 = ωn (−ζ ± √ζ 2 − 1)
The complex conjugate pole solution occurs for ζ < 1, which we call the
underdamped response.
Now, let’s relate this back to the loop gain and graphical approach we used earlier
for a two-pole op-amp in Example 2. Assuming the poles are well separated (
ωP 2 ≫ ωP 1 ), we obtain the crossover frequency by
∣L(jωx )∣ ≈ ω2 /[ωβAP 10 ωP 2 ] = 1

x
The solution is

ωx ≈ √β A0 ωP 1 ωP 2
The phase of the loop gain is

∠L(jω) = − [tan (ω/ωP 1 ) + tan (ω/ωP 2 )]≈ −90 − tan √A0ωβω
−1 −1
2
P
P1
∘ −1
We achieve ∼ 45∘ phase margin when
A0 β ≈ ωP 2 /ωP 1
The damping factor for this solution is
ζ= ωP 1 +ωP 2 ω 1 +ωP 2

≈ P2ω ≈ 1/2
2√ωP 1 ωP 2 (A
0 β+1) 2
P
which is underdamped with natural frequency

ωn = √ωP 1 ωP 2 (A0 β + 1) ≈ ωP 2
The closed loop response is
A0
Acl (s) = ωn2 +2ζωn s+s2

We can take two interpretations of this result. First, we can look at the closed
loop response in frequency domain
A0 A0 1 A0

Acl (jω) = ω2 +2jζω n ω−ω 2 = ω 2 1+2jζω/ωn +(ω/ωn )2 = ω 2 F (ω)
n n n
The magnitude ∣F (ω)∣is plotted in Fig. 12 (left). We see that ζ = 1/2causes a
minor amount of overshoot of ∼ 15%at the natural frequency, while for

ζ = 1/√2, there is no overshoot.
Alternatively, we can look at the underdamped response in time domain. The

complex conjugate pole leads to a response which is a linear combination of

e−ζω
n t cos(√1 − ζ 2 ωn t)and e−ζω
n t sin(√1 − ζ 2 ωn t). The latter is plotted in
Fig. 12 (right). We see that the time domain response for ζ = 1/2settles within
approximately 2 cycles.
In summary, using the two-pole open loop op-amp with widely separated poles,
we determine that the phase margin of 45∘ leads to frequency domain peaking of
less than 20% and time domain “ringing” that settles within about 2 cycles.

Example 3: Suppose we want to be conservative and choose ζ = 1/√2. What is
the corresponding phase margin?
Using
ζ= ωP 1 +ωP 2
2√ωP 1 ωP 2 (A
0 β+1)

Assuming well-separated poles, A0 β = ωP 2 /(2ωP 1 )gives us ζ ≈ 1/√2. The
phase of the loop gain is

∠L(jω) = − [tan (ω/ωP 1 ) + tan (ω/ωP 2 )]≈ −90 − tan √A0ωβω
−1 −1
2
P
P1
∘ −1
= −90∘ − 35∘ = −125∘
which translates to ∼ 55∘ phase margin.
Introduction to Compensation [6, 1:10.10,

2:8.11]
Suppose we need to design a feedback amplifier with feedback factor larger than
would be allowed to achieve adequate phase margin. What do we do? Well, we
need to alter the open loop band, the feedback factor, or a combination of the two
to achieve a stable feedback amplifier with desired closed loop gain. This
technique is called compensation. It is a deep subject which we can only touch on
in this unit. Reference [6] is an excellent source for further study. For now, we
will discuss two basic examples: DC gain adjustment and low-frequency pole
compensation.
DC Gain Reduction [6: 5.2.1]
Consider a unity gain inverter example in Fig. 13 (top right). Let the open loop
gain be
6
10
A(s) = (s+1)(10 s+1)
−5
We have two poles at ω = 1and 105 . The amplitude and phase plots are as
shown in Fig. 13. The feedback factor is
1
β = R1R+R 2
= 1/2
as R1= R2 for unity gain. At the crossover frequency of 2.125 × 105 rad./s, the
resulting phase of the loop gain is −155∘ and inadequate phase margin of 25∘ .
The idea with DC gain reduction is to lower the open loop gain to achieve 45∘
phase margin at a lower crossover frequency. Fig 13 suggests that this occurs at
approximately 105 rad./s. The challenge now is to modify the unity gain inverter
to achieve the open loop gain reduction while maintaining the closed loop gain of
unity. Fig. 14 shows one way to achieve this, which is to add a resistor across the
inverting and non-inverting inputs of the op-amp.
Let’s analyze the circuit in Fig. 14 (left). We will show that with proper choice of
components we can get the desired behavior represented by the block diagram
on the right. Using superposition
R1 ∣∣R
V− ∣Vs=0
= V =
R2 +R1 ∣∣R o
BVo
R2 ∣∣R
V− ∣Vo=0
= R1 +R2 ∣∣R Vs= DVs
Summing the results
V− = V− ∣Vs=0
+ V− ∣Vo=0
= BVo + DVs
The output voltage is
Vo = A(s)(V+ − V− ) = −A(s)V− = −A(s) [BVo + DVs]
For a unity gain inverter R1 = R2 and therefore B = D. We can now write
Vo = −A(s)B [Vo + Vs]
Vo[1 + A(s)B ] = −A(s)BVs
The closed loop gain is
= VVos = (−1) 1+BA(s)

BA(s)
Acl
which is indeed represented by the block diagram in Fig. 14 (right). Note that
BA(s)is in the forward path and the feedback factor is 1. Also, for large B A(s),
the closed loop gain is -1, which is the result we want. Note also that for R → ∞
we obtain the original result. Our job now is to select B , then R.
Fig. 15 shows that we can get 45∘ phase margin by lowering the crossover
frequency to 105 rad./s . The magnitude of the uncompensated open loop gain at
at 105 rad./s is approximately 7. We want to lower this by a factor of 7 such that
the magnitude of the compensated open loop gain ∣BA(jω)∣is unity at the 105 .
Hence,
R1 ∣∣R
B= R1 +R1 ∣∣R
= 1/7
This condition is fulfilled when R1 ∣∣R = R1 /6, i.e., R = 0.2R1 . The final circuit
is shown in the top right of Fig. 15.
Question 3: Review the section earlier in this note regarding desensitization of

negative feedback loop to open loop gain perturbation. What would be the
disadvantage of the DC gain reduction technique?
Dominant Low-Frequency Pole Compensation [1: 10.10.1,

2: 8.11, 6: 5.2.2]
Low-frequency pole compensation is somewhat of a brute force approach. It’s
simple and it’ll work, however, we do so at the expense of significant bandwidth
reduction. Look at Fig. 16 below. Let curve A be the magnitude of a three-pole op-
amp. We desire a 40 dB closed loop gain. However, this requires a crossover
frequency of 107 Hz which coincides with the 3rd pole. Without compensation,
the feedback amplifier would be unstable.
One way to achieve 45∘ phase margin is by making the crossover frequency
coincide with the second pole. We do that by introducing a new low frequency
pole at f
D such that the pole at fP 1 becomes the second pole in the
compensated open loop gain. This is shown by curve A’ in Fig. 16. The frequency
fP 1 becomes the compensated crossover frequency. The location of the new low-
frequency pole is found by drawing a 20 dB/decade sloped line from point Y to
point Y’’ where it intersects the DC gain line. Point Y is at fp = 105 Hz. We need
to travel up by 60 dB which means that we have to travel back in frequency by 3
decades. This takes us from 105 Hz to 102 Hz. Therefore, fd = 102 Hz.

ETEN 3002 10 CNote 9 - Feedback, Stability and Compensation, Rev. 2

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ETEN 3002 10 CNote 9 - Feedback, Stability and Compensation, Rev. 2

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11/10/2022, 08:05 ETEN 3002 Note 9: Feedback, Stability and Compensation, Rev.

ETEN 3002 Note 9: Feedback,

2. 21 Oct. 2018 - Rev. 1 started by AS. Corrected minor typos.

Overview of a Feedback System [1: 10.1,

xi​ = xs​ − xf​ ​

xo​ = A(xs​ − xf​ ) = A(xs​ − βxo​ )​

Dividing each side with ​A​cl ​, we obtain

Hence, the relative error in ​A​is scaled down by ​1 + βA​.

Positive Feedback and Instability

if ​1/(1 + βA) > 1​, then ​dA​cl /A​cl > dA/A​.

Op-Amp Circuit as a Feedback Amplifier

Vs​ = V+​ ≈ V−​ ​

At the output voltage divider ​Vf​ ≈ Vs​​, hence

Vo​ = A(Vs​ − Vf​)​

Because ​A​is very large, ​Aβ ≫ 1​

An inverting amplifier as shown in Fig. 4 is also an feedback amplifier. However,

One way to proceed is by applying the principle of superposition: The overall

Where ​β = ​RA​ R+R

Combining the two

The output voltage is

We simplify the above expression

The closed loop gain is

Fig. 5 shows the block diagram for this expression.

For large loop gain,

which agrees with the ideal op-amp assumption.

Feedback with Frequency Dependence &

So far we have not considered frequency dependence. Real components have a

The message is this: To design a stable feedback amplifier, we need to ensure

Single-Pole Op-Amp [4]

Stability of a feedback amplifier with a single pole op-amp

Now suppose we design a feedback amplifier with frequency independent

For a single pole op-amp, the crossover frequency is

ωx​ ≈ A​0 βω0​ ​

The phase at the crossover frequency is

The amplitude and phase are

= 105 ​and ​ω2 = 10ω1 ​for a two-pole open loop op-amp.

For ​A​0 = 105​ ​and ​β = 10−4

and the phase is

both of which are consistent with the graphical method.

The amplitude and phase are

phase asymptotically approaches ​−270∘ ​.

If we use this op-amp as a feedback amplifier

Why ​45∘ ​ Phase Margin?

A0​ β + 1 + s(1/ωP​ 1 + 1/ωP​ 2 ) + s2​ /(ωP​ 1 ωP 2 ) = 0​

ωP​ 1 ωP​ 2 (A​0 β + 1) + s(ωP​ 1 + ωP​ 2 ) + s2​ = 0​

The solutions are

Damping Factor Perspective [5]

ωP​ 1 ωP​ 2 (A​0 β + 1) + s(ωP​ 1 + ωP​ 2 ) + s2​ = 0​

ωn2​ + 2ζωn​ s + s2​ = 0​

is the “natural frequency” of the oscillation and

∣L(jωx​ )∣ ≈ ​ω2 /[ωβAP 10​ ωP 2 ] = 1​

The phase of the loop gain is

We achieve ​∼ 45∘​ ​phase margin when

A​0 β ≈ ωP​ 2 /ωP​ 1 ​

The damping factor for this solution is

ζ= ​ ​ωP​ 1 +ωP​ 2 ω ​ 1 +ωP​ 2

which is underdamped with natural frequency

The closed loop response is

A0​ A0​ 1 A0​

Alternatively, we can look at the underdamped response in time domain. The

= −90∘​ − 35∘​ ​= −125∘​ ​

which translates to ​∼ 55∘​ ​phase margin.

xi = xs − xf

xo = A(xs − xf ) = A(xs − βxo )

Dividing each side with Acl , we obtain

Hence, the relative error in Ais scaled down by 1 + βA.

if 1/(1 + βA) > 1, then dAcl /Acl > dA/A.

Vs = V+ ≈ V−

At the output voltage divider Vf ≈ Vs, hence

Vo = A(Vs − Vf)

Because Ais very large, Aβ ≫ 1

Where β = RA R+R

ωx ≈ A0 βω0

= 105 and ω2 = 10ω1 for a two-pole open loop op-amp.

For A0 = 105 and β = 10−4

phase asymptotically approaches −270∘ .

Why 45∘ Phase Margin?

A0 β + 1 + s(1/ωP 1 + 1/ωP 2 ) + s2 /(ωP 1 ωP 2 ) = 0

ωP 1 ωP 2 (A0 β + 1) + s(ωP 1 + ωP 2 ) + s2 = 0

ωP 1 ωP 2 (A0 β + 1) + s(ωP 1 + ωP 2 ) + s2 = 0

ωn2 + 2ζωn s + s2 = 0

∣L(jωx )∣ ≈ ω2 /[ωβAP 10 ωP 2 ] = 1

We achieve ∼ 45∘ phase margin when

A0 β ≈ ωP 2 /ωP 1

ζ= ωP 1 +ωP 2 ω 1 +ωP 2

A0 A0 1 A0

= −90∘ − 35∘ = −125∘

which translates to ∼ 55∘ phase margin.

Vo = A(s)(V+ − V− ) = −A(s)V− = −A(s) [BVo + DVs]

Vo = −A(s)B [Vo + Vs]

Vo[1 + A(s)B ] = −A(s)BVs

= VVos = (−1) 1+BA(s)